THE GLOBAL CITY

If you had the chance, would you move to New York? Tokyo? How capitalism." They are the homes, for instance, of the world's top stock
about Sydney? Chances are many of you would like to move to these exchanges where investors buy and sell shares in major corporations.
major cities. And if not, you would probably like to visit them anyway. New York has the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), London has the
Some of you might have already traveled to these cities as tourists or Financial Times Stock Exchange (FTSE), and Tokyo has the Nikkei.
temporary residents. Or maybe you have heard stories about them. The amount of money traded in these markets is staggering. The value
You may have relatives living there who have described buzzing of shares traded in the NYSE, for example, is $19,300 billion, while
metropolises, with forests of skyscrapers and train lines that zigzag on that of the shares in the Philippine Stock Exchange is only $231.3
top of each other. You may likewise have an idea of what these cities billion.
look like based on what you have seen in movies or TV. Do you
remember when downtown Manhattan in New York was destroyed in Limiting the discussion of global cities to these three metropolises,
a confrontation between the Avengers (Iron Man, Thor, Captain however, is proving more and more restrictive. The global economy
America, the Hulk, etc.) and aliens? has changed significantly since Sassen wrote her book, and any
account of the economic power of cities today must take note of the
Not all people have been to global cities, but most know about them. latest developments. Recent commentators have expanded the
Their influence extends even to one's imagination. What are these criteria that Sassen used to determine what constitutes a global city.
places? Why are they important? And how are they relevant to you? Though it is not as wealthy as New York, movie-making mecca Los
Angeles can now rival the Big Apple's cultural influence. San Francisco
Why Study Global Cities? must now factor in as another global city because it is the home of the
So far, much of the analysis of globalization in the previous lessons most powerful internet companies-Facebook, Twitter, and Google.
has looked at how ideas of internationalism shaped modern world Finally, the growth of the Chinese economy has turned cities like
politics. We also examined cultural movements like K-pop, and how Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou into centers of trade and finance.
they spread through media like the internet. What this lesson will The Chinese government reopened the Shanghai Stock Exchange in
emphasize, however, is that globalization is spatial. This statement late 1990, and since then, it has grown to become the fifth largest stock
means two things. market in the world.

First, globalization is spatial because it occurs in physical spaces. You Others consider some cities "global" simply because they are great
can see it when foreign investments and capital move through a city, places to live in. In Australia, Sydney commands the greatest
and when companies build skyscrapers. People who are working in proportion of capital. However, Melbourne is described as Sydney's
these businesses-or Filipinos working abroad start to purchase or rent rival "global city" because many magazines and lists have now
high-rise condominium units and better homes. As all these events referred to it as the world's "most livable city"-a place with good public
happen, more poor people are driven out of city centers to make way transportation, a thriving cultural scene, and a relatively easy pace of
for the new developments. life.

Second, globalization is spatial because what makes it move is the Defining a global city can thus be difficult. One way of solving this
fact that it is based in places. Los Angeles, the home of Hollywood, is dilemma is to go beyond the simple dichotomy of global and non-
where movies are made for global consumption. The main global. Instead of asking whether or not one city is a global city (a yes
headquarters of Sony is in Tokyo, and from there, the company or no question), it is better to ask: In what ways are cities global and
coordinates the sale of its various electronics goods to branches to what extent are they global?
across the world. In other words, cities act on globalization and INDICATORS FOR GLOBALITY
globalization acts on cities. They are the sites as well as the mediums
of globalization. Just as the internet enables and shapes global forces, So, what are the multiple attributes of the global city? The foremost
so too do cities. characteristic is economic power. Sassen remains correct in saying
that economic power largely determines which cities are global. New
In the years to come, more and more people will experience York may have the largest stock market in the world but Tokyo houses
globalization through cities. In 1950, only 30 percent of the world lived the greatest number of corporate headquarters (613 company
in urban areas. By 2014, that number increased to 54 percent. And by headquarters as against 217 in New York, its closest competitor)."
2050, it is expected to reach 66 percent. This lesson studies Shanghai may have a smaller stock market compared to New York
globalization through the living environment of a rapidly increasing and Tokyo, but plays a critical role in the global economic supply chain
number of people. ever since China has become the manufacturing center of the world.
DEFINING THE GLOBAL CITY Shanghai has the world's busiest container port, moving over 33
million container units in 2013,
Sociologist Saskia Sassen popularized the term "global city" in the
1990s. Her criteria for what constitute a global city were primarily Economic opportunities in a global city make it attractive to talents from
economic. In her work, she initially identified three global cities: New across the world. Since the 1970s, many of the top IT programmers
York, London, and Tokyo, all of which are hubs of global finance and and engineers from Asia have moved to the San Francisco Bay Area
to become some of the key figures in Silicon Valley's technology boom. bands-Joy Division, the Smiths, the Happy Mondays-hailed from this
London remains a preferred destination for many Filipinos with nursing city, making it a global household name. In Southeast Asia, Singapore
degrees. (again) is slowly becoming a cultural hub for the region. It now houses
some of the region's top television stations and news organizations
To measure the economic competitiveness of a city. The Economist (MTV Southeast Asia and Channel News Asia). Its various art galleries
Intelligence Unit has added other criteria like market size, purchasing and cinemas also show paintings from artists and filmmakers,
power of citizens, size of the middle class, and potential for growth." respectively, from the Philippines and Thailand. It is, in fact, sometimes
Based on these criteria, "tiny" Singapore is considered Asia's most easier to watch the movie of a Filipino indie filmmaker in Singapore
competitive city because of its strong market, efficient and incorruptible than it is in Manila!
government, and livability." It also houses the regional offices of many
major global corporations. It is the cultural power of global cities that ties them to the imagination.
Think about how many songs have been written about New York (Jay
Global cities are also centers of authority. Washington D.C. may not Z and Alicia Keys's "Empire State of Mind," Frank Sinatra's "New York,
be as wealthy as New York, but it is the seat of American state power. New York," and numerous songs by Simon and Garfunkel) and how
People around the world know its major landmarks: the White House, these references conjure up images of a place where anything is
the Capitol Building (Congress), the Supreme Court, the Lincoln possible-"a concrete jungle where dreams are made of," according to
Memorial, and the Washington Monument. Similarly, compared with Alicia Keys.
Sydney and Melbourne, Canberra is a sleepy town and thus is not as
attractive to tourists. But as Australia's political capital, it is home to Today, global cities become culturally diverse. In a global city, one can
the country's top politicians, bureaucrats, and policy advisors. try cuisines from different parts of the world. Because of their large
Turkish populations, for example, Berlin and Tokyo offer some of the
The cities that house major international organizations may also be best Turkish food one can find outside of Turkey. Manila is not very
considered centers of political influence. The headquarters of the global because of the dearth of foreign residents (despite the massive
United Nations is in New York, and that of the European Union is in domestic migration), but Singapore is, because it has a foreign
Brussels. An influential political city near the Philippines is Jakarta, population of 38%.
which is not just the capital of Indonesia, but also the location of the
main headquarters of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations THE CHALLENGES OF GLOBAL CITIES
(ASEAN). Powerful political hubs exert influence on their own
countries as well as on international affairs. The European Central Global cities conjure up images of fast-paced, exciting, cosmopolitan
Bank, which oversees the Euro (the European Union's currency), is lifestyles. But such descriptions are Global cities also have their
based in Frankfurt. A decision made in that city can, therefore, affect undersides. They can be sites of great inequality and poverty as well
the political economy of an entire continent and beyond. as tremendous violence. Like the broader processes of globalization,
global cities create winners and losers.
Finally, global cities are centers of higher learning and culture. A city's
intellectual influence is seen through the influence of its publishing In this section, we list some "pathologies" of the global city, based on
industry. Many of the books that people read are published in places the research of the Chicago Council on Global Affairs.
like New York, London, or Paris. The New York Times carries the Cities can be sustainable because of their density. As Richard Florida
name of New York City, but it is far from being a local newspaper. notes: "Ecologists have found that by concentrating their populations
People read it not just across America, but also all over the world. One in smaller areas, cities and metros decrease human encroachment on
of the reasons for the many tourists visiting Boston is because they natural habitats. Denser settlement patterns yield energy savings;
want to see Harvard University--the world's top university. Many Asian apartment buildings, for example, are more efficient to heat and cool
teenagers are moving to cities in Australia because of the leading than detached suburban houses." Moreover, in cities with extensive
English-language universities there. Education is currently Australia's public transportation systems, people tend to drive less and thereby
third largest export, just behind coal and iron ore, and significantly cut carbon emissions. It is no surprise to learn that, largely because of
ahead of tourism. In 2015, the Australian government reported that it the city's extensive train system, New Yorkers have the lowest per
made as much as 19.2 billion Australian dollars (roughly 14 billion US capita carbon footprint in the United States. In Asia, dense global cities
dollars) from education alone. like Singapore and Tokyo also have relatively low per capita carbon
We have already explained why Los Angeles, the center of the footprints.
American film industry, may be considered a global city. A less obvious Not all cities, however, are as dense as New York or Tokyo. Some
example, however, is Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark. It is so cities like Los Angeles are urban sprawls, with massive freeways that
small that one can tour the entire city by bicycle in thirty minutes. It is force residents to spend money on cars and gas. And while cities like
not the home of a major stock market, and its population is rather Manila, Bangkok, and Mumbai are dense, their lack of public
homogenous. However, Copenhagen is now considered one of the transportation and their governments' inability to regulate their car
culinary capitals of the world, with its top restaurants incommensurate industries have made them extremely polluted.
with its size. As the birthplace of "New Nordic" cuisine, Copenhagen
has set into motion various culinary trends like foraging the forests for More importantly, because of the sheer size of city populations across
local ingredients. Similarly, Manchester, England in the 1980s was a the world, it is not surprising that urban areas consume most of the
dreary, industrial city. But many prominent post-punk and New Wave world's energy. Cities only cover 2 percent of the world's landmass,
but they consume 78 precent of global energy. Therefore, if carbon
emissions must be cut to prevent global warming, this massive energy of the middle class in global cities has heightened the inequality within
consumption in cities must be curbed. This action will require a lot of them. In places like New York, there are high-rolling American
creativity. For example, many food products travel many miles before investment bankers whose children are raised by Filipina maids. A
they get to major city centers. Shipping this food through trains, buses, large global city may thus be a paradise for some, but a purgatory for
and even planes increase carbon emissions. Will it be possible to grow others.
more food in cities instead? Solutions like so-called "vertical farms"
built in abandoned buildings (as is increasingly being done in New CONCLUSION
York) may lead the way towards more environmentally sustainable Global cities, as noted in this lesson, are sites and mediums of
cities. If more food can be grown with less water in denser spaces, globalization. They are, therefore, material representations of the
cities will begin to be greener. phenomenon. Through them, we see the best of globalization; they are
The major terror attacks of recent years have also targeted cities. places that create exciting fusions of culture and ideas. They are also
Cities, especially those with global influence, are obvious targets for places that generate tremendous wealth. However, they remain sites
terrorists due to their high populations and their role as symbols of of great inequality, where global servants serve global entrepreneurs.
globalization that many terrorists despise. The same attributes that The question of how globalization can be made more just is partly a
make them attractive to workers and migrants make them sites of question of how people make their cities more just.
potential terrorist violence. Only by looking from this perspective will
we be able to understand the 9/11 attacks that brought down the twin
towers of the World Trade Center in New York, and the November
2015 coordinated attacks in Paris by zealots of the Islamic State of
Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Now that real estate magnate Donald
Trump is the president of the United States, security experts believe
that properties around the world that carry his name may be targets of
terror attacks. There are Trump Towers, for example, in places like
Istanbul and Manila.

THE GLOBAL CITY AND THE POOR

We have consistently noted that economic globalization has paved the

way for massive inequality. This phenomenon is thus very pronounced
in cities. Some large cities, particularly those in Scandinavia, have
found ways to mitigate inequality through state led social redistribution
programs. Yet many cities, particularly those in the developing
countries, are sites of contradiction. In places like Mumbai, Jakarta,
and Manila, it is common to find gleaming buildings alongside massive
shantytowns. This duality may even be seen in rich, urban cities.

In the outskirts of New York and San Francisco are poor urban
enclaves occupied by African-Americans and immigrant families who
are often denied opportunities at a better life. Slowly, they are being
forced to move farther away from the economic centers of their cities.
As a city attracts more capital and richer residents, real estate prices
go up and poor residents are forced to relocate to far away but cheaper
areas. This phenomenon of driving out the poor in favor of newer,
wealthier residents is called gentrification.

In Australian cities, poor aboriginal Australians have been most acutely

affected by this process. Once living in public urban housing, they were
forced to move farther away from city centers that offer more jobs,
more government services, and better transportation due to
gentrification. In France, poor Muslim migrants are forced out of Paris
and have clustered around ethnic enclaves known as banlieue.

In most of the world's global cities, the middle class is also thinning
out. Globalization creates high-income jobs that are concentrated in
global cities. These high earners, in turn, generate demand for an
unskilled labor force (hotel cleaners, nannies, maids, waitresses, etc.)
that will attend to their increasing needs. Meanwhile, many middle-
income jobs in manufacturing and business process outsourcing (call
centers, for example) are moving to other countries. This hollowing out
 MEDIA AND GLOBALIZATION
Globalization entails the spread of various cultures. When a film is the same time. Consider the effect of the internet on relationships.
made in Hollywood, it is shown not only in the United States, but also Prior to the cellphone, there was no way for couples to keep constantly
in other cities across the globe. South Korean rapper Psy's song in touch, or to be updated on what the other does all the time. The
"Gangnam Style" may have been about a wealthy suburb in Seoul, but technology (medium), and not the message, makes for this social
its listeners included millions who have never been or may never go to change possible.
Gangnam. Some of them may not even know what Gangnam is.
Globalization also involves the spread of ideas. For example, the McLuhan added that different media simultaneously extend and
notion of the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) amputate human senses. New media may expand the reach of
communities is spreading across the world and becoming more widely communication, but they also dull the users' communicative
accepted. Similarly, the conservative Christian Church that opposes capacities. Think about the medium of writing. Before people wrote
these rights moves from places like South America to Korea and to things down on parchment, exchanging stories was mainly done orally.
Burundi in Africa. To be able pass stories verbally from one person to another,
storytellers had to have retentive memories. However, papyrus started
People who travel the globe teaching and preaching their beliefs in becoming more common in Egypt after the fourth century BCE, which
universities, churches, public forums, classrooms, or even as guests increasingly meant that more people could write down their stories. As
of a family play a major role in the spread of culture and ideas. But a result, storytellers no longer had to rely completely on their
today, television programs, social media groups, books, movies, memories. This development, according to some philosophers at the
magazines, and the like have made it easier for advocates to reach time, dulled the people's capacity to remember.
larger audiences. Globalization relies on media as its main conduit for
the spread of global culture and ideas. Jack Lule was then right to ask, Something similar can be said about cellphones. On the one hand,
"Could global trade have evolved without a flow of information on they expand people's senses because they provide the capability to
markets, prices, commodities, and more? Could empires have talk to more people instantaneously and simultaneously. On the other
stretched across the world without communication throughout their hand, they also limit the senses because they make users easily
borders? Could religion, music, poetry, film, fiction, cuisine, and distractible and more prone to multitasking. This is not necessarily a
fashion develop as they have without the intermingling of media and bad thing: it is merely change with a trade-off.
cultures?" The question of what new media enhance and what they amputate
There is an intimate relationship between globalization and media was not a moral or ethical one, according to McLuhan. New media are
which must be unraveled to further understand the contemporary neither inherently good nor bad. The famous writer was merely
world. drawing attention to the historically and technologically specific
attributes of various media.
MEDIA AND ITS FUNCTIONS
THE GLOBAL VILLAGE AND CULTURAL IMPERIALISM
Lule describes media as "a means of conveying something. such as a
channel of communication." Technically speaking, at person's voice is McLuhan used his analysis of technology to examine the impact of
a medium. However, when commentators refer to "media" (the plural electronic media. Since he was writing around the 1960s, he mainly
of medium), they mean the technologies of mass communication. Print analyzed the social changes brought about by television. McLuhan
media include books, magazines, and newspapers. Broadcast media declared that television was turning the world into a "global village." By
involve radio, film, and television. Finally, digital media cover the this, he meant that, as more and more people sat down in front of their
internet and mobile mass communication. Within the category of television sets and listened to the same stories, their perception of the
internet media, there are the e-mail, internet sites, social media, and world would contract. If tribal villages once sat in front of fires to listen
internet-based video and audio. to collective stories, the members of the new global village would sit in
front of bright boxes in their living rooms.
While it is relatively easy to define the term "media," it is more difficult
to determine what media do and how they affect societies. Media In the years after McLuhan, media scholars further grappled with the
theorist Marshall McLuhan once declared that "the medium is the challenges of a global media culture. A lot of these early thinkers
message." He did not mean that ideas ("messages") are useless and assumed that global media had a tendency to homogenize culture.
do not affect people. Rather, his statement was an attempt to draw They argued that as global media spread, people from all over the
attention to how media, as a form of technology, reshape societies. world would begin to watch, listen to, and read the same things. This
Thus, television is not a simple bearer of messages, it also shapes the thinking arose at a time when America's power had turned it into the
social behavior of users and reorient family behavior. Since it was world's cultural heavyweight. Commentators, therefore, believed that
introduced in the 1960s, television has steered people from the dining media globalization coupled with American hegemony would create a
table where they eat and tell stories to each other, to the living room form of cultural imperialism whereby American values and culture
where they silently munch on their food while watching primetime would overwhelm all others. In 1976, media critic Herbert Schiller
shows. Television has also drawn people away from other meaningful argued that not only was the world being Americanized, but that this
activities such as playing games or reading books. Today, the smart process also led to the spread of "American" capitalist values like
phone allows users to keep in touch instantly with multiple people at consumerism." Similarly, for John Tomlinson, cultural globalization is
simply a euphemism for "Western cultural imperialism" since it SOCIAL MEDIA AND THE CREATION OF CYBER GHETTOES
promotes "homogenized, Westernized, consumer culture.""
By now, very few media scholars argue that the world is becoming
These scholars who decry cultural imperialism, however, have a top- culturally homogenous. Apart from the nature of diverse audiences
down view of the media, since they are more concerned with the broad and regional trends in cultural production, the internet and social media
structures that determine media content. Moreover, their focus on are proving that the globalization of culture and ideas can move in
America has led them to neglect other global flows of information that different directions. While Western culture remains powerful and
the media can enable. This media/cultural imperialism theory has, media production is still controlled by a handful of powerful Western
therefore, been subject to significant critique. corporations, the internet, particularly the social media, is challenging
previous ideas about media and globalization.
CRITIQUES OF CULTURAL IMPERIALISM
As with all new media, social media have both beneficial and egative
Proponents of the idea of cultural imperialism ignored the fact that effects. On the one hand, these forms of communication have
media messages are not just made by producers, they are also democratized access. Anyone with an internet connection or smart
consumed by audiences. In the 1980s, media scholars began to pay phone can use Facebook and Twitter for free. These media have
attention to the ways in which audiences understood interpreted media enabled users to be consumers and producers of information
messages. The field of audience studies emphasizes that media simultaneously. The democratic potential of social media was most
consumers are active participants in the meaning-making process, evident in 2011 during the wave of uprisings known as the Arab Spring.
who view media "texts" (in media studies, a "text" simply refers to the Without access to traditional broadcast media like TV. activists
content of any medium) through their own cultural lenses. In 1985, opposing authoritarian regimes in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya used
Indonesian cultural critic len Ang studied the ways in which different Twitter to organize and to disseminate information. Their efforts
viewers in the Netherlands experienced watching the American soap toppled their respective governments. More recently, the "women's
opera Dallas. Through letters from 42 viewers, she presented a march" against newly installed US President Donald Trump began with
detailed analysis of audience-viewing experiences. Rather than simply a tweet from a Hawaii lawyer and became a national, even global,
receiving American culture in a "passive and resigned way." she noted movement.
that viewers put "a lot of emotional energy" into the process and they
experienced pleasure based on how the program resonated with However, social media also have their dark side. In the early 2000s,
them." commentators began referring to the emergence of a "splinternet" and
the phenomenon of "cyberbalkanization" to refer to the various
In 1990, Elihu Katz and Tamar Liebes decided to push Ang's analysis bubbles people place themselves in when they are online. In the
further by examining how viewers from distinct cultural communities United States, voters of the Democratic Party largely read liberal
interpreted Dallas. They argued that texts are received differently by websites, and voters of the Republican Party largely read conservative
varied interpretive communities because they derived different websites. This segmentation, notes an article in the journal Science,
meanings and pleasures from these texts." Thus, people from diverse has been exacerbated by the nature of social media feeds, which leads
cultural backgrounds had their own ways of understanding the show. users to read articles, memes, and videos shared by like-minded
Russians were suspicious of the show's content, believing not only that friends." As such, being on Facebook can resemble living in an echo
it was primarily about America, but that it contained American chamber, which reinforces one's existing beliefs and opinions. This
propaganda. American viewers believed that the show, though set in echo chamber precludes users from listening to or reading opinions
America, was primarily about the lives of the rich. and information that challenge their viewpoints, thus, making them
Apart from the challenge of audience studies, the cultural imperialism more partisan and closed minded.
thesis has been belied by the renewed strength of regional trends in This segmentation has been used by people in power who are aware
the globalization process. Asian culture, for example, has proliferated that the social media bubbles can produce a herd mentality. It can be
worldwide through the globalization of media. Japanese brands-from exploited by politicians with less than democratic intentions and
Hello Kitty to the Mario Brothers to Pokémon--are now an indelible part demagogues wanting to whip up popular anger. The same
of global popular culture. The same can be said for Korean pop (K- inexpensiveness that allows social media to be a democratic force
pop) and Korean telenovelas, which are widely successful regionally likewise makes it a cheap tool of government propaganda. Russian
and globally. The observation even applies to culinary tastes. The dictator Vladimir Putin has hired armies of social media "trolls" (paid
most obvious case of globalized Asian cuisine is sushi. And while it is users who harass political opponents) to manipulate public opinion
true that McDonald's has continued to spread across Asia, it is also through intimidation and the spreading of fake news." Most recently,
the case that Asian brands have provided stiff competition. The American intelligence agencies established that Putin used trolls and
Philippines' Jollibee claims to be the number one choice for fast food online misinformation to help Donald Trump win the presidency-a
in Brunei. tactic the Russian autocrat is likely to repeat in European elections he
Given these patterns, it is no longer tenable to insist that globalization seeks to influence."
is a unidirectional process of foreign cultures overwhelming local ones. In places across the world, Putin imitators replicate his strategy of
Globalization, as noted in Lesson 1, will remain an uneven process, online trolling and disinformation to clamp down on dissent and
and it will produce inequalities. Nevertheless, it leaves room for delegitimize critical media. Critics of the increasingly dictatorial regime
dynamism and cultural change. This is not a contradiction; it is merely of Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan are threatened by online
a testament to the phenomenon's complexity.
mobs of pro-government trolls, who hack accounts and threaten
violence. Some of their responses have included threats of sexual
violence against women."

As the preceding cases show, fake information can spread easily on

social media since they have few content filters. Unlike newspapers,
Facebook does not have a team of editors who are trained to sift
through and filter information. If a news article, even a fake one, gets
a lot of shares, it will reach many people with Facebook accounts.

This dark side of social media shows that even a seemingly open and
democratic media may be co-opted towards undemocratic means.
Global online propaganda will be the biggest threat to face as the
globalization of media deepens. Internet media have made the world
so interconnected that a Russian dictator can. for example, influence
American elections on the cheap.

As consumers of media, users must remain vigilant and learn how to

distinguish fact from falsehood in a global media landscape that allows
politicians to peddle what President Trump's senior advisers now call
"alternative facts." Though people must remain critical of mainstream
media and traditional journalism that may also operate based on
vested interest, we must also insist that some sources are more
credible than others. A newspaper story that is written by a
professional journalist and vetted by professional editors is still likely
to be more credible than a viral video produced by someone in his/her
bedroom, even if both will have their biases. People must be able to
tell the difference.

CONCLUSION

This lesson showed that different media have diverse effects on

globalization processes. At one point, it seemed that global television
was creating a global monoculture. Now, it seems more likely that
social media will splinter cultures and ideas into bubbles of people who
do not interact. Societies can never be completely prepared for the
rapid changes in the systems of communication. Every technological
change, after all, creates multiple unintended consequences.
Consumers and users of media will have a hard time turning back the
clock. Though people may individually try to keep out of Facebook or
Twitter, for example, these media will continue to engender social
changes. Instead of fearing these changes or entering a state of moral
panic, everyone must collectively discover ways of dealing with them
responsibly and ethically.