LUANSHYA TECHNICAL AND BUSINESS COLLEGE

MANAGEMENT BOARD

OPEN DISTANCE LEARNING

SUBJECT: INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
CHAPTER ONE

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

This is an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application

encompassing radio, television, cellular phones, computer and computer hardware and
software, satellite systems etc as well as the various services and applications associated
with them such as video conferencing, electronic mail etc.

The Place of ICT in Business Today

The benefits of ICT to business organizations are numerous and these include the
following:

- Sharing text, photos, slides, videos, and other data electronically within the
organization resulting in reduced usage of paper.

- Permitting employees to telecommute or work away from the conventional office

whether at home, on the road or across the country.

- Recruiting employees cost effectively via the internet

- Quick access to information from external sources

- Locate and buy parts and materials from domestic and international suppliers

- Provide customers with service, technical support and product information

- Collaborate with local, national and international business partners

- Inform investors, industry analysts and government regulators about business

developments

- Electronic mail enables staff to create, send and read written messages entirely on
the computer.

- Discussion Mailing Lists

Also known as List servs, these are discussion groups to which staff can subscribe
by sending a message to the lists e-mail address. From then on, copies of all
messages posted by any other subscriber are sent to all group members via e-mail.

- News Groups
Consisting of posted messages and responses on a particular subject, usernet news
groups differ from discussion mailing lists in two ways:

1. Messages are posted at the news group site which must be accessed by using a
news reader program.
 2. Messages posted to a news group can be viewed by anyone. A news group can
be thought of as a place that is visited to read posted messages whereas a
discussion mailing list delivers posted messages to a group member.

- Instant Messaging and Chat

Many companies encourage the use of instant messaging and chat for work
purposes.

- Video Conferencing
More companies are using online videoconferencing to replace face to face
meetings with colleagues, customers and suppliers. This reduces costs that are
associated with meetings such as travel expenses, accommodation cost etc.

- Telnet
This class of internet application program allows staff to communicate with other
computers on remote network even if they are not a permanent part of that
network, e.g, staff would use telnet to access the country`s electronic library
catalogue from their computers.

- Internet Telephony
Staff can converse vocally over the web using internet telephony. Using this
facility is much cheaper than calling over the standard phone lines. It can also be
more efficient allowing an organization to accommodate more users on a single
line at once,

- File Transfers
An internet service known as file transfer protocol [ftp] enables staff to down load
files [transfer data from a server to their computers] and up load files [transfer
data from their computers to another system].
CHAPTER TWO

COMPUTER HARDWARE
These are physical components that are attached to the computer. They are also
known as peripherals. These include the following:

- Input Devices
These comprise keyboards, mouse, printers, screens or monitors, disk and tape
drives which are used to input data into computer systems.

- The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or Processor

This is the brain of the computer. This is where the processing of data which
has been input is carried out. Data processing involves calculating (adding,
subtracting, multiplying and dividing), comparing and copying. It consists of
the control unit, arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and main memory.

1. Control Unit
The function of the control unit is to fetch and execute programming
instructions and loads them with associated data into the random
access memory (RAM). If a computation is required, it instructs the
ALU to perform the action and receives the results and places or
outputs them to the correct registers. All operations of the computer
are under the control of this unit.

2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit

This unit performs all computations which are required to be
performed when processing data. Once the calculation has been
performed it sends the results to control unit.

3. Random Access Memory (RAM)

This is memory that is directly available to the proceeding unit. It
holds data and programs in current use. RAM in micro computers is
volatile which means that the contents of the memory are erased when
power is switched off. RAM is used when programs are running on the
computer.

Most of the computer`s immediate access storage is RAM. It holds

the data, information and instructions that the computer needs in
performing particular tasks. During execution of any program
(instructions) that particular program or part of it has to reside in the
RAM. The data which the program is supposed to manipulate and
transform into information is also stored in the RAM during
processing. The results of the processing will also be kept in the RAM
before they are finally stored on disk, displayed on the screen or
printed. A part of the operating system (OS) is also stored in the RAM
during the time the computer is in operation.
 The size of RAM is very important as it dictates the amount of data
and programs that can be held. A computer with 1Ghz clock speed and
512 Megabytes of RAM will not be as efficient as a 2 Ghz PC with 1
Gigabyte of RAM.

- Mother Board
This is a circuit board which links all other chips of the computer. All chips
containing circuitry that controls the computer and computer memory chips
are found on the system board. Any expansion boards that are installed in the
computer are fitted into expansion slots which hold the boards in place. The
slots also give the boards an electronic link to the mother board. Although
chips are put together on one circuit board each IC chip performs its own
functions.

- Output Devices
These output information in hard copy and soft copy. Hardware devices that
output information in hard copy include printers, plotters and computer output
on microfilm (COM) while screens output information in soft copy. Other
output devices include speakers.

- Storage Devices
These include hard disks drives, disk drives and tape drives. These offer
permanent storage facilities and are back-ups for RAM.
Advantages of Computers
- Allows the user to create documents, edit, print and store them so that they
can be retrieved later.

- Use of the internet which enables access to various information. The

internet allows people from around the world to share knowledge, ideas
and experience.

- Computers enable the use of e-mail as a communication tool. Messages

are sent from one person to another electronically eliminating the need for
paper and accessories.

- Computers can be used for education and training purposes

- Video conferencing enables the holding of meetings without traveling

- Recruitment of staff can be done electronically using the internet

- Computers enable the processing of data very quickly

- Computers carry out complex mathematical and statistical calculations

- Teleconferencing enables the holding of meetings without traveling

- Computer bulletin boards can be used to disseminate information to

employees

- Computers can be connected in a network to enable sharing of information

through discussion mailing lists

- Computers allow the planning of complex projects effectively using

appropriate software.

Disadvantages of Computers
- Computers can make the mind lazy as they do not encourage reading
books or researching

- Computers reduce socializing with others

- Too much time spent by employees on activities not related to work

- Computers contain too much information which may compromise quality

- Staff may access sites which contain pornographic material and this may
lead to sexual harassment at work places
- Computers create unemployment as many jobs originally performed
manually are done by computers
- Spyware can access vital information and transmit it to its server resulting
in loss of confidentiality

- Hackers may gain access to organization’s information leading to loss of

information

- Too much entertainment leading to low productivity

- Computers are expensive to implement as they require special training for

staff.

- Viruses may damage the computer which may loss of information

- Computers can cause health risks such as repetitive strain injury, eye
strain, back and neck injuries, impotence due to radiation and physical
injury due to electrocution and lifting heavy loads.
CHAPTER THREE

SOFTWARE
This is a set of instructions that enables computers to carry out operations. The
two most common types of software are systems software and application
software packages.

1. Systems Software
These integrate a computer`s various capabilities but are not applied
directly in the performance of tasks that benefit the user. Operating
systems are an example of systems software.

Systems software acts as an interface between the hardware of the

computer and the application software that users need to run on the
computer.

System software including OS and utilities software refers to programs or

suites of programs that either operate in supervisor mode or control a
function of group of functions that have a direct access to the low level
hardware such as the computer itself or computer peripherals.

Among the most well known systems software is the OS, device drivers,
the basic input and output system (BIOS) and system utilities like
language compilers.

Operating Systems (OS

This is a complex suite of programs sometimes referred to as the “kernel”
which performs activities on behalf of the operators (in case of
mainframes) or users (in case of a PC).

Functions of the OS
1. Communication
Accepting user and operator communications. A program runs in the
background to listen for user commands such a request to load a
program into memory.

2. Program Loading
The OS can invoke loaders and linkers from program libraries which it
uses to place an application into memory.

3. File System Control

The Os provides utilities to ensure files are stored, retrieved, deleted,
renamed or copied correctly. OS keeps catalogues of file locations,
their length and the dates and times of their creation. It also ensures
that these files are for the correct users.
 4. Security Checks
Where systems have been protected by access codes or user ID
numbers, The OS stores the data and will carry out checks to see
whether a user is authorized to gain access to a system.

5. Peripheral Control
A set of routines is included which provides the code for controlling
peripherals such as keyboard, screens, printers, mouse etc.

6. Multi-programming
The OS enables multiple user programs to simultaneously. It does this
by:

 Allocating memory to every program and its data and keeping

track of programs no longer needed in its memory so that it can
start other programs.

 Sharing the CPU time among users

 Preventing programs that fail from crashing the entire system. This
is achieved by ensuring that a program cannot write to memory
outside of that which it has been allocated and certainly not in the
system memory which is allocated to the OS and supervisor
programs like itself.

Examples of OS are Windows Operating System, Disk Operating

System, Linux etc.

Windows Operating System (WOS)

This operating system provides the user with many windows from which
each application software can be launched and used.

A WOS is a graphical interface designed as WIMP interface. WIMP stands

for Windows, Icons, Menu, Pull-down menu. This has been made possible
by the Graphical User Interface (GUI) software.

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

GUI systems have been developed to make it easier to use a computer. For
the maximum convenience of users, systems make use of Windows, Icons,
Menu, Pull-down menu or WIMP

Windows
These are areas on the screen that hold all the information about programs
stored or running on the system. The size of the windows can be varied from
tiny to filling up the whole screen of the area. When the system is multi –
tasking, a series of windows can be opened at the same time allowing the
 user to move from window to another while working on different
applications.

Icons
These are symbols or images in the WIMP system to represent different
processes or items, e.g, printer image to command the printer to print.

Menus
Software and system programs can all have drop-down or pull-down menus.
These contain options from which a user may select one appropriate to the
task such as saving or opening a file.

Pointers
When a user moves the mouse over the mouse mat or flat work surface, a
pointer on the screen moves accordingly. When an icon or menu item is
touched with the pointer, the item may be selected using the mouse. Some
have one, others have two while others have three. The choice of the button,
the number of clicks and the combination of menu and pointer location
allow a wide range of tasks to be carried out.

Disk Operating Systems (DOS)

These used to be the most widely used OS for the microcomputer although
they are being supplanted by graphical user interface (GUI) systems such as
windows. DOS include the following:

- Backup – back up hard disk files

- Chkdsk – check disk status, give status
- Copy - Copy files from one storage medium to another
- Diskcopy – copy all contents of a disk
- Erase or del – Erase a file
- Format – Format a disk
- Type – display file content
- Chdir or cd – change directory
- Dir – List directories
- Md – make sub directories

Utility Programs
These perform routine data processing tasks. Among the most common are:

1. Peripheral Control Routines

Handle all input and output activities

2. Sort Programs Routines

Arrange files in a sequence specified by the user
 3. Media Conversion Routines
Copies a file from one storage medium to another e.g disk to tape.

4. Editor
A utility which allows text files to be created and maintained.

5. Translating Programs
These translate user programs into machine code. There are three types and
these are Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters.

2. Application Software Packages

These are defined as ‘sub-class of computer software that employs the capabilities of
a computer directly to a task that the user wishes to perform’. They are designed to
solve a particular problem or serve a specific purpose. Examples of application
software include word processors, spreadsheets, database systems, desktop publishing
systems, program development software and games.

All application packages depend on the processing of data but can be sub-divided into
three groups:

- Commercial
The computer performs administrative data processing tasks including the
maintenance of accounting records. This involves large volumes of data and large
files. The main input peripheral is a keyboard possibly combined with some form
of data capture equipment. Large scale storage devices with rapid access are
needed for file handling.

- Scientific
For carrying out complex statistical analysis or mathematical manipulation of
data. Relatively small volumes of data may be involved.

- Process Control
The computer runs a machine or even a whole factory on the basis of data
supplied from the process itself via special sensors and data transmission systems.
Examples range from individual robots to entire steel works, including automated
decision making processes to optimize the use of raw materials or other resources.

Features of Application Packages

1. Application packages may be either command-driven or menu driven or

combination of both.

Windows are menu driven so the user has to select menu options to use their
facilities. In contrast, DOS is command driven so the user has to learn a number
of commands to use the software.
2. They often provide on-screen context sensitive help facilities. This means that at a
press of a key (F1 function key), a screen of text appears which provides
supplementary or explanatory information on the option selected or current task.

3. When using application packages, they generally contain the necessary routines to
save, load and print files. These facilities can be invoked by either typing a
command or selecting a menu option.

4. Modern packages are heavily user oriented i.e they incorporate tools and features
designed to produce the best user interface.

Integrated Packages
Some programs or packages of programs can perform more than one task e.g office
administration packages that comprise word processing, spreadsheets, database and
business graphics. These are called integrated packages because they bring these
varied tasks together. Examples include Microsoft Office and Claris Works.

Many organizations will use an integrated package as an alternative to buying in a

number of dedicated application packages. Integrated application packages have
certain advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages
1. Compatibility between the separate modules which enables material created in
different module to be copied to another module.

2. Efficiency – There is no need to quit one application to access another as more

than one package can be opened at the same time.

3. Use friendly – There is only one set of menus to learn as they have the same
menus in each of the modules.

Disadvantages
1. The memory size required might be more than that required by a dedicated
package.

2. The modules contain in the package may not have as many features as in
dedicated application package

3. There may be more modules contained in it than those required by the user.

Some common application packages are discussed below:

1. Text And Graphics Software

- Word Processing Software
This is one of the earliest applications available to the office worker to create
text documents. Although screens vary considerably in quality and definition,
 most word proceeding packages will attempt what is called WYSIWYG (What
You See Is What You Get) screen which enables the word processor operator to
see precisely how the document will appear on the page after the document has
been printed.

Word Processing Facilities

Word processing packages have facilities to assist in the following areas:
1. Text Manipulation
The user is given the ability to insert, delete, move, edit, store and retrieve text. The
amount of text which can be manipulated in this way ranges from single characters to
whole documents.

2.Producing Standard Letters

These letters can be created and stored and then used over and over again. This saves
time and therefore allows for higher productivity.
3.Mail Merging
This occurs when standard letters are merged with names and addresses on an
automated mailing list. Mail merging allows for standard letters to be personalized
but using the details stored on the mailing list.

4. Document Checking
A dictionary and Thesaurus are standard facilities in most word processing
packages. Documents and letters can therefore be quickly checked for typographical
errors. Word count facility is also available so that the length of the documents can be
checked to see if is on target or needs to be amended.

5. Document Printing
Word processors generally provide a number of print options, including choice of
fonts and line spacing, the ability to justify the text and the facility of headers and
footers to add chapter headings or page numbers to the document.

- Desktop Publishing (DTP)

These packages such as Pagemaker and Ventura, are now becoming very popular as
they let a user combine text and art to present reports in a much more professional
looking way. Applications for DTP package include:

1. Output of financial reports, incorporating the use of high quality graphics.

2. The preparation of financial accounts which require a high quality of printout.

3. Reports used in consultancy work, which may incorporate graphs, charts etc.

4. Production of text documents

DTP integrates graphics, photographs and text on the same page. The package will
consist of:
1. A graphs application which can produce a wide range of pictorial representation
including bar charts, pie carts, time series, hierarchy charts and scatter charts.

2. A page layout application which enables the user to divide the page into many
columns.

3. A word processing application

When combined, the result is a typeset quality publication which may be used for
reports, presentations or more sophisticated production of computer aided design
(CAD) drawings.

- Graphics Applications.
In graphic design for publication, art is everything other text, lines, drawings,
company logos and photographs,

Typical computer graphics applications include:

1. Drawing – creating designs using a computer’s facilities.

2. Charting and graphing – creating bar charts, graphs and word charts

3. Presentations – displaying drawings and charts as a slide show

4. Desktop publishing – which brings together text and graphics for outputting to a
high quality printer.

A variety of painting tools are provided with the software. Free hand pictures can be
drawn on the screen, using lines of varying widths and colours. They can then be
fitted in or painted using selected colours and patterns from an on screen pallete.
Examples of graphics software include Ms Power point.

2. Database Software Packages

A database is a collection of similar data or information about a series of
individual entities together with a system foe efficient retrieval of that data or
information.

The value of databases has led to the development of a number of database

software packages. Users of the packages can put their own data into the system
and use the facility of the package to access data. Data packages include Dbase
IV, database facility of Lotus 1-2-3, Ms Access.

Features of database packages

- All database packages have the facility to define the data structure i.e flat,
relational file.
- Packages allow data to be entered, edited and deleted

- Packages allow data to be sorted on a field or combination of fields.

- Some packages allow easy links with other types of software such as spreadsheets
and word processors.

- Some packages can be used via networks with associated security procedures.

3. Spreadsheets
This is a type of software package used extensively in modeling. It is so named
after its likeness to a sheet of paper divided into rows and columns. Well known
spreadsheets include lotus 1-2-3, Ms Excel, Supercalc and Quatro.

A spreadsheet is a matrix of rows and columns. Each cell in the spreadsheet ids
identified by being given a unique row and column identification. An individual
piece of information can be entered into a specific cell. A cell entry can consists
of a number (or value), or a word (label), or formular.

Spreadsheets offer the following facilities:

o To copy one or more cells

o To set cell display characteristics
o To produce graphs, charts
o To save and retrieve a file
o To carry out calculations on data requiring computation
o To format a cell
o To sort cells in any order desired by the user
o To print a file
o To move or cut cell contents
o To write macros

4. Communication Software Packages

The microcomputer is becoming a focal point for communications in the business
world. There is a new range of communication options available which include
access to external information sources, electronic messaging and interconnection
with other communications, equipment e.g facsimile, telex and teletext.
Communication can operate over the public telephone network using a modem or
over dedicated lines. For communication to take place, softwares have been
developed to enable communication.
(a) Videotext
This is a generic word to cover television systems. These include:
- Teletext
Transmitted as part of the broadcast service (in the UK, there is
Ceefax and Oracle) on a one-way basis (simplex transmission),
included in the office as an individual display or as part of a range
of faculties through a terminal. This offers access to business data
(e.g foreign exchange rates) and other data (e.g weather reports,
theatre performance times). It is cheap and of general use.

(b) View Data

Relayed by cable, in effect connecting the user to a remotely
located computer (e.g Prestel, the public service offered by
British Telecom, which provides a number of services such as
Lawtel which gives access to a variety of law reports).

Essentially view data is a two-way system (allowing the user to

communicate and receive) using the computer, a terminal and
communications lines. Some large firms use viewdata, general
business data processing and word processing as an integrated
activity.

Viewdata is now a standard approach in the travel industry. Most

travel agents have at least one terminal. A further common user is
the life assurance industry to provide quotations to brokers.

(c) Electronic Mail

This is the process of sending messages directly from one
computer to another. This could be between computers in the same
room, building or to someone on the other side of the world. To
run e-mail systems that go to the external computers, the
computers have to be connected to a modem. Most new systems
today have an internal modem.

Services available in E-mail systems include the ability to:

- Make a single message available to many persons

- Ensure that designated individuals are always made aware

of all messages.

- Make certain that immediate replies are given to urgent

messages

- Store messages for a given period after they are received

 5. Project Planning Software
Complex projects such as installing a computer system, publishing a weekly
magazine require a considerable amount of planning and control. Not only are
they made up of many stages but they may require considerable expenditure on
resources such as personnel, plant and equipment.

An important part of project planning is to isolate the critical activities so that

attention and resources can be concentrated on them to ensure that no delays to
the overall project time occur. The sequence of critical activities is called Critical
Path. Project planning software will automatically isolate the critical path and
compute overall project time and the amount of float available for each activity.

During the course of the project, data in the computer is kept up to date by keying
in the date when each activity is completed. This helps management control the
project by highlighting the effects of slippage and indicating the critical activities
to watch.

Project planning software includes Ms Project 2000 and Havard Total Project
Management (HTPM).

Off-shelf Packages And Bespoke Software

1. Off-Shelf Packages
Organisations have a great deal in common with one another – the core data
processing activities are likely to very similar from one company to another. The
basic accounting functions, for example, apply to a large majority of business.
Many applications are served by packages which can be obtained” off-shelf.”

Advantages
- They are generally cheaper to buy than bespoke packages are to develop

- They are likely to be available almost immediately

- Any system bugs should have been discovered by other users and eliminated

- Packages are likely to come with good training manuals and user manuals

- New updated versions of the software are likely to be available on regular basis

- The experience of a great number of users with similar needs to those in the
organization has been incorporated into the design of the package.
Disadvantages
- They do not fit precisely the needs of the organization. Users may need to compromise
what they want with what is available

- The organization is dependent upon an outside supplier for the maintenance of the
software. Many software suppliers are larger than most of their customers and are
therefore difficult to influence

- Different packages used by the organization may have incompatible data structures.

Bespoke Software

These systems are designed to fit specific needs of the organization. They may be
produced in-house or commissioned from an outside software company.

Advantages
- They precisely fit the organization’s information needs

- The organization has complete discretion over data structures

- The system can be integrated with other applications within the organization

- The system can be modified to suit changing needs

- If the programmes are of interest to other organizations, they can be sold or licensed.
The information services group can thus become a profit centre.

Disadvantages
- Development takes a long time, which delays the implementation of the system.

- Bespoke systems are costly to develop and test

- There is a greater probability of bugs in a bespoke system. Most of the errors in the
packages will have to be found by other users

- Support of the bespoke system will be expensive. One has to bear all the costs.
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA INPUT DEVICES

These are hardware components that facilitate the capture of data into computer systems
through standard input ports.

1. Keyboard
This is used for normal manual capture of data into computer systems.

Advantages
- The person keying in data can be in a remote location away from the computer
itself. Data can be transmitted via a communication link.

- The person keying in data can check for errors on the screen

- Keyboard input is convenient for small volumes of data

Disadvantages
- It is unsuitable for large volumes of data as keying in data manually takes
time.

- Keyboard input is likely to be error prone

- There might be security problems. Keyboard input may be overlooked and

there is a risk that unauthorized people could access a terminal or PC.

2. Mouse
This can be used to highlight a block of text which can then be copied, moved,
deleted or subjected to other editing functions. When used with appropriate
software, it can be used as a drawing tool in computer aided design (CAD).

3. Barcode Readers
Electronic point of sale (EPOS) take advantage of bar codes. Data can be recorded
in binary on documents, paper or plastic using a bar code of alternating lines and
spaces. A bar code reader reads the data that is stored in the bar codes and sends
the data to the computer for processing. The computer then provides the price of
the item purchased (from the price file) and this is then output to the cashier’s
check-out point. The cost of purchases is calculated and the customer sees what is
payable on a small display screen and receives a printed receipt for the purchased
goods. Bar codes are often used in electronic point of sale devices. Data relating
to the transaction would be captured by the device and recorded on sales file and
stock file as it occurred.
Advantages
- Stationery is saved as paper and ink that was to be used for printing price tags would be
saved. The saved money can be used for other ventures that can boost business.

- Quick service because as long as the total quantity of items is known, the items can go
straight to the shelves and customers can access goods as soon as they come. Speed of
transactions is also enhanced.

- Reduction in labour since items are not priced individually. Pricing items individually
would attract a large labour force. With the use of bar codes such a large labour force
would not be necessary. This would result in savings for the store which could be
channeled back into business.

- Where prices are continually changing, this could lead to enormous use of stationer
needed top print new price tags. This would also mean employing extra labour to cope
with the job of repricing the individual items. The end result is that a lot of money will
be spent on stationer and labour.

- Easy monitoring of sales and stock levels as these are updated with every transaction.

Disadvantages
- Creates unemployment as less labour will be required

- It is expensive to implement as special equipment like computers, cables, bar code

readers are required.

- It cannot be used where there is no electricity

- Staff have to be trained in the use of the system

- It requires highly skilled staff to maintain the system

- When the computer fails, the whole system is paralysed

3. Electronic Funds at Point of Sales (EFTPOS)

When the customer has bought goods, no cash will be handled physically. Instead,
all cash involved will be handled electronically. This may require the shop to have
a computer system that is linked to the customer’s bank.

The customer inserts a card into a machine that identifies the account number and
other details. The computer in the shop will then enquire electronically from
banks account of the customer whether funds are available to pay for the goods.
The shop’s account will be credited by the same amount that the goods bought
 cost. All this occurred at the point of sale where goods were sold (point of sale)
as such this is called Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of sale (EFTPOS).

4. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Mark reading or sensing is a method used for data input into a computer system.
This method utilizes pre-printed forms or cards normally for selecting choices in
appropriate boxes on the forms. The selection is made by marking the choice with
a line or a cross using a pencil.

When choices have been marked, the form is then fed into an optical mark reader.
This device will then sense the boxes which have been marked and translates
these into machine code. These codes are sent to computer for processing. This is
the method used for marking Grade VII examinations. OMR documents are an
example of turn-around documents.

5. Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

This is a method used for data input into computer systems. The method utilizes
pre-printed forms or cards. The user types in the characters in particular positions
on the form. The characters need to be in a particular format or style. Such
formats are normally used, for example, in big universities; here new students are
required to fill in their details on pre-printed forms. These forms are fed into the
OCR which extracts the details of the student and sends them to the computer for
processing or storage into a database. The OCR can recognize characters printed
by a printer’s printers and block hand written characters.
is method reduces human involvement in data preparation and input and therefore
errors are reduced. OCR documents are another example of turn-around
documents.

Advantages
- Computers can produce pre-printed OCR documents which can later be read by
computers. This is cheaper since no special equipment is needed.

- Data preparation errors are eliminated

- OCR documents are visible records

- A considerable range of document size is catered for.

- OCR equipment can on-line to the computer but often data is written to magnetic tape
off-line for faster input, especially to mainframe

- Source data can be automated

- OCR contains data that can be read by human beings and so enabling visual inspection
of data.

- OCR has wide applicability

Disadvantages
- OCR document must treated with care so that characters still remain readable

- Special measures are required to replace spoiled or lost documents

- OCR equipment can be expensive

- Print quality may be crucial since unclear documents may distort data.

5. Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)

As with optical methods special type face is used, but the printing ink contains
iron oxide which enables the characters to be magnetized. The document is passed
through a magnetic field before being read by the MICR where the characters are
recognized by the particular magnetic field pattern which they produce.
MICR technique is widely used by banks for the encoding of cheques where the
sheer volume of documents would present an enormous input problem if done via
keyboard. Certain information such as branch code, account no., cheque no. on
each cheque has already been printed in magnetic ink. The cheque can be read by
the computer which automatically updates the account balance.
CR is useful where original documents are handled frequently before they reach
the computer and can become dirty, crumpled or scribbled upon. The dirt and
marks are no magnetic, so the underlying magnetic characters are clear to the
reading device. If OCR were used, the marks would cause mis-reads.

Advantages
- The data can be read by human beings and so enabling visual inspections of documents

- MICR documents are relatively easy to sort

- MICR documents make forgery very difficult

Disadvantages
- Printing MICR documents requires special equipment

- The quality of print is important and the amount of ink in a character is crucial.

- MICR has limited character set in E13B

- MICR is not fully automatic as the amount of the cheque (in banking) or other data
must be added manually.

6. Scanner
These can be used to input data into a computer system. Flat bed scanners have a
clear glass plate under which is a light source and the recording unit on a moving
arm. The scanning arm moves along under the glass plate and the bright light
allows the light sensitive devices on the arm to pick up colours on a line by line
basis from the image that is being scanned. The resolution of a scanner, expressed
as dots per inch (dpi), is different on some scanners. Scanners can also be
handheld or drum scanners but the resolution obtained from these is not as good.

7. Digital Camera
These are used in exactly the same way as an ordinary camera. The difference is
in how the pictures are stored. Images are stored in digital form, the same way as
data is stored in a computer. Images can transferred from the camera to computer
via a link cable. Once pictures are transferred into a computer, they can be
enlarged or a text can be added.

Other Input Devices

These include terminals, touch screens, light pens and punched tags
CHAPTER FIVE

OUTPUT DEVICES

These hardware devices produce processed data or information in printed form or

soft copy or vocal.. These include the following devices:

1. Printers
These are devices that produce printed images on paper. The image to be
printed is received in form of signals from the controlling device, usually
the central processing unit. Printers can either be impact printers or non-
impact printers.

Impact Printers
In the case of impact printers, the signals from the CPU activate print
elements which are pressed against the paper through the printer ribbon, to
produce the required image.

Advantages
 They offer the advantage of producing carbon copies
 They are cheaper than non-impact printers
 They may not require special printing paper but just ordinary paper

Disadvantages
 Since they are electromechanical, they may slow in operation
 They may not offer high resolution (good quality print) offered by
non-impact printers
 Owing to many moving parts, they may not be as reliable as non-
impact printers.
 They make noise when in operation

Non-Impact Printer
Non-impact printers do not require any impact on paper. The inkjet
printer, for example, simply injects ink onto the paper to produce the
required image.

Advantages
 Since they are not electromechanical, they are much faster than
impact printers.

 Non-impact printers offer a wide variety of type faces

  Non-impact printers offer high and good quality resolutions

 Since they have fewer moving parts, they are more reliable

Disadvantages
 They may be expensive
 Due to lack of impact on paper, they cannot produce carbon copies
 Some non-impact printers may require special printing paper
which might be expensive to acquire
 They print quietly

Examples of non-impact printers include inkjet and laserjet printers

2. Plotters
These are suitable for computer aided design (CAD) jobs since they are
designed specifically to handle sophisticated graphical output. A plotter
produces high quality drawings rather than printed output. Plotters work
on a co-ordinate principle where drawing movements are executed by pen.
All movements are control of the software.

The two types of plotters are drum plotters and flatbed plotters.

Drum Plotters
This plots on paper that is fixed to a drum. While the drum revolves back
and forth, a bar suspended above the drum and holding a drawing pen
moves from side to side and so plots the drawing.

Flatbed Plotter
This is stationary so that only the pen moves up and down the paper thus
plotting the drawing.

While the flatbed plotter can plot larger drawings, the drum plotter can
plot longer drawings because it uses continuous paper. The flatbed plotter
would be more suitable for producing the CAD drawing on an A3 paper.

3. Screens
These display information in soft copy. Information can be transmitted to
other users where it is displayed on the screen. Soft copies can easily be
edited i.e moved or copied to another section of the document or deleted.

4. Speakers
These can produce sound from computer systems. To achieve this,
computers should have speakers connected to them.
CHAPTER SIX

DATA STORAGE DEVICES

These are hardware devices that are used to store data and information in computer
systems. They include the following devices:

Hard Disk
These offer direct internal access to data. A business PC has an internal hard disk
which may have a capacity of over 40 Gigabytes.

Floppy Disk
This is a removable storage medium. The floppy disk provides a cost-effective means
of on-line storage for volumes of data and information. A 3.5” disk can hold up 1.44
Mb of data. The disk is covered in a jacket for protection against dust and
mishandling.

Zip Disk
This is a different type of removable disk with much larger capacity (100Mb) that
requires a special zip drive. It is suitable for back-ups or for moving files between
computers. Files are zipped so that they are compressed into a logically smaller file.
To open zipped files, these files must be unzipped using software such as Winzip or
PKzip. The extracted files will then show their file extensions and may be opened by
using the appropriate software.

Flash Disk
This is stick that can be slotted into the universal serial bus (USB) port for the storage
of large volumes of data and information. They have a higher storage capacity and are
portable. They are enclosed in a protective casing. It is suitable for moving files
between computers.

Compact Disks
These can store 650 Mb of data. They can be used to transfer data between
computers. Recorders are now available for general business use with blank CDs
(CD – R) and rewritable disks(CD = RW)

Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)

This can store almost 5Gb of data. Access speeds are improved as is sound and video
quality. DVDs will replace CD –ROMs, VHS cassettes, audio CDs and laser discs.

Advantages of Backing Storage

- They offer permanent storage
 - They are portable
- They have higher storage capacity
- Can be used transfer data between computers
- They occupy less space
- They are cheaper

Disadvantages
- They can easily be damaged
- They are susceptible to viruses since they are used to transfer data between
computers
- Data is accessed at lower speed as they are electromechanical
- They can be stolen leading to loss of information and confidentiality
- Information can be accessed by unauthorized people leading to loss of
confidentiality.
CHAPTER SEVEN

COMPUTER NETWORKS
This is a connection of computers to enable people share information electronically.
A network is a means of linking together a series of personal computers, sharing disks
or having a communication link.

Networks are distinguished by topology which describes how computers are

connected to one another and geographical coverage, the distance the communication
travels before reaching a destination host from the source.

The basic network topology are the bus, ring or star.

1. Bus Topology
In this topology, every device has one connection on a common link. One host or
station sends a signal in both directions on the single transmission segment. All
machines receive the communication but detect whether the message is theirs and
ignore it if not. Bus technologies suffer from collisions. To deal with this, they
must employ collision detection arbitration technology such as Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection

A weakness of the bus topology is that a break in the topology divides the
network into two. No communication is possible between the two segments.
2. Ring Topology
In this topology, each host is connected to the other hosts and can communicate in
each direction. Ring topologies are more reliant than bus topology because if a
host is down, the remaining hosts can reach each other in the opposite direction.
Ring networks are less popular though and are associated with older networks that
used the IBM Token ring protocol

Access protocol used by networks with ring or bus topology is based on a token
ring being passed from station to station. The token ring goes around the system
until it arrives at a station with data to transmit. The station catches the token and
holds it until its message has been sent and received then puts the token back into
circulation.

A weakness of the ring networks is that they are expensive to build. Two sets of
wiring must be installed (one in each direction) for the same number of hosts with
no particular advantage since transmission is only in one direction with the other
coming into use when there is a failure.

3. Star Topology
This is the most common in use. In this configuration, every host is connected to a
single host at the centre of the star or hub e.g every machine is connected to the
file server. All communication passes through the hub and this allows all
machines to talk at the same time. However, the hub is a weak point because if it
fails, the entire network is paralysed.

In an effort to reduce redundancy, the star can be implemented as a hybrid mesh

with each node connected to the star and at least one other node. If the nodes that
are selected are not common to all nodes, then some sort of connectivity will
remain and segments of the network will result.

A network system will have a file server, (a separate processor or a station running a
program which manages the network and controls the use of the file store and other
peripherals. Often, file servers and file stores are combined as one unit.

The individual micros connected to the network which do not have any role in
managing the system are sometimes referred to as either work stations, client stations
or slave stations.

The wiring used for the network can be coaxial cable (screened wire as used for
television aerials), twisted pair (two insulated wires as used for non-earthed electrical
appliances, flat ribbon cable (several; strands side by side) or fibre optic cable (which
carries signals as light pulses).
Bridge and Gateway
A bridge is used to connect together, usually, similar local networks and a Gateway is
used can be used to link a network to an outside device or service, which could be
another local network, the telephone system or another service.

Advantages of Networks
- Can be used to share information electronically
- Application programs can be held by one station and accessed directly by anyn
user on the network.
- System software such as operating systems can be installed on one station and
used by the entire network.
- Enable sharing of hardware such as printers among many users
- Enables access to various information held on a network.

Disadvantages of Networks
- Expensive to implement
- Data may be accessed by unauthorized persons
- Viruses may be introduced in the network via attachments to e-mail
- Require extensive security measures

The benefits to be derived from computer networks include increased productivity,

greater efficiency, lower capital costs and an enhanced quality of working life.

Types of Networks
1. Intranets
This is a private computer network that uses TCP/Ip as the protocol for
connectivity and the public telecommunication system to securely share part of an
organisation’s information or operations with its employees.

The same concepts and technologies of the internet such as clients and servers
running on the internet are used to build an intranet. To build an intranet, the
organization will set up the following:

- A web server or group of servers that will host the intranet applications.
- Provide access to the web using TCP/Ip network. For most firms, this means
having a LAN using Ethernet.
- Installing the user programs on all required computers (usually a browser and for
some applications JAVA or Active X capability)
- Finally, create a home page in HTML for the system and web pages for all the
applications and information that all users will access.

Uses of Intranets
- Document Sharing
So that every employee has common access to information such as expense claim
forms, holiday forms etc

- Information Bulletin Boards

Where employees can leave messages for others to read and read what others
have left.

- Roaming Access
Like web-based mail, so that employees can read their mail from any location in
the world.

- Data Entry
So that salesmen on the road can access the intranet to pick up useful information
such as current prices or generate new orders from whatever location so long as
they can access the intranet

Advantages Of Intranets

- Workforce Productivity
Intranets can help employees to quickly find and view information and
applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities. Through simple to use web
browser interface, users can access data held in any database any time and from
anywhere increasing employees’ ability to perform their jobs faster, more
accurately and with confidence they have the right information.

- Time
With intranets, organizations can make more information available to employees
on a “pull” basis i.e employees can link to relevant information at a time which
suits them.

- Communication
Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an organization
both vertically and horizontally.

- Web Publishing
The use of intranets permits information to be published using hypermedia
technologies.

- Business Operations and Management

Intranets are also being used as a platform for developing and deploying
applications to support business operations and decisions across the enterprise.

- Application Deployment
Intranets in general are a fast way of deploying a common application to the entire
organization. As users access it using a browser, changes need only to be made at
 the server level not to each individual user. The same applies to hardware such as
printers which can be shared by many users resulting in cost reduction.

Disadvantages Of Intranets

- Management could lose control of the material provided by the intranet.

- There could be security concerns with who accesses the intranet, also abuse of the
intranet by users e.g publishing company information that should not have been
placed on the intranet.

- Intranets may cause information overload, delivering too much information to

handle resulting in low usage levels.

2. Extranets

This is a private network that uses internet technology and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of the business’s information or
operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers or other businesses. An
extranet can be viewed as a part of a company’s intranet that is extended to users
outside the company.

An intranet requires security and privacy. These can include firwall, server
management, the issuance and use of digital certifcates or similar means of user
authentication, encryption of messages or virtual private networks (VPN) that
create a tunnel through the public network enabling secure communication over a
shared network between the organisation and its partners.

Companies can use intranets to:

- Exchange large volumes of data using electronic data interchange(EDI )

- Share product catalogues exclusively with wholesalers or those in the same

trade.

- Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts

- Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies

- Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of other

companies such as online banking applications managed by one company on
behalf of affiliated banks.

- Store news of common interest exclusively with partner companies.

 - Enable customers to generate orders themselves electronically.

Examples of extranets include hosted e-mail (hotmail), and electronic storefront

applications (eBay). Others are internet banking applications which allow the end-
user to do their banking from home avoiding queuing or congestion.

Advantages

- Extranets can improve organisation’s productivity by automating processes

which were previously done manually e.g reordering of inventory from
suppliers. Automation can also reduce the margin of error of these processes.

- They allow organisation or project information to be viewed at times

convenient for business partners, customers, employees, suppliers and other
stakeholders. This cuts down on meeting times and is an advantage when
doing business with partners in different time zones.

- Information on an extranet can be updated, edited and changed instantly. All

authorized users therefore will have immediate access to the most up-to-date
information. Extranets can improve relationships with key customers,
providing them with accurate and updated information.

- An extranet extends the hours of operation of a company e.g an online bank is

accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The same cannot be said of a
physical bank.

Disadvantages

- They can be expensive to implement and maintain within an organisation e.g

hardware, software, employee training costs.

- Security of extranets can be a big concern when dealing with valuable

information. System access needs to be carefully controlled to avoid sensitive
information falling into wrong hands.

- Extranets can reduce personal contacts with customers and business partners.
This could cause a lack of connections made between people and a company
which hurts the business when it comes loyalty of its business partners and
customers.

3. Internet
 An Internet is any network or collection of interconnected computer networks that
transfer data by packet switching using transmission control protocol/internet
protocol (TCP/IP).

The internet is the worldwide, publicly accessed network of all such connected
computer networks. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of
smaller domestic, academic, business and government networks which together
carry various information and services such as e-mail, online chat, file transfer
and the interlinked web pages and other documents of the world wide web.

The world wide web is a combination of four basic ideas:

- Hypertext
A format of information which allows one, in a computer environment to
move from one part of the document to another or from one document to
another through internal connections among these documents called
hyperlinks.

- Resource Identifiers
Unique identifiers used to locate a particular resource (computer file,
document or other resource) on the networks.

- The Client – Server Model of Computing

A system in which client software or a client computer makes requests of a
server software or server computer that provides the client with resources or
services such as data or files.

- Mark-up Language
Characters or codes embedded in text which indicate structure, semantic
meaning or advice on presentation.

On the world wide web, a client program called a web browser retrieves information
resources such as web pages and other computer files from web servers using their
uniform resource locators (URL) and displays them, typically, on a computer and
mobile phones. A user can then follow hyperlinks in each page to other resources on
the WWW whose location is provided by these hyperlinks. The act of following
hyperlinks is called browsing or surfing the web. Web pages are often arranged in
collections of related material called web sites.

Computer users may know the precise address of an internet site that is to be visited.
The format of the address is like http/www.bbc.co.uk. The address is called Uniform
Resource Locator (URL)

Uses of the Internet In Business

- Sharing text, photos, slides, videos and other data within the organisation
- Permits employees to telecommute or work away from a conventional office,
whether at home, on the road or across the country.

- Recruit employees cost effectively

- Locate information from external sources

- Find new business partners and attract new customers

- Locate and buy parts and materials from domestic and international suppliers

- Promote and sell goods and services to customers in any location

- Collaborate with local, national and international business partners

- Provide customers with service, technical support and product information

- Inform investors, industry analysts and government regulators about business

developments

All these uses of the internet have one thing in common. They improve
communication which is the most important benefit that executives expect from
the internet.

Advantages
- Electronic Mail
E-mail enables users to create, send and read written messages entirely on the
computer. An e-mail document may be a single text message or it might include
complex files or programs

- Discussion Mailing Groups

Also known as Listservs , these are discussion groups to which you subscribe by
sending a message to the lists e-mail address. From then on, copies of all
messages posted by any other subscriber are sent to you via e-mail. It is like
subscribing to an electronic news letter to which everyone can contribute..

- Newsgroups
Consisting of posted messages and responses on a particular subject, usernet
newsgroups differ from discussion mailing lists in two ways. First, messages are
posted to a newsgroup site which you must access by using a news reader
program. Second, messages posted to a newsgroup can be viewed by anyone. A
newsgroup is a place you visit to read posted messages whereas a discussion
mailing list delivers posted messages to you.

- Instant Messaging and Chat

 Many companies encourage the use of instant messaging and chat for work
purposes.

- Videoconferencing
More companies are using online videoconferencing to replace face to face
meetings with colleagues, customers and suppliers. This eliminates costs
associated with holding meetings face to face..

- Internet Telephony
Internet users can converse vocally over the web using internet telephony.
Converting traditional voice calls to digital signals and sending them over the
standard phone lines. It also be more efficient, allowing an organisation to
accommodate more users on a single line at once.

- File Transfers
An internet service known as file transfer protocol (FLP) enables you to download
files (transfer data from a server to your computer) and upload files (transfer data
from your computer to another system.

- Telnet
This class of internet application program allows a user to communicate with
other computers on remote network even if the user’s computer is not a
permanent part of that network e.g a user would use telnet to access the country’s
library, electronic card catalogue from the user’s home computer.

Disadvantages
- Since the internet has too much information, the quality of the information staff
will be producing will be compromised

- Speed is affected as data only downloads onto the user’s PC at the speed of the
slowest telecommunication link. This can be a problem especially if there are
deadlines to be met.

- The internet has too much information and entertainment available such that
employees will spend too much time browsing through no-work related sites. This
may affect productivity.

- Connecting an information system to the internet exposes the system to numerous

security issues such hackers, eavesdroppers and spam mail.

- Pornographic material can be accessed by staff and this may increase cases of
sexual harassment at work places.
- Since some organisations advertise on the internet for jobs, employees will spend
a lot of company time searching for better jobs on the net.

- The organisation’s information is vulnerable to internet viruses during downloads

of attachments from e-mails.

- Spyware
When staff visit unauthorized sites, the site visited will store the computer’s
address and then send a program to server so that it can copy important
information which will be sent back to the server. This program is called
Spyware

- System Failure
If the system fails, operations will be paralysed in the organisation leading to loss
of business.
CHAPTER EIGHT

DATA SECURITY

Security is an important aspect of database design because data has to be protected for
a number of reasons. Data that contain personal information has to be protected under
the Data Protection Act and data that could be useful to a commercial competitor has
to be guarded from theft.

There are two sources of threats to data security, namely, Physical threats and system
threats.

1. Physical Threats
Computer systems consist of a mixture of electronic and mechanical devices. The
operation of these devices can be impaired where they are subject to events such
as fire, flooding, heat, humidity, dust, magnetic fields, theft, power surges and
accidental or malicious damage caused by external parties or internal staff.

Protection Against Physical Threats

(a) The computer should be kept in a fire and riot proof place. Fire precaution
should include:

- Smoke and heat detectors and alarms

- Carbon dioxide flooding on detection of fire
- Regular checks/servicing of procedures and machinery
- Closed circuit TV (CCTV) monitoring access to and from the computer
room to detect unauthorized entry.
- Entry to installation only via security staff or through offices
- Sensitive documents should be kept in the file library when not in use.
- Challenging suspicious persons by staff

2. System Threats
(a). Fraud
Computer frauds come from disgruntled employees, organized crime and
hackers. Distributed processing, allowing many employee access to the
system, makes certain type of fraud easier. Fraud normally involves staff
removing money from the company but other methods of fraud that might
affect the data held on a computer system include:
 - The creation of fictitious supplier accounts and submission of false
invoices so that payments are sent to fictitious supplier.

- Giving unauthorized discounts to customers

- Stock losses, including short deliveries by the driver

- Fictitious staff on the payroll

Protection Against Fraud

- Adequate controls over input/processing and programs
- Strict division of labour
- Internal audit review systems and controls

(b) Viruses
A virus is a program that can attach itself to other programs and modify or
destroy them. Viruses have the ability to infect a whole computer system. The
infected programmes may then act as carriers for the computer virus with the
result that the infection process can have a spiraling effect. The virus may
render the computer system inoperable.

Anti-Virus Software
This deletes or quarantines viruses on the computer, thus protecting the
computer from viruses. The software needs to be updated regularly as new
viruses are created daily.

Any anti-virus software should have a good deletion rate, be compatible with
the system, easy to use and must have the ability to update.

(c) Hacking
This is deliberate accessing of secure on-line systems by unauthorized persons
no necessarily connected with the target organization. Hacking has become
more of a threat with increasing use of micros and modems. Dial-up systems
are inherent in many systems and provide the hacker with an entrance to the
system once the telephone number has been obtained.

A skilled hacker can disable the journal or console logs of the main CPU to
suppress evidence of his/her activities. Once into the system, the hacker has
several dangerous options:

- Entry into the security files containing all the ID codes, passwords and
authorizations.

- Discovering the password generating/authorization routine

- creation of decoy programs to capture user passwords/IDs

- Discovery of maintenance codes allowing widespread access to the

system.

- Disruption of the access control system to allow unlimited access by the

hacker.

Protection Against Hackers

By identifying the risks that hacking represents, controls can be designed that
will help prevent such activity occurring. Controls include:

- Passwords
Passwords should be issued to authorised users only. The controls over
passwords must be enforced and their misuse should represent disciplinary
offence within an organization.

- Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS)

These scan a network for people that are on the network but who should
not be there or are doing things that they should not be doing e.g trying a
lot of passwords to gain access to the network.

- System Logs
Every activity on a system should be logged and be subject to some
exception reporting e.g unusual times of access could be reported.

- Audit Trails
Sensitive data e.g payee codes, should be subjected to separate audit report
showing when data was read, written to or updated. It should also show
the before and after state and the data causing the change.

- Random Checks
The “constable on the beat” approach which checks who is doing what at
random intervals on the system and ensures that they are authorized for
these activities.

- Firewalls
These are hardware/software component that protect computers from
intruders. The firewall will not allow anything to enter the computer
system without the correct markings. All networks require a firewall to
keep out people and files that are hazardous to the system.

(d) Eavesdropping
Any data transmitted over a network (especially microwave wireless
network) is at some risk of being intercepted or even modified by a
 malicious person. Even machines that operate as closed systems (i.e with
no contact with the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon via
monitoring the faint electromagnetic transmissions generated by the
hardware.

Data Encryption
To protect data from eavesdroppers, data should be encrypted. Data
encryption is used to protect the message from the eyes of others. It can be
done in several ways by:

- Switching the characters around

- Replacing characters with others
- Removing some characters from the message

The above have to be used in combination to make encryption secure

enough.

Public key encryption is a refined and practical way of doing encryption.

It allows, for example, anyone to write a message for a list of recipients
and only those recipients will be able to read that message.

Data Validation and Verification

Two methods of checking accuracy of data are commonly used to ensure data integrity:

1. Validation
This is check to see that the data being used is realistic. Software applications will
often contain validation checks. Some of the most common checks are:

- List Check
This is a check to see that a data item comes from a given list of items that are
acceptable

- Range Check
A check to see that the data item does not fall outside a given range e.g that a date
does not exceed the 31st of the month.

- Type Check
A type check sees that a data item is in the correct format e.g in either a character
or numeric format.

2. Verification
Where data is entered by a data entry clerk into a computer system, there are
plenty chances to make mistakes. A verification check is carried out to ensure that
data items have been entered into the database correctly. When data has been
entered, it is checked either by comparing the entries on the screen with the
 original documents or by re-entering it into the system and comparing the two
versions. If the first and second entry versions are the same, then the data is most
likely to be accurate.

CHAPTER NINE

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Computer operators and users like other workers are covered by the Health and Safety
Act At Work Act 1974.

To comply with the Act, employers are required to make sure that their place of work is a
safe environment.

Health and safety issues related to the use of computers include:

1. Physical Injuries
Injuries may be due to:
- Lifting heavy loads such as boxes containing computers
- Electrocution due naked electrical wires
- Burns due short circuits

The above risks can be overcome by:

- Avoiding lifting heavy equipment unless trained to do so.
- Dealing with any hazards relating to computers. This could include trailing
computer leads, replacing loose wiring and naked cables.

2. Eye Strain
The constant use of monitors can affect a user’s eyes. To prevent serious eye
damage, a number of regulations have been laid down:

- Staff have the right to free eye test before they start to work on VDU screens.
They can also ask for test if they are already working on the systems.

- Screens should be free from flickering

- Screens should not be placed where they reflect light and systems should be
matt so that they do not create glare.

- The user should be able to change the angle of the screen

- Lighting should be bright so that there is not too great contrast between the
screen and the background light.
 - Users should be able to adjust the screen brightness and contrast

3. Posture
Sitting at a terminal for lengthy periods of time can lead to back, neck, and arm
injuries. To prevent these injuries:

- Chairs should be designed to swivel and move _best if they have castors)

- Chairs should be adjustable for the individual user in the angle of the chair,
back, and height of the seat.

- Operators should not work for long periods without taking a break. The
break allows for a change in posture.

4. Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)

Some operators have experience pains in their fingers, hands, wrists and
arms caused by making repeated small movements. In some cases, operators
have been permanently injured. Operators need to set up their systems to
prevent injury. The keyboard should:

- Have concave-shaped keys

- Lie flat or be at an angle of about 10 degrees
- Be separate from the VDU so that operators can adjust them for their own height
and angle.

5. Radiation
Although it has not been proved that screens emit dangerous amounts of radiation,
it has been suggested that some women operators might have miscarried their
babies due to radiation from VDUs. Radiation may also cause impotence as it
may cause damage to reproductive organs.

To protect operators from radiation, special shields are available for VDU
screens to protect users from radiation.
CHAPTER TEN

ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT

1. Acquisition of data from user department

2. Processing of data on behalf of user departments

3. Distributing information to user departments

4. Installing and maintaining computer networks

5. Developing software to meet user needs

6. Provide training in information technology to other departments

7. Advising managers on appropriate software and hardware

8. To provide security to the computer system

9. Developing user manuals to user departments

10. Updating software and hardware whenever need arises to ensure use of latest
softwares and hardware

ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY STAFF

1. Data Entry Clerk

Reads hand-written or printed records and keys them into the computer accurately to
ensure data integrity.

2. Computer Operators
Oversee the physical day-to-day running of a computer system. They load computer
media e.g tapes, into the storage devises (tape drive), replace printer paper and
resolve user problems. They also ensure that the correct job is running on the
computer and that any job which is running has the authorization to do so.

3. Computer Librarian
Develops procedures for organising storage and access to data processing media and
the information held on it and provides services which assist and and instruct people
 in the most efficient and effective ways to identify, locate, access and use
information. The Librarian is therefore the physical guardian of the data in an
information system.

The Librarian also keeps documentation such as system maintenance schedules and
files, archives and other similar information.

4. Business Analyst (System Analyst)

Responsible for analyzing the business needs of their clients and stakeholders to help
identify business problems and propose solutions.

5. Programmer or Software Developer

Writes the lines of code that are the set of instructions (programs) which the computer
will follow to execute tasks. From a security perspective, the Business Analyst and
the Programmer design and build systems that take into account security issues.

6. System Administrator
This is a person employed to maintain and operate a computer system or network for
a company or other organisations. The duties of a Systems Administrator include:

- Installing, supporting and maintaining servers or other computer systems

- Planning for and responding to service outages and other problems
- Morning checks of systems/software
- Performing back-ups of data
- Applying operating system updates
- Installing and configuring new devices and software
- Adding/deleting/modifying user account information and resetting passwords
- Answering technical queries
- Responsible for system security
- Keeping the network up and running
CHAPTER ELEVEN

OFFICE SUPPORT SYSTEMS (OSS)

1. Text handling
This includes word processing, copying, desktop publishing used to produce high
quality documents which combine text with graphics.

2. Data Storage
This includes microform systems such as microfilm, vie data teletext

3. Telecommunications
This covers e-mail, video/teleconferencing, communication networks such intranets,
extranets and internet, telephones, data facsimile transmission

4. Computing
This includes Micro computers, Visual display units and disk storage