Computer Networks- Part 1

Networks:
A computer network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange
data.
Network devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes.
It is a system in which multiple nodes are connected to each other to share information and
resources. A computer network allows sharing of resources between different nodes
connected within it.
Components of a Network:
The objects basically used in a computer network are known as Computer Network Elements
(CNEs). There are basically 4 computer networking elements:
• Computers
• Transmission medium (wired or wireless)
• Protocols
• Network software

Computers:
A computer is a digital device that is able to accept data as input, a process that data using
predefined algorithms and data structures, and perform tasks as output – that includes the
transformation of raw data into information, then knowledge, and finally insight about the
data’s domain. The output also takes the form of the performance of physical tasks along with
data storage, data transformation, and data retrieval. The network is also formed by
computers for the purposes of data interchange and leveraging a distributed programming
model for parallel processing.

Transmission medium:
The means through which we send our data from one place to another is known as the
Transmission medium.
Signals are used to represent data by computers and other telecommunication devices. The
signals (i.e., data or information) are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy from
one device to another. These signals travel through a vacuum, air, or other transmission
mediums to move from one point to another (from sender to receiver).
The transmission medium is of two types:
• Wired or Guided: For example, Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, and Optical Fiber
Cable.
• Wireless or Unguided: For example, Radiowaves, Microwaves, and Infrared.
Protocols:
There are some defined rules and conventions for communication between network devices.
These are called Protocols. Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and
make connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is
packaged into sent and received messages.
Protocols may be of 3 types:
• Internet Protocols
• Wireless Network Protocols
• Network Routing Protocols

Network Software:
Network software is a foundational element for any network. This type of software helps
administrators deploy, manage and monitor a network. The traditional networks are made up
of specialized hardware, such as routers and switches, that bundle the networking software
into the solution.
Such types of software encompasses a broad range of software used for the design,
implementation, and operation, and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional networks
were hardware-based with software embedded. When software like Defined Networking
(SDN) emerged, the software is separated from the hardware thus making it more adaptable
to the ever-changing nature of the computer network.

Need for Networking:

Computer networks help users on the network to share the resources and in communication.
The following are the important uses and benefits of a computer network.
• File sharing: Networking of computers helps the network users to share data files.
• Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM
drives, hard drives etc. Without computer networks, device sharing is not possible.
• Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, and this allows to
implement client/server applications
• User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail, newsgroups,
and video conferencing etc.
• Network gaming: A lot of network games are available, which allow multi-users to play
from different locations.
• Voice over IP (VoIP): Voice over Internet Protocol (IP) is a revolutionary change in
telecommunication which allows to send telephone calls (voice data) using standard
Internet Protocol (IP) rather than by traditional PSTN.
Advantages of Networks:
1. Facilitates interpersonal communications.
2. People can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms,
telephone,
3. Video telephone calls and video conferencing.
4. Allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information.
5. Authorized users may access information stored on other computers on the network.
6. Providing access to information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many
networks.
7. Allows sharing of network and computing resources.
Disadvantages of Networks:
1. May be insecure: A computer network may be used by computer hackers to deploy
computer viruses or computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent
these devices from accessing the network.
2. May interfere with other technologies: Power line communication strongly disturbs certain
forms of radio communication,
3. A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. It may be costly to set up an effective
computer network in a large organization.

Types of Networks:
The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via any
medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three major types of networks designed to operate
over the area they cover. There are some similarities and dissimilarities between them. One
of the major differences is the geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest
area; MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises the largest of all.
Local Area Network (LAN) –
LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computers
and workstations can share data, tools, and programs. The group of computers and devices
are connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme
as defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers
on the local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the
larger WAN.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited. By definition,
the connections must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs,
network adapters, and Ethernet cables). LANs cover a smaller geographical area (Size is
limited to a few kilometers) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building,
home, hospital, schools, etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium
used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and so
the error and noise are minimized.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller area
as compared to WAN. It connects two or more computers that are apart but reside in the same
or different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet
Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed connectivity. Speeds
of MAN range in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is
costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the
propagation delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN
are Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company
network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a
city.

Wide Area Network (WAN) –

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN could be
a connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and may
be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The
technology is high speed and relatively expensive.
There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is difficult to
design and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more
congestion in the network. A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link.
Due to long-distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased distance and
increased number of servers and terminals etc. Speeds of WAN ranges from a few kilobits
per second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest
problems faced here. Devices used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires,
Microwaves, and Satellites. An example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up line that connects a home computer
to the Internet.

Network Devices and their uses:

1. NIC/ ETHERNET CARD/LAN CARD/NETWORK ADAPTER: A network interface controller
(NIC) is a hardware accessory that provides a computer with both a physical interface for
accepting a network cable connector and the ability to process low-level network information.
2. MODEM: A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier
signal to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the
transmitted information.
3. REPEATER: A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network signal, cleans it of
unnecessary noise, and regenerates it. The signal is retransmitted at a higher power level, so
that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation
4. HUB: A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub.
5. SWITCH: A switch only forwards the data to the ports involved in the communication rather
than all ports connected. Switches make decisions about where to forward data based on
MAC addresses.
6. BRIDGE: It is a network device that connects LAN’s of similar type together. Bridges
broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast was received. Bridges learn
which nodes are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port with a
node, it will send traffic for that node through that port only.
6. ROUTER: A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks
by processing the routing information included in the packet.
7. GATEWAY: It interconnects networks with different network protocol technologies by
performing the required protocol conversions.

Network Topologies:
• Physical Topology: It refers to the configuration of cables, computers and other
peripherals.
• Logical Topology: It is the method used to pass information between computers.

PHYSICAL LAN TOPOLOGIES

1. Linear Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Tree Topology
4. Ring Topology

LINEAR BUS: It consists of a main cable with a terminator at each end. All the nodes are
connected to the linear cable.
Advantages:
1. Easy to install.
2. Requires less cable length than STAR topology.
Disadvantages:
1. Entire network fails if there is a break in main cable.
2. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
3. Difficult to detect network faults.

STAR TOPOLOGY: A star topology is designed with each node connected directly to a
central network hub.
Data on the network passes through the hub before continuing to its destination.
The hub manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts like repeater.
Advantages:
1. Easy to install
2. No disruptions to the network while connecting or removing devices.
3. Easy to detect network faults.
Disadvantages:
1. Requires more cable length than a linear topology
2. If the hub fails the network shuts down.
3. Setup cost is more than of linear bus.

TREE TOPOLOGY: It combines the characteristic of linear bus and star topologies. It consists
of groups of star configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
Advantages:
1. Point to point wiring for individual segments.
2. Allows easy expansion for network.
Disadvantages:
1. If the backbone line breaks, entire segment shuts down.
2. More difficult to configure and install than other topologies.

RING TOPOLOGY: Each node is connected to two and only two neighbouring nodes.
Data is accepted from one of the neighbouring nodes and is transmitted onwards to another.
Data travels in one direction only from node to node around the ring.
Data after passing through each node, it returns to the sending node which removes it.
The signal is amplified before it is passed to the next node.
Advantages:
1. Short cable length
2. Suitable for optical fibers.
Disadvantages:
1. Node failure causes network failure.
2. Difficult to diagnose faults.
3. Network reconfigurations are difficult.

Application of Networks:
Email
Electronic mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages from a sender to one or more
recipients.
Advantages of emails
• Emails are easy to use. You can organize your daily correspondence, send and receive
electronic messages and save them on computers.
• Emails are fast.
• When you reply to an email you can attach the original message so that when you
answer the recipient knows what you are talking about
• It is possible to send automated emails with a certain text. These emails are called auto
responders.
• Emails do not use paper.
• Emails can also have pictures and other documents attached.
• Products can be advertised with emails. Companies can reach a lot of people and
inform them in a short time.
Disadvantages of emails
• Emails may carry viruses. These are small programs that harm your computer system.
They can read out your email address book and send themselves to a number of people
around the world.
• Many people send unwanted emails to others.
• Your mailbox may get flooded with emails after a certain time so you have to empty it
from time to time.
E-commerce
Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce, is a type of industry where buying
and selling of product or service is conducted over electronic systems such as the Internet
and other computer networks.
Chat Services
Between two or occasionally more users of a display-based communications system.
Video Conferencing
It is the conduct of a videoconference by a set of telecommunication technologies which allow
two or more locations to communicate by simultaneous two-way video and audio
transmissions.
Usenet
Usenet is a worldwide distributed Internet discussion system.
Usenet is an Internet bulletin board that has thousands of newsgroups in it where people can
exchange news and e-mail. An example of Usenet is a newsgroup about sports where readers
post their own bits of information and read information.
Internet Forum
An Internet forum is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the
form of posted messages. They differ from chat rooms in that messages are at least
temporarily archived. Also, depending on the access level of a user or the forum set-up, a
posted message might need to be approved by a moderator before it becomes visible.

Internet Related Terminologies:

The Internet is a vast network that connects computers all over the world. Through the
Internet, people can share information and communicate from anywhere with an Internet
connection.
INTERNET stands for Interconnected Network that is a network system that connects millions
of web servers.
Common methods of Internet access by users include dial-up with a computer modem via
telephone circuits, broadband over coaxial cable, fiber optics or copper wires, Wi-Fi, satellite,
and cellular telephone technology (e.g. 3G, 4G). The Internet may often be accessed from
computers in libraries and Internet cafes.
Requirements of Internet:
There are three ingredients needed to access the Internet from a laptop or desktop computer:
(1) an ISP, (2) a modem and (3) a Web browser.
Internet working
The internet is a worldwide computer network that transmits a variety of data and media
across interconnected devices. It works by using a packet routing network that follows Internet
Protocol (IP) and Transport Control Protocol (TCP).
Internet Service provider
An Internet service provider (ISP) is a business or organization that provides services for
accessing, using, or participating in the Internet. Internet service providers can be organized
in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately
owned.
An ISP typically serves as the access point or the gateway that provides a user access to
everything available on the Internet.
Internet Addressing
Internet addresses are made up of a network address and a host (or local) address. This two-
part address allows a sender to specify the network as well as a specific host on the network.
A unique, official network address is assigned to each network when it connects to other
Internet networks.
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label such as 192.0.2.1 that is
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP
address serves two main functions: network interface identification and location addressing.
IPv4 & IPv6 are both IP addresses that are binary numbers. IPv4 is a 32-bit binary number,
and IPv6 is a 128-bit binary number address. IPv4 addresses are separated by periods, while
IPv6 addresses are separated by colons. Both IP addresses are used to identify machines
connected to a network.

World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via
the Internet.

Domain name
A series of alphanumeric strings separated by periods serving as an address for a computer
network.

DNS
The Domain Name System translates Internet domain and host names to IP addresses. It
automatically converts the names we type in our Web browser address bar to the IP
addresses of Web servers hosting those sites.

IP Address
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device
participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP
address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location
addressing.

HTTP
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
A uniform resource locator also known as web address, is a specific character string
that constitutes a reference to a resource on internet.
http://en.example.org/wiki/Main_Page
Every URL consists of the following:
• the scheme name (commonly called protocol), then
• a colon, two slashes, then
• a host, normally given as a domain name but sometimes as a literal IP address, then
• optionally a port number, then
• the full path of the resource
The scheme says how to connect, the host specifies where to connect, and the remainder
specifies what to ask for.
On the Internet, a hostname is a domain name assigned to a host computer. This is usually
a combination of the host's local name with its parent domain's name. For example,
en.example.org consists of a local hostname (en) and the domain name example.org. The
hostname is translated into an IP address via the domain name system (DNS) resolver.
The domain google.com, or its numeric IP address 74.125.228.87, is the address of Google's
India website.

Web Server:
A web server is computer software and underlying hardware that accepts requests via HTTP
(the network protocol created to distribute web content) or its secure variant HTTPS. A user
agent, commonly a web browser or web crawler, initiates communication by making a request
for a web page or other resource using HTTP, and the server responds with the content of
that resource or an error message. A web server can also accept and store resources sent
from the user agent if configured to do so.
The hardware used to run a web server can vary according to the volume of requests that it
needs to handle. At the low end of the range are embedded systems, such as a router that
runs a small web server as its configuration interface. A high-traffic Internet website might
handle requests with hundreds of servers that run on racks of high-speed computers.

Webpage
It is a document, typically written in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of
Hypertext Markup Language to design a website.
Website
It is a set of related web pages served from a single web domain. A website is hosted on at
least one web server, accessible via a network such as the Internet or a private local area
network through an Internet address known as a Uniform Resource Locator.

Web Browser:
A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information
resources on the World Wide Web.

Hyper Text Mark-up Language ( HTML):

Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is the main markup language for creating web pages
and other information that can be displayed in a web browser.

Dynamic Hyper Text Mark-up Language (DHTML):

Is used to create interactive and animated web sites by using a combination of a static markup
language (such as HTML), a client-side scripting language (such as JavaScript), a
presentation definition language (such as CSS), and the Document Object Model.

Extended Mark-up Language (XML)

Is a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is
both human-readable and machine-readable.

Search Engine
A search engine is a software system that is designed to carry out web searches. They search
the World Wide Web in a systematic way for particular information specified in a textual web
search query. The search results are generally presented in a line of results, often referred to
as search engine results pages (SERPs) The information may be a mix of links to web pages,
images, videos, infographics, articles, research papers, and other types of files.

Downloading and Uploading files on/from the net

In computer networks, to download means to receive data to a local system from
a remote system or to initiate such a data transfer.
In computer networks, to upload, can refer to the sending of data from a local system to a
remote system such as a server or another client with the intent that the remote system should
store a copy of the data being transferred, or the initiation of such a process.
Hacking
Hacking is the process of gaining unauthorized access into a computer system, or group of
computer systems. This is done through cracking of passwords and codes which gives access
to the systems.
Cracking
The term “cracking” means trying to get into computer systems in order to steal, corrupt, or
illegitimately view data. Though functionally the same as hacking, cracking is strictly used in
a criminal sense.
Cookies
Cookies are small files that websites send to your device that the sites then use to monitor
you and remember certain information about you — like what's in your shopping cart on an e-
commerce site, or your login information.
When you visit a website that uses cookies, a cookie file is saved to your PC, Mac, phone or
tablet. That way, if you go back to that website again, the website knows you've already been
there before. This means companies can tailor their websites to you, because they know some
information about you already.