Electric Drives(EE541)

Overview of Power
Electronics
Introduction
• Power Electronics (PE) is the application of semiconductor
devices and circuits involved in the control and processing of
electrical energy.
• Control and processing of electrical energy involves the
changing of parameters such as magnitude and frequency of
voltage and current in a controlled manner.
• This usually involves the use of a control system which can
either be open-loop or closed-loop (refer to your control
systems course).
 iin iout
Power
Source Load
vin Processor vout

Control
signals Measured
values
Controller Reference
values

Block diagram of a power electronic system

• Source
• An electrical energy source such as the grid, a battery, a
solar PV array, etc.
• Power Processor
• A power electronic converter which converts electrical
energy from one form to another.
• The main components of the power processor are
semiconductor devices.
• Other components are passive circuit components such as
resistors, inductors and capacitors.
• Controller
• An electronic circuit which processes signals and controls
the state of the semiconductors in the power processor.
• (A semiconductor device can be either in a conducting
state or a non-conducting state).
• The controller is usually a microprocessor based circuit
which can execute simple or complex control algorithms
required to control the power processor.
• The complexity of the controller depends on the
requirements of the system.
• Most controllers are closed-loop control systems.
• Load
• The load is any device that consumes electrical energy.
• Power electronic loads are usually electrical loads that
require:
a variable supply.
a stable supply (constant voltage regardless of changes
in the grid voltage).
a voltage of a different form from the source voltage
(e.g. a dc motor supplied from an ac source requires a
power converter to change the voltage from ac to dc).
Applications
• Power electronics is used in many applications.
• The main applications are explained below.
• In Electrical Drives
• Power converters are used to vary voltage, current and
frequency as required, to vary the speed of electric
motors.
• Electrical drives are the main application of power
electronics.
• In Power Systems
• In power systems power electronics is used for reactive
power compensation, voltage control, power factor
correction and harmonic filtering.

• In Renewable Energy Systems

• Renewable energy systems mostly generate electrical
energy which is not compatible with the grid.
• Power electronics is used to convert the electrical energy
to a form compatible with the grid.
• In electronic power supplies
• Electronic appliances need a stable dc supply for them to
function correctly.
• This dc supply should be constant regardless of changes in
the grid supply.
• Power electronic converters are used in power supplies to
provide a stable dc from the grid ac voltage, and by using
a closed-loop control system the dc voltage is kept
constant.
Summary of Applications
Linear power supplies. Stand-alone solar photovoltaics.
Switch-mode power supplies Wind energy systems
Uninterruptible Power Supplies Electric vehicles
Variable speed drives Hybrid electric vehicles
Battery chargers Robotics
High-voltage DC Transmission Static Var Compensators (SVC)
Grid-connected Photovoltaics Static Synchronous
Compensators (STATCOM)
 Power Semiconductor Devices
• Power semiconductor devices are the main components in
power electronic converters.
• They are made from semiconductor materials.
• The most common semiconductor material is silicon (Si) which
is doped with boron (B) or phosphorus (P) to make it p-type or
n-type respectively.
• P-type means it has a majority of holes (positive charges).
• N-type means it has a majority of electrons (negative charges)
• Other materials used for power semiconductor devices are
silicon-carbide (SiC) and gallium-nitride (GaN).
• SiC and GaN devices have superior performance to Si devices
and can handle much higher temperatures, and have faster
commutation speeds.
• Commutation speed or switching speed refers to how fast a
device transitions from a conducting state to a non-
conducting state or vice-versa.
• Temperature handling capability is an important
consideration because during their operation the
temperature of the devices increase due to losses dissipated
as heat.
• Power semiconductor devices are similar to signal electronic
semiconductor devices but there are some major differences
between them which include the following:
• Signal electronic devices are physically smaller than power
devices.
• Signal electronic devices have faster commutation speed
than power devices.
• Power devices can handle much higher voltage and
current than signal electronic devices.
• In signal electronics, commutation speed is more important,
while in power electronics, power handling capability is more
important.
• Power semiconductor devices are classified in many different
ways.
• The most common classification is based on their
controllability (i.e. how the control circuit affects the
commutation of the device).
• Based on this classification, there are three main types of
devices.
• Power diodes: - non-controllable devices.
• Thyristors:- partially or fully controllable devices.
• Transistors:- fully controllable devices.
Power Diodes
• This is the simplest power semiconductor device.
• It has two terminals, anode (positive) and cathode
(negative).
• Its commutation cannot be determined by a control circuit,
therefore, it commutates naturally (i.e. when conditions for
its commutation are met by the circuit in which it is
operating).
• Power diodes are used as rectifier diodes and as free-
wheeling diodes.
Photograph of a power diode
 Anode

Anode region P+ 10 microns

Breakdown
Drift region N- voltage dependent

Cathode region N+ 250 microns

Cathode

Structure of a power diode

P+ :- heavily doped P region.
N+ :- heavily dopes N region.
N- :- lightly doped N region
 iD
Anode Cathode

+ vD -

Circuit symbol of a power diode

• A diode conducts when its anode voltage is more positive
than the cathode voltage (forward-biased).
• A diode does not conduct when its anode voltage is more
negative than the cathode voltage (reverse-biased).
• The lightly doped drift region, increases the reverse voltage
handling capability of the diode.
• The voltage-current (v-i) characteristic of a power diode is
given by the Shockley diode equation below.
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝐷 𝑛𝑉𝑇 − 1
• Where
• VD is the diode voltage with the anode positive with respect
to the cathode;
• IS is the leakage (or reverse saturation current), typically 10-6
to 10-15A;
• n is an empirical constant known as emission coefficient or
ideality factor which falls in the range 1.1 to 1.8.
• VT is called thermal voltage and is given by:
𝑘𝑇
𝑉𝑇 =
𝑞
• Where
• q is the electron charge: 𝑞 = 1.602 × 10−19 C ;
• T is the absolute temperature;
• k is the Boltzmann’s constant: 1.3806 × 10−23 J/K.
 i

Forward
biased
region

VBD 0 VTH v
Breakdown Reverse
region biased
region

Power diode v-i characteristics

Forward-biased Region
• In the forward-biased region, the voltage across the diode 𝑉𝐷
is positive.
• The diode current is very small if the diode voltage is below a
specific value 𝑉𝑇𝐻 which is called the threshold voltage, cut-
in voltage or turn-on voltage.
• When 𝑉𝐷 > 𝑉𝑇𝐻 the diode conducts fully.
• In this region, the diode current is given by
𝐼𝐷 ≈ 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑉𝐷 𝑛𝑉𝑇
Reverse-biased Region
• In the reverse biased region, the voltage across the diode is
negative.
• If 𝑉𝐷 is negative and 𝑉𝐷 ≫ 𝑉𝑇𝐻 the exponential term in the
Shockley diode equation becomes negligibly small compared
to one and the diode current ID becomes:
𝐼𝐷 ≈ −𝐼𝑠
• The diode current is thus, constant and equal to the leakage
current.
 Breakdown Region
• In this region the reverse voltage is high and is greater the
breakdown voltage of the diode 𝑉𝐵𝐷.
• In the breakdown region, a small change in reverse voltage
results in a rapid increase in reverse current.
• The operation in the breakdown region will not be destructive,
if the power dissipation is within a safe limit as specified in the
manufacturer’s data sheet.
• However, in most cases operating the diode in the breakdown
region leads to it being destroyed due to high temperature
caused by power dissipation and it is not advisable to operate a
diode in this region.
Thyristors
• Thyristors are a family of 3 or 4 terminal devices.
• They are characterised by very high voltage and current
handling capability.
• Their commutations is slower than other devices.
• The most common type of thyristor is the silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR), and the term thyristor usually refers to the
SCR.
• SCRs are capable of handling up to 20 kV and 10 kA for an
individual device.
Photograph of various SCRs
 Anode

N-

P
N+

Cathode Gate

Structure of an SCR
 Gate
iA iG
Anode Cathode

+ vAK -

Circuit symbol of an SCR

• An SCR has got three terminals, anode (positive), cathode

(negative) and gate (control).
• An SCR conducts when it is forward-biased and a positive
current pulse (with a short duration) is applied to the gate.
• Application of the positive current to the gate is called firing
or triggering.
• For an SCR to stop conducting the anode voltage must
become more negative than the cathode voltage, or the
current must reduce below a value called the latching
current.
• Thus, an SCR can be turned on by a control circuit or firing
circuit but cannot be turned off by a control circuit.
 iA

Forward on-state

IG2>IG1
IL
IBO IG2 IG1 IG=0

VRBD 0 vAK
VFBD
Forward blocking
state

SCR v-i characteristics

• When the thyristor is reverse biased (third quadrant), its
characteristic is similar to that of a reverse-biased diode, and
conducts very little current until breakdown occurs.
• In the forward biased region (first quadrant), the thyristor
has two stable modes of operation, the forward blocking
state and the forward on-state.
• In the forward blocking state the thyristor conducts a very
small current with a high voltage across it.
• In the forward on-state it conducts a high current with a
small voltage drop across it.
• These two states are the switch-mode states of the thyristor
with the forward blocking state being the off-state and the
forward on-state being the on-state of the thyristor switch.
• It should be noted that a thyristor is turned on by the
application of a firing signal to its gate but it cannot be
turned off by removing the firing signal or applying a
negative gate signal.
• It is turned off by reversing the anode-cathode voltage or
making the anode current less than the latching current for a
minimum specified time.
• The current 𝐼𝐿 called the latching current or the holding
current is the minimum current that can flow in the thyristor
and maintain it in the on-state.
• The current 𝐼𝐵𝑂 is the current that corresponds to the
forward breakdown voltage 𝑉𝐹𝐵𝐷 (which is sometimes
termed the break-over voltage 𝑉𝐵𝑂 ).
Other Types of Thyristors
• Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO)
• MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT)
• Static Induction Thyristor (SITH)
• Bidirectional Triode Thyristor (TRIAC)
• Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT)
Power Transistors
• Power transistors are fully controllable devices.
• They are used as “switches” (either ON or OFF).
• This means that their commutation from conducting state to
non-conducting state and vice-versa are both controlled by a
control signal from a control circuit.
• Some types of thyristors (e.g. GTO, IGCT, MSC, SITH) are fully
controllable but they are not power transistors.
• Thyristors generally have very high voltage and current
ratings and have slower commutation than power
transistors.
Power Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• The BJT is the oldest type of power transistor.
• BJTs are made in two types: NPN and PNP with NPN being
more common.
• From the 1950s to the 1980s it was widely used in low to
medium power applications.
• BJTs typically had voltage ratings up to 1000 V and current
ratings up to 1000 A.
• However, from the 1980s the use of BJTs has declined due to
the discovery of better devices such as the MOSFET and the
IGBT.
Structure
• A BJT has got three terminals.
• The positive terminal is called the collector; the negative
terminal is called the emitter; and the control terminal is
called the base.
• It is a current controlled device, meaning a small positive
current is applied to the base to turn it on, and a small
negative current is applied to the base to turn it off.
• It is a minority carrier device (both holes and electrons are
present).
 Base Emitter

10μm N+

5-20μm P
Collector drift
50-200μm N-
region

250μm N+

Collector

Structure of an NPN BJT

 C C
iC iC
+ -
iB iB
B vCE B vCE

- +
E E

(a) (b)

Circuit symbol of (a)NPN BJT (b) PNP BJT

 iC

iB5

iB4
Saturation
region iB3 Active
region
iB2

iB1

0 vCE
Cut-off region

Voltage-current characteristics of NPN BJT

for different values of base current
• A BJT has got three operating regions.
• In the cut-off region it behaves like an open switch (non-
conducting).
• In the saturation region it behaves like a closed switch
(conducting).
• In the active region, it acts as an amplifier.
• In power electronics the BJT is used in its switch-mode, i.e. in
the cut-off region and in the saturation region.
• A sufficiently high base current is needed to turn the BJT
fully on, otherwise, it might go into the active region.
Power MOSFET
• Power Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors
have been available since the early 1980s.
• MOSFETs have very fast commutation speeds and can be
used in high switching frequency converters.
• They have low voltage and current ratings in the range of up
to 500 V and 100 A.
• Thus, they are mostly used in low-power applications such as
switch-mode power supplies, low-power low voltage drives
etc.
Structure
• A MOSFET has got three-terminals.
• The positive terminal is called the drain; the negative
terminal is called the source; and the control terminal is
called the gate.
• There are two types of MOSFETs: N-channel and P-channel,
with N-channel being more common.
• It is a voltage controlled device.
• A positive voltage is applied to the gate to turn the device
on, and a negative voltage is applied to the gate to turn the
device off (opposite for P-channel).
 Gate
conductor Field oxide
Source
Gate oxide

N+ N+ N+ N+
P (Body) P (Body)
Parasitic
N- Drift region Integral diode
BJT
N+

Drain

Structure of N-channel MOSFET

 Drain Drain
iD iD
+ -

vDS vDS
Gate Gate
- +
Source Source

(a) (b)

Circuit symbol of (a) N-channel MOSFET

(b) P-channel MOSFET
 Ohmic region Active region
iD vDS<vGS-VGS(th) vDS>vGS-VGS(th)

vGS5

vGS4

vGS3

vGS2

vGS1

0 BVDSS vDS
vGS<VGS(th)

Voltage-current characteristics of N-channel MOSFET

for different values of gate voltage
• The v-i characteristic of the MOSFET is similar to that of the
BJT.
• Power MOSFETs are operated in the cut-off region (off) and
the ohmic region (on).
• One major disadvantage of MOSFETs is that they have a high
on-state resistance (the resistance when the MOSFET is
conducting).
• This is one reason why MOSFETs have low current ratings.
• Its main advantages are simpler control (voltage control is
easier than current control), and very fast commutation
speed.
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
• The IGBT is a relatively new device developed in the early
1980s.
• It has the metal-oxide gate structure of a MOSFET and the
body structure of a BJT.
• Thus, it combines the advantages of the MOSFET and a BJT.
• Its characteristics are midway between those of a MOSFET
and a BJT.
Structure
• An IGBT has got three terminals.
• The positive terminal is called the collector; the negative
terminal is called the emitter; and the control terminal is
called the gate.
• There are two types of IGBTs: N-channel and P-channel, with
N-channel being more common.
• It is a voltage controlled device.
• A positive voltage is applied to the gate to turn the device
on, and a negative voltage is applied to the gate to turn the
device off (opposite for P-channel).
 Emitter Gate
(Cathode)
SiO2
N+ N+ MOSFET
J1 Source
P
Bipolar
J2 Drain drift region collector
N-

N+ Buffer layer

J3 P+ Injecting layer

Collector
(Anode)

Structure of N-channel IGBT

 Collector Collector
Drift region
resistance iC
PNP
+
MOSFET Gate
vCE
NPN
Gate Body region
spreading -
resistance

Emitter
Emitter

(a) (b)

(a) Equivalent circuit of N-channel IGBT

(b) Circuit symbol of N-channel IGBT
 iC
vGE5

vGE4

vGE3

vGE2

vGE1
VRM
0 BVCES vCE

Voltage-current characteristics of N-channel IGBT for

different values of gate voltage
• The v-i characteristic of the IGBT is similar to that of the BJT.
• IGBTs are operated in the cut-off region (off) and the
saturation region (on).
• Like MOSFETs they are voltage controlled.
• Therefore, they are easy to control.
• Like BJTs they are minority carrier devices.
• Therefore, they have a low on-state resistance.
• Their commutation speed is slower than MOSFETs but faster
than BJTs.
• IGBTs are widely used in medium to high power applications.
Summary of Devices
Device Power Capability Switching Speed

BJT/MD Medium (1000V/250A) Medium (10μs)

MOSFET Low (500V/40A) Fast (Less than 0.5μs)

GTO High (6000V/1200A) Slow (25μs)

IGBT Medium (6000V/600A) Fast (Less than 1μs)

MCT Medium (3000V/600A) Medium (10μs)

 Power Converters
• Power converters are the circuits that employ power
semiconductor devices to converter electrical energy from
one form to another.
• Converters range from a few watts (electronic power
supplies) to thousands of megawatts (converters for high-
voltage DC transmission and FACTS).
• Converters range from simple diode rectifiers requiring no
control system to more complex systems requiring closed-
loop controllers.
Classification of Converters
• There are many different types of converters and different
ways of classifying them.
• Some common methods of classifying converters are:
• Based on the type of devices used in the converter.
• Based on the commutation of the devices in the
converter.
• Based on the input and output of the converter.
Based on the Type of Devices
• The converter is classified based on the type of
semiconductor devices used.
• Thus, if a converter uses diodes it is called a diode converter,
if it uses thyristors, it is called a thyristor converter, if it uses
IGBTs it is called an IGBT converter etc.
• This classification does not give information about the input
and output.
Based on Commutation
• The converter is classified based on how the semiconductors
are turned on and off.
• Under this classification we have:
1. Line-commutated converters
• In these converters the commutation is facilitated by the
line voltage (AC voltage).
• As the voltage changes polarity, the devices change state.
• They use diodes or thyristors.
2. Forced-commutated converters
• In these converters the commutation of the devices is
facilitated by a control circuit.
• Thus, the devices must be fully controllable.
• Examples of fully controllable devices are MOSFETs and
IGBTs.
3. Resonant Converters
• These are similar to forced-commutated converters, but
switching takes place when there is zero-voltage or zero-
current.
Based on Input and Output
• This classification is based on the form of the input
voltage/current and the output voltage/current of the
converter.
• This is the most common and easiest classification of
converters.
• Under this classification, there are the following types of
converters.
1. AC to DC Converters
• Also called rectifiers.
• Their input is AC and the output is DC.
• There are three types of rectifiers:
a. Diode rectifiers (uncontrolled rectifiers)
• Simplest type using diodes.
b. Thyristor rectifiers (phase-controlled rectifiers).
• Line-commutated converters using thyristors (SCRs).
c. Forced-commutated rectifiers (active rectifiers)
• Most complex but best performing type using IGBTs or
MOSFETs.
2. DC to DC Converters
• Also called choppers.
• Their input is DC and the output is DC.
• They are forced-commutated (switch-mode) converters.
• They are differentiated by the number of active devices
used, or by the magnitude of the output relative to the
input.
• They include step-down (buck), step-up(boost), step-
down/step-up (buck-boost), two-quadrant, four-quadrant
converters etc.
3. DC to AC Converters
• Also called inverters.
• Their input is DC and the output is AC.
• They are mostly forced-commutated converters.
• Previously, high power inverters used to be line-commutated
(using thyristors)
• The two main types are voltage-source inverter (VSI) and
current-source inverter (CSI).
4. AC to AC Converters
• Their input is AC and the output is AC.
• They are forced-commutated or line-commutated
converters.
• They include phase-controlled controllers (line-
commutated), cycloconverters (line-commutated) and matrix
converters (forced-commutated).