مدونة التصميم الهندسي للطرق

Highway Geometric Design Code
CHAPTER TITLES PAGE
CHAPTER 1: FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS 1/1
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN VEHICLES, DRIVERS, AND PEDESTRIAN

CHARACTERISTICS 2/1
CHAPTER 3: TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS 3/1
CHAPTER 4: SIGHT DISTANCES 4/1
CHAPTER 5: HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 5/1
CHAPTER 6: VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 6/1
CHAPTER 7: CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS 7/1
CHAPTER 8: GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR DIFFERENT

HIGHWAY CLASSES AND PARKING FACILITIES
8/1
CHAPTER 9: AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS 9/1
CHAPTER 10: GRADE SEPARATIONS AND INTERCHANGES 10/1
CHAPTER 11: TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES 11/1
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HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN CODE
CONTENTS PAGE
CHAPTER 1: FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS
1-1 General Definitions 1/1

1-2 Functional Classification as a Design Type 1/2
1-2/1 Local Rural Roads and Urban Streets 1/2
1-2/2 Collectors (Rural and Urban) 1/2
1-2/3 Minor Arterials (Rural and Urban) 1/2
1-2/4 Freeways and Expressways 1/2
1-3 Highway Network in Iraq 1/4
1-3/1 General Rural Highways in Iraq 1/4
1-3/2 Road Lengths Between Main Cities 1/4
1-3/3 Typical Urban Highway Systems, (Baghdad City) 1/4
1-4 References 1/9
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN VEHICLES, DRIVERS, AND PEDESTRIAN
CHARACTERISTICS
2-1 Vehicles 2/1
2-1/1 Design Vehicle Dimensions 2/1
2-1/2 General Guide for Selection of Design Vehicle 2/4
2-1/3 Minimum Turning Paths of Design Vehicle 2/4
2-1/4 Max. Axle Loads and Gross Weights of Trucks 2/11
2-1/5 Passenger Car Unit Equivalents 2/14
2-1/6 Resistances Acting on a Vehicle in Motion 2/15
2-1/7 Acceleration and Deceleration Performance of Vehicles 2/17
2-2 Drivers 2/19
2-2/1 General Drivers Characteristics 2/19
2-2/2 Driver Perception-Reaction Time Performance 2/19
2-3 Pedestrians 2/21
2-3/1 Pedestrian Characteristics 2/21
2-3/2 Level of Service for Pedestrian Walkways 2/22
2-3/3 Pedestrian Crossings 2/24
2-4 References 2/24
CHAPTER 3: TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
3-1 Traffic Volume 3/1

3-1/1 Current Annual Average Daily Traffic 3/1
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3-1/2 Projection of Future Traffic Demands 3/1
3-1/3 Design Hourly Volume 3/1
3-2 Traffic Composition and Directional Distribution 3/2
3-3 Speed 3/3
3-3/1 Spot Speed 3/3
3-3/2 Overall Travel Speed 3/4
3-3/3 Running (Operating) Speed 3/4
3-3/4 Design Speed 3/4
3-4 Traffic Flow 3/5
3-4/1 Peak Flow Rate and Peak Hour Factor 3/5
3-4/2 Traffic Density, Spacing, and Time Headway 3/6
3-4/3 Traffic Volume-Speed-Density Relationships 3/6
3-5 Highway Capacity 3/8
3-5/1 Highway Capacity as a Design Control 3/8
3-5/2 Levels of Service 3/8
3-5/3 Design Service Flow Rate for Highways 3/9
3-6 References 3/14
CHAPTER 4: SIGHT DISTANCES
4-1 Stopping Sight Distance 4/1
4-1/1 Perception Reaction Distance 4/1
4-1/2 Braking Distance on Level Roadway 4/1
4-1/3 Braking Distance on a Grade 4/2
4-1/4 Deign Values of Stopping Sight Distance 4/2
4-2 Decision Sight Distance 4/4
4-2/1 Distances where a (Stop) is the Appropriate Avoidance Maneuver 4/4
4-2/2 Distances where (Speed, Path, and Direction) Change is the
4/4
Appropriate Avoidance Maneuver
4-2/3 Design Values of Decision Sight Distance 4/4
4-3 Passing Sight Distance 4/6
4-3/1 Elements of Passing Sight Distance 4/6
4-3/2 General Equation of Total Passing Sight Distance 4/6
4-3/3 Design Values of Passing Sight Distance 4/7
4-4 Criteria for Measuring Sight Distances 4/8
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4-5 References 4/9
CHAPTER 5: HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
5-1 Horizontal Circular Curves 5/1
5-1/1 Minimum Radius of Circular Curves 5/1
5-1/2 Maximum Superelevation rates 5/4
5-1/3 Side Friction Factors 5/4
5-1/4 Compound Circular Curves for Ramps and Intersections 5/4
5-2 Spiral Curve Transitions 5/4
5-2/1 Details of Spiral Compounded with Circular Curve 5/6
5-2/2 Maximum Radius for Use of a Spiral Curve Transition 5/6
5-2/3 Minimum Length of Spiral Curve 5/6
5-2/4 Maximum Length of Spiral Curve 5/8
5-2/5 Desirable Length of Spiral Curve 5/8
5-3 Superelevation on Curves 5/10
5-3/1 Methods of Attaining Superelevation 5/10
5-3/2 Minimum Length of Superelevation Runoff (Tangent-To-Curve
5/10
Transition Design)
5-3/3 Minimum Length of Tangent Runout (Tangent-To-Curve Transition 5/12
Design)
5-3/4 Length of Superelevation Runoff and Tangent Runout for Spiral- 5/15
Curve Transition
5-4 Widening on Horizontal Curves 5/16
5-4/1 Design Values of Traveled Way Widening 5/16
5-4/2 Application of Widening on Curves 5/20
5-5 Design Widths for Turning Roadways or Ramps at Intersections 5/20
5-6 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 5/23
5-7 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment 5/25
5-8 References 5/25
CHAPTER 6: VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
6-1 Control Grades for Design 6/1
6-1/1 Maximum Grades 6/1
6-1/2 Minimum Grades 6/1
6-1/3 Critical Length of Upgrade 6/3
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6-2 Added Lanes and Turnouts on Two-Lane Highways 6/3
6-2/1 Climbing Lanes 6/3
6-2/2 Passing Lanes 6/5
6-2/3 Turnouts 6/6
6-3 Emergency Escape Ramps 6/7
6-4 Vertical Parabolic Curves (Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical) 6/10
6-5 Minimum Lengths of Crest Vertical Curves 6/11
6-5/1 Minimum Lengths to Provide Stopping Sight Distance 6/14
6-5/2 Design Rate of Vertical Curvature of Crest Curves to Provide Safe 6/14
Stopping
6-5/3 Minimum Lengths to Provide Passing Sight Distance 6/14
6-5/4 Design Rate of Vertical Curvature of Crest Curves to Provide Safe 6/15
Passing
6-6 Minimum Lengths of Sag Vertical Curves 6/16
6-6/1 Safety Criteria (Headlight Sight Distance) 6/16
6-6/2 Design Rate of Vertical Curvature of Sag Curves 6/17
6-6/3 Comfort Criteria 6/18
6-6/4 General Appearance Criteria 6/18
6-6/5 Drainage Control Criteria 6/19
6-7 Minimum Lengths of Sag Vertical Curves Undercrossing a Grade 6/19
Separation Structure
6-8 General Controls for Vertical Alignment 6/19
6-9 General Design Controls for Combinations of Horizontal Alignment 6/21
and Profile
6-10 References 6/23
CHAPTER 7: CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
7-1 Lane Width and Marginal Strip 7/1
7-2 Cross Slope 7/1
7-3 Shoulders 7/2
7-4 Medians 7/3
7-5 Side Slopes 7/3
7-6 Drainage Channels 7/3
7-7 Curbs and Gutters 7/5
7-8 Sidewalks 7/6
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CONTENTS PAGE
7-9 Bikeways 7/6
7-10 Right-of-Way 7/8
7-11 Horizontal and Vertical Clearances 7/8
7-12 On – Street Parking 7/11
7-13 Longitudinal Barriers and Crash Cushions 7/11
7-14 Bus stop Turnouts 7/15
7-15 Typical Cross Sections 7/16
7-15/1 Two-Lane Rural Highways 7/16
7-15/2 Four -Lane Rural Highways 7/16
7-15/3 Six-Lane Rural Highways 7/16
7-15/4 Four-Lane Urban Streets 7/17
7-15/5 Overpassing Bridges 7/17
7-15/6 Interchange Ramp (Turning Roadway) 7/17
7-15/7 Tunnels 7/17
7-16 Utilities 7/21
CHAPTER 8: GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR DIFFERENT
HIGHWAY CLASSES AND PARKING FACILITIES
8-1 Local Rural Roads 8/1
8-1/1 Selected Design Speed 8/1
8-2 Local Urban Streets 8/2
8-2/2 Maximum and Minimum Grades 8/2
8-2/3 Cul-de-Sacs and Turnarounds 8/2
8-2/4 Minimum Levels of Illumination 8/2
8-3 Rural Collector Highways 8/4
8-4 Urban Collector Streets 8/5
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8-5 Rural Arterials 8/6
8-5/3 Typical Medians on Divided Arterials 8/6
8-5/4 Attaining Superelevated Cross Sections for Divided Arterials 8/7
8-5/5 Cross Sectional Arrangements for Divided Arterials 8/7
8-6 Urban Arterials 8/9
8-7 Freeways 8/9
8-7/3 Typical Rural Freeway Medians 8/9
8-7/4 Cross Sections for Depressed Urban Freeways 8/11
8-7/5 Cross Sections for Elevated Urban Freeways 8/11
8-7/6 Cross Sections for Ground-Level Urban Freeways 8/13
8-7/7 Cross Sections for Combination-Type Urban Freeways 8/13
8-8 Off – Street Parking Facilities 8/15
8-8/1 Location of Parking Lots and Garages 8/15
8-8/2 General Design Criteria of Parking Garages 8/15
8-8/3 Parking Stall layout at Various Angles 8/16
8-9 References 8/17
CHAPTER 9: AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS
9-1 Basic Types of At-Grade Intersections 9/1
9-1/1 Three-Leg 9/1
9-1/2 Four-Leg 9/2
9-1/3 Multileg 9/2
9-1/4 Roundabouts 9/3
9-2 Island Details 9/6
9-3 Minimum Turning Roadway Design with Corner Islands and 9/12
Different Angle Turns
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CONTENTS PAGE
9-4 Development of Superelevation at Turning Roadway Terminals 9/25
9-5 Clear Sight Triangles 9/30

9-6 Design of Median Openings 9/34
9-7 Auxiliary Lane Lengths for Turning Vehicles 9/39
9-7/1 Entering Taper 9/39
9-7/2 Deceleration Length 9/41
9-7/3 Storage Length 9/41
9-8 Minimum Design of U-Turns 9/41
9-9 Railroad-Highway Grade Crossings 9/43
9-10 Signalized Intersection 9/45
9-10/1 Measure of Effectiveness 9/45
9-10/2 Traffic Operations Elements 9/45
9-10/3 Operational Analysis 9/46
CHAPTER 10: GRADE SEPARATIONS AND INTERCHANGES
10-1 General Interchange Configurations 10/1
10-1/1 Three-Leg Trumpet and Directional Interchanges 10/1
10-1/2 Diamond Interchanges 10/3
10-1/3 Single-Point Urban Interchanges 10/3
10-1/4 Rotary Interchanges 10/6
10-1/5 One-Quadrant Interchanges 10/6
10-1/6 Partial and Full Cloverleaf Interchanges 10/7
10-1/7 All Directional and Semi-directional Interchanges 10/7
10-2 Freeway Interchanges with other Highway Classes 10/10
10-3 Grade Separation Structures 10/10
10-4 Longitudinal Distance to Attain Grade Separation 10/11
10-5 Effective Distance of Auxiliary Lanes 10/12
10-6 Design Speed and Grades for Ramps 10/13
10-7 Development of Superelevation at Ramp Terminals 10/13
10-8 Recommended Minimum Ramp Terminal Spacing 10/15
10-9 Minimum Acceleration Lengths of Speed-Change Lanes (Single 10/16
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CONTENTS PAGE
Lane, Entrance Ramp)
10-10 Minimum Deceleration Lengths of Speed-Change Lanes (Single 10/18
Lane, Exit Ramp)
10-11 Typical Two-Lane Entrance and Exit Ramp Terminals 10/19
CHAPTER 11: TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

11-1 Traffic Control Signals 11/1
11-1/1 Types of Traffic Control Signals 11/1
11-1/1/1 Pretimed Control 11/1
11-1/1/2 Traffic-Actuated Control 11/1
11-1/2 Traffic Control Signal Features 11/2
11-1/2/1 Signal Indication 11/2
11-1/2/2 Size and Design of Lenses 11/4
11-1/2/3 Sequence of Indication 11/6
11-1/2/4 Illumination of Lenses 11/10
11-1/2/5 Visibility and Shielding of Signal Faces 11/10
11-1/2/6 Number and Location of Signal Faces 11/11
11-1/2/7 Height of Signal Faces 11/13
11-1/2/8 Yellow Change and Red Clearance Interval 11/15
11-1/2/9 Coordination of Signals 11/16
11-1/2/10 Flash Operation of Signal 11/17
11-1/3 Conditions that Warrant the Installation of a Traffic Signal 11/17
11-1/4 Pedestrian control Signals 11/22
11-1/4/1 Pedestrian Signal Head Indications 11/22
11-1/4/2 Pedestrian Signal Phases and Interval Time 11/24
11-1/4/3 Location and Height of Pedestrian Signal Heads 11/24
11-1/5 Flashing Beacons 11/25
11-1/5/1 Warning Beacon 11/25
11-1/5/2 Intersection Control Beacon 11/25
11-1/5/3 Stop Beacon 11/26
11-1/5/4 Speed Limit Beacon 11/26
11-2 Traffic Signs 11/27
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CONTENTS PAGE
11-2/1 Traffic Signs Characteristics 11/27
11-2/1/1 Function and Purpose of Signs 11/27
11-2/1/2 Sign Shapes 11/27
11-2/1/3 Sign Colours 11/28
11-2/1/4 Sign Boarder 11/28
11-2/1/5 Retroreflection and Illumination 11/28
11-2/1/6 Sign Dimensions 11/28
11-2/2 Traffic Signs Placement 11/30
11-2/2/1 Mounting Height 11/30
11-2/2/2 Lateral Offset 11/30
11-2/2/3 Longitudinal Placement 11/33
11-2/2/4 Overhead Sign Installation 11/33
11-2/2/5 Orientation Angle 11/34
11-2/2/6 Post and Mounting 11/34
11-2/3 Regularity Signs 11/36
11-2/3/1 Control Signs 11/36
11-2/3/2 Mandatory Signs 11/38
11-2/3/3 Prohibitory Signs 11/41
11-2/3/4 Parking Control Signs 11/45
11-2/4 Warning Signs 11/47
11-2/4/1 Advanced Warning Signs 11/47
11-2/4/2 Hazard Marker Signs 11/52
11-2/4/3 Diagrammatic Signs 11/54
11-2/4/4 High Vehicle Warning Signs 11/55
11-2/5 Guide Signs 11/55
11-2/5/1 Destination Signs 11/55
11-2/5/2 Distance Signs 11/57
11-2/5/3 Information Signs 11/57
11-2/5/4 General Standards for Guide Signs 11/59
11-2/5/4/1 Language and Letter Style 11/59
11-2/5/4/2 Size of Lettering 11/60
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11-2/5/4/3 Sign Boarder 11/62
11-2/5/4/4 Arrows 11/62
11- 3 Road Marking 11/63
11-3/1 Colour, Code and Material 11/63
11-3/2 Longitudinal Lines for Pavement Marking 11/64
11-3/2/1 Center Line 11/64
11-3/2/2 Lane Line 11/65
11-3/2/3 Edge Line 11/66
11-3/2/4 No Passing Line 11/67
11-3/2/5 Safety Line 11/69
11-3/3 Transverse Lines for Pavement Marking 11/70
11-3/3/1 Stop Line 11/70
11-3/3/2 Pedestrian Crossing Lines 11/71
11-3/3/3 Give Way Lines 11/71
11-3/4 Other Pavement Marking 11/72
11-3/4/1 No Overtaking Area 11/72
11-3/4/2 Arrows Marking 11/73
11-3/4/3 Words and Numerals 11/77
11-3/4/4 Approaches to Railway Crossing 11/79
11-3/4/5 Speed Hump Marking 11/80
11-3/4/6 Object Marker 11/81
11-3/4/7 Parking Marking 11/85
11-3/4/8 Raised Pavement Markers 11/86
11-3/4/9 Continuity Marking 11/87
11-3/5 Curb Painting 11/88
11-3/6 Delineators 11/89
11-3/7 Barricades and Channelization Devices 11/91
11-3/8 Control Devices Used in Work Zones 11/92
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CHAPTER1
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS
1-1 GENERAL DEFINITIONS

The definitions for specific terms used frequently in conjunction with highway
improvements are listed: [2, p.629]
 Highway, Street, or Road- A general term denoting a public way for purposes of
vehicular travel, including the entire area within the right-of- way. (Recommended usage:
In urban areas – highway or street In rural areas – highway or road)
o Urban Areas: Places within boundaries, having a population of 5000 or more.
o Rural Areas: Areas outside the boundaries of urban areas
 Roadway: The portion of a highway, including shoulders, for vehicular use. A divided
highway has two or more roadways.
 Traveled way: The Portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of
shoulders and auxiliary lanes.
 Arterial highway: A general term denoting a highway primarily for through traffic,
usually on a continuous route.
 Expressway: A divided arterial highway for through traffic with full or partial control of
access and generally with grade separations at intersections.
 Freeway: An Expressway with full control of access.
o Control of access- The condition where the right of owners or occupants of
abutting land or other persons to access, light, air, or view in connection with a
highway, is fully or partially controlled by public authority.
o Full control of access means that the authority to control access is exercised to
give preference to through traffic by providing access connections with selected
public roads only and by prohibiting crossings at grade or direct driveway
connections.
o Partial control of access means that the authority to control access is exercised to
give preference to through traffic to a degree that, in addition to access
connections with selected public roads, there may be some crossings at grade and
some private driveway connection.
 Local street or Local road: A street or road primarily for access to residence, business,
or other abutting property.
 Frontage street or Frontage road: A local street or road auxiliary to and located on the
side of an arterial highway for service to abutting property and adjacent areas and for
control of access.
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 Cul-de- sac street: A local street open at one end only and with special provision for
turning around.
 Dead – end street: A local street open at one end only without special provision for
turning around.
1-2 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION AS A DESIGN TYPE

Functional classification of highways based on geometric features, is the most helpful
approach for highway planning, location, and design; taking into consideration land access and
travel mobility for the desired level as service [1,p.1-8].
The functional systems consist of local roads and streets, collectors, minor and principal
arterials.
1-2/1 LOCAL RURAL ROADS AND URBAN STREETS

Local roads and Streets emphasize the land (Property) access function, with short trip
lengths, lower operating speed and lower level of service.
1-2/2 COLLECTORS (RURAL AND URBAN)

The Collectors offer balanced service for both land access and mobility, with
intermediate operating speed and level of service. They collect traffic from local system and
channels it into arterials.
1-2/3 MINOR ARTERIALS (RURAL AND URBAN)

Minor Arterials or Distributors emphasize a high proportion of mobility for through
movement, with longer trip length, high operation speed and level of service.
1-2/4 FREEWAYS AND EXPRESSWAYS

They are considered as (Principal Arterials) for main trip movements, with higher
operating speed and higher level of service.
The relationship of functionally classified system of highways, in serving land access and travel
mobility is shown in figure (1-2/1).
Access management calls for coordinating the planning and design of highway and its
surrounding activities to preserve the capacity of the overall system, and to allow efficient and
safe access to and from the activities [1,p.2-71].
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Figure 1-2/1: Relationship of Functionally Classified Systems in Serving Traffic Mobility
and Land Access [1, p. 1-7]
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1-3 HIGHWAY NETWORK IN IRAQ
1-3/1 GENERAL RURAL HIGHWAYS IN IRAQ
The rural highways connecting the (18) provinces in Iraq, with an approximate total
length of (45) thousand kilometers, are shown in figure (1-3/1).
Among the most distinguished highways is Iraq Expressway No. 1, with a length of about (1200)
km, connecting the borders with Syria, Jordan, and Kuwait, as shown in figure (1-3/2).
1-3/2 ROAD LENGTHS BETWEEN MAIN CITIES

The detailed lengths of roads between the main cities of the (18) provinces in Iraq are
shown in table (1-3/1).
1-3/3 TYPICAL URBAN HIGHWAY SYSTEMS, (BAGHDAD CITY)

The current and recommended highway networks in Baghdad city, together with the
suggested designs of Baghdad underground Metro, and Railway loop line, as presented in the
comprehensive Transportation Study for Baghdad City, by Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick & Partners,
1986, are shown in figure (1-3/3).
The designs need to be updated in accordance with current demographic and socio-economic
data.
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Figure 1-3/1: Roads Map of Iraq [4]
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Figure 1-3/2: Iraq Expressway No.1 [3, P.4]
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Table 1-3/1: Roads Lengths (km) Between Main Cities [4]
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Figure 1-3/3: Recommended Highway Network for Baghdad (1986) [5]
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1-4 REFERENCES
[1] AASHTO, "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets", American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, USA, 2011.
[2] AASHO, "A Policy on Geometric Design of Rural Highways", American Association of State
Highway Officials, USA, 1961.
[3] State Corporation of Roads & Bridges, "Guide of Rural Roads in Iraq", 2001.
[4] State Corporation of Roads & Bridges, "Roads Map of Iraq", 2007.
[5] Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick & Partners, "Baghdad Comprehensive Transportation Study",
Amanat Al- Assima, Baghdad, 1986).
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CHAPTER 2
DESIGN VEHICLES, DRIVERS, AND PEDESTRIAN

CHARACTERISTICS
2-1 VEHICLES
Among the main factors affecting highway geometric design, are the physical properties
and proportions of different vehicles. From each general class groupings, a selected design
vehicle is accommodated with representative weight, dimensions, turning radius, and operating
characteristics.
2-1/1 DESIGN VEHICLE DIMENSIONS

Design Vehicles are usually grouped into general classes of Passenger Cars, Buses,
Single-Unit Trucks, Combination Trucks, and Recreational Vehicles. The maximum design
vehicle dimensions for the main vehicle types are shown in table (2-1/1).
The dimensions of (20) design vehicles given by AASHTO Policy [1, p.2-3] are shown in table
(2-1/2).
Table 2-1/1: Maximum Dimension for the Main Vehicle Types
Maximum Dimensions, Meters

Design Vehicle Type
Width Height Length
 Passenger Cars 2.13 1.30 5.79
 Buses 2.44-2.59 3.20-3.66 10.91-18.29
 Single- Unit Trucks 2.44 3.35-4.11 9.14-12.04
 Semitrailer/ Trailer
2.44-2.59 4.11 13.87-34.75
Combinations
 Recreational Vehicles 2.44 3.05-3.66 9.14-16.15
Figure (2-1/1) shows silhouettes of most basic commercial vehicle types in regular operation as
designated by axle arrangement code. The first digit indicates the number of axles of the truck or
truck- tractor. The letter "S" indicates a semitrailer, and the digit immediately following an "S"
indicates the number of axles on the semitrailer. Any digit, other than the first in a combination,
when not preceded by an "S" indicates a trailer and the number of its axles. For instance, a 2-S2
combination is a two – axle truck – tractor with a tandem – axle semitrailer. A 3-S1-2
combination is a three- axle, truck – tractor with tandem rear axles, a semitrailer with a single
axle, and a trailer with two axles. [2, p.7]
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Table 2-1/2: Design Vehicles Dimensions (SI Units) [1, p.2-3]
2/2
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IQ.B.C. 103/8
Figure 2-1/1: Common commercial vehicles types as designed by code based on axle
arrangement [2, p.8]
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2-1/2 General Guide for Selection of Design Vehicle
Design Vehicles: Selected Vehicles, with representative dimensions, weight, and
operating characteristics, used to establish highway design controls for accommodating vehicles
of designated classes [1, p. 2-1].
For geometric design of highways, each design vehicle has larger physical dimensions and a
larger minimum turning radius than most vehicles in its class.
As a general guide, the following may be considered when selecting a design vehicle:
 When the main traffic generator is parking lots, a passenger car may be selected.
 For the design of intersections that mainly serve bus traffic, a city transit bus may be
selected.
 For intersection design of residential streets, a single- unit truck may be selected.
 For high volume highways, and for intersections of expressway ramps with arterial
crossroads, the WB-20 semitrailer truck should be considered as the minimum size
design vehicle.
The selection of a (design vehicle), whose characteristics will encompass nearly all vehicles
expected to use the highway, is used to determine criteria for geometric design, intersection
design and sight distance requirements. [3, p.63]
2-1/3 Minimum Turning Paths of Design Vehicle

The minimum design turning radii of the different design vehicles are shown in table
(2-1/3) together with the centerline and inside turning radius.
Figures (2-1/2) through (2-1/11) present the minimum turning paths for 10 selected design
vehicles [1, p.2-5].
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Table 2-1/3: Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles [1, p.2-6]
Single- Conven- Inter-

Large
Design Pas- Single- Unit tional Articu- mediate
Intercity Bus City Tran- School
Vehicle senger. Unit Truck School lated Semi-
(Motor Coach) sit Bus Bus (84
Type Car Truck (Three Bus (65 Bus trailer
pass.)
Axle) pass.)
Symbol P SU-9 SU-12 BUS-12 BUS-14 CITY-BUS S-BUS11 S-BUS12 A-BUS WB-12
Minimum
Design 11.92
7:26 12.73 15.60 12.70 13.40 12.80 11.75 12.00 12.16
Turning
Radius (m)
Center-
Line
Turning 6.40 11.58 14.46 11.53 12.25 11.52 10.64 10.79 10.82 10.97
Radius
(CTR) (m)
Minimum
Inside 4.39 8.64 11.09 7.41 7.54 7.45 7.25 7.71 6.49 5.88
Radius (m)
"Double Turnpike
Triple Car Motor
Design Bottom" Rocky Double Car and
Interstate Semi- Semi- Motor and Home
Vehicle Combina Mtn Semi- Camper
trailer trailer/ Home Boat and Boat
Type - tion Double trailer / Trailer
trailers Trailer Trailer
trailer
Symbol WB-19 W8-20 WB-20D WB-28D WB-30T WB-33D MH P/T P/B MH/B
Minimum
Design
13.65 13.66 13.67 24.98 13.67 18.25 12.11 10.03 7.26 15.19
Turning
Radius (m)
Center-
Line
Turning 12.50 12.50 12.47 23..77 12.47 17.04 10.97 9.14 6.40 14.02
Radius
(CTR) (m)
Minimum
Inside 2.25 0.59 5.83 16.94 2.96 4.19 7.92 5.58 2.44 10.67
Radius (m)
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/5

Figure 2-1/2: Minimum Turning Path for Passenger Car (p) Design Vehicles [1, p.2-10]
Figure 2-1/3: Minimum Turning Path for single-Units Truck [SU-12] Design Vehicles
[1, p.2-12]
2/6 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
Figure 2-1/4: Minimum Turning Path for Intercity Bus [Bus-14] Design Vehicles [1, p.2-14]
Figure 2-1/5: Minimum Turning Path for Articulated Bus [A-Bus] Design Vehicles
[1, p.2-18]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/7
Figure 2-1/6: Minimum Turning Path for Interstate Semitrailer [WB 20] [1, p.2-24]
Figure 2-1/7: Minimum Turning Path for Double –Trailer Combination [WB20D]
[1, p.2-25]
2/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 2-1/8: Minimum Turning Path for Rocky Mountain Double-Trailer Combination
[WB-28D] [1, p.2-26]
Figure 2-1/9: Minimum Turning Path for Triple – Semi Trailer Combination [WB-30T]
[1, p.2-27]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/9
Figure 2-1/10: Minimum Turning Path for Turnpike-Double Combination [WB-33D]
Design Vehicles [1, p.2-28]
Figure 2-1/11: Minimum Turning Path for Motor Home and Boat Trailer [MH/B] Design
Vehicle [1, p.2-32]
2/10 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
2-1/4 Maximum Axle Loads and Gross Weights of Trucks
The axle weights of vehicles expected on the highway are considered for structural
pavement design and maximum grades selection. The legal axle loads permitted on highways in
Iraq are given for four axle types are shown table (2-1/4).
Table 2-1/4: Legal Axle Loads Permitted on Highways in Iraq
Axle Type Max. Axle Load [3]

(Metric Tons)
 Front Single Axle 7
 Rear Single Axle 13
 Tandem Axle 20
 Tridem Axle 27
The Legal gross weights of single- unit trucks and semitrailer/ trailer combinations
permitted in regular operation in Iraq are shown in figure (2-1/12) for 10 types of heavy vehicles.
The heaviest vehicle (Type 3-S1-2) has a maximum gross weight of 66 tons.
In the AASHTO Guide for vehicle weights and dimensions [2- p.10], the total maximum gross
weight imposed on the highway by the wheels of a vehicle has been given shown table (2-1/5):
Table 2-1/5: Total Maximum Gross Weight Imposed on the Highway
Axle Type Max. Axle Gross Weight, W

Single- Axle 9.07 Tons
Tandem –Axle 15.42 Tons
Group of Two of more Consecutive Axles W= 0.745 (L.N / N-1) + 2.724N+ 8.171
Where
W= Max. gross weight on the axle group (Tons)
L= Distance (meters) between the extremes, of the axles group.
N= Number of axles in the group.
The Maximum Permissible Vehicle Gross Weight imposed on the highway by a vehicle or
combination of vehicles with two or more consecutive axles should be determined by the
application of the maximum permissible axle group weights, formula (W). (Exception: Two
consecutive sets of tandem axles may carry a gross load of (15.420 kg) each providing the
overall distance between the first and last axles of such consecutive sets of tandem axles is
(10.97m) or more.
For the structural design of flexible pavements the typical load equivalency factors are shown in
table (2-1/6) for different axles.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/11

Figure 2-1/12: Legal Axle and Gross Weights Permitted on Motor Vehicles in Regular
Operation in Iraq [3]
2/12 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
Table 2-1/6: Typical Load-Equivalency Factors [4, p.444]
Gross Axle Load

(kN) Single Axle Tandem Axles Trident Axles
26.7 0.01043 0.001 0.0003
44.5 0.087 0.007 0.002
53.4 0.189 0.014 0.003
62.3 0.360 0.027 0.006
71.2 0.623 0.047 0.011
80.0 1000 0.077 0.017
89.0 1.51 0.121 0.027
97.9 2.18 0.180 0.040
106.8 3.03 0.260 0.057
115.6 4.09 0.364 0.080
133.4 6.97 0.658 0.145
151.2 11.18 1.095 0.246
178.0 21.08 2.08 0.487
222.4 52.88 4.86 1.22
267.0 9.59 2.51
311.5 17.19 4.52
356.0 29.0 7.45
400.3 46.8 11.6
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/13

2-1/5 Passenger Car Unit Equivalents
Vehicles of different sizes and weights have different operating characteristics that should be
considered in geometric design of highways. For uninterrupted traffic Flow, the various vehicles
affecting operation, can be grouped into two general classes:
 Passenger Cars, including pick-up trucks and vans.
 Trucks, including buses, single-unit trucks, combination trucks, and recreational vehicles.
Trucks are normally defined as those vehicles having manufacturers gross vehicle weight
of 4 tons or more, having dual tires on at least one rear axle.
The number of equivalent passenger cars equaling the effect on traffic operation of one truck
(Passenger Car Unit Equivalent) is dependent on the roadway gradient or terrain.
The passenger car unit equivalents (PCU), for different vehicles as given by HCM 2000 [6], on
general highway segments of multilane highways and basic freeway sections are shown in table
(2-1/7) [6, p.452]:
Table 2-1/7: Passenger Car Unit Equivalents (PCU) for Different Vehicles
Type of Terrain
Vehicle Type
Level Rolling Mountainous
 Trucks & Buses 1.5 2.5 4.5
 Recreational 1.2 2.0 4.0
The PCU equivalents used by SCRB since 1982 are shown n table (2-1/8) [7, p.1-24]:
Table 2-1/8: Passenger Car Unit Equivalents (PCU) Used By SCRB
Type of Terrain
Vehicle Type
Level Rolling Mountainous
 Passenger Cars 1.00 1.00 1.00
 Buses up to 24 passengers 1.25 1.75 3.00
 Buses above 24 passengers 2.00 3.00 6.00
 Trucks & Trailer combination 3.00 5.00 10.00
The PCU values on upgrades are shown in tables (3-5/6) and (3-5/7), for Trucks / Buses and
Recreational vehicles respectively.
2/14 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

2-1/6 Resistances Acting on a Vehicle in Motion
Forces that act on a vehicle in motion, to affect the vehicle speed, include: engine power,
braking – resistance, and tractive- resistance forces. Tractive resistance may include:
 Inertial resistance: force that maintains vehicle in motion,(Mass x Acceleration)
 Gradient resistance: force needed to move the vehicle through a given vertical distance
(due to the effect of gravity). For each 1% grade, the gradient resistance is 10 kg./1000
kg. of total vehicle weight.
 Rolling resistance: resistance to motion at the area of contact between tires and the
roadway surface. For asphalt concrete surface, the rolling resistance coefficient is equal to
12 kg/1000 kg. of gross vehicle weight.
 Air resistance: Force resulting from the retarding effect of air on the various surfaces of
the vehicle for speeds over 30 km/hr.
 Curve resistance: When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it undergoes a centripetal
(lateral) acceleration that acts toward the center of curvature [1, p.3-18].
Figure (2-1/13) shows the different forces acting on a vehicle in motion [1, p.3-141].
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/15

Figure 2-1/13: Forces Acting on Vehicle in Motion [1, p.3-141]
2/16 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

2-1/7 Acceleration and Deceleration Performance of Vehicles
Vehicles move according to fundamental laws of motion [4, p.120]:
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉° + 𝑎 × 𝑡 (2 − 1/1)
1
𝑑 = 𝑉° × 𝑡 + × 𝑎 × 𝑡2 (2 − 1/2)
2
𝑉𝑓2 − 𝑉°2
𝑑= (2 − 1/3)
2×𝑎
Where:
= Final velocity (m/sec.)
= Initial velocity (m/sec.)
= Acceleration or deceleration rate (m/sec.2)
= time (sec.)
= distance (meters)
Acceleration and deceleration rates are often critical parameters in determining the
dimensions of highway design features, as intersections, ramps, climbing, or auxiliary lanes, and
turnouts.
For design applications, lower performance vehicle, such as a low – powered car, or a loaded
truck, is usually used [1, p.2-33].
For a speed change of 0 to 48 km/hr., typical maximum accelerations are:
 0.5 m/sec.2 for tractor- semitrailer truck
 3.1 m /sec.2 for large car.
 4.3 m/ sec.2 for sport car.
The deceleration rate for passenger cars under normal braking is about 2.0m/sec2 in the range of
0 to 48 km/hr., and about 1.5 m/sec.2 in the range of 48 to 112 km/hr.
Figures (2-1/14) and 15 show acceleration and deceleration traveled distances for passenger cars.
Figure (2-1/16) shows typical maximum acceleration rates for 16 km/hr. speed increases at
various running speeds, along level roads, for different vehicles.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/17

Figure 2-1/14: Acceleration Distances of Passenger Cars, Level Conditions [1, p.2-34]
Figure 2-1/15: Deceleration Distances of Passenger Vehicles, Approaching Intersection

[1, p.2-35]
Figure 2-1/16: Typical Maximum Acceleration Rates of Passenger Cars and Tractor-
Semitrailers for 16 km/hr. Speed Increases at Various Running Speeds [4, p.121]
2/18 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
2-2 DRIVERS
Driver performance is essential to proper highway design and operation. Highway
engineers need to keep in mind that facilities must be designed to accommodate drivers with a
wide range of skills and ages.
2-2/1 General Drivers Characteristics

The driver's decisions and actions depend principally on information received through the senses,
which include:
 Visual (sight): A person with normal vision can perceive peripheral objects within a cone
having a central angle ranging up to about 160°. The average range of horizontal fixation
locations of experienced drivers varies from 30° to 48°.
 Kinesthetic (movement): information about forces associated with change of direction,
steering, and braking.
 Vestibular (equilibrium): information about forces associated with vibrations and
stability of the vehicle.
 Auditory (hearing): sounds of horns, skidding tires may alert driver to an impending
collision. [4, p. 106].
The driving task depends on drivers receiving and using information for correct decisions. The
components of driving task fall into three categories: control, guidance, and navigation as
presented in table (2-2/1).
Most information is received visually by drivers from their view of the roadway alignment,
markings, and signs.
Many driving errors are caused by deficiencies in driver capabilities, like: insufficient training or
experience, poor vision, inappropriate risk taking, wrong judgment, adverse psycho
physiological states, fatigue from extended period of driving, violations, and old age. [1, p.2-42]
2-2/2 Driver Perception- Reaction Time Performance

Driver perception – reaction time is defined as the interval between seeing, feeling, or
hearing a traffic or highway situation, and making an initial response to what has been perceived.
For braking, it begins when the object or condition first becomes visible, and stops when the
driver's foot touches the brake. [4, p.108].
Figure (2-2/1) shows the relationship for 85th- percentile drivers, between reaction time and the
quantified amount of perceived information to be processed in bits, for expected and unexpected
events. [1, p.2-41]
For the purpose of computing stopping sight distances for highway design, AASHTO
recommends to use a brake – reaction time of 2.5 seconds.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/19

Table 2-2/1: Framework for Driving Task Conceptualization [4, p.112]
Importance Likely
Subtask Example of Sources
Related to of Consequence of
Category of Information
Information Failure
Physical operation Road edges

Control
of vehicle Lane divisions Emergency situation
(micro Highest
Steering control Warning signs or crash
performance)
Speed control Kinesthesia
Road geometry
Guidance Selecting and
Obstacles Emergency situation
(situational maintaining a safe Intermediate
Traffic conditions or crash
performance) speed and path
Weather conditions
Experience
Navigation Route following Delay,
Directional signs
(macro Direction finding Lowest confusion, or
Maps
performance) Trip planning inefficiencies
Touring service
Figure .2-2/1: 85th-percentile Driver Reaction Time to Expected and Unexpected

Information [1, p.2-41]
2/20 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
2-3 PEDESTRIANS
In highway planning and design, the interaction of pedestrians with traffic, is of major
consideration, especially in urban areas.
2-3/1 Pedestrian Characteristics

The typical pedestrian walking speeds range from 0.8 -1.8 m/sec. A walking speed of 1.2
m/sec. is generally assumed for traffic signal timing.
Pedestrian actions are less predictable, and regulations are not usually enforced. Pedestrians also
have a basic resistance to change in grade, and intend to avoid using overpass or underpass
pedestrian facilities.
The design of pedestrian facilities (sidewalks, crosswalks, overpass, underpass, etc.), depends on
the human body, besides walking space requirements as shown in figure (2-3/1). [4, p.115]
The typical pedestrian will not usually walk over 1.5 km. The definitions related to pedestrian
speed, flow, density and space are as follows:
 = Pedestrian speed: This is the average walking speed for pedestrians, which is
typically about 1.2 m/sec but varies with age and purpose of the walking trip.
 = Pedestrian flow: This refers to the number of pedestrians crossing a line of sight
across the width of the pedestrian facility perpendicular to the pedestrian path in unit time
(p/min) The pedestrian flow/ unit width is equal to the pedestrian flow divided by the
effective with of the pedestrian facility, in units of pedestrians /min/ m (p/min/m).
 = Pedestrian density: This is computed as the average number of pedestrians/ unit
area of the pedestrian facility (p/m2).
 = Pedestrian space: This refers to the average area provided for each pedestrian. It is
equal to the inverse of the density and is expressed in units of sqm/ pedestrian (m 2/p)
[8,p.203];
(2-3/1)
Where:
fp is in (p/min/m)
Sp is in (m/min)
dp is in (p/m2)
Walking speeds decrease sharply with drop in pedestrian space below 2.3 m2.
In areas with large numbers of elderly pedestrians, a walking speed of 0.9 m/ sec. may be used.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/21

2-3/2 Level of Service for Pedestrian Walkways
Level of service (LOS) is a qualitative measure describing pedestrian flow, based on
service measures of space per pedestrian, flow rates, and walking speed. Table (2-3/2) shows
descriptions of level of service for pedestrian walkways.
Platoons (groups of pedestrians walking together as group) can form when passing is impeded
due to insufficient space, and faster pedestrians slow down being slower-moving pedestrians [5,
p.4-31].
The level of service for pedestrians at signalized intersections is based upon the average delay
experienced by a pedestrian, computed from: [8, p.211]
0.5×(𝐶−𝑔)2
Pedestrian Delay (sec.)= (2-3/2)
𝐶
Where:
= Cycle length (sec.)
= Effective green time for pedestrians (sec.)

Table 2-3/1: Level of Service for Pedestrian at Signalized Intersections
Average delay/pedestrian Pedestrians Level of Service

(sec.) at Signalized Intersection
<5 A
≥ 5 – 10 B
> 10- 20 C
> 20 -30 D
> 30-45 E
> 45 F
2/22 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 2-3/1: Pedestrian Spatial Ellipse and Pedestrian Walking Space Requirements
(Courtesy Transportation Research Board) [4, p.115]
Table 2-3/2: Level of Service for Pedestrian Walkways [4, p.665]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/23

2-3/3 Pedestrian Crossings
Pedestrian facilities may include sidewalks, crosswalks on at- grade intersection,
crosswalks on grade separations (overpass or underpass), depressed curbs and ramped sidewalks
for older walkers. [1, p.2-78]
Sidewalks should have a skid – resistant surface free of holes, bumps and other irregularities
with a minimum effective width of 1.50 meters.
Widths of 3.00 meters or greater may be necessary in commercial areas. For increased safety, an
extra separation of 1.5 -1.8 meters is desired between sidewalk edge and curb.
The effective width of signalized and unsignalized crosswalks varies according to the desired
pedestrian level of service, with a minimum width of 3.75 meters. The following measures need
to be considered in crosswalk design: [1, p.2-79]
 Use of simple intersection designs to minimize crosswalk length.
 Provide enhanced markings and delineations.
 Provide refuge islands of sufficient width at wide intersections.
 Use of properly located pedestrian signals.
 Provide lighting and eliminate glare sources.
 Reducing pedestrian- vehicular conflicts, related to left and right turns.
 Providing pedestrian grade separations.
 Enforced regulations for street crossing.
The use of pedestrian overpass or underpass crossings needs to be encouraged by providing
suitable and safe escalators and stairways for this purpose.
2-4 REFERENCES
[1] AASHTO, "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets”, American Association
[2] AASHTO, "Guide for Vehicle Weights and Dimensions", American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, USA, 2001.
[3] State Corporation of Roads & Bridges (SCRB), "Legal Axle and Gross Weights Permitted for
Vehicles in Regular Operation in Iraq", 2009.
[4] Wright P.H. and Dixon, K.K., "Highway Engineering", John Wiley & Sons, USA, 2004.
[5] "Highway Capacity Manual, HCM 2010", Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, USA, Washington D.C., 2010.
[6] Garber, N.J. and Hoel, L.A, "Traffic & Highway Engineering", Cengage Learning, USA,
2009.
2/24 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

[7] SCRB, "Highway Design Manual", State Corporation of Roads and Bridges, Ministry of
Construction and Housing, Iraq, 1982.
[8] Hoel, L.A., Garber, N.J. and Sadek, A. W., "Transportation Infrastructure Engineering/ A
Multi – Modal Integration", Nelson/ Thomson Ltd., USA, 2008.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/25

CHAPTER 3
TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
3-1 TRAFFIC VOLUME

Traffic Volume is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a point along a roadway or
traffic lane per unit of time.
The average daily traffic (ADT), and design hourly volume (DHV) are two measures of traffic
volume. The term (demand) relates to vehicles arriving, while the term (volume) relates to
vehicles discharging [1, p.3-3]
3-1/1 CURRENT ANNUAL AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC

The annual average daily traffic (AADT) is the total volume of traffic passing a point or
segment of a highway facility, in both directions, for one year, divided by number of days in the
year.
At typical rural locations, the volume on certain days may significantly be higher than the
AADT.
3-1/2 PROJECTION OF FUTURE TRAFFIC DEMANDS

The trend analysis of traffic flow that forecasts vehicle movements may be determined
directly from observations of prior movement activity, especially where little or no other
information related to generated or development traffic is available.
Future ADT = Current ADT × Traffic Projection Factor (3-1/1)
Traffic Projection Factor = ( 1 + r)n
Where:
r = Annual rate of traffic growth, (0.02- 0.12).
n = Traffic analysis period, (15-24 years). [3, p.2-53]
For instance, for r = 6% and n = 20 years, the traffic projection factor = 3.207.
3-1/3 DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME

The design hourly volume (DHV) is a future peak hourly volume used for design. It is
usually the two- way (30th) highest hourly volume of the future target year (design year), often
assumed as 20 years beyond the road construction year.
The relationship between peak hourly flows, and the annual average daily traffic is shown in
figure (3-1 /1), for rural arterials [3, p.2-48]. The curve steepens quickly to the Left of the
(30 HV) point indicating few more hours with higher volumes. The curve flattens to the right,
indicating many hours in which the volume is not much less than the 30 HV.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 3/1

On rural roads with average fluctuation in traffic flow, the 30 HV is typically about 15% of the
ADT, with a range of 12 to 18 percent for 70% of all locations.
In urban areas, the two- way 30 HV may be determined by applying a representative percentage
of 8 to 12 percent to the ADT. [3, p.2-50]
3-2 TRAFFIC COMPOSITION AND DIRECTIONAL DISTRIBUTION

For the geometric design of a highway, it is required to have data on all types of vehicles,
and the major types of trucks as a percentage of all traffic expected to use the highway need to be
indicated [3, p.2-51]. The passenger car unit equivalents are shown in section (2-1/5), Chapter2.
For 2- lane rural highways, the DHV is the total traffic in both directions of travel.
On multilane highways, the volume of traffic is usually greater in one direction than in the other
during a particular hour. During peak hours, from 55 to 80 percent of the traffic, is occasionally
traveling in the peak direction of the multilane highway. [3, p.2-50]
The lane distribution factor, as a percent of number of equivalent standard axle load repetitions
in each direction, is usually used for design of pavement structures to the design lane as shown in
table (3-2/1) [5, p.D2].
Table 3-2/1: Lane Distribution Factor
Lane distribution
Lanes per direction
factor , percent
1 100
2 80-100
3 60-80
4 or more 50-75
3/2 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure: 3-1/1 Relationship between Peak-Hour and Average Daily Traffic Volumes on
Rural Arterials [3, p.2-48]
3-3 SPEED
The objective in design of a highway facility is to satisfy the public's demand for service,
in a safe and economical manner. The speed of vehicles on a road of highway depends on:
physical characteristics of the highway, roadside interference, weather, presence of other
vehicles speed limitations, and capability of the driver and his vehicle. [3,p.2-53]
3-3/1 SPOT SPEED

Spot speed: is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle as it passes a specified point along a
street or highway.
Time- mean speed: is the arithmetic mean of speeds of all vehicles passing a point during a
specified time interval.
Space- mean speed: is the arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles occupying a section of street or
highway at a given instant. [4, p.125]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 3/3
3-3/2 OVERALL TRAVEL SPEED
Overall speed: is defined as the total distance traveled, divided by the total time required,
including traffic delays.
3-3/3 RUNNING (OPERATING) SPEED

Operating speed: is the speed at which drivers are observed operating their vehicles
during free- flow conditions. The 85th percentile of observed speeds is the most frequently used
measure.
Running Speed: is the length of the highway section divided by the running time for the vehicle
to travel through the section, excluding stop- delay time. The average running speed: is the sum
of the distances traveled by vehicles on a highway section during a specified time period, divided
by the sum of their running times.
The average spot speeds at several points, may be averaged to provide the average running
speed. [3, p.2-54]
3-3/4 DESIGN SPEED

Design Speed: is a selected speed, used to determine the various geometric design
features of the roadway, to attain the desired combination of safety, mobility, and efficiency,
within constraints of environment, economy, aesthetics, and social impacts.
The selected design speed should depend on the anticipated operating speed, topography,
adjacent land use, and the functional classification of the highway. The selected design speed
should fit the travel desires and habits of most drivers, exceeding the average running speed.
For urban arterial streets and highways, the appropriate design speeds range from 50 to
100 km/ hr. For high- speed design of rural highways, the usual design speeds have the range of
80 to 130 km/ hr. [3, p.2-58]
The average running speed varies from 78 to 100 percent of design speed are shown in table
(3-3/1) [3, p.3-29].
3/4 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 3-3/1: Average Running Speed
Design Speed (km/hr.) Average Running Speed (km/hr.)

20 20
30 30
40 40
50 47
60 55
70 63
80 70
90 77
100 85
110 91
120 98
130 102
The selected speed limits are not the highest speeds that might be used by drivers.
Instead, the 85th percentile speed of traffic, for a sizable sample of vehicles, with in the (Pace) of
15-km/hr. speed range used by most drivers, is usually selected. [3, p.2-57]
3-4 TRAFFIC FLOW

Traffic Flow may be either interrupted or uninterrupted.
Interrupted Flow: A category of traffic facilities characterized by traffic signals, stop signs, or
other fixed causes of periodic delay or interruption to the traffic stream [1, p.5-8]
3-4/1 PEAK FLOW RATE AND PEAK- HOUR FACTOR

Total Hourly Volume (V): is the total number of vehicles that pass over a given point or
section of a lane or roadway during one hour: (Vehicles/ hr.).
Peak Flow Rate (U): is the equivalent hourly rate, at which vehicles pass over a given point or
section of a lane or roadway during 15 minutes. The largest flow value of the four consecutive
15- min. periods is selected to determine the peak flow rate (Vehicles/hr).
U = max. V15 minutes × 4 (3 − 4/1)
Consideration of peak flow rates, U, (Vehicles/hr.), is important in capacity analysis.
Peak – Hour Factor (PHF): is the ratio of total hourly Volume (V) to the peak flow rate (U)
within the hour;
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 3/5

V
PHF = (3 − 4/2)
U
Where:
V = Peak hour volume, (Vehicles/ hr.).
U = Flow rate for a peak 15min. period, (Vehicles/hr.). [1, p.7-1]
Typical PHF for 2-Lane roadways ranges from 0.88 (Rural) to 0.92 (Urban). For Freeways, the
range is 0.80 to 0.95 respectively. If there is no variability in flow rate during the hour, the PHF
would be 1.00. [4, p.130]
3-4/2 TRAFFIC DENSITY, SPACING, AND TIME - HEADWAY

 Traffic Density: is the average number of vehicles occupying a unit length of roadway at
a given instant (Vehicles/km/instant.).
Flow rate
Density = (3 − 4/3)
Space mean speed
Where:
Densi𝑡𝑦 in (Veh./km)
Flow rate in (Veh./hr.)
𝑆pace mean speed in (km/hr.)
 Spacing (Space Headway): is the distance between successive vehicles, typically
measured from front bumper to front bumper, (meters/ vehicle).
 The average spacing is the reciprocal of density.
 Time–Headway: is the time between the arrival of successive vehicles at a specified
point; (sec./Veh.).
 The average time–headway is the reciprocal of volume. [4, p.131].
3-4/3 TRAFFIC VOLUME – SPEED- DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS

The generalized relationships between volume, speed, and density for uninterrupted flow
facilities are shown in figure (3-4/1).
When speeds decrease, increased crowding can occur (increased density). Traffic volumes vary
with density from zero to maximum flow rate. The two points of zero flow represent either no
vehicles at all, or so many vehicles that flow has stopped.
Interference may be caused by weather, cross traffic, disabled vehicles, crashes and other
conditions. With more interference, flow rates can still be maintained but with reduced speed,
closer spacing, and greater density. With great interference, a rapid decrease in speed and traffic
flow, with severe congestion occur. [3, p.2-58]
3/6 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 3-4/1: Generalized Speed-Volume-Density Relationships [3, p.2-59]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 3/7

3-5 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
3-5/1 HIGHWAY CAPACITY AS A DESIGN CONTROL
Highway Capacity: is the maximum flow rate at which vehicles can reasonably be
expected to traverse a point or uniform segment of a lane or roadway during one hour, under
prevailing roadway, geometric, traffic, environmental, and control conditions. [1, p.5-2]
Operation at capacity provides the maximum volume, but as both volume and congestion
decrease, the level of service (LOS) is improved.
Highway capacity analysis serves three general purposes including: transportation planning
studies, highway design, and traffic operational analysis. In highway design, capacity analysis is
used both to select highway type, and to determine dimensions (number of lanes, minimum
length of weaving sections, etc.).
3-5/2 LEVELS OF SERVICE

Level of Service: is a qualitative measure, describing operational conditions, within a
traffic stream, based on service measures, such as speed and travel time, freedom to maneuver,
traffic interruptions, comfort, and convenience. [1, p.5-8]
The levels of service range from level A (least congested) to level F (most congested).
Table (3-5/1) shows the general operating conditions of the different levels of service.
In table (3-5/2), guidance that may be used by designers in selecting an appropriate level of
service has been provided. The various levels of service for the associated density values of
freeways are shown in table (3-5/3).
The level of service for signalized intersections is defined in terms of control delay per vehicle as
specified in table (3-5/4).
Table 3-5/1: General Definitions of Levels of Service [3, p.2-66]
Level of Service General Operating Conditions
A Free flow
B Reasonably free flow
C Stable flow
D Approaching unstable flow
E Unstable flow
F Forced breakdown flow
3/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 3-5/2: Guidelines for Selection of Design Levels of Service [3, p.2-67]
Appropriate Level of Service for Specified Combinations of Area and
Terrain Type
Functional Class
Rural Urban and
Rural Level Rural Rolling
Mountainous Suburban
Freeway B B C C or D
Arterial B B C C or D
Collector C C D D
Local D D D D
Table 3-5/3: Freeway Level of Service and Density [4, p.138]

Density Range
Level of Service
(pc/km/ln)
A 0-7
B > 7-11
C > 11-16
D > 16-22
E > 22-28
F > 28
Table 3-5/4: Signalized Intersection Level of Service and Control Delay [4, p.149]
Level of Service Control Delay Per Vehical
(Sec./Veh)
A ≤ 10
B > 10-20
C > 20-35
D > 35-55
E > 55-80
F > 80
3-5/3 DESIGN SERVICE FLOW RATE FOR HIGHWAYS

Service flow rates: are termed for the maximum traffic flow rates that can be served at
each level of service (Veh/hr.) or (Veh./hr./lane). Once a level of service has been selected, all
elements of the roadway are designed consistent to the level.
The base conditions for uninterrupted flow facilities, such as freeways, include:
 Lane width: 3.60 m.
 Lateral clearance between edge of the right lane and nearest obstruction: ≥1.80m.
 Median lateral clearance: ≥ 0.60m.
 Grades: ≤ 2% (level terrain).
 Interchange spacing: ≥ 3 km.
 Traffic Stream: All Passenger Cars.
 Driver: of regular and familiar users of the facility.
 In urban areas only: ≥ 5 Lanes/direction. [4, p.136]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 3/9
Since prevailing conditions seldom reflect base conditions, computations of capacity, service
flow rate, or level of service must be adjusted to account for departures from base conditions.
Table 3-5/5 demonstrates variability in minimum speed, maximum volume –to – capacity (v/c)
ratio, and maximum service flow rate, for different levels of service of freeway segments under
base conditions. The actual hourly flow rate must be adjusted to account for any prevailing
conditions using the equations (3-5/1) and (3-5/2) presented with table (3-5/5) together with
tables (3-5/6) and (3-5/7).
The driver population adjustment factor ranges from 0.85 (unfamiliar driver) to 1.00 (familiar
driver). [4, p.143]
Freeway adjustments to determine reductions in free flow speed, as influenced by number of
lanes/ direction, lane width, and right shoulder lateral clearance, are presented in table (3-5/8).
Table 3-5/5: Level of Service for Basic Freeway Segments and Varying Free-Flow Speed
[4, p.653]
Maximum Maximum
Minimum Speed Maximum v/c
Level of Service Density Service Flow
(km/hr.) Ratio
(pc/km/ln) Rate (pc/hr./ln)
Free-Flow Speed = 120 km/hr.
A 7 120.0 0.35 840
B 11 120.0 0.55 1320
C 16 114.6 0.77 1840
D 22 99.6 0.92 2200
E 28 85.7 1.00 2400
F varies varies varies varies
A 7 110.0 0.33 770
B 11 110.0 0.51 1210
C 16 108.5 0.74 1740
D 22 97.2 0.91 2135
E 28 83.9 1.00 2350
A 7 100.0 0.30 700
B 11 100.0 0.48 1100
C 16 100.0 0.70 1600
D 22 93.8 0.90 2065
E 28 82.1 1.00 2300
A 7 90.0 0.28 630
B 11 90.0 0.44 990
C 16 90.0 0.64 1440
D 22 89.1 0.87 1955
E 28 80.4 1.00 2250
3/10 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Equivalent passenger-car flow rate (adjusted to account for any prevailing conditions):
V
vp = (3 − 5/1)
PHF × N × fHV × fp
Where:
vp = Hourly adjusted peak 15-minute flow rate (pc/hr./ln)
V = Hourly traffic volume (veh/hr.)
PHF = Peak hour factor (section 3-4/1)
N = Number of freeway lanes in one direction of travel.
fHV = Heavy vehicle adjustment factor
fp = Driver population factor
1
fHV = (3 − 5/2)
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1 )
Where:
fHV = Adjustment factor for combined effect of trucks, recreational vehicles, and
buses on the traffic stream
ET , ER = Passenger-car equivalents for trucks/buses and recreational vehicles, per tables
(3-5/6) and (3-5/7) respectively.
PT , PR = Proportion of trucks/buses and recreational vehicles, respectively, in the traffic
stream [4, p.141]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 3/11

Table 3-5/6: Passenger-Car Unit Equivalents for Trucks and Buses on Upgrades [4, p.142]
ET
Grade Length Percent Trucks and Buses
(%) (km) 2 4 5 6 8 10 75 20 25
<2 All 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
≥ 2-3 0.00-0.40 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 0.40-0.80 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 0.80-1.20 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 1.20-1.60 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 1.60-2.40 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
> 2.40 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
≥ 3-4 0.00-0.40 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
0.40-0.80 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 I.5 1.5
> 0.80-1.20 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
>1.20-1.60 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
>1.60-2.40 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5
> 2.40 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5
≥ 4-5 0.00-0.40 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 0.40-0.80 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
>0.80-1.20 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
> 1.20-1.60 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
> 1.60 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0
≥ 5-6 0.00-0.40 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 0.40-0.48 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
> 0.48-0.80 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
> 0.80-1.20 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
> 1.20-1.60 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
> 1.60 6.0 5.0 5.0 4.5 3.5 3:5 3.5 3.5 3.5
≥6 0.00-0.40 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
> 0.40-0.48 4.5 4.0 1.5 3.5 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5
> 0.48-0.80 5.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5
> 0.80-1.20 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0
> 1.20-1.60 6.0 5.5 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.5
> 1.60 7.0 6.0 5.5 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0
Table 3-5/7: Passenger-Car Unit Equivalents for Recreational Vehicles on Specific
Upgrades [4, p.143]
ER
Grade Length Percent Recreational Vehicles
(%) (km) 2 4 5 6 8 10 15 20 25
≤2 All 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
≥ 2-3 0.00-0.80 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
> 0.80 3.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.2
≥ 3-4 0.00-0.40 1.2 12 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
0.40-0.80 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 0.80 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5
≥ 4.5 0.00-0.40 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
0.40-0.80 4.0 3.0 3.0 3-0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
> 0.80 4.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0
≥5 0.00-0.40 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5
0.40-0.80 6.0 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0
> 0.80 6.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.0
3/12 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
Table 3-5/8: Freeway Reduction in Free-Flow Speed [4, p.654]
(a) Freeway Adjustments for Number of Lanes
Reduction in Free-Flow Speed,

Number of Lanes (One Direction)
fN (km/hr.)
≥5 0.0
4 2.4
3 4.8
2 7.3
(b) Freeway Adjustments for Lane Width
Reduction in Free-Flow Speed,

Lane Width (m)
FLW (km/hr.)
3.6 0.0
3.5 1.0
3.4 2.1
3.3 3.1
3.2 5.6
3.1 8.1
3.0 10.6
(c) Freeway Adjustment for Right-Shoulder Lateral Clearance

Right-Shoulder Reduction in Free-Flow Speed, fLC (km/hr.)
Lateral Lanes in One Direction
Clearance (m) 2 3 4 ≥5
≥1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.5 1.0 0.7 0.3 0.2
1.2 1.9 1.3 0.7 0.4
0.9 2.9 1.9 1.0 0.6
0.6 3.9 2.6 1.3 0.8
0.3 4.8 3.2 1.6 1.1
0.0 5.8 3.9 1.9 1.3
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 3/13

3-6 REFERENCES
2009.
[4] Wright, P.H. and Dixon, K. K., "Highway Engineering", John Wiley & Sons, USA, 2004.
[5] AASHTO, "AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures", USA, 1993.
3/14 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

CHAPTER 4
SIGHT DISTANCES
The design of highways, need to provide for drivers a sufficient distance of clear vision
ahead, so they can avoid hitting unexpected obstacles, and can pass slower vehicles without
danger.
Sight Distance: is the length of highway visible ahead to the driver of a vehicle. The three
general types of sight distances (stopping, decision, and passing) need to be considered. [3,
p.187]
4-1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

The stopping sight distance: is the minimum distance required to stop a vehicle traveling
near the design speed, before it reaches a stationary object in the vehicles path. It is the sum of
two distances: perception- reaction, and braking.
4-1/1 PERCEPTION – REACTION DISTANCE

Perception – Reaction Distance (d1): Distance traveled from the time the object is sighted
to the instant the brakes are applied.
For design purposes, the combined perception and brake- reaction time of 2.5 seconds is usually
recommended.
d1 = 0.278 × V × t (4 − 1/1)
Where:
d1 = Perception- reaction distance, meters
V = Design speed, km/hr.
t = Perception- reaction time, sec., [1, p.3-4].
4-1/2 BRAKING DISTANCE ON LEVEL ROADWAY

Braking Distance (d2): is the distance required for stopping a vehicle after the brakes are
applied.
0.039 × V 2
d2 = For Level Roadway (4 − 1/2)
a
Where:
d2 = Braking distance, meters.
a = Deceleration rate of vehicle, m/sec.2
A deceleration rate of 3.4 m/sec 2 is generally recommended for calculations of stopping sight
distance). [1, p.3-3]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 4/1

4-1/3 BRAKING DISTANCE ON A GRADE
When a highway is on a grade, the braking distance (d2) is determined as follows: [1, p.3-5]
V2
d2 = For Roadway on Grade (4 − 1/3)
a G
254 [ ± ]
9.81 100
Where:
G = Grade in percent
+ For upgrade
− For downgrade
Some designers do not generally adjust stopping distance for grade, unless the roads are one-
way, as on divided highways with separate vertical profiles for each direction of travel. [1, p.3-6]
4-1/4 DESIGN VALUES OF STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

The general design equation for determining minimum stopping sight distance (Sstopping )
in meters is:
V2
Sstopping = 0.278 × V × t + (4 − 1/4)
a G
254 [ ± ]
9.81 100
Where:
V = design speed, km/hr.
t = perception- reaction time, seconds
a = deceleration rate, m/sec2
G = grade in percent
The minimum design distances on level roadways are shown in table (4-1/1), and for roadways
on grade in table (4-1/2). [1, p.3-5]
4/2 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 4-1/1: Minimum Stopping Sight Distance on Level Roadways [1, p.3-4]
Brake Braking Stopping Sight
Design
Reaction Distance Distance
Speed
Distance on Level Calculated Design
(km/hr.)
(m) (m) (m) (m)
20 13.9 4.6 18.5 20
30 20.9 10.3 31.2 35
40 27.8 18.4 46.2 50
50 34.8 28.7 63.5 65
60 41.7 41.3 83.0 85
70 48.7 56.2 104.9 105
80 55.6 73.4 129.0 130
90 62.6 92.9 155.5 160
100 69.5 114.7 184.2 185
110 76.5 138.8 215.3 220
120 83.4 165.2 248.6 250
130 90.4 193.8 284.2 285
Note: Brake reaction distance predicated on a time of 2.5 sec.; deceleration rate of 3.4 m/sec 2
Table 4-1/2: Minimum Stopping Sight Distance on Grades [1, p.3-5]

Design Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Speed Downgrades Upgrades
(km/hr.) 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%
20 20 20 20 19 18 18
30 32 35 35 31 30 29
40 50 50 53 45 44 43
50 66 70 74 61 59 58
60 87 92 97 80 77 75
70 110 116 124 100 97 93
80 136 144 154 123 118 114
90 164 174 187 148 141 136
100 194 207 223 174 167 160
110 227 243 262 203 194 186
120 263 281 304 234 223 214
130 302 323 350 267 254 243
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 4/3

4-2 DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
Decision Sight Distance: is the distance needed for a driver to detect unexpected or
difficult condition, select an appropriate speed and path, and complete avoidance maneuvers at
complex highway locations, such as interchanges or intersections.
4-2/1 DISTANCES, WHERE A (STOP) IS THE APPROPRIATE AVOIDANCE

MANEUVER
Among the five general categories for avoidance maneuvers (A ,B, C, D ,E); the
maneuvers A and B include stops on rural and urban highway respectively.
The decision sight distance is the combination of pre- maneuver distance and braking distance,
similar to stopping sight distance, but with longer reaction time as shown in table (4-2/1).
4-2/2 DISTANCES WHERE (SPEED, PATH, AND DIRECTION) CHANGE IS

THE APPROPRIATE AVOIDANCE MANEUVER
Avoidance maneuvers C, D, E include speed, path, and direction change on rural,
suburban, and urban roads respectively.
The decision sight distance is based on the distance traveled as the vehicle executes the required
maneuver (during the total pre-maneuver and maneuver time), as shown in table (4-2/1).
4-2/3 DESIGN VALUES OF DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE

Decision sight distance values, for various situations, rounded for design, are presented in
table (4-2/1), together with assumed criteria and equations.
Shorter distances are generally needed for rural roads, and for locations where a stop is the
appropriate maneuver.
4/4 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 4-2/1: Decision Sight Distance [1, p.3-7]
Design Decision Sight Distance (m)
Speed Avoidance Maneuver
(km/hr. A B C D E
)
50 70 155 145 170 195
60 95 195 170 205 235
70 115 235 200 235 275
80 140 280 230 270 315
90 170 325 270 315 360
100 200 370 315 355 400
110 235 420 330 380 430
120 265 470 360 415 470
130 305 525 390 450 510
Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road—t = 3.0 sec.
Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road—t = 9.1 sec.
Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed/path/direction change on rural road—t varies between 10.2 and 11.2 sec.
Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction change on suburban road—t varies between 12.1 and 12.9 sec.
Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/path/direction change on urban road—t varies between 14.0 and 14.5 sec.
Calculation of the decision sight distance for avoidance maneuvers A and B

V2
DSD = 0.278Vt + 0.039 (4-2/1)
a
Where:
DSD = decision sight distance, m
t = pre-maneuver time, sec.

a = driver deceleration, m/sec.
= 3.4 m/sec.2
Calculation of the decision sight distance for avoidance maneuvers C, D, and E
DSD = 0.278Vt (4-2/2)
Where:
DSD = decision sight distance, m
t = total pre-maneuver and maneuver time, sec.

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 4/5

4-3 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
Passing Sight Distance: The length of highway required to complete normal passing
maneuvers in which the passing driver can determine that there are no potentially conflicting
vehicles ahead before beginning the maneuver. [2, p.9-13]
4-3/1 ELEMENTS OF PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

The minimum passing sight distance for 2- lane highways is determined as the sum of the
four distances shown in figure (4-3/1).
4-3/2 GENERAL EQUATION OF TOTAL PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

The total minimum passing sight distance;
Minimum Spassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 (4 − 3/1)
Where:
d1 = Initial maneuver distance, meters.
a × ti
= 0.278 × t i (V − m + ) (4 − 3/2)
2
d2 = Occupation of left lane distance, meters.
= 0.278 × V × t 2 (4 − 3/3)
d3 = Clearance distance (30-90 meters).
d4 = Opposing vehicle distance, meters.
= 0.67 × d2 (4 − 3/4)
ti = Time of initial maneuver, secconds; (2.25-2.41 sec.)
V = Average speed of passing vehicle, km/hr.
m = Difference in speed of passed and passing vehicles, km/hr. (15-19 km/hr.).
a = Average acceleration, (2.25-2.41) km/hr./sec.
t2 = Time passing vehicle occupies the left Lane, sec. (9.3 – 11.3 sec.).
4/6 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 4-3/1: Elements of Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highways [4, p.119]
4-3/3 DESIGN VALUES OF PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

Actual driver behavior in passing maneuvers varies widely. The design criteria for
passing sight distance should accommodate the behavior of a high percentage of drivers rather
than just the average driver [1, p.3-12]
The design values for minimum passing sight distance are presented in table (4-3/1), and are
shown in comparison to stopping sight distance criteria in figure (4-3/2).
The passing sight distance values in table (4-3/1) are sufficient for a single or isolated P- vehicle
passing. It is not practical to assume multiple passing in developing minimum design criteria.
Longer sight distances are often used in design to accommodate an occasional multiple passing
maneuver, or a passing maneuver involving a truck, [1, p.3-12]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 4/7

4-4 CRITERIA FOR MEASURING SIGHT DISTANCES
The sight distance along a roadway, throughout which an object of specified height is
continuously visible to the driver, is dependent on height of the drivers eye above road surface,
the object height above road surface, and height of lateral obstructions within the drivers line of
sight.
The height of drivers eye is considered to be 1.08 m for passenger cars and 2.33m for trucks.
The height of object is considered to be 0.60m for both stopping and decision sight distances,
and 1.08m for passing sight distance.
The headlight mounting height of 0.60 m, with an upward angle of 1 degree along vehicles
longitudinal axis, is used for stopping sight distance control on sag vertical curves.
Table 4-3/1: Passing Sight Distance for Design of Two-Lane Highway [1, p.3-9]
Assumed Speeds (km/hr.) Passing

Design
Sight
Speed Passed Passing
Distance
(km/hr.) Vehicle Vehicle
(m)
30 11 30 120
40 21 40 140
50 31 50 160
60 41 60 180
70 51 70 210
80 61 80 245
90 71 90 280
100 81 100 320
110 91 110 355
120 101 120 395
130 111 130 440
4/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

(km/hr.)
Figure 4-3/2: Comparison of Design Values for Passing Sight and Stopping Sight Distance
[1, p.3-11]
4-5 REFERENCES
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 4/9

CHAPTER 5
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Highways have usually tangent distances, that are connected by very gradual circular
curves, that may be complemented by transitional spiral curves, to accommodate a given design
speed with comfort and safety.
5-1 HORIZONTAL CIRCULAR CURVES

The four types of circular curve applications are shown in figure (5-1/1). The (broken-
type) arrangement should be avoided in horizontal alignment of highway except for very unusual
topographical or right – of- way conditions. Compound highway curves should also be used with
caution, and when conditions make their use necessary, the radius of the flatter curve should not
exceed 1.5 times the radius of the sharper curve [1, p.3-112]. Reverse curves would be used only
for low-speed roads, such as those in mountainous terrain.
The properties of a simple circular curve are shown in figure (5-1/2), assuming a station length
of 100m.
5-1/1 MINIMUM RADIUS OF CIRCULAR CURVES

The minimum radius of circular curve (Rmin.) for a given design speed (V), is determined
from the maximum rate of superelevation (e max.), and the maximum side friction factor (fmax.),
using the simplified curve equation, as shown in table (5-1/1).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/1

Figure 5-1/2: Properties of a Simple Circular Curve [2, p.173]
Figure 5-1/1: Four Types of Circular Curve Application [2, p.175]
5/2 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 5-1/1: Minimum Radius Using Limiting Values of e and f [1, p.3-32]
Design Speed Maximum e Total Calculated Rounded Radius
Maximum f
(km/hr.) (%) (e/100+f) Radius (m) (m)
15 4.0 0.40 0.44 4.0 4
20 4.0 0.35 0.39 8.1 8
30 4.0 0.28 0.32 22.1 22
40 4.0 0.23 0.27 46.7 47
50 4.0 0.19 0.23 85.6 86
60 4.0 0.17 0.21 135.0 135
70 4.0 0.15 0.19 203.1 203
80 4.0 0.14 0.18 280.0 280
90 4.0 0.13 0.17 375.2 375
100 4.0 0.12 0.16 492.1 492
15 6.0 0.40 0.46 3.9 4

20 6.0 0.35 0.41 7.7 8
30 6.0 0.28 0.34 20.8 21
40 6.0 0.23 0.29 43.4 43
50 6.0 0.19 0.25 78.7 79
60 6.0 0.17 0.23 123.2 123
70 6.0 0.15 0.21 183.7 184
80 6.0 0.14 0.20 252.0 252
90 6.0 0.13 0.19 335.7 336
100 6.0 0.12 0.18 437.4 437
110 6.0 0.11 0.17 560.4 560
120 6.0 0.09 0.15 755.9 756
130 6.0 0.08 0.14 950.5 951
15 8.0 0.40 0.48 3.7 4

20 8.0 0.35 0.43 7.3 7
30 8.0 0.28 0.36 19.7 20
40 8.0 0.23 0.31 40.6 41
50 8.0 0.19 0.27 72.9 73
60 8.0 0.17 0.25 113.4 113
70 8.0 0.15 0.23 167.8 168
80 8.0 0.14 0.22 229.1 229
90 8.0 0.13 0.21 303.7 304
100 8.0 0.12 0.20 393.7 394
110 8.0 0.11 0.19 501.5 501
120 8.0 0.09 0.17 667.0 667
130 8.0 0.08 0.16 831.7 832
15 10.0 0.40 0.50 3.5 4

20 10.0 0.35 0.45 7.0 7
30 10.0 0.28 0.38 18.6 19
40 10.0 0.23 0.33 38.2 38
50 10.0 0.19 0.29 67.9 68
60 10.0 0.17 0.27 105.0 105
70 10.0 0.15 0.25 154.3 154
80 10.0 0.14 0.24 210.0 210
90 10.0 0.13 0.23 277.3 277
100 10.0 0.12 0.22 357.9 358
110 10.0 0.11 0.21 453.7 454
120 10.0 0.09 0.19 596.8 597
130 10.0 0.08 0.18 739.3 739
15 12.0 0.40 0.52 3.4 3

20 12.0 0.35 0.47 6.7 7
30 12.0 0.28 0.40 17.7 18
40 12.0 0.23 0.35 36.0 36
50 12.0 0.19 0.31 63.5 64
60 12.0 0.17 0.29 97.7 98
70 12.0 0.15 0.27 142.9 143
80 12.0 0.14 0.26 193.8 194
90 12.0 0.13 0.25 255.1 255
100 12.0 0.12 0.24 328.1 328
110 12.0 0.11 0.23 414.2 414
120 12.0 0.09 0.21 539.9 540
130 12.0 0.08 0.20 665.4 665
Note: In recognition of safety considerations, use of emax= 4.0% should be limited to urban conditions.
𝑉2
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (5 − 1/1)
127 (0.01 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/3
5-1/2 MAXIMUM SUPERELEVATION RATES
The maximum rates of superelevation for highway deign, are controlled by:
 Climatic conditions (rain, snow...)
 Terrain type (Flat, Rolling, Mountainous).
 Type of area (Urban, Rural).
 Frequency of slow moving vehicles.
The highest superelevation rate for highways in common use is 10%, although 12% is used in
low volume unpaved road to facilitate drainage. Generally, 8% is recognized as a reasonable
maximum value for superelevation rate of highways.
A maximum superelevation rate of 4-6% is applicable for urban design with traffic congestions,
[1, p.3-30]
5-1/3 SIDE FRICTION FACTORS

The side friction factor is the friction force divided by the component of the weight
perpendicular to the pavement surface.
The upper limit of the side friction factor (f) is the point at which the tire would begin to skid,
and the values used in curve design should be less than the coefficient of friction at impending
skid. The recommended side friction factor, for use in horizontal curve design of highways, at
different vehicle speeds, is shown in figure (5-1/3) [1, p.3-25].
The (f) values vary with the design speed from 0.40 (at 15 km/hr.), 0.15 (at 70 km/ hr.), to 0.075
(at 130 km/hr.).
5-1/4 COMPOUND CIRCULAR CURVES FOR RAMPS AND INTERSECTIONS

For turning roadways, compound curves can be used for design speeds not exceeding 70
km/hr. for higher speeds, a large amount of right- of- way is needed, to provide driver comfort
and safety. For compound curves on turning roadways, it is preferable that the ratio of the flatter
radius to the sharper radius not exceed 2:1 [1, p.3-58]
Curves that are compounded should not be too short, to enable drivers to decelerate at a
reasonable rate (about 3 km/hr./sec.). The minimum compound circular curve lengths for
different radii are presented in table (5-1/2).
5-2 SPIRAL CURVE TRANSITIONS

The incorporation of spiral curve transition (Euler or Clothoid), between tangent and sharp
circular curve, as well as between circular curves of different radii, in horizontal alignment of
highways, have the following advantages:
 Simulates the natural turning path of a vehicle to promote a uniform speed, with
gradual change of lateral force.
5/4 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

 Provides a suitable length for superelevation runoff, and widening of sharp curves.
 Provides better appearance for the highway, avoiding noticeable breaks in
alignment.
Speed (km/hr.)
Figure 5-1/3: Side Friction Factors Assumed for Design [1, p.3-25]
Table 5-1/2: Length of Circular Arcs for Different Compound Curve Radii [1, p.3-58]
Minimum Length of
Radius (m) Circular Arc (m)
Acceptable Desirable
30 12 20
50 15 20
60 20 30
75 25 35
100 30 45
125 35 55
150 or more 45 60
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/5

5-2/1 DETAILS OF SPIRAL COMPOUNDED WITH CIRCULAR CURVE
The details of a transition spiral (clothoid) connecting the tangent at point (A); where the
radius is infinite, with point (C) on a circular curve with radius (Rc), are shown in figure (5-2/1)
together with related formulas.
5-2/2 MAXIMUM RADIUS FOR USE OF A SPIRAL CURVE TRANSITION

The maximum radius for use of a spiral should be based on a minimum lateral acceleration rate
of 1.3 m/sec2. Only radii below this maximum are likely to obtain safety and operational benefits
from the use of spiral transition curves. [1, p.3-70]
The values of maximum radius of circular curves for the desired use of spiral are shown in table
(5-2/1).
5-2/3 MINIMUM LENGTH OF SPIRAL CURVE

Two criteria are used together to determine the minimum length of spiral, based on driver
comfortable increase in lateral acceleration, and shift in a vehicle lateral position (due to
steering) within its lane, consistent with that produced by the spiral path. The minimum spiral
length can be computed as shown in equations (5-2/2) and (5-2/3).
Besides, the minimum length of spiral should be set equal to the length of superelevation runoff.
5/6 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 5-2/1: Parts of the Spiral and Osculating Circle [3, p.153]
Notation and Formulas

𝑇𝑆 = Point of change from tangent to spiral;
𝑆𝐶 = Point of change from spiral to circle;
𝐶𝑆 = Point of change from circle to spiral;
𝑙 = Spiral arc from the 𝑇𝑆 to any point on spiral;
𝑙𝑠 = Total length of spiral from 𝑇𝑆 to 𝑆𝐶;
𝜃 = Central angle of spiral arc 𝑙;
𝜃𝑠 = Central angle of spiral arc 𝑙𝑠 , called “spiral angle”;
Ø𝑐 = Spiral deflection angle at the 𝑇𝑆 from initial tangent to any point on spiral;
𝛥 = Total central angle
𝛥𝑐 = Central angle of circular arc of length 𝐿𝑐 extending from 𝑆𝐶 to 𝐶𝑆;
𝑦 = Tangent offset of any point on spiral with reference to 𝑇𝑆 and initial tangent;
𝑦𝑠 = Tangent offset at the 𝑆𝐶;
𝑥 = Tangent distance of any point on spiral with reference to 𝑇𝑆 and initial tangent;
𝑥𝑠 = Tangent distance at the 𝑆𝐶;
𝑝 = Offset from the initial tangent to the 𝑃𝐶 of the shifted circle; 𝑝 = 𝑦𝑠 − 𝑅𝑐 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝜃𝑠
𝑘 = Abscissa of the shifted 𝑃𝐶 referred to the 𝑇𝑆; 𝑘 = 𝑥𝑠 − 𝑅𝑐 sin 𝜃𝑠
𝑇𝑠 = Total tangent distance = distance from 𝑃𝐼 to 𝑇𝑆, or from 𝑃𝐼 to 𝑆𝑇;
1
𝑇𝑠 = (𝑅𝑐 + 𝑝) tan 2 𝛥 + 𝑘
1
𝐸𝑠 = Total external distance = (𝑅𝑐 + 𝑝) exsec 2 𝛥 + 𝑝
𝐿𝐶 = Long chord; 𝐿𝑇 = Long tangent; 𝑆𝑇 =Short tangent.
𝑙𝑠 = 2 𝜃𝑠 𝑅𝑐 ; 𝜃𝑠 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑙 2 𝜃
𝜃 =( 𝑙𝑠
) 𝜃𝑠 ;Ø= − 𝐶𝑠
3
√ 𝐿𝑠 𝑅𝑐 = Flattness Parameter of Spiral

𝑅𝑐 = Radius of Circular Curve.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/7

Table 5-2/1: Maximum Radius for Use of a Spiral Curve Transition [1, p. 3-71]
Design speed (km/hr.) Maximum radius (m)

20 24
30 54
40 95
50 148
60 213
70 290
80 379
90 480
100 592
110 716
120 852
130 1000
Note: The effect of spiral curve transitions on lateral acceleration is likely to be negligible for larger radii.
5-2/4 MAXIMUM LENGTH OF SPIRAL CURVE

Spirals should not be so long, relative to the length of circular curves, that drivers are
misled about the sharpness of the approaching curve [1, p.3-72].
The maximum length of the spiral can be computed as shown in equation (5-2/1).
5-2/5 DESIRABLE LENGTH OF SPIRAL CURVE

The desirable length of the spiral is that length corresponding to 2 seconds of travel time
at the design speed of the roadway, as shown in table (5-2/2).
If the desirable spiral length is less than, the minimum spiral curve length, the minimum length
should be used in design.
Spiral lengths longer than desirable length may be needed at turning roadways, to develop the
desired superelevation, provided that the maximum spiral length values are not exceeded.
5/8 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 5-2/2: Desirable Length of Spiral Curve Transition [1, p.3-73]
Design Speed (km/hr.) Spiral Length (m)

20 11
30 17
40 22
50 28
60 33
70 39
80 44
90 50
100 56
110 61
120 67
130 72
[[1, p.3-72
[1, p. 3-71]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/9

5-3 SUPERELEVATION ON CURVES
The transition from a tangent with either normal crown, or straight cross slope section, to a
full curve superelevation section, must be accomplished without any reduction in speed to insure
safety and comfort to the occupants of vehicle.
5-3/1 METHODS OF ATTAINING SUPERELEVATION

Four methods are commonly used to attain the full superelevation transition, as shown in
figure (5-3/1). The change to a uniformly inclined section, need to be accomplished gradually as
a constant rate along the centerline.
The first method which revolves the traveled way about the centerline is the most widely used,
because of the less distortion to edge elevations.
5-3/2 MINIMUM LENGTH OF SUPERELEVATION RUNOFF (TANGENT-

TO- CURVE TRANSITION DESIGN)
Superelevation runoff: is the distance required to accomplish transition from zero percent
(Flat) section to a fully superelevated section.
The maximum grade difference (relative gradient) need to be limited for each design speed to
provide longer runoff lengths at higher speeds. Relative gradients of 0.35 to 0.80 are usually
used as shown in figure (5-3/2).
The minimum length of superelevation runoff can be determined from equation (5-3/1), using
the adjustment factor for the number of rotated lanes of undivided highways (without a median),
[1.p.3-62]. In divided highways (with a median), the location of axis of rotation depends on the
median width as shown in the following three cases:
CASE 1: For narrow medians (≤ 4m), the whole of the traveled way, including the median is
superelevated as a plane section.
CASE2: For medians with widths (4-18m), the median is held in a horizontal plane, and the two
traveled ways are rotated separately around the median edges.
CASE3: For median widths of (18m or more), the two traveled ways are treated separately for
runoff, which results in variable elevations at median edges (sloped median). [1, p.3-80].
5/10 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 5-3/1: Methods of Attaining Superelevation [2. p.180]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/11
Normal practice is to divide the superelevation runoff length between the tangent and curve, and
to avoid placing the entire runoff length on either the tangent or the curve in order to minimize
lateral acceleration and the vehicles lateral shift. The design runoff locations are shown in table
(5-3/1).
Table 5-3/1: Design Runoff Locations
Portion of Runoff Located prior to the Curve
Design speed (km/hr.) Number of Lanes Rotated
1.0 1.5 2.0-2.5 3.0-3.5
20-70 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.90
80-130 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85
Typical minimum superelevation runoff lengths are presented in table (5-3/2), where one
or two lanes are rotated, assuming a 3.60 m lane width.
5-3/3 MINIMUM LENGTH OF TANGENT RUNOUT (TANGENT-TO-CURVE

TRANSITION DESIGN)
Tangent Runout: is the length of tangent required to transition from normal crown to zero
percent (Flat) section.
The minimum length of tangent runout should be determined from equation (5-3/2) presented in
figure (5-3/2), and typical values are shown in the 2.0 percent row of (e) values in table (5-3/2).
5/12 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

lanes rotated
(km/hr.)
Figure 5-3/2: Minimum Length of Superelevation runoff & Tangent runout

[1, p.3-60], [1, p.3-66]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/13
Table 5-3/2: Superelevation Runoff Lr (m) for Horizontal Curves [1, p.3-64]
5/14 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

5-3/4 LENGTH OF SUPERELEVATION RUNOFF AND TANGENT
RUNOUT FOR SPIRAL- CURVE TRANSITION
The change in highway cross slope begins by introducing a (tangent runout) section just
in advance of the spiral curve. The superelevation runoff should be accomplished over the length
of the spiral, and the whole of the circular curve has full superelevation.
The tangent runout lengths for spiral –curve transition design are shown in table (5-3/3), based
on 2.0 percent normal cross slope, together with the equation used for computation. The length
of the spiral should be set equal to the length of superelevation runoff. [1, p.3-73]
Table 5-3/3: Tangent Runout Length for Spiral Curve Transition Design [1, p.3-75]
Design Tangent Runout Length (m)
Speed Superelevation Rate
(km/hr.) 2 4 6 8 10
20 11 — — — —
30 17 8 — — —
40 22 11 7 — —
50 28 14 9 — —
60 33 17 11 8 —
70 39 19 13 10 —
80 44 22 15 11 —
90 50 25 17 13 10
100 56 28 19 14 11
110 61 31 20 15 12
120 67 33 22 17 13
130 72 36 24 18 14
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/15

5-4 WIDENING ON HORIZONTAL CURVES
Widening of the traveled way on a horizontal curve is the difference between the width
needed on the curve (Wc) and the width used on a tangent (Wn).
Widening is needed on certain curves for one of the following reasons:
 Rear wheels of the design vehicle track inside front wheels (offtracking) while
rounding curves.
 Difficulty in steering vehicles in the center of lane on curves.
5-4/1 DESIGN VALUES OF TRAVELED WAY WIDENING

Widening components of the traveled way width on curves (Wc), as calculated by the
related equation, are shown in figure (5-4/1). The track width values (U) of design vehicles of
different circular curves are shown in figure (5-4/2).
The front overhang (FA) of the vehicle occupying the inner lanes is the radial distance between
the outer edge of tire path of the outer front wheel, and the path of the outer front edge of the
vehicle body. Figure (5-4/3) illustrates front overhang values (FA) of different design vehicles.
The lateral clearance allowance (C) provides clearance between vehicles passing or meeting,
which is assumed to be (0.60, 0.75, and 0.90 m) for tangent lane widths of (3.00, 3.30, and
3.60m) respectively.
The extra width allowance (Z) for the difficulty of maneuvering on curves, is shown in figure
(5-4/4) for different speeds and curves.
The widening values on curves, (Wc-Wn) for WB-19 design vehicle, on two- lane highways are
5/16 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 5-4/1: Widening Components on Open Highway Curves (Two-Lane Highways, One-
Way or Two-Way) [1, p.3-91]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/17

Figure 5-4/2: Track Width for Widening of Traveled Way on Curves [1, p.3-87]
Figure 5-4/3: Front Overhang for Widening of Traveled Way on Curves [1, p.3-88]
5/18 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 5-4/4: Extra Width Allowance for Difficulty of Driving on Traveled Way on Curves
[1, p.3-89]
Table 5-4/1: Calculated and Design Values for Traveled Way Widening on Open Highway
Curves (Two-Lane Highways, One-Way or Two-Way) [1, p.3-93]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/19

5-4/2 APPLICATION OF WIDENING ON CURVES
Widening should transition gradually on the approaches to the curve over a length, (30-
60m), sufficient to make the whole traveled way usable and preferably over the superelevation
runoff length.
On un-spiraled curves, widening should be applied on the inside edge of the traveled way only.
On curves designed with spirals, widening may be applied either on the inside edge, or divided
equally on both sides of the centerline. The final marked centerline should be placed midway
between the edges of the widened traveled way on curves.
5-5 DESIGN WIDTHS FOR TURNING ROADWAYS OR RAMPS AT

INTERSECTIONS
The radius of curvature and track width of the design vehicle determine the width of a
turning roadway or ramp at intersections. Figure (5-5/1) shows the equations for determining the
required turning roadway width, for each of the three cases of operation, on intersection curves.
The minimum design widths of turning roadways for the three operation cases, different radii on
inner pavement edge, and traffic condition, with modifications for edge conditions are presented
in table (5-5/1). The three traffic conditions are assumed to have only an occasional large trucks
for (A), a moderate volume of trucks (5-10%) for (B), and more and larger trucks for (C).
The types of design vehicles with full clearance, together with larger vehicles that can be
operated on turning roadways, but with partial clearance are shown in table (5-5/1).
The shoulder width or lateral clearance outside the traveled- way edge ranges from 1.20 to 3.6
meters. Where roadside barriers are provided, the width should be about 0.60 m greater,
[1, p.3-106].
5/20 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 5-5/1: Derivation of Turning Roadway Widths on Curves at Intersections [1, p.3-98]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/21

Table 5-5/1: Design Width of Pavements for Turning Roadways [1, p.3-103]
Full clearance for the design vehicles
Partial clearance for the larger vehicles
5/22 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

5-6 SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORIZONTAL CURVES
The presence of sight obstructions on the inside of curves may need adjustments in
horizontal alignment to satisfy sight distance criteria.
The horizontal sight line offset (HSO) for circular curves longer than the sight distance, can be
determined by the equation presented in figure (5-6/1).
The design controls for stopping sight distance (S), on horizontal circular curves (along
centerline of inside Lane) with radius (R) to determine (HSO) for the pertinent design speed (V),
are indicated in figure (5-6/1).
For a circular curve length (L), smaller than the sight distance (S), the following relationship
may be used:
L (2S − L)
HSO = (5 − 6/1)
8R
The minimum passing sight distance for a 2- lane highway is about twice the minimum stopping
sight distance at the same design speed, thus clear sight areas on the inside of curves should have
widths in excess of those for stopping sight distances. [1, p.3-110]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/23

Figure 5-6/1: Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
[1, p.3-107, 109]
5/24 2017 AD /1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
5-7 GENERAL CONTROLS FOR HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
For efficient and smooth – flowing highways, the general controls that follow should be
used where practical, [1, p.3-111]:
 Alignment should be consistent with the topography (conforms generally to natural
contours). Long tangents are needed on 2- lane highways for safe passing.
 Horizontal alignment should be coordinated with profile design.
 Flat curves need to be used, saving the minimum radius for the most critical
conditions.
 Sudden changes from areas of tangents or flat curvature, to areas of sharp curvature
should be avoided.
 The minimum length of horizontal curves (L) in meters should be (3 to 6) times the
design speed (V) in km/hr. on main highways.
For small deflection angles, the curves should be at least 150m long for a central
angle of 5 degrees, and increased 30 m for each 1 degree decrease.
 Compound circular curves should be used with caution. The radius of the flatter
curve should not exceed 1.5 times the radius of the sharper curve.
 Abrupt reversals in alignment should be avoided. The distance between reverse
curves should be the sum of the superelevation runoff lengths, and the tangent
runout lengths.
 The broken –back arrangement (a short tangent between two curves in the same
direction), should be avoided, except for very unusual topographical or right- of –
way conditions.
 Changing median width, on tangent alignments should be avoided, due to distorted
appearance.
5-8 REFERENCES
[3] T.F. Hickerson, "Route Surveys and Design", McGraw- Hill Book Co., USA, 1959.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 5/25

CHAPTER 6
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
6-1 CONTROL GRADES FOR DESIGN

Highways and streets should be designed to encourage uniform operation in both
horizontal and vertical alignments.
The effect of grades on truck speeds is much more pronounced than on speeds of passenger cars.
The effect of rate and length of grade on the speed of a typical heavy truck is shown in figure
(6-1/1) for deceleration on upgrades, and in figure (6-1/2) for acceleration on upgrades and
downgrades.
6-1/1 MAXIMUM GRADES

Maximum grades of 5% are usually considered for a design speed of 110 km/hr.
maximum grades of 7-8% are used in current practice for a 50 km/hr. design speed. [1, p.3-119].
Maximum grade controls for each functional class of highway are presented in chapter 8. For
short grades (<150m) in length, and for one- way down grades, the maximum grade may be
increased by 1% (steeper). In design practice, grades should be frequently less than the
maximum design grade.
6-1/2 MINIMUM GRADES

A minimum longitudinal grade of 0.5% should be provided on curbed highways or streets
to facilitate surface drainage. Lower grades (0.3%) may be used for the accurately sloped paved
surfaces.
Particular attention should be given to design of storm water inlets spacing and roadside
channels.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/1

Figure 6-1/1: Speed-Distance Curve for a Typical Heavy Truck of 120 kg/kw for
Deceleration on Upgrades. [1, p.3-115]
Figure 6-1/2: Speed-Distance Curve for Acceleration of a Typical Heavy Truck of 120
kg/kw on Upgrades and Downgrades. [1, p.3-116
6/2 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
6-1/3 CRITICAL LENGTH OF UPGRADE
Critical length of upgrade: is the maximum length of an upgrade, on which a loaded truck
can operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed (15 km/hr.). [1, p.3-119]
On upgrade length greater than critical, design adjustments such as: changes in location to reduce
grades, or addition of extra climbing lane should be considered. The critical length of upgrades,
that will cause the speed of a typical heavy truck entering the grade at 110 km/hr., to be reduced
by various values, is shown in figure (6-1/3), including the design curve for the 15 km/hr.
reduction.
For entering speeds less than 110km/hr., the same speed reduction will occur over shorter
lengths of upgrade. The crash involvement rates for truck speed reductions, assuming a 30%
reduction for other vehicles on the same grade are shown in figure (6-1/4).
6-2 ADDED LANES AND TURNOUTS ON TWO- LANE HIGHWAYS

An added lane for vehicles moving slowly uphill is sometimes needed, so that other
vehicles using the normal lane to the right of the centerline are not delayed.
6-2/1 CLIMBING LANES

Climbing lane is commonly used on two- lane highways for freedom and safety of
operations.
The following criteria should be satisfied to justify a climbing lane:
 Upgrade flow rate in excess of 200 vph
 Upgrade truck flow rate in excess of 20 vph.
 One of the following conditions exists:
o Level of service E or F on the grade.
o A 15 km/hr. or greater speed reduction for heavy truck.
Two typical designs of climbing lanes (without and with overlapping) are shown in figure
(6-2/1).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/3

Figure 6-1/3: Critical Lengths of Grade for Design, Assumed Typical Heavy Truck of 120
kg/kw, Entering Speed = 110 km/hr.; [1, p.3-123]
Figure 6-1/4: Crash Involvement Rate of Trucks for Which Running Speeds Are Reduced
Below Average Running Speed of All Traffic; [1, p.3-120]
6/4 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 6-2/1: Climbing Lanes on Two-Lanes Highways [1, p.3-126]
6-2/2 PASSING LANES

Where a sufficient number and length of passing sections cannot be obtained in the
design of horizontal and vertical alignment alone, an occasional added lane in one or both
directions of travel may be introduced to provide more passing opportunities for 2- lane
highway, especially in rolling terrain figure (6-2/2) [1, p. 3-133].
The optimal design lengths for passing lanes with traffic operational efficiency are shown in
table (6-2/1), together with equations for determining lane- drop taper lengths at each end of
passing lane length.
For roadways with traffic volumes higher than what can be served by 2- lane highways (>1200
vph / direction), but not high enough to justify a 4- lane highway, the (2+1) configuration may be
a suitable treatment.
A (2+1) road will generally operate at least two levels of service higher than conventional 2- lane
highway serving the same traffic volume [1, p.3-136].
The (2+1) concept provides a continuous 3- lane cross section, striped in a manner to provide for
passing lane in alternating directions throughout the section, as shown in figure (6-2/3).
A (2+1) road should only be used in level or rolling terrain, and climbing lanes are suggested on
upgrades of mountainous terrain.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/5

6-2/3 TURNOUTS
Turnout: is a widened, unobstructed shoulder area that allows slow- moving vehicles to
pull out of the through lane, to give passing opportunities to following vehicles.
Turnouts are most frequently used in difficult terrain with steep grades, where construction of an
additional lane may not be cost – effective [1, p.3-138].
The recommended lengths of turnouts are shown in table (6-2/2). The entry and exit taper
lengths range from 15 to 30m. The minimum width of turnout is 3.60m. Up to 5.00 meter width
may be used for the turnouts.
Figure 6-2/2: Passing Lanes Section on Two-Lane Roads [1, p.3-133]

Table 6-2/1: Optimal Passing Lane Lengths [1, p.3-135]
One-Way Flow Rate Passing Lane Length
(veh/hr.) (km)
100-200 0.8
201-400 0.8-1.2
401-700 1.2-1.6
701-1200 1.6-3.2
(6 - 2/1)
(6 - 2/2)
6/6 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 6-2/3: Schematic for 2 + 1 Roadway [1, p.3-136]
Table 6-2/2: Recommended Lengths of Trurnouts Including Taper [1, p.3-139]

Approach Speed
Minimum Length (m) a
(km/hr.)
30 60
40 60
50 65
60 85
70 105
80 135
90 170
100 185
a
Maximum length should be 185 m to avoid use of the turnout as a passing lane.
6-3 EMERGENCY ESCAPE RAMPS

Where long descending grades exist, it is desirable to provide a location for out- of- control
vehicles,(losing braking ability), particularly trucks, to slow and stop away from the main traffic
stream [1, p.3-140].
The four basic types of emergency escape ramps are illustrated in figure (6-3/1). Each type is
applicable to a particular topographic situation. The most commonly used escape ramp, is the
(Ascending- Grade) arrested bed, where the gradient – resistance act downgrade, in the opposite
direction of vehicle movement.
The use of single size, rounded aggregate, with a top size of 40 mm, which is free from fine- size
material, in the arrester bed, with a minimum depth of 1.00 meter, shall increase rolling
resistance, to slow and stop the out – of- control vehicle.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/7
Sand piles, composed of loose, dry sand, dumped at the ramp site (120m length), have severe
deceleration characteristics, making its use less desirable, except at locations where inadequate
space exists.
The alignment of the escape ramp should be tangent, or on very flat curvature, with a minimum
width of 8.00 meters, and a service road need to be located adjacent to the arrested bed, for use
of two trucks and maintenance vehicles. Anchors are needed to secure a ton truck when
removing a vehicle from the arrested bed. A typical emergency escape ramp is illustrated in
figure (6-3/2).
Rolling resistance: is the resistance to motion at the area of contact between a vehicles tire and
the roadway surface, which may be expressed as (equivalent gradient) as shown in table (6-3/1).
The length of arrester bed needed to bring the vehicle to a stop, with consideration of the rolling
resistance and gradient resistance, may be determined from the equation presented with table
(6-3/1).
When the arrester bed is constructed using more than one grade along its length, the final speed
at each change in grade may be determined, and the calculation is repeated for other grades, until
sufficient length is provided to reduce the speed of vehicle to zero.
6/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 6-3/1: Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps [1, p.3-144]
Figure 6-3/2: Typical Emergency Escape Ramp [1, p.3-148]

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/9
Table 6-3/1: Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials (R) [1, p.3-142]
Rolling Resistance Equivalent

Surfacing Material
(kg/1 000 kg GVM) Grade (%)a
Portland cement
10 1.0
concrete
Asphalt concrete 12 1.2
Gravel, compacted 15 1.5
Earth, sandy, loose 37 3.7
Crushed aggregate,
50 5.0
loose
Gravel, loose 100 10.0
Sand 150 15.0
Pea gravel 250
a
Rolling resistance expressed as equivalent gradient.
GVM: Gross Vehicle Mass
Length of Arrester Bed Speed at End of Grade

𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝒇 = 𝑽𝟐𝒊 − 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝑳(𝑹 ± 𝑮) (6-3/2)
𝑳 = 𝟐𝟓𝟒(𝑹±𝑮) (6-3/2)
where:
where:
Vf = speed at end of grade, km/hr.
L = length of arrester bed, Vi = entering speed at beginning of
grade, km/hr.
V = entering velocity, km/hr.
L = length of grade, m
R = rolling resistance, expressed as
R = rolling resistance, expressed as
equivalent percent gradient divided equivalent percent gradient divided
by 100 (see table( 6-3/1)). by 100 (see table( 6-3/1)).
G = percent grade divided by 100 G = percent grade divided by 100
6-4 VERTICAL PARABOLIC CURVES (SYMMETRICAL AND

UNSYMMETRICAL)
In alignment design of highways, crest or sag vertical parabolic curves are used to effect
gradual changes between tangent grades. The rate of changes of grade at successive points on the
curve is a constant amount for equal increments of horizontal distance.
The types of vertical curves are illustrated in figure (6-4/1). The properties of typical
symmetrical and unsymmetrical vertical parabolic curves are shown in figures (6-4/2) and
(6-4/3) respectively. Symmetrical parabolic curves are frequently used in vertical alignments of
highways.
6/10 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

6-5 MINIMUM LENGTH OF CREST VERTICAL CURVES
Minimum lengths of crest vertical curves based on sight distance criteria, are generally
satisfactory for safety, comfort and appearance [1,p.3-151]
Sight distances (S), are usually measured from height of drivers eye (h 1) above roadway surface
(1.08m.), to the height of an object (h2) which is used as 0.60m for stopping sight distance and
1.08m for passing sight distance.
The basic equations for determining the length (L) of parabolic crest vertical curves, in terms of
algebraic difference in grade (A) and sight distance are shown in figure (6-5/1).
Figure 6-4/1: Basic Types of Vertical Curves [1, p.3-150]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/11

Figure 6-4/2: Properties of a Typical Symmetrical Vertical Curve (), [2, p.185]
Figure 6-4/3: Properties of Unsymmetrical Vertical Curve [3, p. 139]

6/12 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
(6 – 5/1)
(6 – 5/2)
Figure 6-5/1: Parameters Considered in Determining the Length of a Crest Vertical Curve
to Provide Sight Distance [1, p.3-152]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/13

6-5/1 MINIMUM LENGTHS TO PROVIDE STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
The minimum lengths (L) of crest vertical curves, for different values of (A), to provide
the minimum stopping sight distances (S) for each design speed, are shown in figure (6-5/2). The
related equations for use with stopping sight distances (S) are:
(6 (–65/4)
− 5/3)
(6 (–6 5/5)
− 5/4)
6-5/2 DESIGN RATE OF VERTICAL CURVATURE OF CREST CURVES TO

PROVIDE SAFE STOPPING
The rate of vertical curvature (K), as a length of vertical curve per one percent change in grades
(A), is usually used in design for determining minimum vertical curve length (L).
L = K .A (6 − 5/5)
Where:
L in meters
K in meters per percent
A = G2 − G1 in meters
The design rates of vertical curvature (K), for crest curves based on stopping sight distance
requirements, are shown in table (6-5/1), for different design speeds.
6-5/3 MINIMUM LENGTHS TO PROVIDE PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

For the minimum passing sight distance (S), the minimum lengths (L) of crest vertical curves are
longer than those for stopping sight distance, with different object height criteria (h 2= 1.08m),
and may be determined using the formulas:
(6 – 5/6)
(6 – 5/7)
6/14 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

6-5/4 DESIGN RATE OF VERTICAL CURVATURE OF CREST CURVES TO
PROVIDE SAFE PASSING
The design rates of vertical curvature (K), for crest curves based on passing sight distance, are
shown in table (6-5/2), for different design speeds, in order to determine the required lengths of
crest curves. Generally, it is impractical to design crest vertical curves that provide passing,
because of high construction cost where crest cuts are involved [1, p. 3-157].
Figure 6-5/2: Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves-Open Road Conditions [1, p.3-154]
Table 6-5/1: Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance
[1, p.3-155]
Stopping Rate of Vertical
Design Speed
Sight Distance Curvature, K = L/A
(km/hr.)
(m) Calculated Design
20 20 0.6 1
30 35 1.9 2
40 50 3.8 4
50 65 6.4 7
60 85 11.0 11
70 105 16.8 17
80 130 25.7 26
90 160 38.9 39
100 185 52.0 52
110 220 73.6 74
120 250 95.0 95
130 285 123.4 124
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/15
Table 6-5/2: Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Passing Sight Distance
[1, p.3-157]
Design Speed Passing Sight Rate of Vertical
(km/hr.) Distance (m) Curvature, Ka Design
30 120 17
40 140 23
50 160 30
60 180 38
70 210 51
80 245 69
90 280 91
100 320 119
110 355 146
120 395 181
130 440 224
a
Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in
intersecting grades (A), K = L/A.
6-6 MINIMUM LENGTHS OF SAG VERTICAL CURVES

The minimum length of sag parabolic vertical curves is established on the basis of four criteria,
including:
Headlight sight distance (safety), Passenger comfort;
General appearance; and Drainage control.
6-6/1 SAFETY CRITERIA (HEADLIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE)

The portion of highway lighted ahead, is dependent on the headlight height (0.60m), and the
upward divergence of the light beam from longitudinal axis of vehicle (1 degree).
A sag vertical curve should be long enough, that light beam distance is the same as stopping
distance (S). On this basis, the minimum lengths of sag vertical curves may be determined using
the following formulas presented together with table (6-6/1):
(6 – 6/1) (6 – 6/2)
6/16 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

The resulting lengths of sag vertical curves, for the recommended stopping sight distances, for
each design speed are shown in figure (6-6/1).
6-6/2 DESIGN RATE OF VERTICAL CURVATURE OF SAG CURVES

The headlight sight distance is the most logical criterion to establish design values of lengths for
sag vertical curves.
The design controls in terms of the (K) rate for sag curves are shown in table (6-6/1), for
different design speeds, in order to determine minimum sag curves length: 𝐿 = 𝐾 . 𝐴. Longer
curves are desired wherever practical, but special attention to drainage needs to be considered
where (K) values exceed 51 meters per percent change in grade [1, p.3-161]
Table 6-6/1: Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves [1, p.3-161]
Design Stopping Rate of Vertical
Speed Sight Distance Curvature, Ka
(km/hr.) (m) Calculated Design
20 20 2.1 3
30 35 5.1 6
40 50 8.5 9
50 65 12.2 13
60 85 17.3 18
70 105 22.6 23
80 130 29.4 30
90 160 37.6 38
100 185 44.6 45
110 220 54.4 55
120 250 62.8 63
130 285 72.7 73
a
Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in
intersecting grades (A), K = L/A.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/17

Figure 6-6/1: Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves-Open Road Conditions [1, p.3-159]
6-6/3 COMFORT CRITERIA

On sag curves, gravitational and centripetal forces are combining, and thus passenger
comfort duo to the change in vertical direction is greater, as compared to crest curves.
Riding is comfortable on sag vertical curves when the centripetal acceleration does not exceed
0.3 m/sec.2. On this basis, the minimum length of sag vertical curve (L), to satisfy comfort may
be determined from the following formula [1.p.3-160]:
A × V2
L= (6 − 6/3)
395
Where:
L = Length of sag vertical curve, m
A = Algebraic difference in grades, percent
6-6/4 GENERAL APPEARANCE CRITERIA

For improved appearance on sag vertical serves:
Minimum Length (meters) = 30 × A (6 − 6/4)
Where: A in percent
Longer curves are appropriate to improve appearance for high type highways [1, p.3-160].
6/18 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

6-6/5 DRAINAGE CONTROL CRITERIA
Drainage affects design of sag vertical curve with (plus and minus) grades, where curbed
sections are used. A minimum grade of 0.3% should be provided within 15m of the level point of
the sag curve. This criteria corresponds to (K) of 51 meters per percent change in grade.
Therefore;
Maximum L (meters) = 51 × A (6 − 6/5)
Where: A in percent
6-7 MINIMUM LENGTHS OF SAG VERTICAL CURVES UNDERCROSSING

A GRADE SEPARATION STRUCTURE
The minimum length of sag vertical curve undercrossing a grade separation structure need to
provide a sight distance which should not be less than the minimum stopping sight distance.
In figure (6-7/1), the general equations for minimum length determination of sag curve are
presented at undercrossings, including the equations related to truck drivers.
6-8 GENERAL CONTROLS FOR VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

 Grade lines with numerous breaks and short lengths need to be avoided.
 The "hidden- dip" or "roller- coaster" profiles in straight alignment of a rolling terrain
should be avoided, by use of horizontal curves with more gradual grades.
 A "broken- back" grade line (two vertical curves in the same direction, separated by a
short grade) should be avoided.
 A uniform sustained long grade slightly below maximum grades, needs breaking the
grade with flatter grades, placing the steepest grade at the bottom.
 Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts, unless adequate drainage can be provided.
 It is desirable to use very flat grades at sections of at- grade intersections of the roadway.
[1,p.3-163].
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/19

The general equation for sag vertical curve length at undercrossings:
(6 – 8/2)
(6 – 8/1)
For trucks (h1 = 2.40 m , h2 = 0.60):
(6 – 8/3) (6 – 8/4)
Figure 6-7/1: Sight Distance at Undercrossings [1, p.3-162]
6/20 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

6-9 GENERAL DESIGN CONTROLS FOR COMBINATIONS OF
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT AND PROFILE
 Horizontal and vertical alignment should not be designed independently. Design of the
combination offers safety, capacity, uniformity of operation, and pleasing appearance
within the practical limits of terrain, nearly always without additional cost.
 Flat curvature with steep and long grades, or excessive curvature with flat grades, both
represent poor design.
 Vertical curvature superimposed on horizontal curvature, without successive changes in
profile (humps), generally results in a more pleasing facility.
 Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at the top of a crest vertical curve or
near the low point of a sag vertical curve.
 Both horizontal curvature and profile should be made as flat as practical at intersections.
 To minimize the nuisance to the neighborhood, a depressed alignment makes the
highway less visible and less noisy to adjacent area.
 The alignment design should enhance attractive views towards, (rather than away), of the
natural or manmade features (reveres, parks, outstanding structures).
Some examples of poor and good alignment design are shown in figure (6-9/1).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/21

Figure 6-9/1: Alignment and Profile Relationships in Roadway Design [1, p.3-168]
6/22 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

6-10 REFERENCES
[3] T.F. Hickerson, "Route Surveys and Design", McGraw- Hill Book Co., USA, 1959.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 6/23

CHAPTER 7
CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
Cross Section: is a vertical sectional section of the ground and roadway, at right angles to
the interline, including all elements of a highway or street, between right- of- way lines.
Roadway: is the portion of highway, including shoulders, for vehicular use.
Traveled way: is the portion of roadway, exclusive of shoulders, for the movement of vehicles.
7-1 LANE WIDTH AND MARGINAL STRIP

Lane width of a roadway affects level of service, comfort of driving, safety, and
operational characteristics. A lane width of 3.75m is generally used for multilane highway in
Iraq. The standard lane width is 3.60m.
Lane width, of 3.30m or 3.00m may be used at low speed facilities in urban areas. [1,p.4-7]
Marginal strips need to be provided with widths of 0.25m to 0.50m, and should be highly visible,
using the same colour of pavement marking. [4, p. II-34]
7-2 CROSS SLOPE

On paved two- lane roadways, a crown or high point in the middle and a cross slope (1.5-
2.0) percent downward toward both edges, is normally used.
When three or more lanes are inclined in the same direction on multilane highways, the cross
slope may be increased by 0.5 to 1.0 percent for each successive pair of lanes outward from the
top two lanes. On tangent alignment, the cross slope should not exceed 3% unless there are three
or more lanes in one direction of travel.
A greater cross slope (2 to 6) percent should be utilized for unpaved surfaces figure (7-2/1)
shows typical cross slope arrangements.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/1

Figure 7-2/1: Basic Cross Slope Arrangements [1, p.4-3]
7-3 SHOULDERS
Shoulder: is the portion of roadway, contiguous with the traveled way that accommodates
stopped vehicles, emergency use, and lateral support of pavement layers. [1, p. 4-8].
The normal usable shoulder width is 3.00 meters and preferably 3.60 meters. A minimum
shoulder width of 1.80-2.40 m may be considered for low- volume highways. Shoulders on
structures should normally have the same width as usable shoulders on the approach roadways.
Asphalt and concrete–surfaced shoulders should be sloped from 2 to 6 percent, aggregate
shoulders from 4 to 6 percent, and turf shoulders from 6 to 8 percent. [1, p.4-11]
It is desirable that texture of shoulders be different from those of traveled way.
7/2 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
7-4 MEDIANS
Median is the portion of a highway separating opposing directions of the traveled way.
They provide a space for emergency stops, allow space for storage of left running diminish
headlight glare, provide widths for future lanes, and provide refuge area for pedestrian crossings.
Median widths are in the range from 1.20 to 24.00m, and should by highly visible both night and
day. Medians may be depressed, raised, or flush with the traveled way surface. A depressed
median is generally preferred on rural highways for more efficient drainage with side slope of
1V: (4 to 6) H
Raised medians are used on arterial streets to regulate left- turn movements. A median barrier
may be needed where flush medians are used in urban streets. When medians are 12m or wider,
drivers have a sense of separating from opposing traffic, with freedom of operation.
Wide median (18m or more) may not be desirable at urban intersections that are signalized. [1,
p.4-34]
7-5 SIDESLOPES
Sideslopes should be designed to provide roadway stability, with a reasonable opportunity for
recovery of an out- of- control vehicle. The top of the slope (hinge point) need to be rounded to
reduce the loss of steering control, because vehicles tend to become airborne in crossing this
point.
Foreslopes steeper than 1V: 4 H are nor desirable. When slopes steeper than 1V: 3 H are used,
consideration should be given to the use of roadside barrier.
Backslopes should be 1V: 3H or flatter. Retaining walls should be considered where space
restrictions result in slopes steeper than 1V: 2H.
A smooth transition between foreslope and backslope should be provided (ditch bottom) at the
toe of the slope, in case the out- of- control vehicle with reach the ditch. [1,p.4-24]
For slope stability of soils that are mainly clay or susceptible to erosion, slopes of 1V: 3H or
flatter should be used. A commonly used slope for rock cuts is 2V:1H, and slopes as steep as 6V:
1H may be used in good- quality rock.
7-6 DRAINAGE CHANNELS

Drainage channels are used to collect and convey surface water from the highway right- of- way.
Roadside channels should be located and shaped to provide a smooth transition from the
roadway to the backslope.
Foreslope and backslope combination forming the channel (width: 1.20-2.40m), can be selected
to produce cross sections that can be safely traversed by an unrestrained vehicle occupant. Flatter
foreslopes (1V:4H), permit greater flexibility in the selection of backslopes to permit sage
traversal figure 7-6/1.
The depth of channel should be sufficient to remove surface water, based on a desirable grade
needed to avoid sedimentation.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/3

Median drainage channels are generally shallow depressed areas, located at or near the center of
the median and formed by flat sideslopes. The channel is sloped longitudinally for drainage, and
water is intercepted at intervals by inters and discharged from the roadway in a storm drain or
culvert. Flumes are used to carry the water collected by shoulder curb down the slopes, and can
be either pipes or open channels. See figure (7-6/2)
Figure 7-6/1: Designation of Roadside Regions [1, p.4-24]
Figure 7-6/2: Flumes of Iraq Expressway No. One [2, R9/A]

7/4 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
7-7 CURBS AND GUTTERS
Curbs are used for drainage control, edge delineation, safety of pedestrian walkways,
and reduction of maintenance operations.
Curb configurations include both vertical and sloping curbs as illustrated in figure (7-7/1).
Concrete or asphaltic curbs need to be visible particularly at night which may be improved
through the use of reflectorized markers attached to the top of the curb.
Vertical and sloping curb design may include a gutter, forming a combination curb and gutter
section. Vertical curbs are intended to discourage vehicles from leaving the roadway, with a
range from 15 to 20 cm in height. [1, p.4-16]
Sloping curbs are designed so vehicles can cross them readily when the need arises. When the
slope of the curb face is steeper than 1V: 1H, vehicles can mount the curb when the height is not
exceeding 10 cm. When the face slope is between 1V: 1H and 1V: 2H, the height should be
limited to 15cm. When the total curb height exceeds 15cm, it may be considered a vertical curb
rather than a sloping curb. Gutter section are provided to form the principal drainage system, 0.3
to 1.8m wide, with a cross slope of 5 to 8 percent, and should be of contrasting color and texture.
Figure 7-7/1: Typical Highway Curbs [1, p. 4-17]

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/5
7-8 SIDEWALKS
Sidewalks along city streets are often justified by pedestrian concentration, such as
residential area, schools, businesses, and industrial plants. Shoulders may obviate the need for
sidewalks in rural area, in all weather conditions.
In urban area, a border area, (2.4m) minimum width, separates the roadway from community's
homes and businesses, to provide space for sidewalks, vegetation, street lights, and street
hardware.
Sidewalk minimum width in residential area may vary from 1.20 to 2.40m. The width of planted
strip between sidewalk and traveled- way curb, if provided, should be a minimum of 0.60m.
The cross slope of sidewalks is not permitted to exceed 2%. On long bridges (greater than 60m),
a single walkway may provide.
A grade- separated pedestrian facility, either over or under a roadway, allows crossing at
different levels with safe refuge. Overcrossings are more preferred by pedestrian. Pedestrian
ramps in addition to stairway should be provided at all pedestrian separation structures
[1,p.4-56].
7-9 BIKEWAYS
There are two basic infrastructure approaches for bicycling as a mode of travel within
transportation system:
a) On –street improvements, which may include:
 Share motor vehicle/ bicycle use of a standard lane, with no bikeway designation.
 Shared motor vehicle/ bicycle use with designated bike route sign.
 A portion of roadway is designated by marking for exclusive use of bicycles
(figure 7-9/1).
b) Separate shared- use path, which is facility physically separated from the roadway, and
intended for a variety of path users including cyclists (figure 7-9/2).
The classification groups for bicyclists may include: group A (advanced or experienced), group
B (basic or casual bicyclists), and group C (Children).
The minimum width of a bicycle lane at roads is 1.20 to 1.50 meters, and some departments may
specify 1.80 meters. For the separate shared- use path, the absolute minimum with for a two-
direction bike path is 2.40 to 3.00m, with a desirable width of 3.60 to 4.20 meters. The minimum
shoulder width of 0.60m must be graded to drain water away.
Most cyclists travel within a range of 11-24 km/hr., with an average of 16-18 km/hr. The
minimum design speed for bicycle path is 30 km/hr. for most eases. The superelevation rate for
most bike path designs will vary from a minimum of 2% to a maximum of 3%.
The minimum radii for paved shared –use paths are presented in table (7-9/1) for the different
design speeds and friction factors. Grades greater than 5% are undesirable for bicyclists and
when the 5% grade is exceeded, the length of the grade should not exceed the vales listed in table
(7-9/2).
7/6 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 7-9/1: Typical Bicycle Lane Cross Section [3, p.202]
Table 7-9/1: Minimum Radii for Paved Shared-Use Path (2% Superelevation and 20 o Lean
Angle) [3, p.205]
Design Speed, V Minimum Radius, R
Friction Factor, f
(km/hr.) (m)
20 0.31 10
30 0.28 24
40 0.25 47
50 0.21 86
Table 7-9/2: Maximum Length of Grades Exceeding 5%

Grade % Maximum Length, meters
5-6 240
7 120
8 90
9 60
10 30
≥ 11 15
Minimum vertical curve lengths may be determined using an eye height for bicyclist h1= 1.40m,
and object height, h2= zero
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/7

Figure 7-9/2: Two-way shared-use path on separated right-of-way [3, p.204]
7-10 RIGHT–OF-WAY
Sufficient right – of- way should be acquired in order to avoid the expense of purchasing
developed property, with varying widths depending on local conditions.
The right–of– way for a 2- lane highway in rural areas is recommended to have a minimum
width of 30m, with 37 m desirable. A minimum right- of- way width of 45m, and a desirable
width of 76m are recommended for divided highways. Widths of 60 to 90m have been used for
divided highways without frontage roads.
For Iraq Expressway No. One, a right- of- way width of 260 m has been provided, which
included service roads. A typical cross section dimensions within the right- of- way width is
presented in figure (7- 10/1), for a two- lane highway.
7-11 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CLEARANCES

Lateral (horizontal) clearances and vertical clearances usually used in design in Iraq, are
presented in table (7-11/1), including the following:
a) Minimum vertical clearances to the underside of over passing structure.
b) Minimum horizontal clearances from roadway edge to obstruction.
c) Minimum vertical clearances for high tension lines.
d) Minimum horizontal clearances for high tension lines.
7/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 7-10/1: Typical cross-section dimensions for arterial streets . (Courtesy American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) [3, p. 170]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/9
Table 7-11/1: Vertical and Horizontal Clearances [4, P.II-43]
a) Minimum Vertical Clearance
b) Minimum Horizontal Clearance (D) from Roadway Edge to Obstruction
c) Minimum Vertical Clearance for High Tension Lines
d) Minimum Horizontal Clearance Required for High Tension Lines
7/10 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

7-12 ON-STREET PARKING
Stalls for on- street (curb) parking are especially recommended for locations where there
is great demand for curb parking spaces, and where parking meters are used.
On- street parking generally, decreases through- traffic capacity, impedes traffic flow, and
increases crash potential. Parallel parking is usually considered for on- street parking and angle
parking should be allowed only under certain circumstances.
Most drivers will parallel park within 15 to 30 cm of the curb face. The desirable minimum
width of a parking stall is 2.40m, and widths of 3.00 to 3.60m may be used. Stall lengths vary
from 6.60 to 7.80m.
Curb parking stalls should not be placed closer than 6.0m to the nearest sidewalk edge at
unsignalized intersections. At signalized intersections, a clearance to the nearest sidewalk edge
of 15.2m and preferably 30m should be considered for parking stalls. Figure (7-12/1) shows an
example for parking stall treatment.
7-13 LONGITUDINAL BARRIERS AND CRASH CUSHIONS

Longitudinal barriers are systems used to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway, and
crashing into roadside obstacles, overturning, or crossing into the path of vehicles in the opposite
direction. Longitudinal barriers include three classes: roadside barriers, median barriers, and
bridge railings.
Figure 7-12/1: Parking Lane Transition at Unsignalized Intersection [1, p.4-74]
Roadside barriers may include flexible or semirigid system (Guardrails), and rigid systems
(concrete and stone masonry walls). Design features of some guardrail system are given in table
(7-13/1).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/11
The height and slope of embankments are the primary factors that determine whether guardrails
should be used along embankments. Barriers are not usually warranted on embankments with
sideslopes flatter than 1V: 3H. See figure (7-13/1) [3, p.225].
The barrier should be placed far enough from the pavement edge, beyond (Shy Line) offset
values given in table (7-13/2). Special care should be considered when designing and installing
barrier ends, and barrier transitions. Guarails ends may be flared away form pavement, or design
a loader terminal that collapse upon impact, to absorb the energy of the crash, figure (7-13/2). An
example of barrier transition design of connections between guardrails and bridge parapets is
shown in figure (7-13/3).
The design features of median barrier system are presented in table (7-13/3). Barrier system
performs test when a level surface is provided in front of the barrier (without curbs or stepped
medians. For narrow medians, concrete barriers, such as (New Jersey) is recommended figure
(7-13/4).
Bridge railings are designed to prevent vehicles from running out of the edge of bridges or
culverts, after connected to the structure, using large number of systems, including rail and posts
or reinforced concrete railing, with common heights of 0.81 to 1.00 meter.
Crash cushions are protective systems that prevent errant vehicles from impaction roadside
obstacles, by decelerating the vehicle to a safe stop when head- on, or redirecting vehicles away
from the obstacle [1, p.4-33]. Crash cushions are usually used in front of retaining walls, bridge
piers, and abutments.
Rows of barrels and arrays of containers filled with sand may be used for this purpose. The
design of crash cushions usually employs one of two concepts of mechanics including the kinetic
energy principle or the conservation of momentum principle, with or without rigid support to
resist the vehicle impact force. An example of the configuration of sand- filled plastic barrels is
Table 7-13/1: Design Features of Guardrails That Have Performed Satisfactorily [3, p.224]
7/12 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 7-13/1: Comparative risk warrants for embankments [3, p.666]
Figure 7-13/2: Sketch of an eccentric loader terminal [3, p.227]

Table 7-13/2: Recommended Shy Line Offset Values [3, p.226]
Design Speed, (km/hr.) Shy Line Offset Values, (m)
130 3.7
120 3.2
110 2.8
100 2.4
90 2.2
80 2.0
70 1.7
60 1.4
50 1.1
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/13

Figure 7-13/3: Barrier transition design (courtesy Federal Highway Administration
[3, p.228]
Figure 7-13/4: Concrete New Jersey median barrier (Courtesy Transportation Research
Board [3, p.230]
Table 7-13/3: Design Features of Median Barriers That Have Performed Satisfactorily
[3, p.229]
7/14 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 7-13/5: Configuration of Example sand-Filled Plastic Barrels. (Crash Cushions)
[3, p.232]
7-14 BUS STOP TURNOUTS

Bus stop turnouts serve to remove the bus from the traveled way, for deceleration
standing, and acceleration. Preferably, the frequency of stops should not exceed 5 or 6 per
kilometer [3,p.255]. The bus stops may be located on the (near side) or (far side) of intersection,
or at the (mid-block) as shown in figure (7-14/1).
The recommended dimensions for bus bays to accommodate one standard 12-m bus are
presented in figure (7-14/2). Where two or more buses are expected to use a bus stop
simultaneously, 14m. should be added to the lengths shown for each additional bus.
The bus loading area can have a(parallel) or a (sawtooth) design. A recommended design of a
sawtooth arrangement is shown in figure (7-14/3) [1,p.4-71].
The pavement areas of turnouts should contrast in color and texture with the traveled way, and
pointed with (BUS LANE).
Passenger-loading areas should be provided with shelters, benches, route information, and
sufficient lighting intensity. [1, p.4-71]
Figure 7-14/1: Typical Bus Stop Turnouts on Arterial Streets. [3, p.259]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/15

Figure 7-14/2:Recommended Dimensions for Bus Bays to Accommodate One Standard
12-m Bus [3,p260]
Figure 7-14/3: Sawtooth Bus Loading Area [1, p.4-71]
7-15 TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS
7-15/1 TWO–LANE RURAL HIGHWAYS

The typical details of four types of two- lane rural highways are presented in figure
(7-15/1) with roadway widths of 9.5, 11.0, 12.0 and 13.5 meters.
7-15/2 FOUR-LANE RURAL HIGHWAYS

The typical details of two types of four- lane rural highways are shown in figure
(7-15/1), with roadway widths of 25.5 and 33.0 meters.
7-15/3 SIX-LANE RURAL HIGHWAYS

The typical details of two types of six- lane rural highways are illustrated in figure
(7-15/1), with roadway widths of 33.0 and 40.5 meters.
A typical cross section of Iraq Expressway No. one with six lanes plus two standing lanes is
presented in figure (7-15/2), including all details within the right- of- way of 260m.
7/16 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

7-15/4 FOUR–LANE URBAN STREETS
A typical cross section for a four- lane urban street with curbed pavements, median, and
sidewalks is shown in figure (7-15/3) with a total width of 26.4 meters.
7-15/5 OVER PASSING BRIDGES

A typical cross section of an over passing bridge used for Iraq expressway No. one
project, is presented in figure (7-15/4), with two travel lanes and a total width of 14.0 meters.
7-15/6 INTERCHANGE RAMP (TURNING ROADWAY)

Typical details of an interchange ramp junction used in Iraq Expressway No. one, is
7-15/7 TUNNELS
The desired typical two-lane tunnel section is illustrated in figure (7-15/6), with a total
width of 13.10 meters.
Design Speed
km/hr.
Figure 7-15/1: Typical Details of Rural Highways [4, p.II-2]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/17

Design Speed
km/hr.
Design Speed
km/hr.
Figure 7-15/1: Typical Details of Rural Highways [4, p.II-2] (Contd.)
7/18 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 7-15/2: Iraq Expressway No. One/ Typical Cross Section [2, R/9A]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/19
Figure 7-15/3: Four-Lane Urban Street [3, p.668a]
Figure 7-15/4: Two-Lane Over Passing Bridge Cross Section [2, R/7A]
Figure 7-15/5: Interchange Ramp Junction [2, R/7A]]

7/20 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
13.1 m
Figure 7-15/6: Typical Two-lane Tunnel Section [1, p.4-53]
7-16 UTILITIES
Adjustment of utility facilities is needed to preserve and protect the integrity and visual
quality of the roadway, its maintenance efficiency, and the safety of traffic.
Utilities involve sanitary sewers, water supply lines, pipelines, power and communication lines,
drainage and irrigation lines. Utility lines should be located to minimize need for later
adjustments, to accommodate future highway improvements, and to permit servicing such lines
with minimum interference with traffic.
Longitudinal installation should be located on uniform alignment as near as practical to the right-
of- way line so as not to interfere with traffic operation and to preserve space for future highway
and street improvements or other utility installations [1, p.3-174].
Aboveground utilities should not be placed within the highway clear zones. No poles should be
located in the median of divided highways. In curbed section of urban areas, underground
utilities should be located in the border areas between curb and sidewalks, at least 0.5m behind
the face of curb.
On high–speed, heavily traveled roadways, the unobstructed clear roadside area, need to be
extended to a minimum of 9.0 meters from edge of the driving lane.
7-17 REFERENCES
[2] Dorsch Consult, "Iraq Expressway No. One Contract Drawings", Munich- Germany, 1976.
[3] Wright, P.H. and Dixon, K.K, "Highway Engineering", John Wiley & Sons, USA, 2004.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 7/21

CHAPTER 8
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR
DIFFERENT HIGHWAY CLASSES AND PARKING FACILITIES
8-1 LOCAL RURAL ROADS

A local road services primarily to provide access to farms, residences, businesses, or other
abutting properties. [1, p.5-1]
8-1/1 SELECTED DESIGN SPEED

The selected design speed is used to determine the various geometric design features of
the roadway, for the design year, which is about 20 years into the future. The design features
should be appropriate for environmental and terrain conditions and consistent with the selected
design speed.
The minimum design speeds, as appropriate for traffic volumes of local rural roads, and types of
terrain are shown in table (8-1/1) [1, p.5-2].

The maximum grades for local rural roads as a function of type of terrain and selected
design speed are presented in table (8-1/2) [1.p.5-3].
Table 8-1/1: Minimum Design Speeds for Local Rural Roads [1, p.5-2]
Design Speed (km/hr.) for Specified
Design Volume (veh/day)
Type of 250 400 1500 2000
under 50 to
Terrain to to to and
50 250
400 1500 2000 over
Level 50 50 60 80 80 80
Rolling 30 50 50 60 60 60
Mountainous 30 30 30 50 50 50
Table 8-1/2: Maximum Grades for Local Rural Roads [1, p.5-3]
Maximum Grade (%) for Specified Design
Type of Speed (km/hr.)
Terrain
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Level 9 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 5
Rolling 12 11 11 10 10 9 8 7 6
Mountainous 17 16 15 14 13 12 10 10 —
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 8/1

8-2 LOCAL URBAN STREETS
A local urban street is a public roadway for traffic, including vehicles, public transit,
bicycles, and pedestrians, The main function of local street, is to provide access to adjacent
property.

The closely spaced intersections in urban areas, usually limit vehicular speeds. Therefore,
design speed is not a major factor for design of local urban streets.
For consistency in geometric design elements, design speeds ranging from 30 to 50 km/hr. may
be used depending on available right- of – way, terrain, pedestrian presence, adjacent
development, and other area controls and development [1, p.5-11].
8-2/2 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM GRADES

Grades for local urban streets should be as level as practical. Where grades of 4 percent
or steeper are necessary, the drainage design may become critical.
Streets should have grades less than 8 percent in commercial and industrial areas, and less than
15 percent in residential areas. For proper drainage of curbed pavements, a minimum grade of
0.3 percent should be used for local urban streets. [1, p.5-12]
8-2/3 CUL–DE–SACS AND TURNAROUNDS

For local urban streets open at one end only, a special turning area at the closed end, need
to be provided, with a minimum outside radius of 10 m in residential areas, and 15m in
commercial and industrial areas. The different types of Cul –de –Sacs and dead- end local streets
are illustrated in figure (8-2/1) [1, p.5-17].
Alleys with narrow widths, from 5 to 6m in residential areas, and up to 19m in industrial areas,
usually provide access to the side or rear of individual land parcels. Dead – end alleys should
include a turning area as shown in figure (8-2/2) [1, p.5-18].
8-2/4 MINIMUM LEVELS OF ILLUMINATION

Good visibility under day or night is one of the fundamental needs for safe driving.
Properly designed and maintained street lighting will provide efficient night use of streets.
The suggested minimum levels of illumination, expressed in average maintained lux, are
Illumination levels at intersections should be the sum of illumination levels on intersecting
streets. Where only intersections are lighted, a graduate lighting transition from dark to light
should be provided, so that drivers may have time to adapt their vision.
Uniformity of lighting can be represented by a uniformity ratio of the average –to- minimum lux
values which is recommended to be: 6:1 for residential roadways, 3:1 for commercial roadways,
10:1 for residential walkways, and 4:1 for commercial walkways. The designer should minimize
visual discomfort and impairment of driver and pedestrian vision due to glare.
8/2 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 8-2/1: Types of Cul-de-Sacs and Dead-End Streets [1, p.5-17]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 8/3
Figure 8-2/2: Alley Turnarounds [1, p.5-18]
Table 8-2/1: Minimum Illumination Levels [4, p.402]
Industrial/
Classification Residential (lux)
Commercial (lux)
Local 9.7 4.3
Alleys 6.5 2.2
Sidewalks 9.7 2.2
8-3 RURAL COLLECTOR HIGHWAYS

Collector highways serve a dual function of collecting traffic for movement between
arterials and local roads, and providing access to abutting properties. Collectors usually serve
moderate traffic volumes.

The minimum design speeds for rural collector roads, as a function of the type of terrain
and the design traffic volumes are indicated in table (8-3/1) [1, p.6-2].

The maximum grades for rural collectors as a function of type of terrain and design speed
are presented in table (8-3/2) [1, p.6-3].
8/4 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

8-4 URBAN COLLECTOR STREETS
A collector street is a public facility providing both traffic mobility and land access within
residential, commercial, and industrial areas.

For consistency in geometric design of collector streets, a design speed of 50 km/hr. or
higher should be used, depending on available right- of – way, terrain, adjacent development,
pedestrian presence, and other site controls.

Grades for urban collector streets should be as level as practical. Where adjacent
sidewalks are present, a maximum grade of 5 percent is recommended. The maximum grades for
urban collector streets are shown in table (8-4/1).
For drainage purposes, it is recommended that a grade of 0.5 percent or more is used, with a
minimum grade of 0.3 percent.
Table 8-3/1: Minimum Design Speeds for Rural Collectors [1, p.6-2]
Design speed (km/h) for Specified
Type of Design Volume (veh/day)
Terrain
0 to 400 400 to 2000 over 2000
Level 60 80 100
Rolling 50 60 80
Mountainous 30 50 60
Note: Where practical, design speeds higher than those shown should be considered
Table 8-3/2: Maximum Grades for Rural Collectors [1, p.6-3]
Maximum Grade (%) for Specified
Type of Design Speed (km/hr.)
Terrain
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Level 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 5
Rolling 10 10 9 8 8 7 7 6
Mountainou 12 11 10 10 10 9 9 8
s
Table 8-4/1: Maximum Grades for Urban Collectors [1, p.6-12]
Terrain
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Level 9 9 9 9 8 7 7 6
Rolling 12 12 11 10 9 8 8 7
Mountainous 14 13 12 12 11 10 10 9
Note: Short lengths of grade in urban areas, such as grades less than 150 m in length, one-
way downgrades, and grades on low-volume urban collectors may be up to 2%
steeper than the grades shown above.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 8/5

8-5 RURAL ARTERIALS
The principal and minor arterial systems, provide a high- speed, high- volume network, for
travel between major points, covering a broad range of roadways from two – lane to multilane
highways, to provide the desired safe and efficient operations.

Rural arterials, (other than freeways), should be designed for speeds of 60 to 120 km/hr.,
depending on terrain, as shown in table (8-5/1)[1, p.7-2]
Table 8-5/1: Rural Arterials Selected Depending on Design Speed
Type of Terrain Design Speed (km/hr.)

Level 100-120
Rolling 80-100
Mountainous 60-80

The recommended maximum grades for rural arterials are presented in table (8-5/2), for
different types of terrain and desired design speeds.
8-5/3 TYPICAL MEDIANS ON DIVIDED ARTERIALS

Typical median configurations that may be used on divided arterials are shown in figure
(8-5/1). Configurations A, B, F and G are appropriate for rural arterials, while configurations C,
D and E, are more appropriate for urban arterials.
Table 8-5/2: Maximum Grades for Rural Arterials [1, p.7-4]
Maximum Grade (%) for

Type of Terrain Specified Design Speed (km/hr.)
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Level 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 3
Rolling 6 6 5 5 4 4 4 4
Mountainous 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 5
8/6 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

-G-
Figure 8-5/1: Typical Medians on Divided Arterials [1, p.7-20]
8-5/4 ATTAINING SUPERELEVATED CROSS SECTIONS FOR DIVIDED

ARTERIALS
A divided arterial on a curve should be superelevated to ensure safe operation, and
pleasing appearance.
The three general methods for attaining superelevation on divided arterials are presented in
figure (8-5/2), including cross section rotation about median centerline, median edges, and
roadway centerlines.
8-5/5 CROSS SECTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR DIVIDED ARTERIALS

Sufficient width of right- of- way borders is desirable for divided arterials to provide
cross–sectional elements of traveled ways, shoulders, wide median 9m or more, foreslopes,
backslopes, drainage channels, clear zones, and frontage roads. A typical cross sectional
arrangement on divided arterials with desirable widths is shown in figure (8-5/3).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 8/7

The cross sectional arrangement with frontage roads is presented in figure (8-5/4). Frontage
roads serve to collect and distribute local traffic to and from adjacent development, thus freeing
the divided arterial from the disturbance of local operation.
Figure 8-5/2: Methods of Attaining Superelevation on Divided Arterials [1, p.7-18]
Figure 8-5/3: Cross Sectional Arrangement on Divided Arterials [1, p7-21]
Figure 8-5/4: Cross Sectional Arrangement on Divided Arterials With Frontages Roads.
[1, p.7-23]
8/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
8-6 URBAN ARTERIALS
The principal objective for an urban arterial is traffic mobility of all users, with some
degree of access to abutting property. The urban arterial system serves the major activity centers
of a metropolitan area, the highest traffic volume, and the longest trips.

Design speeds for urban arterials generally range from 50 to 100 km/hr., with lower
speeds in central business districts, and higher speeds in suburban areas.

It is always desirable to provide the flattest grades practical. The recommended
maximum grades for urban arterials are presented in table (8-6/1) [1, p.7-29].
Where steep grades cannot be flattened, climbing lanes may be considered. In order to provide
adequate longitudinal drainage in curbed sections of urban arterials, it is desirable to provide 0.5
percent gradient minimum.
8-7 FREEWAYS
Freeways are arterial highways with full control of access, intended to provide high levels
of safety and efficiency for large volumes of traffic at high speeds.
Urban freeways are classified as: depressed, elevated, ground- level, or combination-type.

For rural freeways, a design speed of 110 km/hr. should be used. On urban freeways, a
design speed of 100 km/hr. or higher may be used. In mountainous terrain, a design speed of 80
to 100 km/hr. may be used for design of freeways. [1, p.8-1]

The maximum grades for freeways are presented in table (8-7/1).
8-7/3 TYPICAL RURAL FREEWAY MEDIANS

On rural freeway, median widths of 15 to 30 meters are common. In rolling terrain, a
wide variable median with an average width of 45m or more may be used. In mountainous
terrain, paved medians may be needed with widths of 3 to 9 meters flush with barrier figure (8-
7/1) shows some typical rural medians.
Emergency crossovers may be placed in wide medians on rural freeways, where interchange
spacing exceeds 8 km at intervals of 5 to 6.5 km, or as needed.
Maintenance or emergency crossovers should not be placed unless the median width is sufficient
to accommodate the vehicle length (7.5m or more). [1, p.8-9]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 8/9

Table 8-6/1: Maximum Grades for Urban Arterials [1, p.7-29]
Terrain
50 60 70 80 90 100
Level 8 7 6 6 5 5
Rolling 9 8 7 7 6 6
Mountainou 11 10 9 9 8 8
s
Table 8-7/1: Maximum Grades for Rural and Urban Freeways [1, p.8-4]
Design Speeds (km/hr.)
Type of
80 90 100 110 120 130
Terrain
Grades (Yo)a
Level 4 4 3 3 3 3
Rolling 5 5 4 4 4 4
Mountainous 6 6 6 5 — —
a
Grades 1% steeper than the value shown may be provided in urban areas
with right-of-way constraints or where needed in mountainous terrain.
Figure 8-7/1: Typical Rural Medians [1, p.8-8]
8/10 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

8-7/4 CROSS SECTIONS FOR DEPRESSED URBAN FREEWAYS
The roadways of depressed urban freeways are located at a minimum depth of 5.20m in
addition to the expected structural depth, below the surface of adjacent streets.
Figure (8-7/2) shows a typical cross section for depressed freeways, with a 3.0 to 6.6m median
width. Depressed freeway with walled cross section is shown in figure (8-7/3).
8-7/5 CROSS SECTIONS FOR ELEVATED URBAN FREEWAYS

An elevated freeway may be constructed on either a viaduct or an embankment. Typical
cross sections for elevated freeways are shown in figures (8-7/4) and (8-7/5). The double–deck
design figure (8-7/4 B) may be used to narrow rights – of- way, particularly where few ramps are
needed, in order to convert the two- way one level structure, to a two- level structure.
Elevated freeways may be constructed on earth embankments, and the outer separation may
permit the use of earth slopes at locations without ramps, and retaining walls at ramp, as
illustrated in figure (8-7/6).
Figure 8-7/2: Typical Cross Section for Depressed Freeways [1, p.8-13]
Figure 8-7/3: Cross Section with Retaining Walls on Depressed Freeways without Ramps
[1, p.8-14]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 8/11

Figure 8-7/4: Typical Cross Section for Elevated Freeways on Structures without Ramps
[1, p.8-18]
Figure 8-7/5: Typical and Restricted Cross Sections for Elevated Freeways on
Structures with Frontage Roads [1, p.8-19]
8/12 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 8-7/6: Typical and Restricted Cross Sections for Elevated Freeways on
Embankment [1, p.8-20]
8-7/6 CROSS SECTIONS FOR GROUND- LEVEL URBAN FREEWAYS

Ground- level freeway are used in flat terrain, and along water courses, where right- of –
way is not expensive. Crossroads need to change their profile, over or under the freeway.
Typical cross sections for ground- level freeways are shown in figure (8-7/7), with and without
frontage roads.
Restricted cross sections for ground- level freeways are illustrated in figure (8-7/8). With
restricted cross sections, both the narrow median and outer separation should be paved.
Where there is no fixed- source lighting, a glare screen may be desirable in the outer separation.
8-7/7 CROSS SECTIONS FOR COMBINATION-TYPE URBAN FREEWAYS

Urban freeway may incorporate some combination of depressed, elevated, or ground-
level designs, which result in variations of cross section profiles.
These special designs usually apply to relatively short lengths of roadway to meet specific
conditions, as illustrated in figure (8-7/9).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 8/13

Figure 8-7/7: Typical Cross Section for Ground-Level Freeway [1, p.8-23]
Figure 8-7/8: Restricted Cross Section for Ground-Level Freeways [1, p.8-23]
Figure 8-7/9: Cross Section-Control Combination-Type Freeway [1, p.8-26]

8/14 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
8-8 OFF-STREET PARKING FACILITIES
Parking problems have been aggravated in main cities, especially in business districts,
commercial areas, and college complexes. In many locations curb parking has been eliminated to
improve traffic flow for streets.
On – street parking has been discussed in chapter seven (7-12). Off- street parking may include
parking lots, and garages.
8-8/1 LOCATION OF PARKING LOTS AND GARAGES

Improper location of a parking lot or garage is likely to have them of limited use, even if
located very close to parking demand. Parking lots and garages should be located near major
arterials, and desirably accessed by right- hand turning movements. Garages should have access
to two or more streets.
Parking for short- term parker should be located within 30m of the building entrance. Long- term
parkers may walk a maximum distance of 600m. Where parkers are carrying baggage, a
maximum walking distance should not exceed 300m. [2, p.249]
Safe and convenient pedestrian access to parking facilities should be provided, and conflicts with
vehicular traffic should be avoided.
8-8/2 GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA OF PARKING GARAGES

Special design criteria for parking garages may include the following:
 Single entrances and exits, with multiple lanes are preferable.
 Entrances and exits should be located away from street intersections to avoid
congestion.
 Lane widths of 3.6 to 4.3m are typically used for entrances and exits.
 One entrance lane for every 300 to 500 spaces is typically provided.
 One exit lane should be provided for every 200 to 250 spaces depending on average
parking duration.
 Column spacing need to be equal to the unit parking depth (module width), if possible.
 A clear ceiling height of 2.3 m should be provided.
 Vehicular access between floors should be provided by sloped floors or ramps.
 Floor slopes should not exceed 3 to 4 percent for self- park facilities, and 10 percent
for attendant park facilities.
 Ramp slopes should preferably not exceed 10 percent.
 One – way curved ramps should be at least 3.6 to 4.0 m in width.
 A minimum radius of curvature of 10m is recommended, measured at the face of the
outer curb of the inside lane.
 The capacity of an entrance lane ranges up to 700 vph without a ticket dispenser and
400 vph with an automatic ticket dispenser. [2,p.251]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 8/15

8-8/3 PARKING STALL LAYOUT AT VARIOUS ANGLES
A parking lot or garage should preferably be rectangular. Right- angled parking tends to require
slightly less area per parked car than other configurations, and generally used for two- way
movements.
Parking stalls oriented at angles of 45° to 75° to the aisles are often used with one- way
circulation. Parking stall layout dimensions for stalls of (2.8 x 5.5m), arranged at various angles
are given in figure (8-8/1).
Figure 8-8/1: Parking Stall Layout Elements Expressed in Meters [2, p.250]
8/16 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

8-9 REFERENCES
[2] Wright, P.H. and Dixon, K.K., "Highway Engineering", John Wiley & Sons, USA, 2004.
[3] Garber, N.J. and Hoel, L.A "Traffic & Highway Engineering", Cengage Learning, USA,
2009.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 8/17

CHAPTER 9
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross,
including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movements within the area.
9-1 BASIC TYPES OF AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS
9-1/1 THREE-LEG
Figure (9-1/1) below shows different types of T intersections ranging from the simplest
shown in figure (9-1/1a) to a channelized one with divisional islands and turning roadways
shown in figure (9-1/1d).
Figure 9-1/1: Examples of T- Intersection, [2, p.270]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/1

9-1/2 FOUR-LEG
Figure (9-1/2) shows examples of four-leg intersection.
Figure 9-1/2: Examples of Four-Leg Intersection, [2, p. 272]
9-1/3 MULTILEG
Multileg intersections have five or more approaches, as shown in figure (9-1/3).
Whenever possible, this type of intersection should be avoided. In order to remove some of the
conflicting movements from the major intersection and thereby increase safety and operation,
one or more of the legs are realigned.
9/2 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 9-1/3: Examples of Multileg Intersections, [2, p.273]
9-1/4 ROUNDABOUTS
A roundabout is an intersection with a central island around where traffic must travel
counterclockwise and in which entering traffic must yield to circulating traffic. Roundabouts can
be classified into three basic categories according to size and number of lanes
 Mini-roundabouts
 Single-lane roundabouts
 Multilane roundabouts
Table (9-1/1) summarizes and compares some fundamental design and operational elements for
each of the three roundabout categories discussed herein. The following paragraphs provide a
brief discussion of each category
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/3

Table 9-1/1: Comparison of Roundabout Types [1, p. 9-22]
Single-Lane Multilane
Design Element Mini-Roundabout
Roundabout Roundabout
Recommended maximum
25 to 30 km/hr. 30 to 40 km/hr. 40 to 50 km/hr.
entry design speed
Maximum number of
1 1 2+
entering lanes per approach
Typical inscribed circle
13 to 27 m 27 to 46 m 40 to 76 m
diameter
Central island treatment Mountable Raised Raised
Typical daily volumes on 4-
0 to 15,000 0 to 20,000 2Q000+
leg roundabout (veh/day)
9-4/1/1 MINI-ROUNDABOUTS
Mini-roundabouts are small roundabouts used in low-speed urban environments, with
average operating speeds of 50 km/h or less. Figure (9-1/4) provides an example of a mini-
roundabout.
Figure 9-1/4: Typical Mini-Roundabout, [1, p. 9-23]
9-1/4/2 SINGLE-LANE ROUNDABOUTS

This type of roundabout is characterized as having a single entry lane at all legs and one
circulatory lane. Figure (9-1/5) provides an example of a typical urban single-lane roundabout.
They are distinguished from mini-roundabouts by their larger inscribed circle diameters and non-
mountable central islands.
9/4 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 9-1/5: Geometric Elements of a Single-Lane Roundabout [2, p. 275]
9-1/4/3 MULTILANE ROUNDABOUTS

Multilane roundabouts include all roundabouts that have at least one entry with two or
more lanes. They also include roundabouts with entries on one or more approaches that flare
from one to two or more lanes. These need wider circulatory roadways to accommodate more
than one vehicle travelling side-by-side. Figure (9-1/6) provides an example of a typical
multilane roundabout.
Figure 9-1/6: Roundabout with Entry Flaring in Two Quadrants [4, p582]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/5
9-2 ISLAND DETAILS
An island is a defined area between traffic lanes used for control of vehicle movements.
Islands also provide an area for pedestrian refuge and traffic control devices. Within an
intersection, a median or an outer separation is also considered an island. Where traffic entering
an intersection is directed into definite paths by islands, this design feature is termed a
channelized intersection.
Channelizing islands generally are included in intersection design for one or more of the
following purposes:
 Separation of conflicts
 Control of angle of conflict
 Reduction in excessive pavement areas
 Regulation of traffic and indication of proper use of intersection
 Arrangements to favor a predominant turning movement
 Protection of pedestrians
 Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
 Location of traffic control devices
Islands serve three primary functions: (1) channelization—to control and direct traffic
movement, usually turning; (2) division—to divide opposing or same direction traffic streams,
usually through movements; and (3) refuge—to provide refuge for pedestrians. Most islands
combine two or all of these functions.
9-2/1 CHANNELIZING ISLANDS
Channelizing islands that control and direct traffic movements into the proper paths for
their intended use are an important part of intersection design. Channelizing islands may be of
many shapes and sizes, depending on the conditions and dimensions of the intersection. Some of
those conditions are illustrated in figure (9-2/1).
Figure 9-2/1: General Types and Shapes of Islands and Medians [1, p.9-96]
9/6 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
9-2/2 DIVISIONAL ISLANDS
These are frequently used at intersections of undivided highways to alert drivers that they
are approaching an intersection and to control traffic at the intersection. They also can be used
effectively to control left turns at skewed intersections. Examples of divisional islands are shown
in figure (9-2/2). It is sometimes necessary to use reverse curves (two simple curves with
opposite curvatures, forming a compound curve) when divisional islands are introduced,
particularly when the location is at a tangent. At locations where speeds tend to be high,
particularly in rural areas, reversals in curvature should preferably be with radii of 1 165 m or
greater. Sharper curves may be used on intermediate-speed roads (up to 70 km/h) with radii of
620 m or greater.
Figure 9-2/2: Examples of Divisional Islands [1, p. 9-98]
9-2/3 REFUGE ISLANDS

Refuge islands, sometimes referred to as pedestrian islands, are used mainly at urban
intersections to serve as refuge areas for wheelchairs and pedestrians crossing wide intersections.
They also may be used for loading and unloading transit passengers. Figure (9-2/1) shows
examples of islands that provide refuge as well as function as channelized islands. Refuge
islands should be a minimum of 1.8 m wide when they will be used by bicyclists.
9-2/4 MINIMUM SIZES OF ISLANDS
Island sizes and shapes vary materially from one intersection to another. Islands should be
sufficiently large to command attention. The smallest curbed corner island normally should have
an area of approximately 5 m2 for urban and 7 m2 for rural intersections. However, 9 m2 is
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/7

preferable for both. Accordingly, corner triangular islands should not be less than 3.5 m a side,
and preferably should be 4.5 m on a side after the rounding of corners.
Elongated or divisional islands should be not less than 1.2 m wide and 6 to 8 m long. In special
cases where space is limited, elongated islands may be reduced to a minimum width of 0.5 m. In
general, introducing curbed divisional islands at isolated intersections on high-speed highways is
undesirable unless special attention is directed to providing high visibility for the islands. Curbed
divisional islands introduced at isolated intersections on high-speed highways should be 30 m or
more in length. When situated in the vicinity of a high point in the roadway profile or at or near
the beginning of a horizontal curve, the approach end of the curbed island should be extended to
be clearly visible to approaching drivers.
Islands having side lengths near the minimum are considered to be small islands whereas those
with side lengths of 30 m or greater are considered to be large. Those with side lengths less than
those for large islands but greater than the minimum are considered to be intermediate islands.
9-2/5 LOCATION AND TREATMENT OF APPROACH ENDS OF CURBED ISLANDS
(AASHTO 2011)
The location of a curbed island at an intersection is dictated by the edge of the through
traffic lanes and the turning roadways. Figures (9-2/3) and (9-2/4) show design details of curbed
islands at urban and rural intersections without and with shoulders, respectively.
All curbed islands in figures (9-2/3) and (9-2/4) are shown with approach noses and merging
ends rounded with appropriate radii of 0.6 to 1 m. The approach corner is rounded with a radius
of 0.6 to 1.5 m.
The approach nose of a curbed island should be conspicuous to approaching drivers and should
be definitely clear of vehicle paths, physically and visually, so that drivers will not shy away
from the island. Reflectorized markers may be used on the approach nose of the curbed island.
The offset from the travel lane to the approach nose should be greater than that to the face of the
curbed island, normally about 0.6 m. For curbed median islands, the face of curb at the approach
island nose should be offset at least 0.6 m and preferably 1.0 m from the normal median edge of
the traveled way. The island should then be gradually widened to its full width. For other curbed
islands, the total nose offset should be 1 to 2 m from the normal edge of through lanes and 0.6 to
1 m edge of the traveled way of a turning roadway. Large offsets should be provided where the
curbed corner island is preceded by a right turn deceleration lane.
Where a curbed corner island is proposed on an approach roadway with shoulders, the face of
curb on the corner island should be offset by an amount equal to the shoulder width. If the corner
island is preceded by a right-turn deceleration lane, the shoulder offset should be at least 2.4 m.
Curbed corner islands and median noses should be ramped down as shown in figure (9-2/5) and
provided with devices to give advance warning to approaching drivers and especially for
nighttime driving. Pavement markings in front of the approach nose are particularly
advantageous on the areas shown as stippled in figure (9-2/3)
9/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 9-2/3: Layouts of curbed island without shoulders [2, p. 292]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/9

Figure 9-2/4: Layouts of curbed island with shoulders [2, p. 293]
9/10 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 9-2/5: Nose Ramping at Approach End of Median or Corner Island [1, p. 9-104]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/11

9-3 MINIMUM TURNING ROADWAY DESIGN WITH CORNER ISLANDS
AND DIFFERENT ANGLE TURNS
The angle of turn, turning speed, design vehicle, and traffic volume are the main factors
governing the design of curves at at-grade intersections. When the turning speed at an
intersection is assumed to be 24 km/hr. or less, the curves for the pavement edges are designed to
conform to at least the minimum turning path of the design vehicle. The three types of design
commonly used when turning speeds are 24 km/h or less are the simple curve (an arc of a
circular curve), the simple curve with taper, and the three-centered compound curve (three
simple curves joined together and turning in the same direction)
Figure (9-3/1) shows the minimum designs necessary for a passenger car making a 90-degree
right turn. Similar designs for single-unit (SU) trucks in figure (9-3/2) and for tractor semi-trailer
are shown in figures (9-3/3) through (9-3/5). The minimum edge-of-traveled-way designs for
turns may be considered at an intersection based on the turning paths of the design vehicles
identified below:
 P design vehicle (figure 9-3/1). This design vehicle is used at intersections in
conjunction with parkways where minimum turns are appropriate, at local road
intersections with major roads where turns are made only occasionally, and at
intersections of two minor roads carrying low volumes. However, if conditions
permit, the SU vehicle (figure 9-3/2) is the preferred design vehicle.
 SU design vehicle (figure 9-3/2). Generally, this design vehicle provides the
recommended minimum edge-of-traveled-way design for rural highways other than
those described above. Turning movements for urban conditions are discussed in a
separate section of this chapter. Important turning movements on major highways,
particularly those involving a large percentage of trucks, should be designed with
either larger radii, or speed-change lanes, or both.
 Semitrailer combination design vehicles (figures (9-3/3) through (9-3/5)). These
design vehicles should be used where truck combinations will turn repeatedly.
Where designs for such vehicles are warranted, the simpler symmetrical
arrangements of three-centered compound curves (shown in figures (9-3/3) and
(9-3/4)) are generally preferred if these smaller truck combinations make up a
sizable percentage of the turning volume. Because designs for semitrailer
combination vehicles, particularly when used in two or more quadrants of an
intersection, produce large paved areas, it may be desirable to provide somewhat
larger radii and use a corner triangular island.
9/12 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 9-3/1: Minimum Traveled Way (Passenger Vehicles) [4, p. 598]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/13
Figure 9-3/2: Minimum Traveled Way Designs (Single Unit Trucks and City Transit Buses)
[4, p. 600]
9/14 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
Figure 9-3/3: Minimum Edge-of-Traveled Way Designs (WB-12 Design Vehicle Path)
[4, p. 602]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/15
[4, p. 604]
[4, p. 605]
9/16 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Minimum edge-of-pavement designs for different angles of turn and design vehicles are
given in table (9-3/1) for simple curves and simple curves with taper and in table (9-3/2) for
symmetric and asymmetric three-centered curves.
Table 9-3/1: Edge–of–Traveled–Way Designs for Turns at Intersection [4, p. 588]
Table 9-3/1: Edge–of–Traveled–Way Designs for Turns at Intersection, Continued

[4, p 589]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/17

[4, p.590]

[4, p. 591]
9/18 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 9-3/2: Edge–of–Traveled–Way for Turns at Intersection [4, p. 592]
Table 9-3/2: Edge–of–Traveled–Way for Turns at Intersection, continued [4, p. 593]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/19

Table (9-3/1) indicates that it is not feasible to have simple curves for large trucks such as WB-
12, WB-15 and WB-19 when the angle of turn is 75 degrees or greater
9-3/1 EFFECT OF CURB RADII ON TURNING PATHS
The effect of curb radii on the right-turning paths of various design vehicles turning through
an angle of 90 degrees (on streets without parking lanes) is shown in figures (9-3/6) and (9-3/7).
Figure (9-3/6) shows the effects of a 4.5-m radius. With 3.6-m lanes, the design passenger
vehicle can turn with no encroachment on an adjacent lane at the end of the turn, but the SU and
BUS design vehicles will swing wide on both streets and will occupy two lanes at the end of the
turn.
9/20 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

To turn into two lanes on the cross street, the WB-15 [WB-50] design vehicle will occupy an
area wider than those two lanes (i.e., the design vehicle would encroach on a shoulder or curb
area, as well).
Figure (9-3/7) shows vehicle operation at a 12-m curb radius. The P vehicle can easily make the
turn around this radius. The SU and BUS design vehicles can turn around the radius into one
lane on the cross street by beginning their turn adjacent to the centerline of the major street. The
WB-15 [WB-50] design vehicle needs the entire two-lane width of the cross street to complete
the turn.
Table (9-3/3) shows the effect of the angle of intersection on turning paths of various design
vehicles on streets without parking lanes. The dimensions d 1 and d2 are the widths occupied by
the turning vehicle on the major street and cross street, respectively, while negotiating turns
through various angles. Both dimensions are measured from the right-hand curb to the point of
maximum overhang. These widths, shown for various angles of turn and curb radii, and for two
types of maneuvers, generally increase with the angle of turn.
Figure 9-3/6: Effect of Curb Radii on Right Turning Paths of Various Design Vehicles
[4, p. 616]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/21

Figure 9-3/7: Effect of Curb Radii on Right Turning Paths of Various Design Vehicles
[4, p. 617]
Table 9-3/3: Cross Street Width Occupied by Turning Vehicle for Various Angles of
Intersection and Curb Radii, continued [4, p. 619]
9/22 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

With parking allowed along a curbed street, vehicles (except for WB-19 [WB-62] and larger
vehicles) are able to turn without encroachment onto adjacent lanes, even where curb radii are
relatively small. As shown in figure (9-3/8), the SU and WB-12 [WB-40] design vehicles are
able to turn at a 4.5-m curb radius with little, if any, encroachment on adjacent lanes. However,
parking should be restricted for a distance of at least 4.5 m in advance of the right-turning radius
and at least 9 m beyond the radius on the exit.
The BUS and WB-15 [WB-50] design vehicles will encroach onto the opposing lanes in making
a turn unless the turning radius is at least 7.5 m and parking is restricted at the far end of the turn
for at least 12 m beyond the radius.
Because traffic volumes may increase to the point where all parking is prohibited either during
rush hours or throughout the day, caution is advised in the use of radii of 4.5 or 7.5 m where
parking is permitted. If parking is prohibited, the same turning conditions prevail as shown in
figures (9-3/6), (9-3/7), and table (9-3/3).
Figure 9-3/8: Effect of Curb Radii and Parking on Right Turning Paths [4, p.621]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/23

Figure 9-3/8: Effect of Curb Radii and Parking on Right Turning Paths [4, p.621]
(Continued)
9-3/2 CORNER RADII INTO LOCAL URBAN STREETS

Because of space limitations, presence of pedestrians, and generally lower operating speed
in urban areas, curve radii for turning movements may be smaller than those normally used in
rural areas.
Guidelines for right-turning radii into minor side streets in urban areas usually range from 1.5 to
9 m and most are between 3 and 4.5 m. Where a substantial number of pedestrians are present,
the lower end of the ranges described below may be appropriate. Most passenger cars operating
at very low speed on lanes 3 m or more in width are able to make a right turn with a curb radius
of about 4.5 m with little encroachment on other lanes. However, operation of these vehicles at
increased speeds or of larger vehicles even at a very low speed generally results in substantial
encroachment on adjacent lanes at either the beginning or the end of the turn, or both.
Where there are curb parking lanes on both of the intersecting streets and parking is restricted for
some distance from the corner, the extra width provided by the restriction serves to increase the
usable radius. On most streets, curb radii of 3 to 4.5 m are reasonable because streets and
sidewalks are generally confined within the public right-of-way, and larger radii can be obtained
only by narrowing sidewalks at corners and increasing the length of pedestrian crosswalks.
9/24 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
However, to ensure efficient traffic operation on arterial streets carrying heavy traffic volumes, it
is desirable to provide corner radii of 4.5 to 7.5 m for passenger vehicles and 9 to 15 m for most
trucks and buses, provided there are no significant pedestrian conflicts. Where large truck
combinations turn frequently, somewhat larger radii should be provided for turns.
9-4 DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERELEVATION AT TURNING ROADWAY

TERMINALS
The general factors that control the maximum rates of superelevation for open highway
conditions as discussed in Chapter 5 also apply to turning roadways at intersections.
For the superelevation runoff design in turning roadways, usually, the profile of one edge of the
traveled way is established first, and the profile on the other edge is developed by stepping up or
down from the first edge by the amount of desired superelevation at that location. This step is
done by plotting a few control points on the second edge by using the maximum relative
gradients in table (9-4/1) and then plotting a smooth profile for the second edge of traveled way.
Drainage may be an additional control, particularly for curbed roadways.
Table 9-4/1: Effective Maximum Relative Gradients [4, p. 647]
Effective maximum relative

Design gradient (%)
speed
(km/hr.) Rotated width (m)
3.6 m 5.4 m 7.2 m
20 0.80 0.96 1.00
30 0.75 0.90 1.00
40 0.70 0.84 0.93
50 0.65 0.78 0.87
60 0.60 0.72 0.80
70 0.55 0.66 0.73
80 0.50 0.60 0.67
90 0.47 0.57 0.63
100 0.44 0.53 0.59
110 0.41 0.49 0.55
120 0.38 0.46 0.51
130 0.35 0.42 0.47
The method of developing superelevation at turning roadway terminals is illustrated

diagrammatically in figures (9-4/1) through (9-4/4).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/25

Figure 9-4/1: Development of Superelevation at Turning Roadway Terminals [4, p. 648]
9/26 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

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9/28 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/29
9-5 CLEAR SIGHT TRIANGLES
In general, intersection sight distance (ISD) refers to the corner sight distance available in
intersection quadrants that allows a driver approaching an intersection to observe the actions of
vehicles on the crossing leg(s). ISD evaluations involve establishing the needed sight triangle in
each quadrant by determining the legs of the triangle on the two crossing roadways.
The height of eye for passenger cars is assumed to be 1.08 m above the surface of the minor
road. The height of object (approaching vehicle on the major road) is also assumed to be 1.08 m.
An object height of 1.08 m assumes that a sufficient portion of the oncoming vehicle must be
visible to identify it as an object of concern by the minor road driver.
The necessary clear sight triangle is based on the type of traffic control at the intersection and on
the design speeds of the two roadways. The types of traffic control and maneuvers are as
follows:
 Case A – Intersections with no control,
 Case B – Intersections with Stop control on the minor road:
 Case C – Intersections with Yield control on the minor road:
 Case D – Intersections with traffic signal control,
 Case E – Intersections with all-way Stop control, and
 Case F – Left turns from the major road.
9-5/1 CASE A – INTERSECTIONS WITH NO CONTROL
Intersections between low-volume and low-speed roads/streets may have no traffic control.
At these intersections, sufficient corner sight distance should be available to allow approaching
vehicles to adjust their speed to avoid a collision, typically a reduction to 50% of their mid-block
running speed. Figure (9-5/1) illustrates the corner sight distance triangles for intersections with
no traffic control. Table (9-5/1) provides the ISD criteria for these intersections.
Figure 9-5/1: Measurement of intersection sight distance (No traffic control) [4, p. 656]
Table 9-5/1: Intersection Sight Distance (No Traffic Control) [4,p. 659]
Design Speed (km/hr.) 30 40 50 60 70 80
Intersection Sight Distance (m) 25 35 45 55 65 75
Note: For approach downgrades greater than 3.0%, increase the ISD value by 10%.
9/30 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

9-5/2 CASE B – INTERSECTIONS WITH STOP CONTROL ON THE MINOR ROAD
Where traffic on the minor road of an intersection is controlled by stop signs, the driver of
the vehicle on the minor road must have sufficient sight distance for a safe departure from the
stopped position assuming that the approaching vehicle comes into view as the stopped vehicle
begins its departure.
The intersection sight distance is obtained by providing clear sight triangles both to the right and
left as shown in figure (9-5/2). The length of legs of these sight triangles is determined as
follows:
The length of the sight triangle leg or ISD along the major road is determined using the
following equation:
𝐼𝑆𝐷 = 0.278 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑔 (9 − 5/1)
Where:
𝐼𝑆𝐷 = Length of sight triangle leg along major road, (m)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = Design speed of major road, (km/hr.)
𝑡𝑔 = Gap acceptance time for entering the major road, (sec.)
The critical gap time (𝑡𝑔 ) can be obtained from table (9-5/2).
Table 9-5/2: Time Gap for Case B, Left Turn From Stop [4, p. 963]
Design Vehicle Time Gap (tg)(sec.) at Design Speed of Major Road
Passenger car 7.5
Single-unit 9.5
Combination
truck 11.5
truck
Note: Time gaps are for a stopped vehicle to turn left onto a two-lane highway with no median and with grades of 3
percent or less. The table values should be adjusted as follows:
For multilane highways-For left turns onto two-way highways with more than two lanes, add 0.5 sec. for
passenger cars or 0.7 for trucks for each additional lane, from the left, in excess of one, to be crossed by the
turning vehicle.
For minor rood approach grades -If the approach grade is an upgrade that exceeds 3 percent, add 0.2 sec. for
each percent grade for left turns.
Figure 9-5/2: Clear sight triangle (stop –controlled) intersections [4, p. 963]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/31

9-5/3 CASE C – INTERSECTIONS WITH YIELD CONTROL ON THE MINOR ROAD
At intersections controlled by a yield sign, drivers on the minor road will typically:
 Slow down as they approach the major road to approximately 60% of the approach
speed;
 Based on their view of the major road, make a stop/continue decision; and
 Either brake to a stop or continue their crossing or turning maneuver onto the major
road.
To determine the applicable clear sight triangles for a yield-controlled intersection, see figure
(9-5/3).
Minor Road Major Road
Design Speed
Approach (a) Approach (b)
(km/hr.)
(m)1,2 (m)
30 30 55
.
40 40 75
50 55 95
60 65 110
70 80 130
80 100 145
90 115 165
100 135 185
Figure 9-5/3: Intersection sight distance guidelines (yield control) [4, p. 970]
9/32 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

9-5/4 CASE D – INTERSECTIONS WITH TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROL
At signalized intersections, provide sufficient sight distance from the stop bar so that the
first vehicle on each approach is visible to all other approaches. However, where right-turn-on-
red is allowed, check to ensure that the ISD for a stop-controlled right-turning vehicle is
available to the left. If it is not, consider restricting the right-turn-on-red movement. In addition,
if the traffic signal is placed on two-way flash operation (i.e., flashing amber on the major-road
approaches and flashing red on the minor-road approaches) under off-peak or nighttime
conditions, consider providing the ISD criteria as discussed in case B for a stop-controlled
intersection.
9-5/5 CASE E – INTERSECTIONS WITH ALL-WAY STOP CONTROL
At intersections with all-way stop control, provide sufficient sight distance from the stop
bar so that the first stopped vehicle on each approach is visible to all other approaches. Often,
intersections are converted to all-way stop control to address limited sight distance at the
intersection. Therefore, providing additional sight distance at the intersection is unnecessary.
9-5/6 CASE F – LEFT TURNS FROM THE MAJOR ROAD
At all intersections, regardless of the type of traffic control, consider the sight distance
needs for a stopped vehicle turning left from the major road. This situation is illustrated in figure
(9-5/4). The driver will need to see straight ahead for a sufficient distance to turn left and clear
the opposing travel lanes before an approaching vehicle reaches the intersection. Sight distance
for opposing left turns may be increased by offsetting the left-turn lanes. Figure (9-5/4) provides
ISD values for passenger cars turning left from the major road.
Design Speed ISO Crossing ISD Crossing
(km/hr.) 1-Lane (m) 2-Lanes (m)
30 50 55
40 62 69
50 75 81
60 87 94
70 99 108
80 111 122
90 123 136
100 136 149
Note: Assumes no median on major road.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/33

Figure 9-5/4: Intersection Sight Distance for Stopped Vehicle Turning Left (on Major
Road) [4, p. 978]
9-6 DESIGN OF MEDIAN OPENINGS

For any three- or four-leg intersection on a divided highway, the minimum length of
median opening should be as great as the width of the crossroad traveled way plus shoulders.
Where the crossroad is a divided highway, the length of opening should be at least equal to the
width of the crossroad traveled ways plus that of the median. The use of a minimum length of
opening without regard to the width of median or the control radius should not be considered
except at very minor crossroads
An important factor in designing median openings is the path of each design vehicle making a
minimum left turn at 15 to 25 km/h. Where the volume and type of vehicles making the left-turn
movement call for higher than minimum speed, the design may be made by using a radius of turn
corresponding to the speed deemed appropriate. However, the minimum turning path at low
speed is needed for minimum design and for testing layouts developed for one design vehicle for
use by an occasional larger vehicle. The control radii required for each design vehicle are shown
in table 9-6/1 below.
Table 9-6/1: Design Controls for Minimum Median Openings [1, p. 9-154]
Design Vehicles Control Radius (m)
Accommodated 12 15 23 40
Predominant P SU-9 WB-12 WB-19
Occasrona1 SU-9 SU-12 — WB-20
The length of a median opening should properly accommodate the control radius of the design
vehicle. Tables (9-6/2) through (9-6/4) and figures (9-6/1) through (9-6/4) illustrate median-
opening criteria for various design vehicles. It should be noticed at a 4-leg intersection, the offset
between the nose and the through travel lane (extended) should be at least 0.6m . Also, the shape
of median end is desired to be semicircular for median width equal or less than 3m, for wider
median the bullet-nose can be used.
9/34 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 9-6/2: Minimum Design of Median Openings (P Design Vehicle, Control Radius of 12
m) [1, p. 9-145]
Width of Minimum Length of Median

Median, M (m) Opening, L (m)
Semicircular Bullet Nose
1.2 22.8 22.8
1.8 22.2 18.0
2.4 21.6 16.8
3.0 21.0 16.8
3.6 20.4 16.8
4.2 19.8 16.8
4.8 19.2 16.8
6.0 18.0 16.8
7.2 16.8 16.8
Figure 9-6/1: Minimum Design of Median Openings (P Design Vehicle, Control Radius of
12 m) [1, p. 9-145]
Table 9-6/3: Minimum Design of Median Openings (SU-9 [SU-30] Design Vehicle, Control
Radius of 15 m) [1, p. 9-146]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/35

1.2 28.8 28.8
1.8 28.2 22.8
2.4 27.6 20.4
3.0 27.0 18.6
3.6 26.4 17.4
4.2 25.8 16.8
4.8 25.2 16.8
5.0 24.0 16.8
7.2 22.8 16.8
8.4 21.6 16.8
9.6 20.4 16.8
10.8 19.2 16.8
12.0 18.0 16.8
Figure 9-6/2: Minimum Design of Median Openings (SU-9 [SU-30] Design Vehicle, Control
Radius of 15 m) [1, p. 9-146]
9/36 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 9-6/4: Minimum Design of Median Openings (WB-12 [WB-40] Design Vehicle,
Control Radius of 23 m) [1, p. 9-147]
1.2 43.8 36.6
1.8 43.2 36.3
2.4 42.6 33.6
3.0 42.0 31.2
3.6 _
41.4 29.4
4.2 40.8 27.6
4.8 40.2 26.4
6.0 39.0 23.4
7.2 37.8 21.6
8.4 36.6 19.5
9.6 35.4 18.0
10.8 34.2 16.2
12.0 30.0 14.7
13.0 27.0 13.3
24.0 21.0 13.2
30.0 15.0 13.2
Figure 9-6/3: Minimum Design of Median Openings (WB-12 [WB-40] Design Vehicle,
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/37

Figure 9-6/4: Minimum Design of Median Openings (WB-20 [WB-67] Design Vehicle,
9/38 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

The median openings (shown in figure above) that enable vehicles to turn on minimum paths and
at 15 to 25 km/hr. are adequate for intersections where traffic for the most part proceeds straight
through the intersection. Where through-traffic volumes and speeds are high and left-turning
movements are important, undue interference with through traffic should be avoided by
providing median openings that permit turns without encroachment on adjacent lanes. In this
case the "above-minimum design is required.
Where above-minimum designs are required, the general pattern for the simple design is used,
but with larger dimensions. For example, in lieu of using a 12m control radius for single-unit
vehicles, a 15 m radius could be used. Also, a bullet-nose median end can be used in lieu of the
semicircular end. This end treatment improves vehicle travel paths, lessens intersectional
pavement, and shortens the length of median opening. Typical bullet-nose ends for above-
minimum design of median openings are shown below.
Figure 9-6/5: Above-Minimum Design of Median Openings (Typical Bullet-Nose Ends)

[1, p. 9-155]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/39

9-7 AUXILIARY LANE LENGTHS FOR TURNING VEHICLES
The length of the auxiliary lanes for turning vehicles consists of three components: (1)
entering taper, (2) deceleration length, and (3) storage length.
Desirably, the total length of the auxiliary lane should be the sum of the length for these three
components. Common practice, however, is to accept a moderate amount of deceleration within
the through lanes and to consider the taper length as a part of the deceleration within the through
lanes. Each component of the auxiliary length is discussed in the following clause.
Auxiliary lanes should be at least 3 m wide and desirably should equal the width of the through
lanes.
9-7/1 ENTERING TAPER

Table (9-7/1) below provides the recommended taper rates for various design speeds
Table 9-7/1: Recommended Taper Rate [1, p. 9-127]
Design Speed
(km/hr.)
The minimum taper length shall be 30 m for a single-turn lane and 45 m for a dual-turn lane in
urban areas and 60 m in rural areas.
Taper can be formed in one of the configurations shown in figure below. Straight-line tapers are
particularly applicable where a paved shoulder is striped to delineate the auxiliary lane. Short,
straight-line tapers should not be used on curbed urban streets because of the probability of
vehicles hitting the leading end of the taper with the resulting potential for a driver losing
control.
A short curve is desirable at either end of long tapers as shown in figure (9-7/1B), but may be
omitted for ease of construction. Where curves are used at the ends, the tangent section should be
about one-third to one-half of the total length. Symmetrical reverse curve tapers are commonly
used on curbed urban streets. A more desirable reverse-curve taper is shown in figure (9-7/1D)
where the turnoff curve radius is about twice that of the second curve. When 30 m or more in
length is provided for the tapers in figure (9-7/1D), tapers 1 and 2 would be suitable for low-
speed operations. All the dimensions and configurations shown in figure (9-7/1) are applicable to
right-turn lanes as well as left-turn lanes.
9/40 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 9-7/1: Taper Design for Auxiliary Lanes [4, p. 721]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/41
9-7/2 DECELERATION LENGTH
Provision for deceleration clear of the through-traffic lanes is a desirable objective on
arterial roads and streets and should be incorporated into design, whenever practical. The
approximate total lengths needed for a comfortable deceleration to a stop from the full design
speed of the highway are as follows: for design speeds of 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90 km/h, the
desirable deceleration lengths of the auxiliary lane are 70, 100, 130, 165, and 205 m,
respectively. These approximate lengths are based on grades of less than 3 percent.
9-7/3 STORAGE LENGTH

At unsignalized intersections, the storage length, exclusive of taper, may be based on the
number of turning vehicles likely to arrive in an average two-minute period within the peak hour.
Space for at least two passenger cars should be provided; with over 10 percent truck traffic,
provisions should be made for at least one car and one truck.
At signalized intersections the storage length should usually be based on one and one-half to two
times the average number of vehicles that would store per cycle, which is predicated on the
design volume. As in the case of unsignalized intersections, provision should be made for storing
at least two vehicles.
Where turning lanes are designed for two-lane operation, the storage length is reduced to
approximately one-half of that needed for single-lane operation
The HCM (3) indicates that exclusive left-turn lanes at signalized intersections should be
installed as follows:
1. Where fully protected, left-turn phasing is to be provided;
2. When left-turn volumes are higher than 100 vph, an exclusive left-turn should be
considered. Dual left-turn lanes should be considered when left turn hourly volumes
exceed 300 vph.
9-8 MINIMUM DESIGN OF U-TURNS

Median openings designed to accommodate vehicles making U-turns only are needed on
some divided highways in addition to openings provided for cross and left-turning movements.
For a satisfactory design for U-turn maneuvers, the width of the highway, including the median,
should be sufficient to permit the design vehicle to turn from an auxiliary left-turn lane in the
median into the lane next to the outside shoulder or outside curb and gutter on the roadway of the
opposing traffic lanes.
The minimum widths of median to accommodate U-turns by different design vehicles turning
from the lane adjacent to the median are given in figure (9-8/1).
9/42 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 9-8/1: Minimum Designs for U-turns [1, p. 9-166]
Figure (9-8/2) illustrates special U-turn designs with narrow medians.
Figure 9-8/2: Special Indirect U-Turn with Narrow Medians [4, p.716]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/43

9-9 RAILROAD-HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSINGS
The following guidelines affect the horizontal alignment of streets at a railroad-highway
grade crossing:
 The highway should intersect tracks as near as possible to 90 degrees.
 To the extent practical, crossings should not be located on either highway or railroad
curves.
 Ideally, there should not be nearby intersections with streets or driveways. Where it is
not possible to provide sufficient distance between the crossing and nearby
intersections, traffic signals at the nearby intersection can be interconnected with the
grade crossing signal, to enable vehicles to clear the grade crossing as a train
approaches.
The following guidelines apply to the vertical alignment of streets at railroad highway grade
crossings:
 It is desirable that the intersection of highway and railroad be made as level as
practical, otherwise:
 The crossing surface should be at the same plane as the top of the rails for a distance of
0.6 m outside the rails
 The surface of the highway should also not be more than 75 mm higher or lower than
the top of nearest rail at a point 9 m from the rail unless track superelevation makes a
different level appropriate, as shown in figure (9-9/1).
 Vertical curves should be used to traverse from the highway grade to a level plane at
the elevation of the rails
Figure 9-9/1: Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing [4, p. 736]

Traffic control devices for railroad-highway grade crossings range from passive (signs,
pavement markings) to active (flashing light signals or automatic gates).
At crossings without traffic control devices, the sight distance requirements are shown in table
(9-9/1) for Case A (Moving Vehicle to Safely Cross or Stop at Railroad Crossing) and case B
(Departure of Vehicle from Stopped Position to Cross Single Railroad Track ), the maneuver of
case A and B are shown in figure (9-9/2) below.
9/44 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 9-9/2: Maneuver of Cases A and B [1, p.9-190,188]
Table 9-9/1: Design Sight Distance for Combination of Highway and Train Vehicle Speeds;
22.4-m Truck Crossing a Single Set of Tracks at 90 Degrees [1, p.9-191]
km/hr.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/45

9-10 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
9-10/1 MEASURE OF EFFECTIVENESS

Control delay is used as the basis for determining Level of Service (LOS), which can be
defined as a qualitative measure describing the operational conditions within the traffic stream.
Intersection control delay is generally computed as a weighted average of the average control
delay for all lane groups based on the amount of volume within each lane group. Delay
thresholds for the various LOS are given in table (9-10/1).
Table 9-10/1: LOS Criteria for signalized intersections [3, p.18-6]
9-10/2 TRAFFIC OPERATIONS ELEMENTS

Signalized intersection operations are affected by the input data elements shown in table
(9-10/2).
Table 9-10/2: Traffic Operation Elements [3, P.18-8]
Data Category Input Data element
Traffic Demand flow rate
characteristics Right-turn-on-red flow rate
Percent heavy vehicles
Intersection peak hour factor
Platoon ratio
Upstream filtering adjustment factor
Initial queue
Base saturation flow rate
Lane utilization adjustment factor
Pedestrian flow rate
Bicycle flow rate
On-street parking maneuver rate
Local bus stopping rate
Geometric design Number of lanes
Average lane width
Number of receiving lanes
Turn bay length
Presence of on-street parking
Approach grade
Signal control Type of signal control
Phase sequence
Left-turn operational mode
Dallas left-turn phasing option
Passage time (if actuated)
Maximum green (or green duration if pretirned)
Minimum green
Yellow change
Red clearance
Walk
Pedestrian clear
Phase recall
Dual entry (if actuated)
Simultaneous gap-out (if actuated)
9/46 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

9-10/3 OPERATIONAL ANALYSIS
The operational analysis of the signalized intersection can be achieved using the highway
capacity software, HCS. An example for the software output showing the results of operational
analysis is shown in table (9-10/3).
Table 9-10/3: HCS results for level of service determination
9-11 REFERENCES
of State Highway and Transportation officials, USA, 2011.
2009.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 9/47

CHAPTER 10
GRADE SEPARATIONS AND INTERCHANGES
Grade separation structures, permit the cross flow of traffic at different levels without
interruption, with increase in safety and saving of time.
The interchange is a grade separation in which vehicles may transfer to other directions of flow
by the use of connecting roadways or ramps, on different levels.
Grade separations and interchanges may be justified by the following warrants:
 To carry large volume of traffic of express highways, with full control of access.
 To eliminate bottlenecks, and reduce frequent crashes.
 To reduce delay, and avoid unreasonable size of at- grade intersections, with less road-
user cost.
 To fit topography requirements. [1, p.10-4]
10-1 GENERAL INTERCHANGE CONFIGURATIONS

The selection of interchange configuration type, is influenced by many factors including:
highway classification, intersection legs, through and turning traffic design speed, terrain, right-
of- way, access control, safety needs, and economy.
The basic interchange configurations may include: three- leg T or Y, diamond, single point urban
diamond, rotary, one quadrant, partial and full cloverleaf, and directional interchanges.
10-1/1 THREE- LEG TRUMPET AND DIRECTIONAL INTERCHANGES

Figure (10-1/1) shows typical layouts of T and Y interchanges at three- leg junctions with
one or more grade separations, to provide for all movements with or without loops.
Using more than one single – structure is more costly, and justified only where all movements
are large [1, p.10-30].
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 10/1

Figure 10-1/1: Three-Leg T and Y Interchanges [1, p.10-11]
10/2 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

10-1/2 DIAMOND INTERCHANGES
Diamond interchange is the simplest 4- Leg interchange particularly adaptable to major –
minor crossings, in both rural and urban areas.
The ramps are aligned with free- flow terminals on the major highway, and an at –grade left turn
on the minor cross road which may need signalization, [1, p.10-37].
A variety of diamond interchange configurations, are shown in figure (10-1/2 A,B,C) with and
without frontage roads including: conventional arrangements, split arrangements to reduce traffic
conflicts, and arrangements with more than one structure.
Double roundabouts may be used at both crossroad ramp terminals for the elimination of signal
control [1, p.10-42].
10-1/3 SINGLE- POINT URBAN INTERCHANGES

The Single- Point Urban (Diamond) Interchange is characterized by narrow right – of-
way, high construction cost of the bridges, and greater capacity than conventional diamond
interchange. All four turning movements are controlled by a single traffic signal, and the
opposing left turns operate to the left of each other [1, p.10-42].
It is required from the crossroad drivers to rely heavily on guide signing, pavement markings,
and land - use signing, in order to travel safely through the intersection area. Long constant radii
of left- turning roadways (52-122m), with a minimum of 1.8m clearance between the outside
edge lines of opposing left- turning movements are required.
The overpass and underpass Single- Point Urban Interchanges are shown in figures (10-1/3) and
(10-1/4) respectively.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 10/3

Figure 10-1/2A: Diamond Interchanges, Figure 10-1/2B: Diamond Interchanges, Split
Conventional Arrangements [1, p.10-39] Arrangements to Reduce Traffic Conflicts
[1, p.10-39]
Figure 10-1/2C: Diamond Interchanges, with Additional Structures (Third-Level

Structure) [1, p.10-40]
10/4 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
Figure 10-1/3: An Overpass Single-Point Urban Interchange (Courtesy Transportation
Research Board) [2, p.244]
Figure 10-1/4: Underpass Single-Point Diamond Interchange [1, p.10-43]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 10/5

10-1/4 ROTARY INTERCHANGES
Rotary interchanges are fitting where there are five or more intersection legs, and all
movements other than through traffic on the principal highway, can be handled properly on the
weaving sections.
The rotary may be overpassed or underpassed by one of the intersecting highways. The design
features and operation of the rotary roadway are basically the same as that of an at- grade rotary.
A typical rotary interchange is presented in figure (10-1/5) [3, p.558]
10-1/5 ONE–QUADRANT INTERCHANGES

One – quadrant interchanges have application for an intersection of roadways with low
traffic volume and minimal truck traffic.
A one- quadrant interchange may be constructed as the first step in a stage construction program,
to become a part of a full or partial cloverleaf interchange. Figure (10-1/6) shows a four - leg
interchange with ramps in one quadrant, [1,p.10-36].
Figure 10-1/5: Rotary Interchange [3, p.558]
Figure 10-1/6: Four-Leg Interchange, Ramps in One Quadrant [1, p.10-36]

10/6 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
10-1/6 PARTIAL AND FULL CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGES
Cloverleaf is a 4-leg interchange that employs loop ramps to accommodate left – turning
movements, and referred to as “Full Cloverleaf” with loops in all four quadrants, and “partial
cloverleaf” for all others [1,p.10-48].
For cloverleaves, large right- of- way areas are needed, with additional travel distances for left
turns, and relatively short weaving lengths are typically available.
A single structure is usually required for the cloverleaf, and all crossing movements are
eliminated.
For design speeds exceeding 80 km/hr., the practical radii of loops are usually 50 to 75m. On
highways with minor movements (design speed less than 80 km/hr.), loops radii of 30 to 50 m
may be used.
Ramp arrangements for full and partial cloverleaf interchanges are illustrated in figure (10-1/7).
10-1/7 ALL DIRECTIONAL AND SEMIDIRECTIONAL INTERCHANGES

Direct connection is the ramp that does not deviate greatly from the intended direction of
travel. Semidirect connection is the ramp where a driver exits to the right first, heading away
from the intended direction of travel, gradually reversing, and then passing around other
interchange ramps, before entering the other road.
In comparison to loops, direct or semidirct connections have shorter travel distance, higher
speeds, higher level of service, and they often avoid the need for weaving [1, p.10-54].
Fully directional interchanges are used where two high- volume freeways intersect. Semidirect or
direct connections for one or more left- turning movements are often appropriate at major
interchanges in urban areas. [1,p.10-56].
Basic pattern of selected directional interchanges are illustrated in figure (10-1/8).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 10/7

C-D Roads
With
Without Collector Distributor
C-D Roads
Figure 10-1/7: Cloverleaf Ramp Arrangements, Exit and Entrance Turns [1, p.10-51]
10/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
Figure 10-1/8: Directional Interchange, Two Semidirect Connections [1, p.10-58]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 10/9
10-2 FREEWAY INTERCHANGES WITH OTHER HIGHWAY CLASSES
The selection of appropriate interchange configurations for the intersection of freeways or
expressways with other highway classes, are covered in two categories: “service interchanges”,
(that connect freeway to lesser facilities), and “system interchanges”, (that connect two or more
freeways). [1, p.10-63].
The interchange configurations of diamond, partial cloverleaf, full cloverleaf single- point urban
interchange, and directional interchange, may be selected for a freeway intersection, depending
on the class of intersecting, roadway (local, collector, arterial or freeway), and compatibility with
the environment (rural, suburban, urban), as presented in figure (10-2/1).
10-3 GRADE SEPARATION STRUCTURES

The grade – separation structure should conform to the natural lines of the highway
approaches in alignment, profile, and cross section.
A single simple- span girder bridge may be used with spans of up to 45m, and can accommodate
conditions of severe skew and horizontal curvature. The structural depth for a single span girder
bridge is approximately 1/15 to 1/30 of the span [1,p.10-1] Where spans are long, truss bridges
may be used.
On a divided highway with a wide median, the overpass will likely be built as two parallel
structures separated by an opening. A study should be made to determine whether the major
roadway should overpass or underpass the crossroad, as governed by topography, economy, and
design controls.
Where the major road is built close to the ground (underpass) the ramp profiles are best fitted for
deceleration and acceleration in turning movements, in addition to resultant economy in
construction. On the otherhand, aesthetic preference, and better drainage are obtained by the
overpass layout.
10/10 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 10-2/1: Adaptability of Interchanges on Freeways as Related to Types of
Intersecting Facilities [1, p.10-65]
10-4 LONGITUDINAL DISTANCE TO ATTAIN GRADE SEPARATION

The longitudinal distance needed for adequate design of a grade separation, depends on:
the design speed, gradient, and the amount of rise or fall needed to achieve the separation
[1,p.10-24].
The minimum distance D, required to effect grade separation (overpass or underpass) in flat
terrain, for gradients ranging from 2 to 7 percent, and for design speeds of 50 to 110 km/hr., may
be used as a guide for preliminary design, as shown in figure (10-4/1). The difference in
elevation (H) for a grade separation, is usually needed for essential vertical clearance and
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 10/11

structural thickness. A minimum vertical clearance of 5.20m may be used for the grade
separation of two highways, and 6.50m for a highway overcrossing a railroad.
10-5 EFFECTIVE DISTANCE OF AUXILIARY LANES

The auxiliary lane originating at a two- lane entrance, should be carried along the roadway
for an effective distance beyond the merging point. An auxiliary lane introduced for a two- lane
exit, should be carried along the roadway for an effective distance in advance of the exit, and
then extended onto the ramp [1,p.10-76].
Generally, parallel design of auxiliary lane is preferred in comparison with taper design. The
effective lengths of the introduced auxiliary lane of about 750 m, produce the desired operational
effect and achieve full capacity of two- lane entrances and exits, as shown in figure (10-5/1).
Speed Grade
km/hr. %
Figure 10-4/1: Flat Terrain, Distance Needed to Achieve Grade Separation [1, p.10-26]
10/12 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
Figure 10-5/1: Coordination of Lane Balance and Basic Number of Lanes through
Application of Auxiliary Lanes [1, p.10-78]
10-6 DESIGN SPEED AND GRADES FOR RAMPS

Ramps include all types of turning roadways, shown in figure (10-6/1), that connect two
or more legs at an interchange. The guide values for ramp design speed as related to highway
design speed are presented in table (10-6/1).
Ramp design speeds of 80 km/hr. or higher, apply to freeway and expressway exits. An upper –
range value of design speed is attainable on ramps for right turns.
Ramp design speeds above 50 km/hr. for loops, involve large land areas that are rarely available
in urban areas [1, p.10-89].
Downgrades should desirably be limited to 3 or 4 percent on ramps with sharp horizontal
curvature and significant heavy trucks. Upgrades on ramps should desirably be limited as shown
in table (10-6/2) [1,p.10-93].
10-7 DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERELEVATION AT RAMP TERMINALS

The methods of developing superelvation at free- flow ramp terminals for tangent section
(parallel exit), curved section (Parallel exit), curved section (parallel entrance), and tangent
section (between entrance and exit), are illustrated in figure (10-7/1).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 10/13

Figure 10-6/1: General Types of Ramps [1, p.10-88]
Table 10-6/1: Guide Values for Ramp Design Speed as Related to Highway Design Speed
[1, p.10-89]
Highway design speed (km/hr.) 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Ramp design speed (km/hr.)
Upper range (85%) SO
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Middle range (70%) 30 40 50 60 60 70 80 90
Lower range (50%) 20 30 40 40 50 50 60 70
30
Table 10-6/2: Limits of Ramp Upgrade with Respect to Ramp Design Speed
Ramp Design Speed (km/hr.) Max. Ramp Upgrade (%)
70-80 3-5
60 4-6
40-50 5-7
30-40 6-8
10/14 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 10-7/1: Development of Superelevation at Free-Flow Ramp Terminals [1, p.10-95]
10-8 RECOMMENDED MINIMUM RAMP TERMINAL SPACING

Ramp terminal is that portion adjacent to through traveled way, including speed change
lanes, tapers, and islands. Ramp terminals may be (at grade type), as at crossroad terminal of
diamond interchange, or (free- flow type), where ramp traffic merges with, or diverges from
high–speed through traffic at flat angles [1,p.10-103].
On urban highways, two or more ramp terminals are often located in close succession, and a
reasonable spacing should be provided for sufficient weaving length. and adequate space for
signing.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 10/15

 The five possible ramp- pair combinations are:
 An entrance followed by entrance (EN- EN).
 An exit followed by exit (EX- EX).
 An exit followed by entrance (EX- EN).
 Turning roadways.
 An entrance followed by exit (EN- EX).
The recommended minimum ramp terminal spacing (L), between successive painted noses,
for the various ramp- pair combination, applicable to interchange classifications, are presented in
figure (10-8/1).
When the distance between successive noses is less than 450m, the speed change lanes should be
connected to provide an auxiliary lane. [1,p.10-106].
Figure 10-8/1: Recommended Minimum Ramp Terminal Spacing [1, p.10-106]
10-9 MINIMUM ACCELERATION LENGTHS OF SPEED-CHANGE LANES

(SINGLE LANE, ENTRANCE RAMP)
The minimum lengths of acceleration distances for ramp entrance terminals of the parallel-
type single – lane, are given in table (10-9/1) (with flat grades). Adjustment factors as a function
of grade are given in table (10-9/2), [1,p.10-111].
10/16 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 10-9/1: Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Grades of
Two Percent or Less [1, p.10-110]
Acceleration Length, L (m) for Entrance Curve Design Speed (km/hr.)
Stop
Highway 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Condition
Design Speed and Initial Speed, V'a, (km/hr.)

Speed, V Reached,
0 20 28 35 42 51 63 70
(km/hr.) Va, (km/hr.)
50 37 60 50 30 — — — — —
60 45 95 80 65 45 — — — —
70 53 150 130 110 90 65 — — —
80 60 200 180 165 145 115 65 — —
90 67 260 245 225 205 175 125 35 —
100 74 345 325 305 285 255 205 110 40
110 51 430 410 390 370 340 290 200 125
120 88 545 530 515 490 460 410 325 245
Note: Uniform 50:1 to 70:1 tapers are recommended where lengths of acceleration lanes exceed 400 m.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 10/17

Table 10-9/2: Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Grade [1, p.10-111]
Deceleration Lanes
Design Speed
of Highway Ratio of Length on Grade to Length on Level for Design
(km/hr.) Speed of Turning Curve (km/hr.)a
3 to 4% upgrade 3 to 4% downgrade
All Speeds
0.9 1.2
5 to 6% upgrade 5 to 6% downgrade
All Speeds
0.8 1.35
Acceleration Lanes
Design Speed
of Highway Ratio of Length on Grade to Length of Level for Design Speed
(km/hr.) of Turning Curve (km/hr.) a
40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds
3 to 4% Upgrade 3 to 4%
60 1.3 1.4 1.4 — — Downgrade
0.7
70 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 — 0.65
80 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.65
90 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.6
100 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
110 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
120 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
5 to 6% Upgrade 5 to 6%
60 1.5 1.5 — — — Downgrade
0.6
70 1.5 1.6 1.7 — — 0.6
80 1.5 1.7 1.9 1.8 — 0.55
90 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.55
100 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.5 0.5
110 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.0 0.5
120 2.3 2.5 3.0 3.2 3.5 0.5
a
Ratio from this table multiplied by the length in table (10-9/1) or table (10-10/1) gives length of speed change
lane on grade.
10-10 MINIMUM DECELERATION LENGTHS OF SPEED –CHANGE LANES

(SINGLE- LANE, EXIT RAMP)
The minimum deceleration lengths for ramp exit terminals, of parallel- type single lane,
with flat grades, are shown in table (10-10/1). Adjustment factors as a function of grade, are
presented in table (10-9/2), [1,p.10-113].
10/18 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 10-10/1: Minimum Deceleration Lengths for Exit Terminals with Flat Grades of Two
Percent or Less [1, p.10-115]
Deceleration Length, L (m) for Design Speed of Exit Curve, V' (km/hr.)
Highway Stop
Speed Condition 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Design
Reached,
Speed, V For Average Running Speed on Exit Curve V'a (km/h)
Va (km/hr.)
(km/hr.) 0 20 28 35 42 51 63 70
50 47 75 70 60 45 — — — —
60 55 95 90 80 65 55 — — —
70 63 110 105 95 85 70 55 — —
80 70 130 125 115 100 90 80 55 —
90 77 145 105
140 135 120 110 100 75 60
100 85 170 165 155 145 135 120 100 85
110 91 180 180 170 160 150 140 120 105
120 93 200 195 185 175 170 155 110 120
180
V = design speed of highway (krn/hr.).

Va = average running speed on highway (krn/hr.).
V' = design speed of exit curve (krn/hr.).
V'a = average running speed on exit curve (krn/hr.).
10-11 TYPICAL TWO- LANE ENTRANCE AND EXIT RAMP TERMINALS

Two- lane entrances are needed either as branch connections, or due to capacity needs on
ramps. Two – lane exits are warranted because of capacity needs for the traffic volume leaving
the highway. [1,p.10-120]. Figures (10-11/1) and (10-11/2) illustrate typical two- lane entrance
and exit ramp terminals respectively.
Figure 10-11/1: Typical Two-Lane Entrance Ramps [1, p.10-122]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 10/19

Figure 10-11/2: Two-Lane Exit Terminals [1, p.10-123]
10-12 REFERENCES
[3] AASHO, "A Policy on Geometric Design of Rural Highways", American Association of State
Highway Officials, USA, 1961.
10/20 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

CHAPTER 11
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
The purpose of traffic control devices on streets and highways is to promote highway
safety and efficiency by providing for the orderly movement of all road users. These devices
include traffic control signals, traffic signs and pavement markings.
11-1 TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNALS

A traffic control signal is defined as a power-activated traffic control device by which
traffic is warned or is directed to take some specific action, such as stop or proceed. A traffic
control signal should control traffic only at the intersection or midblock crosswalk location at
which it is placed (Midblock crosswalks shall not be signalized if they are located within 100 m
from the nearest traffic control signal).
11-1/1 TYPES OF TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNALS
11-1/1/1 RETIMED CONTROL

A pretimed control is a type of signal control in which the cycle, phasing, intervals,
and indications are predetermined and do not vary. Figure (11-1/1) shows the timing operation
for a basic two-phase or two-traffic movement pretimed controller unit.
Figure 11-11/1: Pretimed Signal Operation [5, p.44]
11-1/1/2 TRAFFIC-ACTUATED CONTROL

A traffic-actuated signal is a type of signal control in which the length of most
intervals and the cycle, and in some types the sequence of phasing, are adjusted continuously in
accordance with real time measures of traffic volume obtained from vehicle detectors placed on
one or more of the approaches to the intersection.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/1

11-1/2 TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNAL FEATURES
11-1/2/1 SIGNAL INDICATION

The indications in each traffic control signal face should be arranged in a vertical
straight line (horizontal arrangement can be used as an alternative for the vertical arrangement in
case of overhead signal).
The relative positions of indications within a signal face (from top to bottom in case of vertical
arrangement or from left to right in case of horizontal arrangement) should be as shown in figure
(11-1/2).
 Circular RED
 Circular YELLOW
 Circular GREEN
Figure 11-1/2: Arrangement of Indications in Traffic Signal Faces [1, p.455]
The following meanings shall be given to highway traffic signal indications for vehicles:
 STEADY GREEN SIGNAL:
 Traffic, except pedestrians, facing a steady CIRCULAR GREEN indication may
proceed straight through an intersection or turn right or left.
 STEADY YELLOW SIGNAL:

 Traffic, except pedestrians, facing a steady CIRCULAR YELLOW indication is
warned that the movement which had been allowed by the corresponding green
indication is being terminated.
 STEADY RED SIGNAL:

 Traffic, except pedestrians, facing a steady CIRCULAR RED indication should stop
at the marked stop line before entering the intersection.
 FLASHING YELLOW SIGNAL

 Vehicular traffic, on an approach to an intersection, facing a flashing CIRCULAR
YELLOW signal indication is permitted to cautiously enter the intersection to
proceed straight through or turn right or left or make a U-turn. Flashing yellow is
typically used to indicate a permissible right turn movement and mid-block pedestrian
crossings.
11/2 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
 FLASHING RED SIGNAL
 Vehicular traffic, on an approach to an intersection, facing a flashing CIRCULAR
RED signal indication shall stop at the marked stop line before entering the
intersection.
Note: Arrows can be used instead of circular indication for the same purpose but in the direction
of arrows shown in the signal.
Arrows shall be pointed:
 A. Vertically upward to indicate a straight-through movement, or

 B. Horizontally in the direction of the turn to indicate a turn at approximately or
greater than a right angle, or
 C. Upward with a slope at an angle approximately equal to that of the turn if the angle
of the turn is substantially less than a right angle, or
 D. In a manner that directs the driver through the turn if a U-turn arrow is used, as
Figure 11-1/3: Example of U-Turn Signal Face [1, p.456]
Each signal face should have at least three indications but not more than five with the following
exceptions:
 A single GREEN ARROW indication should be used alone to permit a continuous
movement.
 Pedestrian signal faces, which have two indications.
 One or more indications in a signal face may be repeated for safety or increased
effectiveness. A typical arrangement of signal sections in signal faces that do not control
turning movements is shown in figure (11-1/4).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/3

Figure 11-1/4: Typical Arrangements of Signal Sections in Signal Faces that Do Not
Control Turning Movement [1, p.458]
11-1/2/2 SIZE AND DESIGN OF LENSES

There shall be two nominal diameter sizes for vehicular signal indications: 200 mm
and 300 mm.
300 mm signal lenses shall be used when:
1-Approaches with 85-percentile approach speed exceeding 60km/hr.
2- For signal faces located more than 45m from the stop line.
3- Approaches where a traffic control signal might be unexpected.
4- For arrow signal indications
5-All approaches without curbs and gutters (rural roads) where only post-mounted signal heads
are used.
6- If the nearest signal face is between 35m and 45m beyond the stop line, unless a supplemental
near-side signal face is provided.
7- For approaches to all signalized locations for which the minimum sight distance in table
(11-1/1) below cannot be met.
11/4 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 11-1/1: Required Advance Visibility of Traffic Control Signal Indications [3, p.9-12]
85 Percentile Minimum Visibility

Speed (km/hr.) Distance (meters)
30 50
40 65
50 85
60 110
70 135
80 165
90 195
100 230
110 265
120 295
Note: Existing 200 mm circular signal indications that satisfy the above requirements of 1 to 7
may be retained for the remainder of their useful service life.
Each signal lenses, except those used for pedestrian signal heads shall be circular or arrow with
following properties
1. each signal lens shall be independently illuminated
2. each circular or arrow signal lens shall emit a single color : red, yellow or green
3. letters or numbers shall not be displayed as a part of a vehicular signal lens.
4. the arrow, which shall show only one direction, shall be the only illuminated part of an
arrow signal lens.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/5

11-1/2/3 SEQUENCE OF INDICATION
1- Application of signal indication for left turn
Left turn traffic is controlled by one of the of two modes as follows
a) Permissive Only Mode: turns made on the CIRCULAR GREEN signal indication, a
flashing left turn YELLOW ARROW signal indication, or a flashing left – turn RED
ARROW signal indication after yielding to pedestrian if any, and\ or oppossing traffic, if
any.
Figure 11-1/5: Typical Position and Arrangements of Shared Signal Faces for
Permissive Only Mode Left Turns [1, p.467]
Figure 11-1/6: Typical Position and Arrangements of Separate Signal Faces with
Flashing Yellow Arrow for Permissive Only Mode Left Turns [1, p.468]
11/6 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

b) Protected Only Mode—turns made only when a left-turn GREEN ARROW signal
indication is displayed.
Figure 11-1/7: Typical Positions and Arrangements of Shared Signal Faces for Protected
Only Mode Left Turns [1, p.470]
Figure 11-1/8: Typical Position and Arrangements of Separate Signal Faces for Protected
Only Mode Left Turns [1, p.471]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/7

Application of signal indication for right turn
Right turn traffic is controlled by one of the two modes as follows
a) Permissive only mode: turns made on the circular green signal indication a flashing right-
turn YELLOW ARROW signal indication or a flashing right- turn RED ARROW signal
indication after yielding to pedestrians.
Figure 11-1/9: Typical Positions and Arrangements of Shared Signal Faces for
Permissive Only Mode Right Turns [1, p.476]
Figure 11-1/10: Typical Position and Arrangements of Separate Signal Faces with
Flashing Yellow Arrow for Permissive Only Mode Right Turns [1, p.477]
b) Protected Only Mode—turns made only when a right-turn GREEN ARROW signal
indication is displayed.
11/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 11-1/11: Typical Positions and Arrangements of Shared Signal Faces for Protected
Only Mode Right Turns [1, p.479]
Figure 11-1/12: Typical Position and Arrangements of Separate Signal Faces for Protected
Only Mode Right Turns [1, p.480]
 the sequence of signal indication for any phase within the cycle should be in the
following order, when there is countdown for the green and red indications to inform the
vehicular for the number of seconds remaining to turn the signal ahead
1- Red
2- Green
3- Yellow
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/9

If there is no countdown, as an alternative, the following sequence of signal indication can be
followed.
1- Red
2- Red/Yellow
3- Green
4- Yellow
11-1/2/4 ILLUMINATION OF LENSES

Each traffic signal lens should be illuminated separately. An unobstructed, illuminated
vehicular traffic control signal indication should be sufficiently bright to be clearly visible for a
distance of at least 400 meters under normal atmospheric conditions. Signal dimmers should be
provided for the yellow signal sections. The dimmer should allow the signal lamp to operate at
full intensity under daylight conditions and to reduce proportionally to 25 ±5 percent of full
intensity at night. A dimmer should not control more than one yellow section for each direction.
11-1/2/5 VISIBILITY AND SHIELDING OF SIGNAL FACES

Every signal head and its supports should be designed so each signal face may be
aimed independently of any other signal face
Every signal face should be aimed so its indications will have maximum visibility to the traffic it
is intended to control. Each signal face should normally be aimed at a point approximately one
meter above the approach roadway, substantially in advance of the stop line.
The distance from the stop line to this point should be approximately the distance traveled by a
vehicle while the driver reacts to the signal indication and stops. This distance is shown in table
(11-1/1).
It is important that signal indications not be visible to drivers who are not controlled by those
indications. For this reason, visors should be used around all signal lenses. Visors also reduce
“sun phantom” which gives an unlighted lens the false appearance of being lighted when it is
facing a low sun. The visor should be 127 millimeters thick and not less than 22.86 centimeters
in length.
Street, commercial, and advertising lighting behind and in line with traffic signal indications may
seriously interfere with signal visibility and effectiveness. Backplates (a strip of thin material
such as sheet aluminum or sheet plastic extending outward approximately 127 millimeters
parallel to the signal face on all sides of the signal housing) are necessary. Backplates should be
used on all signal heads placed over the roadway. Backplates should also be used on all other
signal heads located where background colors and lights would interfere substantially with the
effectiveness of the traffic signal indications. The front surface of backplates, the inside surfaces
of visors, and the entire surface of louvers and fins should have a flat dull black finish. A
backplate may have a white or silver border.
11/10 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-1/2/6 NUMBER AND LOCATION OF SIGNAL FACES
The signal faces for each approach to an intersection or a midblock location shall be
provided as follows:
a) A minimum of two signal faces shall be provided for the major movement on the
approach, even if the major movement is a turning movement.
b) See Section 11-1/2/3 -1 for left-turn signal faces.
c) See Section 11-1/2/3 -2 for right-turn signal faces.
d) Except where the width of an intersecting roadway or other conditions make it
physically impractical:
1- at least one and preferably both of the two signal faces required for the major
movement on the approach shall be located:
- Not less than 12 m beyond the stop line.
- Not more than 55 m beyond the stop line unless a supplemental near side signal
face is provided.
- As near as practical to the line of the driver's normal view, if mounted over the
roadway.
2- A signal face installed to satisfy the requirements for left-turn signal faces (see
Phrase 11-1/2/3 -1) and right-turn signal faces (see Phrase 11-1/2/3 -2), and at least
one and preferably both of the two signal faces required for the major movement on
the approach shall be located so that the maximum height to the top of the signal
housing mounted over a roadway does not exceed 7.8 m above the pavement (for
viewing distances more than 16 m). For viewing distances between 12 m and 16 m
from the stop line, the maximum mounting height to the top of the signal housing shall
be as shown on figure (11-1/13).
3- At least one and preferably both of the signal faces required by Item A in this
cluster shall be located between two lines intersecting with the center of the approach
at a point 3 m behind the stop line, one making an angle of approximately 20 degrees
to the right of the center of the approach extended, and the other making an angle of
approximately 20 degrees to the left of the center of the approach extended (see figure
11-1/14).
4- If both of the signal faces required by Item a in this cluster are post-mounted, they
shall both be on the far side of the intersection, one on the right and one on the left of
the approach lane(s).
e) If the minimum sight distance in table (11-1/1) cannot be met, a sign shall be installed to
warn approaching traffic of the traffic control signal.
f) Required signal faces for through traffic on any one approach shall be located not less
than 2.4 m apart measured horizontally perpendicular to the approach between the centers
of the signal faces.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/11

g) If more than one turn signal face is provided for a protected-mode turn and if one or both
of the signal faces are located over the roadway, the signal faces shall be located not less
than 2.4 m apart measured horizontally perpendicular to the approach between the centers
of the signal faces.
Supports for post-mounted signal heads and also signal heads at the side of a street should be
placed not less than 0.5 meter back from the face of a curb. If there is no curb the supports and
signal heads should be placed not less than 0.5 meter back from the edge of the shoulder.
Supports for mast arm pole-mounted signal heads should be placed in the most suitable roadway
median facing the controlled approach. A signal should not obstruct a crosswalk.
Overhead (mast arm) indications should be used on intersection approaches where:
 More than 15 percent of the traffic is approaching at speeds in excess of 80 km/hr.
 On any approach where there are three or more approach lanes.
 Where physical conditions prevent drivers from having a continuous view of at least two
signal indications.
Figure 11-1/13: Maximum Mounting Height of Signal Faces Located Between 12meters
and 16meters From Stop Line [2, p.4 D-14]
11/12 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 11-1/14: Horizontal Location of Signal Faces [2, p.4 D-15]
11-1/2/7 HEIGHT OF SIGNAL FACES

A signal face is most visible when installed directly in the driver's line of sight. The
bottom of the housing of a signal face placed on a median island on the near side of an
intersection approach should not be less than 1.25 meters and not more than 2.5 meters above the
top of the median island. The bottom of the housing of signal face supported over a roadway
should not be less than 5.5 meters nor more than 6.5 meters above the pavement below the
signal. Typical mast arm and bracket mountings of signals are shown in figures (11-1/15) and
(11-1/16).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/13

11/14
2017 AD/1438 AH
Figure 11-1/15: Typical Mast Arm of Signal (All Dimensions are in Millimeters)
IQ.B.C. 103/8
Figure 11-1/16: Typical Pole Mounting of Signal Heads (All dimensions are in millimeters)
[3, p.9-21]
11-1/2/8 YELLOW CHANGE AND RED CLEARANCE INTERVAL

A yellow signal indication shall be displayed following every CIRCULAR GREEN or
GREEN ARROW signal indication. The exclusive function of the yellow change interval shall
be to warn traffic of an impending change in the right-of-way assignment. The vehicle change
interval should not be less than three seconds nor more than seven seconds. It can be calculated
according to the following formula.
0.91 𝑉
𝑉𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇 + (11 − 1/1)
6.56𝐴 + 0.644𝐺
Where:
A= Maximum deceleration rate (m/sec.2), typically 3.048.
T= Reaction time, typically one sec.
G= Gradient of approach.
V= Speed of vehicle (km/hr.).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/15

The yellow change interval may be followed by a red clearance interval to provide additional
time before conflicting traffic movements, including pedestrians, are released. A red clearance
interval should have a duration not exceeding 6 seconds. The all red clearance time can be
calculated according to the following formula.
3.6 + 𝑊 + 𝐶 + 𝐿
𝑇(𝑠𝑒𝑐.) = (11 − 1/2)
𝑉
Where:
W= Street width (meter).
C= Distance from stop line to near side of cross street (meter).
L= Length of the vehicle (meter).
V= Speed of Vehicle (km/hr.).
11-1/2/9 COORDINATION OF SIGNALS

Both pretimed and traffic-actuated signals within 800 meters of one another along a
major route or in a network of major routes should normally be operated in coordination to
minimize unnecessary delay and accidents. In the coordinated systems, all signals must have the
same cycle length. Coordination of traffic signals can be accomplished with the aid of space–
time diagram. An example of this diagram is shown in figure below.
Figure 11-1/17: Time-Space Diagram, Example [5, p.6-21]
11/16 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-1/2/10 FLASH OPERATION OF SIGNAL
All traffic control signal installations should have electrical mechanisms which will
flash the signal indications when activated by a manual or automatic switch. It should be
possible to remove the signal timer without affecting the flashing of the indications. During
flashing operation, the indications should be flashed at a rate of not less than one-half nor more
than two-thirds of the total flash cycle.
During late night/early morning hours when the traffic volume is less than 120 vehicles per hour
in the major direction, a pre-timed signal may be placed on flashing operation. Traffic actuated
signals should normally not be placed on flashing operation during such times of lower traffic. In
the flashing operation mode, the following signal indications should normally be displayed:
 Flashing yellow in all indications facing traffic on the main street or highway.
 Flashing red in all indications facing traffic on the minor or cross streets.
11-1/3 CONDITIONS THAT WARRANT THE INSTALLATION OF A TRAFFIC

SIGNAL
A traffic control signal should not be installed unless one or more of the factors described
below are met.
Warrant 1: Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume
The eight-hour vehicular volume warrant addresses the need for signalization for
conditions that exist over extended periods of the day (a minimum of eight hours).
Two of the most fundamental reasons for signalization are:

 Heavy volumes on conflicting cross-movements that make it impractical for
drivers to select gaps in an uninterrupted traffic stream through which to safely
pass. This requirement is often referred to as the “minimum vehicular volume”
condition (Condition A).
 Vehicular volumes on the major street are so heavy that no minor-street vehicle
can safely pass through the major-street traffic stream without the aid of signals.
This requirement is often referred to as the “interruption of continuous traffic”
condition (Condition B).
Details of this warrant are shown in table (11-1/2). The warrant is met when:
 Either Condition A or Condition B is met to the 100% level.
 Either Condition A or Condition B is met to the 70% level, where the intersection
is located in an isolated community of population 10,000 or less, or where the
major-street approach speed is 70 km/hr. or higher.
 Both Conditions A and B are met to the 80% level .
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/17

Table 11-1/2: Warrant 1: Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume [1, p.456]
Condition B: Interruption of Continuous Traffic
Warrant 2: Four-Hour Vehicular Volume

The Four-Hour Vehicular Volume signal warrant conditions are intended to be applied
where the volume of intersecting traffic is the principal reason to consider installing a
traffic control signal.
Figure (11-1/18) shows this warrant, which is in the form of a continuous graph.
11/18 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

(a) Normal Conditions
(b) For Communities With Population= 10,000 or Above 64 km/hr. on Major Street
Figure 11-1/18: Warrant 2: Four-Hour Vehicular Volume Warrant [1, p.457]
Warrant 3: Peak Hour

This signal warrant shall be applied only in unusual cases, such as office complexes,
manufacturing plants, industrial complexes, or high-occupancy vehicle facilities that
attract or discharge large numbers of vehicles over a short time.
The need for a traffic control signal shall be considered if an engineering study finds that
the criteria in either of the following two categories are met:
A. If all three of the following conditions exist for the same 1 hour (any four consecutive
15-minute periods) of an average day:
1. The total stopped time delay experienced by the traffic on one minor-street
approach (one direction only) controlled by a STOP sign equals or exceeds: 4
vehicle-hours for a one-lane approach; or 5 vehicle-hours for a two-lane
approach ;and
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/19
2. The volume on the same minor-street approach (one direction only) equals or
exceeds 100 vehicles per hour for one moving lane of traffic or 150 vehicles per
hour for two moving lanes; and
3. The total entering volume serviced during the hour equals or exceeds 650
vehicles per hour for intersections with three approaches or 800 vehicles per hour
for intersections with four or more approaches.
B. The plotted point representing the vehicles per hour on the major street (total of both
approaches) and the corresponding vehicles per hour on the higher-volume minor-
street approach (one direction only) for 1 hour (any four consecutive 15-minute
periods) of an average day falls above the applicable curve in figure (11-1/19) for the
existing combination of approach lanes.
Figure 11-1/19: Warrant 3: Peak Hour [1, p.459]
Figure 11-1/20: Warrant 3: Peak Hour (70% Factor) [1, p.459]
11/20 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure (11-1/20) may be used in place of figure (11-1/19) to satisfy the criteria in the
second category of this warrant.
Warrant 4: Pedestrian Volume
The need for a traffic control signal at an intersection or midblock crossing shall be
considered if an engineering study finds that both of the following criteria are met:
A. The pedestrian volume crossing the major street at an intersection or midblock
location during an average day is 100 or more for each of any 4 hours or 190 or
more during any 1 hour; and
B. There are fewer than 60 gaps per hour in the traffic stream of adequate length to
allow pedestrians to cross during the same period when the pedestrian volume
criterion is satisfied. Where there is a divided street having a median of sufficient
width for pedestrians to wait, the requirement applies separately to each direction of
vehicular traffic.
The Pedestrian Volume signal warrant shall not be applied at locations where the distance
to the nearest traffic control signal along the major street is less than 90 m, unless the
proposed traffic control signal will not restrict the progressive movement of traffic.
If this warrant is met and a traffic control signal is justified by an engineering study, the
traffic control signal shall be equipped with pedestrian signal heads conforming to
requirements set forth in cluster (11-1/4).
Note: The criterion for the pedestrian volume crossing the major roadway may be
reduced as much as 50 percent if the average crossing speed of pedestrians is less than
1.2 m/sec.
Warrant 5: School Crossing
This warrant is similar to the pedestrian warrant but is limited to application at designated
school crossing locations, either at intersections or at mid-block locations.
The need for a traffic control signal shall be considered when an engineering study of the
frequency and adequacy of gaps in the vehicular traffic stream as related to the number
and size of groups of school children at an established school crossing across the major
street shows that the number of adequate gaps in the traffic stream during the period
when the children are using the crossing is less than the number of minutes in the same
period and there are a minimum of 20 students during the highest crossing hour.
Note: The School Crossing signal warrant shall not be applied at locations where the
distance to the nearest traffic control signal along the major street is less than 90 m,
unless the proposed traffic control signal will not restrict the progressive movement of
traffic.
Warrant 6: Coordinated Signal System
Progressive movement in a coordinated signal system sometimes necessitates installing
traffic control signals at intersections where they would not otherwise be needed in order
to maintain proper platooning of vehicles.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/21

one of the following criteria is met:
A. On a one-way street or a street that has traffic predominantly in one direction; the
adjacent traffic control signals are so far apart that they do not provide the
necessary degree of vehicular platooning.
B. On a two-way street, adjacent traffic control signals do not provide the necessary
degree of platooning and the proposed and adjacent traffic control signals will
collectively provide a progressive operation.
Warrant 7: Crash Experience

The Crash Experience signal warrant conditions are intended for application where the
severity and frequency of crashes are the principal reasons to consider installing a traffic
control signal.
all of the following criteria are met:
1. Adequate trial of alternatives with satisfactory observance and enforcement has
failed to reduce the crash frequency.
2. Five or more reported crashes of types susceptible to correction by a traffic
control signal have occurred within a 12-month period, each involving a personal
injury or property damage apparently exceeding the applicable requirements for a
reportable crash.
3. For each of any eight hours of the day, vehicular volumes meet either Warrant 1A
or Warrant 1B at the 80% level.
Warrant 8: Roadway Network

The need fix- a traffic control signal shall be considered if an engineering study finds that
the common intersection of two or more major routes meets one or both of the following
criteria:
1. The intersection has a total existing, or immediately projected, entering volume of at
least 1,000 veh/hr. during the peak hour of a typical weekday, and has five-year
projected traffic volumes, based upon an engineering study, that meet one or more of
Warrants 1, 2 and 3 during an average weekday.
2. The intersection has a total existing, or immediately projected, entering volume of at
least 1,000 veh/hr. for each of, any five hours of a non-normal business day (Friday
or Saturday).
11-1/4 PEDESTRIAN CONTROL SIGNALS
11-1/4/1 PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL HEAD INDICATIONS

Pedestrian signal indications are used to give pedestrians better information for safe
crossing than can be given by the vehicular indications alone. These indications consist of the
green figure of a walking man, symbolizing permission to walk (WALK) and a representation of
11/22 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

a red-colored hand, symbolizing prohibition of walking (DON'T WALK) (see figure 11-1/21).
Another permissible combinations would be a green figure of a walking man and a red figure of
standing man, respectively.
All new pedestrian signal head indications shall be displayed within a rectangular
background and the Symbols at least 150 millimeters high should be used if the distance from
the near curb to the pedestrian signal indication is 35 meters or less. Where that distance is more
than 35 m, the symbols should be at least 225 millimeters in height.
Figure 11-1/21: Typical Pedestrian Signal Indications [1, p.496]
The meanings of pedestrian signal indications are:

 The hand symbol (when steadily illuminated) means pedestrians facing the signal should
not enter the roadway.
 The walking man symbol (when flashing) means pedestrians should not start to cross the
roadway. However, any pedestrian who has partly completed crossing the roadway
should proceed to a sidewalk or to a safety island.
 The walking man pedestrian indication means pedestrians may cross the roadway within
the crosswalk limits in the direction of the indication.
Pedestrian signal indications should be installed in conjunction with vehicular traffic control
signals under any of the following conditions:
 When a traffic control signal is installed because either the Pedestrian Volume or the
School Crossing Criterion is met.
 When it is necessary to give vehicles a signal indication to stop them from crossing the
path of a pedestrian movement. A signal indication is then necessary to tell pedestrians
when they may walk.
 When vehicular signal indications are not sufficiently visible to pedestrians, particularly
on one-way streets or at a “T” intersection.
 At officially designed school crossings at intersection signalized under any criterion.
 At wide intersections where pedestrians must make the crossing in stages.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/23

11-1/4/2 PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL PHASES AND INTERVAL TIME
When pedestrian signal heads are used, a WALKING PERSON (symbolizing WALK)
signal indication shall be displayed only when pedestrians are permitted to leave the curb or
shoulder.
A pedestrian clearance time shall begin immediately following the WALKING PERSON
(symbolizing WALK) signal indication. The first portion of the pedestrian clearance time shall
consist of a pedestrian change interval during which a flashing UPRAISED HAND (symbolizing
DONT WALK) signal indication shall be displayed. The remaining portions shall consist of the
yellow change interval and any red clearance interval (prior to a conflicting green being
displayed), during which a flashing or steady UPRAISED HAND (symbolizing DONT WALK)
signal indication shall be displayed.
If countdown pedestrian signals are used, a steady UPRAISED HAND (symbolizing DONT
WALK) signal indication shall be displayed during the yellow change interval and any red
clearance interval (prior to a conflicting green being displayed).
The minimum WALK interval, when the green walking man indication is shown, should be not
less than the minimum time required to cross the street at walking speed. The minimum WALK
interval is typically four to seven seconds. Additional time, if needed, should be added to the
clearance period. The WALK indication may be shown for the vehicular green period minus the
time required for the pedestrian change/clearance indication. However, the length of the WALK
period need not equal the time required for pedestrians to walk completely across the street, as
they can complete their crossing during the change/clearance period. At traffic-actuated signals,
the standing man indication should be shown unless there has been a pedestrian actuation.
A pedestrian change/clearance interval should always be provided where pedestrian signal
indications are used. This interval should be long enough to allow a pedestrian to walk across the
entire roadway or to a median island before vehicles crossing his path receive a green indication.
The normal walking speed is assumed to be 1.20 meters per second. Pedestrian indications
should always be displayed when the traffic signal is operating as a stop-and-go device.
Pedestrian indications should not be illuminated when the traffic control signal is operating as a
flashing device. When pedestrian pushbuttons are provided, the buttons should be operating at
any time the pedestrian indications are operating.
11-1/4/3 LOCATION AND HEIGHT OF PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL HEADS

Pedestrian signal heads shall be mounted with the bottom of the signal housing
including brackets not less than 2.1 m nor more than 3 m above sidewalk level, and shall be
positioned and adjusted to provide maximum visibility at the beginning of the controlled
crosswalk.
If pedestrian signal heads are mounted on the same support as vehicular signal heads, there shall
be a physical separation between them.
11/24 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-1/5 FLASHING BEACONS
A Flashing Beacon is a highway traffic signal with one or more signal sections that
operates in a flashing mode. It can provide traffic control when used as an intersection control
beacon or warning in alternative uses.
Flashing Beacon units and their mountings shall follow the provisions of clause 11-1/2, except as
specified herein.
Beacons shall be flashed at a rate of not less than 50 nor more than 60 times per minute. The
illuminated period of each flash shall not be less than one-half and not more than two-thirds of
the total cycle.
Note: If used to supplement a warning or regulatory sign, the edge of the beacon signal housing
should normally be located no closer than 300 mm outside of the nearest edge of the sign.
11-1/5/1 WARNING BEACON

Typical applications of Warning Beacons include the following:
A. At obstructions in or immediately adjacent to the roadway;
B. As supplemental emphasis to warning signs;
C. As emphasis for midblock crosswalks;
D. On approaches to intersections where additional warning is required, or where special
conditions exist; and
E. As supplemental emphasis to regulatory signs, except STOP, YIELD, DO NOT ENTER,
and SPEED LIMIT signs.
A Warning Beacon shall consist of one or more signal sections of a standard traffic signal face
with a flashing CIRCULAR YELLOW signal indication in each signal section. It shall be used
only to supplement an appropriate warning or regulatory sign or marker. The beacon shall not be
included within the border of the sign except for SCHOOL SPEED LIMIT sign beacons.
If a Warning Beacon is suspended over the roadway, the clearance above the pavement shall be
at least 4.6 m but not more than 5.8 m .Warning Beacons should be operated only during those
hours when the condition or regulation exists.
11-1/5/2 INTERSECTION CONTROL BEACON

An Intersection control beacon shall consist of one or more signal faces directed
toward each approach to an intersection. Each signal face shall consist of one or more signal
sections of a standard traffic signal face, with flashing CIRCULAR YELLOW or CIRCULAR
RED signal indications in each signal face. They shall be installed and used only at an
intersection to control two or more directions of travel.
Intersection control beacons are used at intersections where traffic control signals are not
warranted, but accident experience indicates a special hazard. Only the following combinations
of signal indications should be used:
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/25

 Yellow indications on one route (normally the major route) and red on all other
approaches, or
 Red on all approaches to the intersection. This is permissible only where an all-way stop
is warranted.
11-1/5/3 STOP BEACON

A stop sign beacon is a signal with one or two flashing RED DISK indications used
with a STOP sign. The lens of a stop sign beacon should have a visible diameter of not less than
200 millimeters. Where greater effectiveness is needed, two separate beacons and sing
installations may be made. One should be on the right side of the approach and one overhead or
on the left of the approach. This will usually be more effective than a beacon with a 300-
millimeter lens. If two lenses are used with a STOP sign, the lenses should be placed above and
below the sign, and should be alternately illuminated. The standard beacon should have one lens.
Two-lens beacons should only be used where accident experience shows single lens beacons
have not been effective.
11-1/5/4 SPEED LIMIT BEACON

Speed limit sign beacons are intended for use where signs alone have not been
effective in controlling speed. A speed limit sign beacon may be used with a fixed or variable
speed Limit sign. If applicable, a flashing Speed Limit Sign Beacon (with an appropriate
accompanying sign) may be used to indicate that the displayed speed limit is in effect. Too
frequent use of the beacons, however, may reduce their effectiveness. A speed limit sign beacon
is a signal having one or two YELLOW DISK lens sections. If one lens is used, it should have a
visible diameter of not less than 200 millimeters. If two lenses are used, the lenses should have
visible diameter of not less than 150 millimeters.
11/26 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-2 TRAFFIC SIGNS
11-2/1 TRAFFIC SIGNS CHARACTERISTICS
11-2/1/1 FUNCTION AND PURPOSE OF SIGNS

The main purpose of highway traffic signs is to aid the safe and orderly movement of
traffic. Signs are needed to give information about highway routes, direction, destinations and
points of interest. They are needed to give information on special regulations which apply only at
specific places or at specific times. They are essential to inform drivers about hazards which are
not self-evident.
11-2/1/2 SIGN SHAPES

Standard sign shapes and their function are as shown in figure (11-2/1).
Figure 11-2/1: Standard Sign Shapes [3, p.2-7]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/27

11-2/1/3 SIGN COLORS
The colors to be used on standard signs should be as follows:
1. Warning signs should have a white background with a red border and black symbols.
2. Regulatory signs which are prohibitive in nature should have a white background with a
red border and black symbols.
Regulatory signs which are mandatory in nature should have a blue background with
white symbols.
3. Stop signs should have a red background with a white border and white symbols.
4. Priority signs should have a yellow background with a white border and black symbols.
5. GUIDE signs which give information regarding services should have a blue background
with a white inset and a black message or symbols. The direction signs should have a
green background with a white message or symbols for streets and highways other than
expressway.
Fore expressways, the direction signs should have a blue background with a white
message or symbols.
11-2/1/4 SIGN BORDER

The signs which are rectangular in shapes (mostly guide signs) should have a narrow
border of the same color as the message. This improves the appearance. For 60cm signs, the
border should be in the range of 1.0 to 1.5cm set 1cm from the edge, and for other sign sizes
approximately in proportion but not to exceed the stroke-width of the major lettering of the sign.
On signs exceeding 2m by 3m in size, the border should be approximately 5cm wide or, on
unusually large signs, 7.5cm.
The corners of the border should be rounded except for STOP signs. When practicable,
the corner of the sign panels should also be rounded to fit the border.
11-2/1/5 RETROREFLECTION AND ILLUMINATION

Regulatory, warning, and guide signs shall be retroreflective or illuminated to show the
same shape and similar color by both day and night. The requirements for sign illumination shall
not be considered to be satisfied by street or highway lighting. Sign elements may be illuminated
by the means shown in table (11-2/1). Retroreflection of sign elements may be accomplished by
the means shown in table (11-2/2).
11-2/1/6 SIGN DIMENSIONS

The side length or diameter of the regulatory and warning signs to be used for arterial
roads should be 90 cm and for all other roads 60 cm.
11/28 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 11-2/1: Illumination of Sign Elements [1, p. 29]
Means of Illumination Sign Element to be Illuminated
 Symbol or word message
 Background
Light behind the sign face
 Symbol, word message, and background
(through a translucent material)
Attached or independently mounted light
source designed to direct essentially  Entire sign face
uniform illumination onto the sign face
 Symbol a word message
Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
 Portions of the sign border
Other devices. or treatments that highlight
the sign shape, color, or message:
Luminous Tubing  Symbol or word mess ego
Fiber optic  Entire sign face
Incandescent light bulbs
Luminescent panels
Table 11-2/2: Retroreflection of Sign Elements [1, p. 29]

Means of Retroreflection Sign Element
Symbol
Reflector 'buttons" or similar units Word message
Border
A material that has a smooth, sealed outer Symbol
surface over a microstructure that reflects light Word message
Border
Background
Light Emitting Diode (LED) units may be used individually within the face of a sign and in the
border of a sign, except for Changeable Message Signs, to improve the conspicuity, increase the
legibility of sign legends and borders, or provide a changeable message. Individual LED pixels
may be used in the border of a sign.
Note: All overhead signs should be illuminated except in cases where all of the following
conditions are met:
 When the roadway is not lighted, and
 When the sign is visible from a distance of 370 meters or more, and
 When the horizontal curvature of the road approaching the sign has no less than a 250
meter radius.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/29

11-2/2 TRAFFIC SIGNS PLACEMENT
The general rule is to locate signs on the right hand side of the roadway. On wide
expressways or where some degree of lane-use control is desirable or where space is not
available at the roadside, overhead signs are often necessary.
In some circumstances, signs may be placed on channelizing islands (as on sharp right hand
curves) on the left hand shoulder of the road, directly in front of the approaching vehicles. A
supplementary sign located on the left of the roadway is often helpful on a mullti-lane road
where traffic in the right hand lane may obstruct the view to the right. Normally, signs should be
individually erected on separate posts or mountings except where one sign supplements another.
11-2/2/1 MOUNTING HEIGHT

Signs installed at the side of the road in rural districts shall be at least 1.5 m, measured
from the bottom of the sign to the near edge of the pavement. Where parking or pedestrian
movements occur, the clearance to the bottom of the sign shall be at least 2.1 m.
Directional signs on freeways and expressways shall be installed with a minimum height of 2.1
m. If a secondary sign is mounted below another sign, the major sign shall be installed at least
2.4 m and the secondary sign at least 1.5 m above the level of the pavement edge. All route
signs, warning signs, and regulatory signs on freeways and expressways shall be at least 2.1 m
above the level of the pavement edge.
Overhead mounted signs shall provide a vertical clearance of not less than 5.2 m to the sign, light
fixture, or sign bridge, over the entire width of the pavement and shoulders except where a lesser
vertical clearance is used for the design of other structures.
11-2/2/2 LATERAL OFFSET

The minimum lateral offset is intended to keep trucks and cars that use the shoulders
from striking the signs or supports.
For post-mounted signs, the minimum lateral offset should be 3.7 m from the edge of the
traveled way. If a shoulder wider than 1.8 m exists, the minimum lateral offset for ground-
mounted signs should be 1.8 m from the edge of the shoulder.
For overhead sign supports, the minimum lateral offset from the edge of the shoulder (or if no
shoulder exists, from the edge of the pavement) to the near edge of overhead sign supports
(cantilever or sign bridges) shall be 1.8 m. Overhead sign supports shall have a barrier or crash
cushion to shield them if they are within the clear zone.
In urban areas a minimum lateral offset of 0.6 m from face of the curb should be used.
Note: In areas where it is impractical to locate a sign with the lateral offset prescribed by this
clause, a lateral offset of at least 0.6 m may be used for rural area and 0.3m for urban area.
Figures (11-2/2) and (11-2/3) illustrate some examples of the lateral offset and mounting height
requirements.
11/30 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 11-2/2: Examples of Heights and Lateral Locations of Sign Installations [1, p.38]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/31

. See section (11-2/2/2)
Figure 11-2/3: Examples of Locations for Some Typical Signs at Intersections [1, p.39]
11/32 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-2/2/3 LONGITUDINAL PLACEMENT
The longitudinal placement of signs along a road depends on the sign type, criticality
of message, and maneuver required. Signs should be located so that they do not obscure each
other nor are hidden from view by other roadside objects. The minimum spacing for signs is
Figure 11-2/4: Minimum Spacing of Traffic Signs [4, p. IV-4]
11-2/2/4 OVERHEAD SIGN INSTALLATION

The factors justifying the erection of overhead sign displays are not definable in
specific numerical terms but the following conditions deserve consideration:
A. Traffic volume at or near capacity,
B. Complex interchanges design,
C. Three or more lanes in each direction,
D. Restricted sight distance,
E. Closely-spaced interchanges,
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/33

F. Multi-lane exits,
G. Large percentage of trucks,
H. Street lighting background,
I. High-speed traffic,
J. Consistency of sign message location through a series of interchanges,
K. Insufficient space for post-mounted signs,
L. Junction of two freeways, and
M. Left exit ramps.
11-2/2/5 ORIENTATION ANGLE

Normally, signs should be mounted at right angles to the direction of, and facing, the
traffic that they are intended to serve. Where mirror reflection from the sign face is very high so
as to reduce legibility, it should be oriented at an angle shown in figures below.
Figure 11-2/5: Orientation Angle of Traffic Sign
11/34 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Cont’d Figure 11-2/5: Orientation Angle of Traffic Sign
11-2/2/6 POST AND MOUNTING

Signposts and sign mountings should be so constructed as to hold signs in their proper
and permanent positions and to resist swaying in the wind. Especially in rural areas, if roadside
sign supports cannot be sufficiently distant from the pavement edge, sign supports should be of a
suitable anti-collapsible design. In some cases, signs can be placed on existing supports used for
other purposes, such as street lights and public utility poles, (in urban areas), thereby minimizing
footpath obstruction.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/35

11-2/3 REGULARITY SIGNS
Regulatory signs shall be used to inform road users of selected traffic laws or regulations
and indicate the applicability of the legal requirements.
Regulatory signs shall be installed at or near where the regulations apply. The signs shall clearly
indicate the requirements imposed by the regulations and shall be designed and installed to
provide adequate visibility and legibility in order to obtain compliance.
In order to assist the understanding of the different functions of different types of regulatory
sign, the regularity signs are classified into the following groups
1. Control Signs
2. Mandatory Signs
3. Prohibitory Signs
4. Parking Control Signs
11-2/3/1 CONTROL SIGNS

The signs in this group have a common function in that they are used to allocate
priority right-of way or direction of movement.
 STOP sign (R1)
STOP signs are intended for use on roadways where traffic is required to stop. The STOP
sign should be an octagon with a white message and border on a red background.
A stop sign may be necessary at an intersection where one or more of the following
conditions exist:
i. At the entrance to a street intersection a through highway or through street.
ii. Unsignalized intersection in a signalized area.
iii. At a minor intersection where, due to restricted view, the safe vehicle approach
speed is less than 10 km/h.
iv. At locations where accident experience indicates the need for STOP sign control.
STOP signs shall not be erected at intersections where traffic control signals are present
and continuously in operation
(R1)
11/36 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

 YIELD sign (R2)
The GIVE WAY sign indicates right of way to traffic on certain approaches to an
intersection. Vehicles controlled by a GIVE WAY sign need to stop only when necessary
to avoid collision with other traffic that has right of way.
The GIVE WAY sign may be necessary:
i. On a minor road at the entrance to an intersection where it is necessary to assign
right of way to the major road but where stopping is not necessary at all times and
where the safe approach speed on the minor road exceeds 15km/h.
ii. On the entrance ramp to an expressway.
iii. Within an intersection with a divided highway where a STOP sign is present at the
entrance of the first road and further control is necessary at the entrance to the
second roadway and where the median width between the two road-ways exceeds
10m.
iv. Where there is a separate or channelized right-turn lane.
(R2)
 NO ENTRY SIGN (R3)

NO ENTRY sign indicates to drivers of vehicles that entry is prohibited to all vehicular
traffic. NO ENTRY sign should be used to prohibit “wrong way” entry to a roadway
when confusion may exist as to the direction of travel of traffic in the roadway. NO
ENTRY sign should be located on the right and left sides of a one-way roadway. NO
ENTRY sign R3 should be oriented at 90 degrees to the direction of “wrong way” travel.
(R3)
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/37

 ONE WAY SIGNS (R4, R5 and R6)
(R4) (R5) (R6)
11-2/3/2 MANDATORY SIGNS

The signs in this group have the function that they are used to indicate to road users
actions that they must take or that are mandatory.
 AHEAD ONLY SIGN (M1)
Sign M1 requires that the driver of a vehicle should proceed only straight ahead in the
direction indicated by the arrow on the sign. AHEAD ONLY sign M1 should be located
on the right side of a two-way roadway and on the left side of a one-way roadway. The
function of the AHEAD ONLY sign M1 differs from that of the ONE WAY sign M1 in
that, while the ONE WAY sign may indicate the mandatory direction in a street at a
junction, other directions of travel at the junction may be chosen. AHEAD ONLY sign
M1 indicates that drivers have no other choice but to proceed straight ahead.
(M1)
 TURN RIGHT (OR LEFT) ONLY SIGN M2 (OR M3)

Signs M2 (or M3) require that the driver of a vehicle should proceed only to the right (or
to the left - the arrow direction being reversed) at the junction. TURN RIGHT (or LEFT)
ONLY signs M2 (or M3) should be located on the far side of a roadway facing drivers to
which they apply.
(M2) (M3)
11/38 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
 TURN RIGHT (OR LEFT) AHEAD ONLY SIGN M4 (OR M5)
Signs M4 (or M5) require that the driver of a vehicle should proceed only to the right (or
to the left — the arrow direction being reversed) at the junction ahead. TURN RIGHT (or
LEFT) AHEAD ONLY signs M4 (or M5) should be located on the right side of a two-
way roadway and on the left side of a one-way roadway at a distance of approximately 50
meters from the junction to which it applies.
(M4) (M5)
 PASS EITHER SIDE SIGN (M6)

Sign M6 indicates that the driver of a vehicle may pass to either side of an obstruction in
the roadway, such as a traffic island. PASS EITHER SIDE sign M6 should be located on
a traffic divider, near the nose of the divider, so that there is a minimum clearance of 300
millimeters between the edges of the divider and the sign.
(M6)
 KEEP RIGHT (OR LEFT) SIGN M7 (OR M8)

Signs M7 (or M8) indicate that the driver of a vehicle should pass to the right (or to the
left, the arrow direction being reversed) of an obstruction in the roadway. Use of signs
M7 (or M8) most commonly applies to traffic islands or refuges in two-way roadways or
at the beginning of median island when a single two-way carriageway widens to become
a dual carriageway.
(M7) (M8)
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/39
 ROUNDABOUT SIGN (M9)
Sign M9 requires that the driver of a vehicle should proceed only in a counterclockwise
direction at the roundabout ahead.
(M9)
 U-TURN SIGN (M10)

Sign M10 notifies the drivers that they can make a U-turn.
(M10)
 PEDESTRIAN CROSSING SIGN (M11)

Sign M11 notifies the pedestrian for the road crossing zone.
(M11)
11/40 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-2/3/3 PROHIBITORY SIGNS
The signs in this group have the function to indicate to road users actions that they
must not take, or which are prohibited. Prohibitions may apply in the form of limits, or to certain
actions or objects. Maximum limits such as speed or height limits are indicated in circular signs
without a diagonal slash. Prohibitions on actions or objects are indicated in circular signs which
include a diagonal slash.
P1 P2
Overtaking prohibited Overtaking by goods
vehicles prohibited
P3 P4
P5
Maximum speed limited to the Use of audible warning
Photography prohibited
figure indicated devices prohibited
P6 P7
Passing without stopping End all local prohibitions
prohibited (e.g. for customs) imposed on moving vehicles
P9
P8
End of prohibition of
End of speed limit
overtaking
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/41

P10 P11
No entry for vehicles having No entry for vehicles exceeding
an overall height exceeding the figure indicated in tons
the figure indicated in meters laden weight
P12 P13
No entry for vehicles having No entry for vehicles or
a weight exceeding the figure combinations of vehicles exceeding
indicated in tons on one axle the figure indicated in meters in length
P14
P15
Driving vehicles less than
No left turn
exceeding the figure indicated
in meters a part prohibited
P16 P17
No right turn No U-turn
11/42 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

P18
Closed to all vehicles in
in both directions
P19 P20
No entry for all motor No entry
vehicles except motor-cycles for motor-cycles
without sidecar
P21 P22
No entry No entry
for cycles for goods vehicles
P23 P24
No entry for any vehicles No entry
drawing a trailer other than for pedestrians
a semi-trailer or single axle trailer
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/43

P25 P26
No entry for animal-drawn No entry for handcarts
vehicles
P27 P28
No entry for No entry for
power-driven vehicles carrying more than a certain
agricultural vehicles quantity of explosives or readily
inflammable substances
P29 P30
No entry for vehicles carrying more No entry
than a certain quantity of for power-driven
substances liable to cause water pollution vehicles
P31 P32
No entry No entry for vehicles having
for power-driven vehicles an overall width exceeding.
or animal- drawn vehicles the figure indicated
in meters
11/44 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-2/3/4 PARKING CONTROL SIGNS
The signs in this group apply to the control and regulation of stopping and parking. The
signs in the group are available to clarify stopping or parking controls in complex environments
or to indicate circumstances where limited or part-time restrictions operate for part(s) of a day or
apply to specific classes of vehicle.
No Stopping within time limits displayed
No parking sign variants
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/45

Parking is allowed within indicated limits
Parking is only allowed for handicapped
11/46 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-2/4 WARNING SIGNS
Warning signs are used to make drivers aware of hazardous or potentially hazardous
conditions in the roadway which drivers might not otherwise expect to see due to the nature of
the hazard, the hazard being hidden or partially hidden, or due to the driver’s workload at the
time. Advance warning signs have a unique triangular shape and the warning message is given in
the majority of instances by a symbolic representation of the hazard or potential hazard.
Most warning signs are located in advance of the hazard to which they refer. To be effective as a
class, warning signs must be positioned consistently. The location of warning signs should, in
part, be related to the speed with which the hazard can be negotiated. This in turn relates to the
difference between the speed at the hazard and the speed when viewing the sign. Table (11-2/3)
gives guidelines for the positioning of advance warning signs.
Table 11-2/3: Guidelines for positioning advance warning signs [3, p.4-1]
Approach Posted Speed at Hazard (km/hr.)
Speed ≤20 30 40 50 60 70 130
(km/hr.) Preferred Distance of Sign from Hazard (meters)
30 Note 1 Note 2 - - - - -
40 25 Note 1 Note 2 - - - -
50 75 60 Note 1 Note 2 - - -
60 125 110 100 50 Note 2 - -
70 150 140 125 110 50 Note 2 -
80 175 160 150 125 100 60 Note 2
90 200 185 175 150 140 75 65
100 250 230 200 180 175 125 100
110 275 250 225 210 190 160 130
120 300 275 250 230 210 190 175
NOTES:
1. No suggested minimum distances are provided for these speeds, as
placement location is dependent on site conditions and other signing
to provide an adequate advance warning for the driver.
2. No specific recommended placement distances are provided for these
speeds. The Engineer should exercise professional engineering
judgement in light of local conditions.
11-2/4/1 ADVANCED WARNING SIGNS

The signs in this group should all be used in advance of the hazard or potential hazard
to which they relate. Consistent with this function they have a unique triangular shape in order to
attract the attention of drivers sufficiently early for their message to be effective. Advanced
warning signs should be located on the right side of the roadway at a distance from the junction
as indicated in table (11-2/3) and with a clear sight distance to the sign. A supplementary plate
sign indicating the distance to the junction to the nearest 20 meters can be attached below the
advanced warning signs.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/47
 JUNCTION AHEAD SIGNS W1 TO W6
 NO THROUGH ROAD SIGNS W7, W8, AND W9
W7 W8 W9
 MERGING TRAFFIC SIGNS W10 AND W11
W10 W11
11/48 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8
 RIGHT (OR LEFT) CURVE SIGN W12 (OR W13)
W12 W13
 BENDS AHEAD SIGNS W14 AND W15
W14 W15
 TWO-WAY TRAFFIC SIGN W16
W16
 LANE ENDS SIGNS W17 AND W18
W17 W18
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/49

 U-TURN AHEAD SIGN W19 ROUNDABOUT AHEAD SIGN W20
W19 W20
 ROAD NARROWS AHEAD SIGNS W21 TO W23
W21 W22 W23
 MAXIMUM HEADROOM SIGN W24
Sign W24 warns drivers of vehicles that the clearance available under an overhead
structure ahead is restricted to the amount indicated in meters on the sign. Maximum
headroom sign W24 should not be displayed for any structure with minimum clearance of
5.2 meters or greater.
W24
 CHILDREN SIGN W25 PEDESTRIAN CROSSING AHEAD SIGN W26
W25 W26
11/50 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

 TRAFFIC SIGNALS AHEAD SIGN W27 QUAYSIDE SIGN W28
W27 W28
 ANIMALS AHEAD SIGN W29 LOW-FLYING AIRCRAFT SIGN W30
W29 W30
 SPEED HUMP SIGN W31 TUNNEL SIGN W32
W31 W32
 FALLING ROCKS SIGN W33 SLIPPERY SURFACE SIGN W34
W33 W34
 GENERAL WARNING SIGN W35 ROAD WORKS SIGN W36
W35 W36
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/51
 NORROW STRUCTURE SIGN W37 RAILWAY CROOSING SIGNS W38 and W39
W37 W38 W39
11-2/4/2 HAZARD MARKER SIGNS

The signs in this group have the specific function to mark an actual hazard adjacent to
the roadway. The majority of uses therefore relate to identifying the position of physical hazards
such as culverts, bridge structures, large sign supports, traffic island gores, guardrails, etc., to
drivers. In some instances, such as a sharp curve, hazard markers may be used to delineate the
curve and so draw attention to the severity of the curve.
 HAZARD PLATE SIGNS W40 AND W41
Signs W40 and W41 warn drivers of the actual position of physical objects which are placed so
close to the roadway as to represent a hazard or potential hazard if vehicles should collide with
them.
See table (11-2/4) for guidance on spacing. Hazard plate signs W40 and W41 should always be
installed so that the “arrow” points towards the roadway and away from the hazard.
Table 11-2/4: Spacing on curves [3, p.4-16]
Curve Radius Sign Spacing “S”
(meters) (meters)
60 8-15
150 15-25
300 25
600 25
W40 W41
11/52 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

 SINGLE CHEVRON RIGHT (OR LEFT) SIGN W42 (OR W43)
Signs W42 and W43 warn drivers of the actual position of physical objects or of the
actual alignment of the roadway when these conditions represent hazards or potential
hazards. Figure (11-2/6) illustrates a typical example of such an installation and table
(11-2/4) gives guidance on the spacing of the signs.
First sign to be placed
Figure 11-2/6: Example of Application Single Chevron Sign [3, p.4-18]
 MULTIPLE CHEVRON RIGHT (OR LEFT) SIGN W45 (OR W46)
Signs W45 and W46 warn drivers of the actual position of a very sharp bend or change in
direction in the roadway. Multiple chevron right (or left) signs W45 and W46 may be
used at a sharp bend when the severity of the bend is not likely to be adequately
conveyed by advance warning sign W12 or W13. Typical example for application of
multiple chevron signs W45 and W46 is shown in figure (11-2/7).
W45 W46
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/53
Figure 11-2/7: Typical Application of Multiple Chevron Signs [3, p.4-19]
11-2/4/3 DIAGRAMMATIC SIGNS

The signs in this group are essentially for use in situations where the size and shape of
triangular advance warning signs limits the pictorial warning message that can be displayed,
and/or the overall conspicuity of the sign. The situations that tend to be indicated on
diagrammatic signs are commonly ones that occur on higher speed roads. The diagrammatic
nature of the message given by these signs means that they often depict the geometric
arrangements of the lanes and/or the whole roadway.
D1 D2 D3 D4
D5 D6 D7
11/54 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-2/4/4 HIGH VEHICLE WARNING SIGNS
Sign D8 is typically located in advance of gantry or cantilever signs and points high
vehicles to a short, low-grade detour that does not pass underneath the horizontal arm of the sign
but instead around the sign’s support column. High vehicle warning sign D8 should be located
on the right side of the roadway at a distance in advance of the gantry or cantilever structure as
indicated in table (11-2/3). If deemed appropriate by the engineer, sign D8 may have flashing
yellow caution lights placed at its top.
D8
11-2/5 GUIDE SIGNS

Guide signs are essential to direct road users along streets and highways, to inform them
of intersecting routes, to direct them to cities, towns, villages, or other important destinations, to
identify nearby rivers and streams, parks, forests, and historical sites, and generally to give such
information as will help them along their way in the most simple, direct manner possible.
Guide signing can be divided into the following categories
1. Destination Signs
2. Distance Signs
3. Information Signs
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/55

11-2/5/1 DESTINATION SIGNS
D9 D10
D11 D12
D13 D14
D15
11/56 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

D16 D17
11-2/5/2 DISTANCE SIGNS
D18 D19
11-2/5/3 INFORMATION SIGNS

Information signs may be used for the purpose of directing traffic to the following
facilities:
a) Off-road services such as fuel, restaurants, parking areas, lodgings, tent and trailer camp
sites or motels.
b) Points of interest such as historical, geological or geographical sites.
c) Emergency services such as hospitals and telephones.
Warrants for Information Signs:

a) The distance from the highway to the facility should not exceed 5km.
b) Adequate standard of service should be provided at the facility. For example, the service
station should be open 24 hours every day.
c) A point of interest should be one that has been recognized by an appropriate body such as
the Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Tourism, etc.
I1 I2 I3 I4
First-aid station Breakdown Service Refreshments or Cafeteria Picnic site
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/57

I5 I6 I7 I8
Telephone Filling station Starting point for walks Camping site
I9 I10 I11 I12 I13

Hotel or motel Restaurant Caravan site Camping and caravan site Youth hostel
I14 I15 I16

Hospital Hospital Tramway stop
I17 I18
End of a build-up area Beginning of a build-up area
Additional Panels
11/58 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Distance covered by prohibitions or restrictions
Prohibitions or restrictions
Begin Continue End
11-2/5/4 GENERAL STANDARDS FOR GUIDE SIGNS

Guide Signs (destination and distance) for streets and highways should have a green
background with a white message or symbol in rural area. Expressway way should have a blue
background with a white symbol or letters. For urban area , the guide sign should have a white
background with black symbol or letters .For recreational area the sign should have a brown
background with white symbol or letters. The shape of the sign will be rectangular but the size
varies (depending on height of letters, number of words and number of lines). If there is more
than one destination to be shown in guide sign, the following order should be maintained
1. Straight ahead destination
2. Left turn destination
3. Right turn destination
Information sign should have a blue background with a white inset and a black message or
symbol. The standard size should be 75 cm (width) by 100 cm (height). It should be placed 2 km
to 3 km in advance of the exit junction to the facility with another one about 500 m before the
exit junction to the facility. The second sign should be supplemented by a distance plate and an
arrow directed to the location of the facility.
11-2/5/4/1 LANGUAGE AND LETTER STYLE

All signs should be in both Arabic and English. For the Arabic message, simplified
Arabic font type should be used, whereas for English message, times new roman font type
should be used.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/59

11-2/5/4/2 SIZE OF LETTERING
There are three times factors which have to be taken into account when considering
the siting of signs:
a) Reading time (tg) of the message or symbol.
b) Reaction period (tr) required before acting on the information presented.
c) In most cases an appropriate action (t a) is called for which requires further time e.g.
decelerating to a stop line, making a turn etc. All times are measured in seconds.
The minimum time for message perception will vary according to the individual’s vision
characteristics, the familiarity of the information and the number of words placed on one sign.
The glance reading time (tg) can be taken as a minimum of 1sec. for signs with one or two words
and N/3 sec. for signs with N unfamiliar words. A suitable reaction time (t r) of between 1 and 1.5
sec is allowable in most cases and 1.2 m/sec.2 as a comfortable rate of deceleration taken from
the average running speed of a highway.
Figure 11-2/8: Siting of Signs [4, p.IV-41]
The distance A+S cotӨ is equivalent to the minimum safe stopping distance. Selecting suitable
values for the parameters enables the siting distance to be solved as shown in figure (11-2/8):
𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑊 = 𝑉1 (2𝑡𝑔 + 𝑡𝑟 ) + 𝑡𝑎 ( ) (11 − 2/1)
2
Where V1 and V2 are the initial and final velocities (m/sec.). Uniform deceleration is assumed.
Ls = AB + BC = V1 (2 t g) + S cot Ɵ (11 − 2/2)
The larger value of Ls or W–A is used for the determination of letter height. For a displacement
of Ө=10˚, the required letter size is:
2 𝑡𝑔 𝑉 + 5.7 𝑆
𝐻= 𝑐𝑚 (11 − 2/3)
𝐿
 H= Required letter height (cm).

 V= Approach Speed (m/sec.).
 L= Legibility in meters per cm of letter height which is taken as x-height for
lower-case letters.
 For upper-case letters, multiply H by 1.33.
 An average value of L can be taken as 4m per 1cm of letter height.
 A factor of safety has been introduced by allowing two glances.
11/60 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Legibility can be defined simply as the ability to read a text message or accurately determine the
form of a symbolic message. In this respect, for the long-range legibility required by drivers, the
most critical element must be the smallest or thinnest element. The legibility distance depends on
the following:
a) Size of the letter-height and width.
b) Stroke width.
c) Letter and word spacing both horizontally and vertically.
d) Size of margins.
The relationship between these parameters is shown in table (11-2/5).

Table 11-2/5: Parameter Ratio for Legibility Distance for Latin Characters [4, p.IV-42]
PARAMETER RATIO RANGE
Height to width ratio 2:1 to 1:1
Height to stroke width ratio 9:1 to 5:1
Space between letters to stroke width 2:1 to 1:1
Word spacing to letter height ratio 1 1/4:1 to 1:2
Spacing between lines to letter height ratio 1:1 to 1:2
Margin and letter height ratio 1:1 to 1:2
The size of a direction sign will depend on the characteristics of the lettering chosen from Table
(11-2/5).
All signs should be in both Arabic and English. Since the siting distance and size of direction
signs depend on letter height, the larger of either the Arabic or English letters should be used.
Table (11-2/6) gives the suggested letter height for direction signs for different categories of
road.
Table 11-2/6: Recommended Letter Heights [4, p.IV-42]
X-height of letters (direction
X-height of letters (advance
Type of Road and route confirmatory
direction signs) cm
signals) cm
Dual carriageway roads
2.5 20
(rural)
Single carriageway primary
20 15
roads (rural)
Secondary rural roads
15 10
and wide urban roads
Other urban roads and minor
10 10
rural roads
Although the siting distance of signs will be governed by the factors mentioned above, a general
guide line is given in the following table
Table 11-2/7: Suggested Distances for Siting Direction Signs (m) [4, p.IV-43]
Approach speed of vehicle on the road (km/hr.)
Type of sign
≤60 60-80 80-120 >120
Guide sign 30-50 m 50-80 m 80-120 m 120-150 m
Advanced guide sign 250 m 250-300 m 300-400 m 400-500 m
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/61

11-2/5/4/3 SIGN BORDER
All guide signs should be provided with a contrasting border around the perimeter of
the sign. The border color should be the same as the color used for place name lettering on the
sign. Sign borders should have the following dimensional characteristics where “x” is the height
of the letter used for the sign:
 Width = 0.25x.
 Corner radius = 1.0x (to the outer edge of the border).
An internal dividing border should be used to separate the stacks of a stack type direction sign.
This border should have the same width as the outside sign border but should not be provided
with radii where it joins the outside border. Where practicable, the corners of the sign panels
should also be rounded to fit the border.
11-2/5/4/4 ARROWS
Arrows are used for lane assignment and to indicate the direction toward designated
routes or destinations. Figure (11-2/9) shows the up-arrow and the down-arrow designs that have
been approved for use on guide signs.
Up arrow Down Arrow

Figure 11-2/9: Arrows for Use on Guide Signs [1, p.141]
On overhead signs where it is desirable to indicate a lane to be followed, a down arrow shall
point downward toward the center of that lane. Down arrows shall be used only on overhead
guide signs that restrict the use of specific lanes to traffic bound for the destination(s) and/or
route(s) indicated by these arrows. Down arrows shall not be used unless an arrow can be
pointed to each lane that can be used to reach the destination shown on the sign.
Where a roadway is leaving the through lanes, an up arrow shall point upward at an angle
representative of the alignment of the exit roadway, and should be placed at the side of the sign
which will reinforce the movement of exiting traffic.
The width across the arrow head should be at least equal to the height of the largest letter on the
sign. For short downward pointing arrows on overhead signs, they should be 1.75 times the letter
height.
11/62 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-3 ROAD MARKING
11-3/1 COLOR, CODE AND MATERIAL

Markings on highways have important functions in providing guidance and information
for the road user. Major marking types include pavement and curb markings, object markers,
delineators, colored pavements, barricades, channelizing devices and islands. In some cases,
markings are used to supplement other traffic control devices such as signs, signals and other
markings. In other instances, markings are used alone to effectively convey regulations,
guidance, or warnings in ways not obtainable by the use of other devices.
The general functions of longitudinal lines are:
A. A double line indicates maximum or special restrictions,
B. A solid line discourages or prohibits crossing (depending on the specific application),
C. A broken line indicates a permissive condition, and
D. A dotted line provides guidance.
Markings shall be yellow, white, red, or blue. The colors for markings shall conform to the
standard highway colors. Black in conjunction with one of the above colors shall be a usable
color.
When used, white markings for longitudinal lines shall delineate:
A. The separation of traffic flows in the same direction.
B. The right edge of the roadway.
When used, yellow markings for longitudinal lines shall delineate:
A. The separation of traffic traveling in opposite directions.
B. The left edge of the roadways of divided and one-way highways and ramps.
C. The separation of two-way left turn lanes from other lanes.
When used, red raised pavement markers shall delineate roadways that shall not be entered or
used.
When used, blue markings shall supplement white markings for parking spaces for persons with
disabilities. When used, blue raised pavement markers shall indicate locations of fire hydrants
along a roadway.
Road marking should be of non-skid material and should not protrude more than 6 mm above the
level of pavement. Studs or similar device used for marking should not protrude more than 1.5
cm above the level of pavement (or 2.5 cm in the case of studs incorporating reflectors). Road
markings are applied using thermoplastic or cold paint. Thermoplastic shall be used for the
arterial highways. Paint can be applied for local and collector roads. For both cases,
reflectorisation should be used.
Reflectorisation is achieved by adding glass beads to the markings. These reflect light from
vehicle headlamps back towards the driver, making the markings much brighter than they
otherwise be. Beads are normally premixed into the material.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/63

11-3/2 LONGITUDINAL LINES FOR PAVEMENT MARKING
11-3/2/1 CENTER LINE

Center lines are used to divide carriageways to facilitate two-way traffic use. They
comprise narrow broken lines which become continuous solid lines where vehicles are officially
prohibited from crossing. In special cases (e.g. change in road width or on a sharp bend), the
center line may be located away from the geometric center of the road to follow the vehicle path.
Center line markings are needed where carriageways greater than 6.0m in width carry an average
annual traffic volume exceeding the equivalent of 2000 veh/day or, for carriageways of 5.5m
width, carrying 1000 veh/day.
The center line should be a continuous solid line for a maximum of 30m before a junction, a
marked pedestrian crossing or prohibitory lines. The standard center line markings are shown in
figure (11-3/1).
Figure 11-3/1: Center Lines [4, p.V-4]
11/64 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Typical two-lane, two-way marking Typical multi-lane,
with passing permitted in both direction two-way marking
Figure 11-3/2: Examples of Two Lanes and Four Lanes Markings Applications [1, p.351]
11-3/2/2 LANE LINE

Lane lines are used on roads having three or more traffic lanes to regulate the traffic in
the same direction and to mark lanes designed for specific traffic streams. The minimum width
of each lane is 2.75m. Lane lines should be used irrespective of traffic density. The standard
types of lane lines are shown in figure (11-3/3).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/65

EXPRESSWAY
Figure 11-3/3: Lane Lines [4, p.V-5]
11-3/2/3 EDGE LINE

Edge line pavement markings shall delineate the right or left edges of a roadway. Edge
line markings shall not be continued through intersections or major driveways. If used on the
roadways of divided highways or one-way streets, or on any ramp in the direction of travel, left
edge line pavement markings shall consist of a normal solid yellow line to delineate the left edge
of a roadway or to indicate driving or passing restrictions left of these markings. If used, the right
edge line pavement markings shall consist of a normal solid white line to delineate the right edge
of the roadway.
Edge line markings should be placed on paved streets or highways with the following
characteristics:
a) Freeways;
b) Expressways;
11/66 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

c) Rural arterials and collectors with a traveled way of 6.1 m or more in width and an ADT
of 3,000 vehicles per day or greater.
d) At other paved streets and highways where an engineering study indicates a need for edge
line markings.
Edge line markings may be used where edge delineation is desirable to minimize unnecessary
driving on paved shoulders or on refuge areas that have lesser structural pavement strength than
the adjacent roadway.
ON EXPRESSWAY
Figure 11-3/4: Edge of Carriageway Lines [4, p.V-6]
11-3/2/4 NO PASSING LINE

No passing line should be a longitudinal solid yellow line, running continuously on or
near the centerline of the roadway. Where the distance between successive no-passing zones is
less than 120 m, no-passing markings should connect the zones.
On roadways with centerline markings, no-passing zone markings shall be used at horizontal or
vertical curves where the passing sight distance is less than the minimum necessary for
reasonably safe passing at the 85th-percentile speed or the posted or statutory speed limit as
shown in table (11-3/1).
Table 11-3/1: Minimum Passing Sight Distance [1, p.352]
85 Percentile or Statutory Minimum Passing Sight
Speed Limit (km/hr.) Distance (meters)
40 140
50 160
60 180
70 210
80 245
90 280
100 320
110 355
120 395
Prohibitory line visibility may be improved by installing reflective studs at 4m intervals along
the continuous line. Standard prohibitory lines are shown in figure (11-3/5).
ON EXPRESSWAY
Figure 11-3/5: Prohibitory Lines/No Overtaking Lines [4, p.V-6]

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/67
No-passing zone markings shall also be used to prohibit passing through transition areas where
the number of through lanes is reduced as shown in figure (11-3/6).
L= Length in meters For speeds 70km/hr. or more

S= Posted, 85th –percentile, or statutory speed in km/hr. L=0.62WS
W= Offset in meters For speeds less than 70 km.hr.
d= Advance warning distance (see paragraph 11-2/4/1) L= WS2/155
Figure 11-3/6: Examples of Line Reduction Markings [1, p.370]
11/68 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-3/2/5 SAFETY LINE
Pavement markings extended into or continued through an intersection or interchange
area shall be the same color and at least the same width as the line markings they extend (see
figure 11-3/7).
Figure 11-3/7: Examples of Extensions through Intersections [2, p.3B-23]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/69

11-3/3 TRANSVERSE LINES FOR PAVEMENT MARKING
Transverse markings, which include, Stop Line, Pedestrian Crossing Lines, and Give
Way Line shall be white unless otherwise specified herein.
11-3/3/1 STOP LINE

Stop line imposes a mandatory requirement that a driver come to a full and complete
stop immediately behind that line and is always used in conjunction with a STOP sign or a red
traffic signal. STOP LINE marking should be a continuous solid white line transverse and
completely across the full width of the traveled portion of the roadway that is controlled by a
STOP sign or traffic signal. Stop lines at midblock signalized locations should be placed at least
12 m in advance of the nearest signal indication.
300 mm
300 mm
Figure 11-3/8: Stop Line Marking
11/70 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

11-3/3/2 PEDESTRIAN CROSSING LINE
Pedestrian crossings should be marked at all intersections where there is material
conflict between vehicular and pedestrian movement. The details of markings are shown in
figure (11-3/9).
For safety reasons, where the approach speed of vehicles is more than 60 km/h, pedestrian
crossings on such roads should be equipped with traffic signals. At intersections, it is desirable
that the pedestrian crossing be located 50cm away from the nearest edge of intersecting
roadways. In rural areas and in relatively high-speed urban streets, it is desirable that to give
increased visibility to the drivers by making one or two additional lines ahead of and parallel to
the standard crosswalk on the approach side at an intersection and on both sides at a midblock
crosswalk. These additional lines should have the same width as the crosswalk stripes separated
by a space equivalent to one line width. Fencing should be installed along the carriageway where
needed to guide the pedestrian traffic.
Figure 11-3/9: Marking of Standard Pedestrian Crossing [4, p.V 26]
11-3/3/3 GIVE WAY LINE

Give Way Marking imposes a mandatory requirement that a driver should, when in
conflict, stop at the point marked by the line and yield right of way to vehicular and/or pedestrian
traffic crossing his intended path. It should always be used in conjunction with GIVE WAY sign.
GIVE WAY LINE marking should be a broken white line transverse and completely across the
full width of the traveled portion of the approach roadway that is controlled by a GIVE WAY
sign. The standard width of a GIVE WAY LINE is 300 millimeters. On high-speed rural roads
where higher conspicuousness is desired, its width may be increased to 600 millimeters. The
configuration of the GIVE WAY LINE should be a repeated pattern of 600 millimeters of line
separated by 300 millimeters of gap.
If used at an unsignalized midblock crosswalk, yield lines should be placed adjacent to the Yield
sign located 6.1 to 15 m in advance of the nearest crosswalk line, and parking should be
prohibited in the area between the yield line and the crosswalk.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/71

300 mm
500 mm
250 mm min.
Figure 11-3/10: Giveway Lines Application [3, p.6-5]
11-3/4 OTHER PAVEMENT MARKING
11-3/4/1 NO OVERTAKING AREA

Areas of carriageway marked by solid lines and whose use is prohibited by vehicular
traffic are called “no overtaking” areas. In order to clearly mark such islands within the
carriageway, they are provided with diagonal lines in such way that they will be transverse to a
vehicle crossing the island. No overtaking areas may be used by pedestrians. Standard marking
for no overtaking areas is shown in figure (11-3/11).
11/72 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 11-3/11: Marking of No Overtaking/Restricted Area [4, p.V-20]
11-3/4/2 ARROWS MARKING

On roads with traffic lanes to separate vehicles approaching an intersection, the lanes
may be indicated by lane selection arrow marking. Lane selection arrows may be used on a one-
way road to confirm the direction of traffic. The length of arrow should be 5m for speeds over 50
km/h and 3m for speeds under 50 km/h (populated areas).
There are some special types of arrows which should be used for acceleration lanes and
deceleration lanes. Five deflecting arrows should be used at a spacing of 10m, 20m, 30m and
40m in the acceleration lane before the start of taper. One elongated arrow should be used at the
beginning of the deceleration lane. Standard arrow markings are shown in figures (11-3/12) to
(11-3/15).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/73
Figure 11-3/12: Arrow Marking for Speeds over 50 km/hr. [4, p.V-22]
11/74 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 11-3/13: Arrow Marking for Speeds under 50 km/hr. [4, p.V-23]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/75
Figure 11-3/14: Arrow Marking for Speeds over 50 km/hr. [4, p.V-24]
11/76 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 11-3/15: Arrow Marking for Speeds under 50 km/hr. [4, p.V-25]
11-3/4/3 WORDS AND NUMERALS

Word and symbol markings on the pavement are used for the purpose of guiding,
warning, or regulating traffic. Example of standard word is shown in figure (11-3/16).
Figure 11-3/16: Example of Elongated Letters for Word Pavement Markings [2, p.3B-31]
Letters and numerals should be 1.8 m or more in height and shall be white in color. Word and
symbol markings should not exceed three lines of information. If a pavement marking word
message consists of more than one line of information, it should be read in the direction of travel.
The first word of the message should be nearest to the road user.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/77

The longitudinal space between word and symbol message markings should be at least four
times the height of the characters for low speed roads, but not more than ten times the height of
the characters. Pavement word and symbol markings should be no more than one lane in width
except The SCHOOL word marking which may extend to the width of two approach lanes.
When the SCHOOL word marking is extended to the width of two approach lanes, the characters
should be 3m or more in height. On narrow, low-speed shared-use paths, the pavement words
and symbols may be smaller than suggested, but to the relative scale
The International Symbol of Accessibility parking space markings may be placed in each
parking space designated for use by persons with disabilities. A blue background with white
border may supplement the wheelchair symbol as shown in figure (11-3/17).
Figure 11-3/17: International Symbol of Accessibility Parking Space Marking With

Blue Background and White Border Options [2, p. 3B-31]
Word and numerals markings may include, but are not limited to, the following. Other words or
symbols may also be used under certain conditions.
A) Regulatory:
1. Stop
2. Right (left) turn only
3. 40 , 60, 80 or 100 km/hr.
4. Arrow Symbols
B) Warning:
1. Stop ahead
2. Yield ahead
3. Yield ahead triangle symbol
4. School xing
5. Signal ahead
6. Ped xing
7. School
11/78 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

8. Sump
C) Guide:
1. Road number
2. Destination
3. Distance for destination
Figure 11-3/18: Examples of Lane Use Control Word and Symbol Markings [2, p.3B-34]
11-3/4/4 APPROACHES TO RAILWAY CROSSING

At level crossings where rail traffic has priority over road traffic, a warring line (1.5m
strip, 1.5 gap) should be marked in the center of the carriageway over a length of about 160m
from the 2nd ban warning beacon.
If in special cases overtaking is to be prohibited at railway crossing a prohibitory line shall be
provided on use right side next to the center line departing from the 2nd bar beacon. If no center
line is provided over the whole road section. A center line should begin at the 3rd bar beacon.
These markings are shown in figure (11-3/19). These markings are not sufficient protection by
themselves and must always be used in conjunction with signs and other devices.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/79

Figure 11-3/19: Marking of railway crossings [4, p.V-27]
11-3/4/5 SPEED HUMP MARKING

Speed hump marking should be used to warn drivers of the presence of a speed hump
in the roadway. If speed hump markings are used, they shall be a series of eight white 300 mm
transverse lines that become longer and are spaced closer together as the vehicle approaches the
speed hump or other deflection. If advance markings are used, they shall comply with the
detailed design shown in figure (11-3/20).
11/80 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 11-3/20: Examples of Advance Warning Marking for Speed Humps [2, p.3B-49]
11-3/4/6 OBJECT MARKER

Pavement markings shall be used to guide traffic away from fixed obstructions within
a paved roadway. Approach markings for bridge supports, refuge islands, median islands, and
raised channelization islands shall consist of a tapered line or lines extending from the centerline
or the lane line to a point 0.3 to 0.6 m to the right side, or to both sides, of the approach end of
the obstruction (see figure 11-3/21).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/81
For speeds 70km/hr. or more L=0.62 WS
For speeds less than 70 km/hr. L=WS2/155
S=Posted, 85th- percentile, or statutory speed in km/hr.
W=Offset in meters
Minimum length of: L=30m in urban areas
L=60m in rural areas
Length “L” should be extended as required by sight
distance conditions
Figure 11-3/21: Examples of Markings for Obstructions in the Roadway [2, p.3B-21]
11/82 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

For speeds 70km/hr. or more L=0.62 WS Minimum length of: L=30m in urban areas
For speeds less than 70 km/hr. L=WS2/155 L=60m in rural areas
S=Posted, 85th-percentile,or statutory speed in km/hr.
W=Offset distance in meters Length “L” should be extended as required
by sight distance conditions
Figure 11-3/21: Examples of Markings for Obstructions in the Roadway [2, p.3B-21]
Object markers are used to mark obstructions within or adjacent to the roadway. When used,
these markers should consist of an arrangement of one or more of the following designs:
 Type 1 markers consist of an all-yellow reflective diamond panel 450 mm in size. A
variant of this marker type incorporates nine yellow reflector units in the panel. Each
reflector unit should have a dimension of approximately 75 mm mounted symmetrically
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/83
on a 450-mm diamond-shaped yellow panel. Type 1 markers may be larger if conditions
warrant (see figure 11-3/22, type 1).
 Type 2 is a striped vertical rectangle approximately 300 mm by 900 mm in size with

alternating black and reflectorized yellow stripes sloping downward at an angle of 45°
toward the side of the obstruction on which traffic is to pass. The minimum width of the
yellow stripe should be 75 mm. Type 2 object markers with stripes that begin at the upper
right side and slope downward to the lower left side are to be designated as “right” object
markers (see Figure 11-3/22, type 2).
 Type 3 markers indicate the end of a roadway. When it is determined that markers should
be placed at the end of a roadway where there is no alternative vehicular path, a marker
consisting of nine red reflectors, each with a minimum dimension of approximately 75
mm, mounted symmetrically on a 450-mm red diamond panel; or a 450-mm diamond
reflectorized red panel should be used. More than one marker or a larger marker may be
used at the end of the roadway where conditions warrant. The minimum mounting height
of this marker should be 1.20 m.
Appropriate advance warning signs should be used (see figure 11-3/22, type 3).
Figure 11-3/22: Object Markers [4, p.6B-25]
11/84 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

 OBJECTS IN THE ROADWAY
Obstructions within the roadway should be marked with a Type 1 or Type 2 object
marker. For additional emphasis, a large surface such as a bridge pier may be painted
with diagonal stripes, 300 mm or more in width, similar in design to the Type 2 object
marker. The alternating black and reflectorized yellow stripes should be sloped down at
an angle of 45° toward the side of the obstruction that traffic is to pass. The minimum
mounting height should be 1.20 m. In addition to markers on the face of the obstruction,
warning of approach to the obstruction shall be given by appropriate pavement markings
as shown in figure (11-3/21).
 OBJECTS ADJACENT TO THE ROADWAY

Objects not actually in the roadway may be so close to the edge of the road that a marker
is required. These include guardrail ends, underpass piers, bridge abutments, handrails,
and culvert headwalls. In some cases, a physical object may not be involved, but other
roadside conditions such as narrow shoulder drop-offs, gores, small islands, and abrupt
changes in the roadway alignment may make it undesirable for a driver to leave the
roadway. Type 2 object markers are intended for use at such locations. The inside edge of
the marker should be in line with the inner edge of the obstruction. Typical applications
of markers for roadside obstructions are shown in Figure below.
Figure 11-3/23: Object Marker Location at Bridge End [4, p.V-32]
11-3/4/7 PARKING MARKING

 PARKING ENVELOPE LINE
Parking envelope line marking imposes a mandatory requirement that drivers parking their
vehicles within a marked area park such that no part of their vehicle encroaches upon the
pavement area outside a parking envelope so marked. Parking envelope line marking should be a
longitudinal broken white line 100 millimeters wide. The configuration of the parking envelope
line should be a repeated pattern of one meter of line separated by a one-meter gap. It should be
located at the edge of pavement adjacent to areas where parking is permitted, but should not be
used if the physical space available for parking is less than 2.2 meters wide (see Figures 11-
3/24).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/85

 PARKING SPACE LINE MARKING
Parking space line marking imposes a mandatory requirement that drivers parking their vehicles
within a marked parking space park such that their vehicle is wholly within the lines defining the
limits of the parking space. Parking space line marking should be a solid white line 100
millimeters in width. It should extend from the curb line (if a curb is present) and end at the edge
of the designated parking bay. For parallel parking space delineation the end of the parking space
line should have a 500-millimeter long L-shape for end-marking of a parallel parking bay, and a
1000 millimeter long T-shape for intermediate lines. Perpendicular and angled parking space
markings generally do not require end shapes since the ends of the more closely spaced parking
space lines should clearly delineate the parking bay limits.
Figure 11-3/24: Longitudinal Regulatory Pavement Markings

(All Dimensions are in Millimeters) [3, p.6-9]
11-3/4/8 RAISED PAVEMENT MARKERS

A raised pavement marker is a device with a height of at least 10 mm mounted on or in
a road surface that is intended to be used as supplement or substitute for pavement markings. The
color of raised pavement markers under both daylight and nighttime conditions shall conform to
the color of the marking for which they supplement or substitute. The side of a raised pavement
marker that is visible to traffic proceeding in the wrong direction may be red.
There are two basic classifications of raised pavement markers: Retroreflective and
Nonretroreflective. The following conditions may warrant the use of raised pavement markers:
 Areas regularly subjected to fog, dust, or blowing sand resulting in reduced visibility.
 Areas of heavy traffic volumes that rapidly deteriorate painted markings and that are
disruptive to regularly maintain.
 Isolated areas that have low geometric-roadway design standards for the traffic
conditions prevailing and that are not scheduled in the near term for improvement.
11/86 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

 Isolated areas with documented high incidence of collision and/or low levels of lane
discipline by drivers, particularly in curved or complex roadway geometry conditions.
 Long-term roadworks sites.
 Freeways (all markings on freeways should be supplemented by Retroreflective
markings).
 Unlighted rural roadways.
 Within nonweaving sections of roundabouts.
 the entire curved section of roadway as well as for a distance in advance of the curve that
approximates 5 seconds of travel time
Figure (11-3/25) shows example of raised pavement marking application.
Figure 11-3/25: Examples of Raised Pavement Marking Applications

(All Dimensions are in Millimeters) [3, p.6-21]
11-3/4/9 CONTINUITY MARKING

Continuity line may be used to provide guidance for through traffic at discontinuities
in the pavement edge delineation, its use is optional. Continuity line marking should be a
longitudinal broken white line that follows the edge of the through-lane of traffic across an exit
ramp, a slip road exit, or an intersection. Its configuration should be a repeated pattern of 1 meter
of line followed by 3 meters of gap. It should be 150-millimeters wide for posted speeds below
70 km/h and 200-millimeters wide for posted speeds above 70 km/hr.
Figure (11-3/26) below shows example of continuity marking applications.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/87

a-Parallel deceleration line b-Tapered deceleration line
Figure 11-3/26: Examples of Channelizing Line Applications

for Exist Ramp Markings [2, p.3B-12]
11-3/5 CURB PAINTING

Curb markings are most often used to indicate parking regulations or to delineate the
curb. Since yellow and white curb markings are frequently used for curb delineation and
visibility, it is advisable to establish parking regulations through the installation of standard signs
curb delineation and visibility should consist of painting the top and front face of a curb with
alternating sections of yellow and white-colored paint. The length of a yellow section and the
length of a white section should be equal to each other. When precast curbs are used, each
section may be painted with either yellow or white such that the length of each color will match
the length of individual curbs.
11/88 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Reflectorized, continuous yellow paint should be placed on the curbs of intersection islands
located in the line of traffic flow where the curb serves to channel traffic to the right or to the left
of the island. Reflectorized, continuous white paint should be used when traffic may pass on
either side of the divisional island. In front of fire hydrants, curbstones should be painted red for
a length of 12 meters, six meters to either side of the fire hydrant and the fire hydrant
combination sign.
11-3/6 DELINEATORS
Road delineators are light-retroreflective devices mounted in series at the side of the
roadway to indicate the roadway alignment. Delineators are effective aids for night driving and
considered as guidance devices rather than warning devices. Delineators may be used on long,
continuous sections of highway or through short stretches where there are changes in horizontal
alignment, particularly where the alignment might be confusing or at pavement-width transitions.
Delineators should consist of reflector units capable of clearly reflecting light under normal
atmospheric conditions from a distance of 300 meters when illuminated by the upper beam of
standard automobile lights. Reflective elements for delineators should have a minimum area of
approximately 100 cm². Double delineators consist of two reflector units, one mounted above the
other. Elongated reflective units of appropriate size may be used in place of the two reflectors.
The color of delineators should, in all cases, conform to the yellow or white color of edge lines.
Single delineators should be provided on the right side of expressway roadways and on at least
one side of interchange ramps. These delineators may be provided on other classes of roads.
Single delineators may be provided on the left side of roadways and should be provided on the
outside of bends on interchange ramps. Where median crossovers are provided for official or
emergency use on divided highways and these crossovers are to be marked, a double-yellow
delineator should be placed on the left side of the through roadway and on the far side of the
crossover for each roadway.
Red delineators may be used on the reverse side of any delineator whenever it would be viewed
by a drivers traveling in the wrong direction on that particular ramp or roadway. Delineators of
the appropriate color may be used to indicate the narrowing of a pavement. The delineators
should be used adjacent to the lane affected for the full length of the convergence and should be
so placed and spaced to show the width reduction. Delineation is not necessary for the traffic
moving in the direction of a wider pavement or on the side of the roadway where the alignment
is not affected by the convergence. On a highway with continuous delineation on either or both
side, delineators should be carried through the transition and a closer spacing may be warranted.
Delineation is optional on sections of roadway between interchanges where fixed-source lighting
is in operation. Delineators, if used, should be mounted on suitable supports so the top of the
reflecting head is approximately 1.20 m above the near roadway edge. Delineators should be
placed not less than 1.0 m or more than 2.0 m outside the outer edge of the shoulder, or if
appropriate, in the line of the guardrail. Delineators may be mounted on the guardrail at a height
less than 1.2 m.
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/89

Delineators should be placed at a constant distance from the edge of the roadway. However,
where a guardrail or other obstruction intrudes into the space between the pavement edge and the
extension of the line of delineators, the delineators should be in line with or inside the innermost
edge of the obstruction. Typical delineator installations are shown in figure (11-3/27).
Normally, delineators should be spaced at 60 m to 160 m. When normal uniform spacing is
interrupted by driveways, crossroads, or similar interruptions, delineators falling within such
areas may be moved in either direction, a distance not exceeding one-quarter of the normal
spacing. Delineators still falling within such areas should be eliminated. On expressways, a
normal delineator spacing is 100 m. Double or vertically elongated delineators should be
installed at 30-meter intervals along acceleration and deceleration lanes. Spacing should be
adjusted on approaches and throughout horizontal bends so that several delineators are always
visible to the driver. Table (11-3/2) shows suggested maximum spacing for delineators at bends.
Figure 11-3/27: Typical Delineators Installations [3, p.6-26]
11/90 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Table 11-3/2: Suggested Maximum Spacing for Highway Delineators on Bends [3, p.6-26]
Radius of Bend. (R) Spacing on Bend (S)
(meters) (meters)
15 6
30 7.5
45 9
60 10.5
75 12
90 13.5
120 16.5
150 19.5
180 21
210 22.5
240 24
270 25.5
300 27
Spacing for radii not shown may be
interpolated from the table. The minimum
spacing should be 6.0m. The spacing of the
first delineator on a tangent adjacent to a bend
should be 2S, the second, 3S, and the third, 6S,
but not to exceed 100 meters.
11-3/7 BARRICADES AND CHANNELIZATION DEVICES
 BARRICADES
Red-and-white barricades are to warn and alert drivers of the terminus of a road, street, or
highway in other than construction or maintenance areas. The stripes on the barricades should be
reflectorized white and reflectorized red. These devices may be used to mark any of the
following type locations:
1. Roadway ends in a dead end or cul-de-sac with no outlet.
2 A ramp or lane closed for operational purposes.
3. The permanent or semipermanent closure or termination of a roadway.
A typical barricade is illustrated in figure (11-3/28).
 CHANNELIZING DEVICES
Traffic cones and tubular markers are sometimes used outside of construction and maintenance
areas for general traffic control purposes. Such uses include adding emphasis to channelizing
lines or islands. Two typical channelizing devices (a tube and a cone) are illustrated in figure
(11-3/28).
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/91

Figure 11-3/28: Barricades and Channelizing Devices [3, p.6-29]
11-3/8 CONTROL DEVICES USED IN WORK ZONES

Roadworks are defined as any roadway or utility construction, maintenance, or repair
works occurring within or near a road right of way. Incident areas (traffic accidents, spillage,
etc.), police-control points (check points, traffic surveys, etc.), and special-event management
(major sports or cultural events) and other short-term disruptions to normal roadway operations
also fit within the functional definition of roadworks traffic control.
 TRAFFIC SIGNS
Regulatory, warning, and guidance traffic signs comprise a major part of the temporary traffic
control devices used at roadworks sites. The majority of signs covered in part (2) may be used in
a temporary capacity for work zones but with a yellow background. The most common of these
are illustrated in Figures below.
11/92 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 11-3/29: Regulatory signs at roadworks [3, p.7-7]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/93

Figure 11-3/30: Warnings signs at roadworks [3, p.7-8]
11/94 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Figure 11-3/31: Guide signs at roadworks [3, p.7-9]
IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 11/95

11-4 REFERENCES
[1] MUTCD, "Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways", Federal
Highway Administration. U.S Department of Transportation, USA, 2009.
[2] MUTCD, "Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways", Federal
Highway Administration. U.S Department of Transportation, USA, 2003.
[3] "Traffic Control Devices Manual", Road Department, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates,
Version 0.1, 2004.
[5] "Traffic Signal Timing Manual", Publication No. FHWA-HOP-08-024, Federal Highway
Administration, U.S Department of Transportation, USA, June, 2008.
11/96 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

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Highway Geometric Design Code

CHAPTER TITLES PAGE

CHAPTER 1: FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS 1/1

CHAPTER 2: DESIGN VEHICLES, DRIVERS, AND PEDESTRIAN

CHAPTER 3: TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS 3/1

CHAPTER 4: SIGHT DISTANCES 4/1

CHAPTER 5: HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 5/1

CHAPTER 6: VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 6/1

CHAPTER 7: CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS 7/1

CHAPTER 8: GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR DIFFERENT

CHAPTER 9: AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS 9/1

CHAPTER 10: GRADE SEPARATIONS AND INTERCHANGES 10/1

CHAPTER 11: TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES 11/1

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH f

1-1 General Definitions 1/1

3-1 Traffic Volume 3/1

g 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH h

i 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH j

k 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH l

9-5 Clear Sight Triangles 9/30

m 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

CHAPTER 11: TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH n

o 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH p

1-1 GENERAL DEFINITIONS

1-2 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION AS A DESIGN TYPE

1-2/1 LOCAL RURAL ROADS AND URBAN STREETS

1-2/2 COLLECTORS (RURAL AND URBAN)

1-2/3 MINOR ARTERIALS (RURAL AND URBAN)

1-2/4 FREEWAYS AND EXPRESSWAYS

1/2 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

IQ.B.C .103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 1/3

1-3/2 ROAD LENGTHS BETWEEN MAIN CITIES

1-3/3 TYPICAL URBAN HIGHWAY SYSTEMS, (BAGHDAD CITY)

1/4 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

IQ.B.C .103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 1/5

1/6 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

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1/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

IQ.B.C .103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 1/9

DESIGN VEHICLES, DRIVERS, AND PEDESTRIAN

2-1/1 DESIGN VEHICLE DIMENSIONS

Table 2-1/1: Maximum Dimension for the Main Vehicle Types

Maximum Dimensions, Meters

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/1

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/3

2-1/3 Minimum Turning Paths of Design Vehicle

2/4 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Single- Conven- Inter-

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/5

2/8 2017 AD/1438 AH IQ.B.C. 103/8

Axle Type Max. Axle Load [3]

Axle Type Max. Axle Gross Weight, W

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/11

Gross Axle Load

IQ.B.C. 103/8 2017 AD/1438 AH 2/13