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Cohesion in Texts:A Discourse Analysis of news Article in a Magazine

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AL-Faith Journal. No . 37 December 2008

Cohesion in Texts: A Discourse Analysis of

a News Article in a Magazine
Asst. Inst. HIND TAHSEEN HAMEED
Diyala University/College of Education

This paper aims to analyse an English text from a magazine for the
purpose of identifying cohesive elements in text : which type of
cohesion is the most substantive contribution to texture ;and whether
this type is effective or not.
Texture is created within text when there are properties of coherence
and cohesion, outside of the apparent grammatical structure of the
text. Cohesion, the most important principle and criterion of textuality,
is the connection or the connectedness manifested when the
interpretation of one textual element (a word located in one sentence)
is dependent on another element in the text (a word usually but not
necessarily in another sentence). Cohesion relates to the “semantic
ties” within text whereby a tie is made when there is some dependent
link between items that combine to create meaning. Halliday and
Hasan (1976) identified five different types of cohesion: reference,
substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. In the five
main types of cohesion ,’’the interpretation of a discourse element ,is
dependent on another element that can be pointed out in discourse.’’
(Renkema 1993: 40. (
Using the Newsweek article "Ruins With A View" as a basis, the
textual aspect of meaning through cohesion will be analyzed. The
principles of referencing, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and
lexical cohesion put forth by Halliday and Hasan (1976) and Bloor
and Bloor (1995) will be applied to the article and will be analyzed to
demonstrate the relevance of the cohesive elements that are present in
texts which contribute to the overall meaning of the text.
Understanding how cohesion functions within text to create semantic
links could be beneficial to students of English as a second or foreign
language to help “decode” meaning.

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.١Introduction
Tas (2007:1) believes that as a means of communication texts play a
very important role in getting the meaning across others. Having very
different types (literary/expressive, scientific/informative and so on)
they are expected to meet the expectation of different-purposed
readers. In other words, no matter what type it may be, every text
ought to address certain receivers who read it for a specific purpose
like to get information, to read for fun etc. He (ibid)adds that
This is not the only way texts come into being; namely, an article in a
newspaper, a letter in a magazine, a poem of a poet, a road sign, a
conversation between two or more people...are all various kinds of
texts which serve for different communicative aims. These are
produced for a great many receivers. But here lies an important
element: how and for what reason these must be produced and
received; and what standards they must have in order to fulfill the
communicative aims.
These crucial standards for a satisfying text are the seven standards of
textuality without which a text will not mean anything to the receiver.
One of these standards is cohesion
.
١.١Halliday and Hasan`s Resources of Textual Cohesion
The foundations of text linguistics was laid down by Halliday and
Hasan`s “Cohesion in English” in 1976. Cohesion is defined as the
set of linguistic means we have available for creating texture (Halliday
and Hasan, 1976:2), i.e., the property of a text of being an
interpretable whole (rather than unconnected sentences). Cohesion
occurs “where the interpretation of some element in the text is
dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the
sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it.”
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 4.(
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), the configuration of
cohesion constitutes and defines a text. It incorporates the semantic,
lexicogrammatical and structural resources of reference, substitution,
ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. Halliday and Hasan view
cohesion as a semantic relation based on the central notion of
presupposition- one element presupposes another which is located
somewhere in the text (anaphora or cataphora) or in the context of
situation (exophora) and which is essential for text interpretation.
Presupposition is realized at three levels: the semantic level (as in the
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case of reference) which has the semantic property of definiteness and

specificity, the lexicogrammatical level (as in the case of substitution
and ellipsis) and the grammatical level as in the case of conjunctions.
The three types of reference (ibid: 31-87): personal, demonstrative and
comparative involve presupposition- reference is made to specific
information items in the text whose retrieval from elsewhere is crucial
for interpretation. Personal reference subsumes personal and
possessive pronouns. Demonstratives “this” and “that” make reference
to extended text. Particular comparison is also referential in the sense
that reference is made to a certain standard by which one thing is said
to be superior, inferior or equal. Both ellipsis and substitution (ibid:
88-225) presuppose the existence of certain textual elements. Nominal
ellipsis presupposes the head noun, verbal ellipsis may presuppose
either the lexical verb or the operator and clausal ellipsis presupposes
the entire preceding clause. Nominal substitutes “one” and “thing”
presuppose a countable noun and function as heads of the nominal
group; the lexical item “same” presupposes the entire nominal group.
Verbal substitute "do” presupposes the lexical verb and functions as
the head of the verbal group. Substitutes “so” and “not” presuppose an
entire clause. The conjunctions which are classified into additives,
adversatives, causal and temporal also involve presupposition since
they make reference to what precedes and less frequently to what
follows and “establish linkage as in the case of the cohesive temporal
ties “previously”, ”afterwards” ,and “meanwhile.“
Lexical cohesion which is the fifth resource of textual cohesion in
Halliday and Hasan`s model is defined as the cohesion achieved by
the selection of vocabulary (ibid: 274). It is classified into two major
subcategories: reiteration and collocation, both of which involve
presupposition. Reiteration covers repetition- the lexical recurrence of
an item- and the use of synonymy or near synonymy, a super-ordinate
or a general term. Collocation: lexical cohesion achieved through the
association of lexical items that regularly co-occur within and across
the sentence boundaries (ibid: 284) is a more open category which
includes lexical items that are interpreted in relation to the existence
of other lexical items because of: a) their belonging to an ordered
series, b)their relevance to the topic or c) their oppositeness.

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AL-Faith Journal. No . 37 December 2008

.٢Principles of Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the “non-structural text-forming relations”
(Halliday and Hasan ,1976: 7). The concept of cohesion in text is
related to semantic ties or “relations of meanings that exist within the
text, and that define it as a text” (ibid: 4). Within text, if a previously
mentioned item is referred to again and is dependent upon another
element, it is considered a tie. Without semantic ties, sentences or
utterances would seem to lack any type of relationship to each other
and might not be considered text. Halliday and Hasan (ibid: 4) refer to
this intertextual link as “the presupposing” and “the presupposed”.For
example, “Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fire
proof dish.”(ibid): The word “them” presupposes “apples” and
provides a semantic tie between the two sentences, thus creating
cohesion. Cohesion creates interdependency in text.

٢.١Reference
Referencing cohesion functions to retrieve presupposed information
in text and must be identifiable for it to be considered as cohesive. In
written text, referencing indicates how the writer introduces
participants and keeps track of them throughout the text (Eggins 1994:
95).There are two general types of reference: exophoric referencing,
which refers to information from the immediate context of situation
,and endophoric referencing, which refers to information that can be
“retrieved” from within the text .It is this endophoric referencing
which is the focus of cohesion theory.
Endophoric referencing can be divided into two types: anaphoric ,and
cataphoric. Anaphoric refers to any reference that “points backwards”
to previously mentioned information in text, when the information
needed for the interpretation is in the preceding portion of the text.
Cataphoric refers to any reference that “points forward” to
information that will be presented later in the text, when the
information needed for the interpretation is to be found in the part of
the text that follows. For cohesion purposes, anaphoric referencing is
the most relevant as it “provides a link with a preceding portion of the
text” (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 51.(
There are three main types of cohesive references :personal,
demonstrative, and comparative. Personal reference keeps track of
function through the speech situation using noun pronouns like “he,
him ,she, her”, etc. and possessive determiners like “mine, yours, his,
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hers”, etc. Demonstrative reference keeps track of information through

location using proximity references like “this, these, that, those, here,
there, then, and the”. Comparative reference keeps track of identity
and similarity through indirect references using adjectives like “same,
equal, similar, different, else, better, more”, etc. and adverbs like “so,
such, similarly, otherwise, so , more”, etc. (ibid: 37–39.(

.٢.١.١Personal reference
Personal reference items are those items which refer to their referents
by specifying their function in the speech situation, recognizing
speaker ‘first person’, addressee ‘second person’ and other participant
‘third person.‘
Halliday and Hasan (ibid) confirm that the first and second person
forms in written language are anaphoric when they occur in quoted
direct speech. Conversely, a third person form, while typically
anaphoric, may refer exophorically to some person or thing that is
present in the context of situation.
Halliday and Hasan point out the generalized exophoric use of the
personal pronouns (one, we, you, they, and it) in which the referent is
treated as being as it were immanent in all contexts of situation. Since
the focus of this paper is mainly on endophoric or textual cohesive
reference, this exophoric reference will not be discussed here, as it
makes no contribution to the cohesiveness of a text.

.٢.١.٢Demonstratives
Demonstratives, unlike the personal reference items that refer to their
referents by specifying their function in the speech situation, are those
items that refer to their referents by specifying their location on a scale
of proximity. This proximity may sometimes be metaphorical (i.e. it
relates to an abstract object rather than a physical object.(
Halliday and Hasan recognize two types of demonstratives: the
adverbial demonstratives and the selective nominal
demonstratives.The adverbial demonstratives ‘here’, ‘there’, ‘now’,
and ‘then’, according to Halliday and Hasan, refer to the location of a
process in space or time. They normally do so directly regardless of
the location of person or object that is participating in the process.
Adverbial demonstratives usually function as adjuncts in the clause.
They never act as elements within the nominal group. They have a
secondary function as qualifier (e.g. ‘that man there.(‘
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The selective nominal demonstratives ‘this’, ‘these’, ‘that’, and

‘those’ along with the definite article ‘the’, on the other hand, refer to
the location of a person or an object participating in the process.

٢.١.٣Comparative reference
In this category, Halliday and Hasan recognize two types: general
comparison and particular comparison.

٢.١.٣.١General comparison
Halliday and Hasan define general comparison as a comparison in
terms of likeness’ and ‘unlikeness’ where two things, for example, are
said to be the ‘same/similar’ or ‘different’. This type of comparison is
expressed by a certain class of adjectives and adverbs. The adjectives
function in the nominal group either as deictic or epithet. The adverbs
function in the clause as adjunct.
Halliday and Hasan believe that the likeness between things which is
expressed by
the general comparison may take one of the following three forms:
.١Identity, where ‘two things’ are the same thing, as in:
[١]It’s the same cat as the one we saw yesterday.
.٢Similarity, where ‘two things’ are like each other, as in:
[٢]It’s a similar cat to the one we saw yesterday.
.٣Difference (non-likeness), which is a combination of the two
previous forms,as in:
[٣]It’s a different cat from the one we saw yesterday.
Halliday and Hasan (1976: 78) argue since likeness is a referential
property…(and) a thing cannot just be ‘like’; it must be ‘like
something’. Hence comparison is a form of reference”. As always the
case with references, the referent of the comparison may be in the
situation (exophoric) or in the text (endophoric). If it is endophoric,
the reference may be backwards (anaphoric) or forwards (cataphoric),
and it may be structural or nonstructural (cohesive). In comparison, it
is possible for the comparison to be internal, i.e. the likeness is
expressed as a mutual likeness without a referent appearing as a
distinct entity. In this case the referent is fully determined by the
structure and therefore has no cohesive function.

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.٢.١.٣.٢Particular comparison
Unlike the preceding type ‘general comparison’ that expresses
likeness between things, particular comparison means “comparison
that is in respect of quantity and quality”(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:
77). It is also expressed by means of ordinary adjectives or adverbs.
The adjectives function in the nominal group either as numerative
(e.g. ‘more’ as in ‘more cards’) or as epithet (e.g. ‘better’ as in ‘better
cards’). The adverbs function in either of two ways: either as adjunct
in the clause (e.g. ‘better’ as in ‘the others performed better’) or as
sub- modifier, in which case they occur within an epithet (e.g. ‘such’
as in ‘such good cards’) or a numerative (e.g. ‘so’ as in ‘so many
words’), or within an adjunct (e.g. ‘equally’ as in ‘the others
performed equally badly.(‘
Particular comparison, like general comparison, is also referential.
According to Halliday and Hasan in particular comparison there must
be a standard of reference by which one thing is said to be ‘superior’,
‘equal’, or ‘inferior’ in quality or quantity. The reference is either
exophoric or endophoric. If it is endophoric, the reference is either
cataphoric or anaphoric.

٢.٢Substitution
Whereas reference functions to link semantic meanings within text,
substitution differs in that it operates as a linguistic link at the lexico
grammatical level. In Bloor and Bloor (1995: 96), substitution and
ellipsis is used when “a speaker or writer wishes to avoid the
repetition of a lexical item and is able to draw on one of the
grammatical resources of the language to replace the item.“
Unlike reference, substitution is a relation between linguistic items
such as words or phrases. Reference is a semantic phenomenon;
substitution, including ellipsis, is grammatical.
Halliday and Hasan (1976: 90) believe that “since substitution is a
grammatical relation […] the substitute may function as a noun, as a
verb, or as a clause”. Hence they distinguish three types of
substitution: nominal, verbal, and clausal.
The three types of classification for substitution identified by Halliday
and Hasan : nominal, verbal and clausal, reflect its grammatical
function. When something in text is being substituted, it follows that
the substituted item maintains the same structural function as the
presupposed item. In nominal substitution, the most typical
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substitution words are “one and ones” and they substitute nouns. In
verbal substitution, the most common substitute is the verb “do” and is
sometimes used in conjunction with “so” as in “do so” and substitute
verbs. Halliday and Hasan (ibid:125–126) point out that “do” often
operates with the reference items “it” and “that” but still have the
main function as a verbal substitute because of its grammatical role. In
clausal substitution, an entire clause is substituted and though it may
seem to be similar to either nominal or verbal substitution, the
difference is the presupposed anaphoric reference.
.٢.٢.١Nominal substitution
According to Halliday and Hasan the substitute ‘one’, including its
plural form ones’, always functions as head in the nominal group, and
can substitute only for an item which is itself head of a nominal group,
as in:
[٤]My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one.
The substitute ‘one’ in the second sentence substitutes for the noun
‘axe’ in the first sentence. It would be possible to repeat the noun
‘axe’ in the second sentence to read ‘I must get a sharper axe’.
Moreover, the substitute ‘one’ assumes the function of the
presupposed item.

.٢.٢.٢Verbal substitution
Unlike the nominal substitute ‘one’, which always operates on the
nominal group, the verbal substitution operates on the verbal group. It
functions as the head of the verbal group, in the place that is occupied
by the lexical verb; and its position is always final in the group.
According to Halliday and Hasan, verbal substitution in English
language is made by using the verb ‘do’, as in:
[٥]A: You think Joan already knows‫؟‬
B: I think everybody does.
The verbal substitute ‘does’, in the second sentence, substitutes for the
verb ‘knows’in the first sentence, and so serves to link the two
sentences anaphorically. It will be possible if we maintain the verb
‘knows’ in the second sentence to read: ‘I think everybody knows.‘
Moreover, the verbal substitute ‘do’ can also substitute for a verb plus
certain other elements in the clause, as in:
He never really succeeded in his ambitions. He might have done, one
felt,had it not been for the restlessness of his nature.

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The verbal substitute ‘done’ in the second sentence substitutes not

only for the verb ‘succeeded’ in the first sentence but also all the other
elements accompanying the verb in the clause ‘succeeded in his
ambitions
‘
٢.٢.٣Clausal substitution
Unlike the two preceding substitution types, nominal substitute ‘one’-
which always operates on the nominal group, and verbal substitute
‘do’- which always operates on the verbal group, clausal substitute
‘so’ and the negative form ‘not’ operate on the entire clause, i.e. they
do not presuppose a noun or a verb but the entire clause, as in:
[٦]a. Is there going to be an earthquake? - It says so.
b. Has everyone gone home? - I hope not.
In the above examples, it can be seen that the clausal substitute ‘so’ in
the second sentence of example (a) presupposes the whole of the
clause ‘there’s going to be an earthquake’, and in (b) the negative
form ‘not’ in the second example presupposes the whole of the clause
‘everyone gone home.‘

.٢.٣Ellipsis
Like substitution, ellipsis is a grammatical rather than semantic
relationship, i.e. it expresses the grammatical relation between words,
phrases or clauses in a text. Ellipsis is said to be a special case of
‘substitution’, in which an item (or items) is substituted by zero (?-
item.(
Though substitution and ellipsis are similar in their function as the
linguistic link of cohesion, ellipsis differs in that it is “substitution by
zero”.(Halliday and Hasan,1976: 142). Ellipsis refers to a presupposed
anaphoric item although the reference is not through a “place-marker”
like in substitution. The presupposed item is understood through its
structural link. As it is a structural link, ellipsis operates through
nominal, verbal and clausal levels. Halliday and Hasan further classify
ellipsis in systemic linguistic terminology as deictic, numerative,
epithet, classifier, and qualifier.
Halliday and Hasan believe(1976:142 )that although the two cohesive
categories, substitution and ellipsis, both express the same relation
between parts of a text, they should be treated separately because
“they are two different kinds of structural mechanism, and hence show
rather different patterns” (1976:142).For them, the notion ‘ellipsis’ is:
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[…]something ‘left unsaid’. There is no implication here that what is

unsaid is not understood; on the contrary, ‘unsaid’ implies ‘but
understood nevertheless’, and another way of referring to ellipsis is in
fact as something understood, where understood is used in the special
sense of ‘going without saying’…. . (Halliday and Hasan: 142(

Halliday and Hasan argue that since language does not function in
isolation, i.e. it functions, as text in actual situation of use, there are
always some sources available for the hearer/reader to interpret a
sentence that is contained in the sentence itself. These sources, which
are needed to supplement ‘what is left unsaid’, are two different kinds:
only one of these is associated with ellipsis; i.e. where there is some
presupposition in the structure of what is to be supplied. The
following examples express this:
[٧]Hardly anyone left the country before the war.
In the above sentence there is information left unsaid. In order to
interpret it, we should probably want to know whether ‘country’
meant ‘rural areas’ or ‘national unit’; if the latter, which country was
referred to, and whether ‘left’ meant ‘emigrated’ or ‘went abroad on
holiday’; which war; whether ‘hardly anyone’ referred to the whole
population, or a given social or family group; and so on. All this is
relevant information to understand this sentence. But there is nothing
in the structure of the sentence to suggest that it has been left out. The
structure is not such as to presuppose any preceding text.
The notion of ellipsis is not used to refer to any and every instance in
which there is some information that the speaker/writer has to supply
from his own evidence, but rather to sentences, clauses, etc. whose
structure is such as to presuppose some preceding item, which then
serves as the source of the missing information.
Like substitution, ellipsis is a relation within the text, and in many
instances the presupposed item is present in the preceding text, i.e.
ellipsis is normally an anaphoric relation. Occasionally the
presupposition in an elliptical structure may be exophoric, i.e. in the
context of situation. Halliday and Hasan distinguish three types of
ellipsis: nominal, verbal, and clausal.

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.٢.٣.١Nominal ellipsis
Halliday and Hasan define nominal ellipsis as the one which operates
on the nominal group. The structure of the nominal group consists of a
head with optional modifier. The modifying elements include some
which precede the head, known as ‘premodifiers’, and some which
follow it, known as ‘postmodifiers’. The former usually consist of a
deictic, numerative, epithet, or a classifier, whereas the latter consist
of only a qualifier, as in:
[٨]These two fast electric trains with pantographs...
The Head of the nominal group is the noun ‘trains’. Within the
modifier, ‘these’ has the function of deictic, ‘two’ numerative, ‘fast’
epithet, and ‘electric’ classifier, while ‘with pantographs’ is a
qualifier.
[٩]Which last longer, the curved rods or the straight rods‫؟‬
-The straight ? are less likely to break

.٢.٣.٢Verbal ellipsis
Unlike nominal ellipsis, which always operates on the nominal group,
verbal ellipsis, as the name implies, operates on the verbal group. The
structure of the verbal group usually expresses its systemic features,
i.e. the choices that are being made within the verbal group system,
such as:
.١Finiteness: finite or non-finite:
-If finite: indicative or imperative
-If indicative: modal or non-modal
.٢Polarity: positive or negative
.٣Voice: active or passive
.٤Tense: past ,present or future
Halliday and Hasan believe that an elliptical verbal group is one
whose structure does not fully express its systemic features; they have
to be recovered by presupposition, as in:
[١١]What have you been doing? - ? Swimming
In the elliptical verbal group ‘swimming’, there is only one lexical
element, and that is the verb itself ‘swim’. The presupposition ‘have
been swimming’ express all the features of the verbal group that is
presupposed by the elliptical verbal group: finite, indicative,
nonmodal ,positive, active and ‘present in past in present.‘

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.٢.٣.٣Clausal ellipsis
Clausal ellipsis is a very complicated relation; there is no clear-cut
distinction between verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis. The former
involves the omission of other elements in the structure of the clause
besides verbal ones. Within this context, Halliday and Hasan (1976:
194) state that:
Verbal ellipsis is always accompanied by the omission of the related
clause elements, these that are in the same part of the clause as the
relevant portion of the verbal group. So in operator ellipsis, where
there is omission of the finite part of the verbal group, the subject is
also omitted; in lexical ellipsis, where there is omission of the non-
finite part of the verbal group, all complements and adjuncts are also
omitted.

.٢.٤Conjunction
The main cohesive category ‘conjunction’ involves the use of formal
markers to r elate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each other.
Conjunction signals the way the writer wants the reader to relate what
is about to be said to what has been said before.
This kind of cohesive relation is different in nature from the other
cohesive relations; i.e. reference, substitution, and ellipsis. In this
context, Halliday and Hasan (1976: 226) say that:
Conjunctive elements are cohesive not in themselves but indirectly, by
virtue of their specific meanings; they are not primary devices for
reaching out into the preceding (or following) text, but they express
certain meanings which presuppose the presence of other
components in the discourse.

Conjunction, as described by Bloor and Bloor (1995: 98) acts as a

“cohesive tie between clauses or sections of text in such a way as to
demonstrate a meaningful pattern between them”, though Halliday
and Hasan (1976: 227) indicate that “conjunctive relations are not tied
to any particular sequence in the expression.“
Therefore, amongst the cohesion forming devices within text,
conjunction is the least directly identifiable relation. Conjunction acts
as a semantic cohesive tie within text in four categories: additive,
adversative, causal and temporal. Additive conjunction acts to
structurally coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed item and
are signaled through “and, also, too, furthermore, additionally”, etc.
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Additive conjunction may also act to negate the presupposed item and
is signalled by “nor, and...not, either, neither”, etc. Adversative
conjunctions act to indicate “contrary to expectation” (ibid: 250) and
are signaled by “yet, though, only, but, in fact, rather”, etc. Causal
conjunction expresses “result, reason and purpose” and is signaled by
“so, then, for, because, for this reason, as a result, in this respect, etc.”.
The last conjunctive category is temporal and links by signaling
sequence or time. Some sample temporal conjunctive signals are
“then, next, after that, next day, until then, at the same time, at this
point”, etc.

٢.٤.١Additive Conjunction
Under this heading ‘additive’, Halliday and Hasan group the words
‘and’, ‘or’ and‘nor’. They believe that these words are all used
cohesively, as conjunctions; and all of them are classified as additive.
All the three, (‘and’, ‘or’, and ‘nor’), may express either the external
or the internal type of conjunctive relation. In the additive context
there may be no very clear difference between the two; but when ‘and’
is used alone as a cohesive item, as distinct from ‘and then’, etc., it
often seems to have the sense of ‘there is something more to be said’,
Halliday and Hasan (1976: 235) believe that the typical context for the
conjunctive ‘and’ is one in which there is a total or almost total shift in
the participants from one sentence to the next, and yet the two
sentences are very definitely part of a text, The negative form of the
additive relation is expressed simply as ‘nor’, as in ‘nor can I’.
Halliday and Hasan believe that besides ‘nor’ there are various other
composite expressions with more or less the same meaning ‘or else’ as
expansion of ‘or’, According to Halliday and Hasan, the expanded
forms with ‘either’ have an additional element of explicitness in them,
a sense of ‘and what is more’. This is considered internal because the
speaker is using an expression to express his attitude to or evaluation
of what he is saying.
Halliday and Hasan (1976: 246) believe that there are specifically
some forms of the ‘and’ relation occurring only in an internal sense,
for instance, that of ‘there is yet another point to be taken in
connection with the previous one’. There are a large number of
conjunctive expressions that have just this meaning, e.g.: further,
furthermore, again, also, moreover, what is more, etc. These
expressions are said to give rhetorical flavor, Under this heading,
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additive, Halliday and Hasan include forms such as ‘similarly’,

‘likewise’, and ‘in the same way’. They believe that these forms are
related to the additive because of their semantic similarity; the source
of cohesion is the comparison of what is being said with what has
gone before. These forms are used by the speaker to assert that a
point is being reinforced or a new one added to the same effect; the
relevance of the presupposing sentence is its similarity of import to
the presupposed one.

٢.٤.٢Adversative Conjunction
Halliday and Hasan believe that the basic meaning of the adversative
relation is ‘contrary to expectation’. The source of expectation is
either the content of what is being said, or the communication process,
the speaker-hearer situation. If it is the former, the cohesion is on the
external plane; and if it is on the latter, the cohesion is on the internal
plane.
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 50), an external adversative
relation is expressed in its simple form by the words ‘yet.‘
In English, the conjunctions ‘but’, ‘however’, and ‘though’ are very
similar to ‘yet’.‘But’ differs from ‘yet’, in that ‘but’ contains the
element ‘and’ as one of its components, whereas ‘yet’ does not. For
this reason it is not unusual to find sentences beginning ‘and yet’, but
never ‘and but.‘

٢.٤.٣Causal Conjunction
According to Halliday and Hasan, the simple form of causal relation is
expressed by the words ‘so’, ‘thus’, ‘hence’, ‘therefore’,
‘consequently’, and a number of expressions like ‘as a result (of that)’,
‘because of that’, ‘in consequence (of that)’. All these words and
expressions regularly combine with initial ‘and.‘
Under the heading of causal relations, Halliday and Hasan include the
specific ones of result, reason and purpose. These are not
distinguished in the simplest form of expression ;‘so’, for example,
means ‘as a result of this’, ‘for this reason’, and ‘for this purpose’.
When expressed as prepositional phrases, on the other hand, they tend
to be distinct.
Halliday and Hasan believe that the distinction between the external
and internal types of cohesion tends to be a little less clear-cut in the
context of causal relations than it is in the other contexts, because the
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notion of cause already involves some degree of interpretation by the

speaker. The simple forms ‘thus’, ‘hence’, and ‘therefore’ all occur
regularly in an internal sense, implying some kind of reasoning or
argument from a premise; in the same meaning we find expressions
like ‘arising out of this’, ‘following from this’, ‘it follows that’, ‘from
this it appears that.‘

.٢.٤.٤Temporal Conjunction
According to Halliday and Hasan, the relation between the theses of
two successive sentences may be simply one of sequence in time: the
one is subsequent to the other. This temporal relation is expressed by
words such as ‘then’, ‘and then’, ‘next’, ‘afterwards’, ‘after that’,
‘sequentially’ and a number of other expressions.
Halliday and Hasan believe that the temporal relation may be made
more specific by the presence of an additional component in the
meaning, as well as that of succession in time.
So, for example, we may have ‘then + immediately’ (at once,
thereupon, on which); ‘then +after an interval’ (soon, presently, later,
after a time); ‘then + repetition’ (next time, on other occasion); ‘then +
a specific time interval’ (next day, five minutes later) and so on.

.٢.٥Lexical Cohesion
Another type of cohesion, coacting with reference to create texture, is
lexical cohesion (Halliday and Hasan, 1976). Lexical cohesion is the
central device for making texts hang together experientially, defining
the aboutness of a text (ibid.(
Lexical cohesion differs from the other cohesive elements in text in
that it is non-grammatical. Lexical cohesion refers to the “cohesive
effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary” (ibid: 274). The two
basic categories of lexical cohesion are reiteration and collocation.
Reiteration pertains to the repetition of a lexical item, either directly or
through the use of a synonym, a superordinate or a generally related
word. Collocation pertains to lexical items that are likely to be found
together within the same text. Collocation occurs when a pair of words
are not necessarily dependent upon the same semantic relationship but
rather they tend to occur within the same lexical environment (ibid:
286). The closer lexical items are to each other between sentences, the
stronger the cohesive effect.

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Halliday and Hasan (1976) classify reiteration into four types: the
same word, a synonym/near-synonym, a superordinate, and a general
word. For example, ‘a boy’ can be replaced in the following sentences
with ‘the boy’ (the same word), ‘the lad’ (a synonym/near-synonym),
‘the child’ (a superordinate), and ‘the idiot’ (a general word) (Halliday
and Hasan, 1976: 279–80). Meanwhile, they recognize collocation as
an important part of creating cohesion in connected text.
Collocation refers to the semantic and structural relation among
words, which native speakers can use subconsciously for
comprehension or production of a text. They argue the case of
collocation as follows:
The cohesive effect … depends not so much on any systematic
relationship as on their tendency to share the same lexical
environment, to occur in COLLOCATION with one another. In
general, any two lexical items having similar patterns of collocation –
that is, tending to appear in similar context – will generate a cohesive
force if they occur in adjacent sentences.(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:
286(

In its simplest incarnation lexical cohesion operates with repetition,

either simple string repetition or repetition by means of inflectional
and derivational variants of the word contracting a cohesive tie. The
more complex types of lexical cohesion work on the basis of the
semantic relationships between words in terms of sense relations, such
as synonymy, hyponymy, antonymy and metonymy (Halliday and
Hasan, 1976: 278–282.(
.٢.٥.١Reiteration
Repetition (often involving reference) occurs when certain words
repeat throughout the text, when an expression is paraphrased or a
synonym is used.
[١٠]A conference will be held on national environmental policy. At
this the issue of
salination will play an important role.
Synonymy (often involving reference(
Hyponymy (e.g. relation of “dog” to “dalmatian“
Metonymy (parts vs. whole; superordinate relation(
Antonymy (white vs. black(
General Word (I don`t like these things very much. things = such
movies(
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.٢.٥.٢Collocation
Collocation is the second type of lexical cohesion and deals with the
relationships between words on the basis of the fact that these often
occur in the same surroundings. By this type of cohesion the readers`
background knowledge about the subject in hand plays an important
role in the perception of lexical-collocational relationships. These can
be text as well as context-bound, which means that words and phrases
related in the text do not necessarily relate in any other texts as well.
.٣Text Analysis of a News Article
A reprint of the article "Ruins With A View" from Newsweek
magazine, is provided in Appendix 1 with line numbers, which is the
basis for this text analysis.
Newsweek, a weekly news magazine, covers topics ranging from U.S.
affairs to world affairs, society and the arts, business and health. The
article appeared in the international edition for September 4, 2001 in
the “Europe” section. The article focuses on the changing European
countryside due to the “migration” of urban professionals either
buying old homes and farms in rural villages as second homes or
buying them as primary residences. The style of writing is journalistic
and presents facts as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the
trend. It was written to be read, therefore much of the relevant
information the reader might need is either contained within the text
or in supplementary maps, photos, and charts. Overall, the article is
informative, entertaining and relatively easy to read. The text is very
cohesive, mainly due to lexical cohesion and referencing. As
previously stated, cohesiveness in text creates texture and texture is
due to the semantic ties that exist between clauses and sentences.
Halliday and Hasan (ibid:297) refer to texture in text as either being
“tight”, which means that there are many cohesive ties, or “loose”,
which means that there would be fewer cohesive ties, with variances
of both in the same text within and across paragraph boundaries.
Starting with referencing and finishing with lexical cohesion, the
textual analysis will prove that cohesion is an important aspect for
creating meaning within text.

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٣.١Reference
In the article, there were eighteen incidences of personal references,
twenty-four incidences of demonstrative references, and five
incidences of conjunctive references. Of the personal references,
fourteen of them were through the use of personal pronouns and four
were “it” references of either facts or things. All of the examples listed
in Appendix 2 are examples of anaphoric reference, the most relevant
kind of referencing for cohesion within text. All of the examples of
personal references cited exist as ties to presupposed participants and
occur outside of the referring clause. Halliday attests that this type of
referencing is the most cohesive(Halliday 1994: 312). Personal
referencing in text acts to keep track of participants throughout the
text. For example, in line 7, the “his wife and four children” refers
back to Peter Rockwell in lines 5–6. In line 8, the reference “fix them”
refers back to line 6 to indicate the stone houses that Peter Rockwell
purchased in Italy. In line 11, “they” refers back to the local people in
line 10.
Halliday refers to demonstrative referencing as “verbal pointing” to
indicate a “scale of proximity” to the presupposed reference (Halliday
and Hasan 1976: 57). With regards to the use of “the” as a
demonstrative reference, seventeen out of twenty-four demonstrative
references were noted. The use of “the”, commonly referred to as a
definite article, acts to specifically identify and therefore is
“semantically selective” (ibid: 71). Because the text is written, the
references are mostly endophoric and in all but one case, anaphoric,
which creates a cohesive textual environment. In line 8, “the Rome-
based artist” refers back to Peter Rockwell in lines 5–6. In lines 37–
38, “the urban migrants” and line 42, “the urban rich”, both refer back
to line 27 to identify the urban professionals who are buying up rural
properties. In line 51, “the change” refers back to the demographic
shift in line 49, which includes the modernizing, mechanizing and
enlarging of farms which caused farmers to quit farming after World
War II.
There were only five incidences of comparative referencing in the
article.
The role of comparative references acts to show similarity or likeness,
which in itself, is a referential property (ibid: 78). Of the examples
cited, all of them are non-structural and therefore cohesively
significant. In line 5, “the newer sounds” compares the traditional
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sounds of rural life, that of tractors, cicadas, and cows to the modern
sounds of the start-up chime of a computer and the sound of an artist
sculpting in lines 1–2. In line 30, “so many British” refers to the 90%
increase in the number buying rural properties in France and Italy as
compared to a year earlier in lines 28–29.

٣.٢Substitution and Ellipsis

Substitution and ellipsis are very characteristic features of spoken text
and is usually confined to “contiguous passages” (Halliday 1994: 310)
but of course exist within written text so that the presupposed
reference is not unnecessarily repeated. Because of this anaphoric
referencing function, it creates a sense of cohesion throughout the
passage. In the article, there was only one notation of substitution. In
line 131, “do that” was interpreted to be a substitution for “ask that the
church bells not be rung so early in the morning” in line 130.
Regarding ellipsis, something is left “unsaid” in the passage and the
reader must supply the missing information. Because most cases of
ellipsis are anaphoric to something written in a previous clause, the
effect is highly cohesive. For example, in lines 16–17, “coming back”
refers to line 16 in which the elliptical reference to the children of
farmers are returning to the farms that their parents quit. In line 37,
“the stampede” can be interpreted as an elliptical reference to the
preceding paragraph that conveys the feeling that there is a rush to buy
up rural European properties. In lines 115–116, “local employees”
refers to the employees of the four high tech companies mentioned in
line 114. (See Appendices 1 & 3(

٣.٣Conjunction
Halliday defines conjunction as “a clause or clause complex, or some
longer stretch of text, (which) may be related to what follows it by one
or other of a specific set of semantic relations” (ibid: 310). In the
article, there were nine notations of conjunction. While referencing,
substitution and ellipsis are cohesive because of their specific
anaphoric references, conjunction is different in that it does not
necessarily create a semantic tie with just one part of the text.
Conjunction acts to link meaning across a larger boundary of text.
However, in this article, the retrieval of conjunctive information does
not require the reader to go back too far in the passage to identify the
presupposed reference. For example, in line 2, “But there are other
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sounds...” links back directly with the sounds of the tractor, the
cicadas, and the cows in the preceding sentence. In line 34, “And
developers are buying up the countryside...” links back to lines 27–35
in which “millions of white-collar professionals” are buying up the
countryside. Overall, though conjunction functions extremely well to
create cohesion in text, it was not used very often in this article. (See
Appendices 1 & 3(

٣.٤Lexical Cohesion
Lexical cohesion differs from the other cohesive devices of
referencing, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction in that it is a non-
grammatical function. Through the use of vocabulary, cohesion exists
when ties between lexical items can be identified. In the article Ruins
With A View, this proved to be the most cohesive element. Whether it
was through the different forms of reiteration or through collocation, a
clearly identifiable choice of lexical patterns is very apparent.
Reiteration refers to the repetition of a lexical item though the
repetition may not exactly match the presupposed lexical item.
Reiteration can take the form of repetition of the same word or
through the use of a synonym, antonym, metonymy, or hyponym.
Collocation differs from reiteration in that it refers not to a semantic
relationship between words but rather it refers to the tendency of
words to “share the same lexical environment” (Halliday and Hasan
1976: 286).In Appendix 4, a general word list is used to generalize the
overall patterns of lexical cohesion from the article. Over 21 general
categories of lexis were identified.
Of the categories, the largest in terms of quantity of either reiterated or
collocated lexis seems to be agriculture, nationalities, countries,
regions, communities and temporal expressions. Because of the
inexact nature of collocation, some lexical items appear across
different categories, depending on their function within the text. For
example, “rural” appears in the “communities” category because of its
reference to rural communities while it also appears in the “rural”
category which includes lexis like rustic, quaint, and hamlet. This
categorization is purely subjective.
The first lexical patterns relate to sound. “Drones”, “chirp’, “lows”,
“chime”, “chink”, and “snatches of chat” were identified as hyponyms
of “sound”. “Summer” was identified to be a collocation of “August
heat” which appeared in the previous sentence. “Sculptor” appears
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twice within the same paragraph so repetition was the notation. Later,
“artist” appears and that was identified to be a hyponym of “sculptor”.
Another lexical pattern that sets up the general theme for the article
are the agricultural references. “Tractor”, “countryside”, “farms” and
“ex-sharecropper” all appear to identify what will become a
reoccurring theme throughout the text of the article.
From the lexical cohesion analysis of this article, a very tight pattern
of cohesion was identified. The topic of the article, that of urban
professionals buying up rural properties in Europe, is clearly
organized through the lexical selection. Repetition through
synonymous lexical items and collocation is very dominant and
creates what Halliday and Hasan call texture in text
.
.٤Conclusion
Cohesion analysis has shown what principles exist that create
semantic links within text between sentence and paragraph
boundaries. Cohesion in texts creates one kind of texture through the
ties that coordinate ideas and experiences and texture is one of the
three meta-functions for creating meaning within language. The most
often cited type of cohesion is reference. Another type of cohesion
which function to create texture, is lexical cohesion. Lexical
cohesion is the central device for making texts hang together
experientially. Therefore ,the textual analysis proves that cohesion is
an important aspect for creating meaning within text.

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References

Bloor, T.and Bloor, M. 1995. The Functional Analysis of English.

London: Arnold
Eggins, S. 1994. An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics.
London: Pinter
Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. London:
Longman group Ltd.
Halliday, M.A.K. 1994. An Introduction to Functional Grammar.
London: Edward Arnold
Renkema, J. 1993. Discourse Studies. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Tas,Nedim. (2005). ANALYSIS OF A TEXT FROM A NEWSPAPER.
Power, Carla. "Ruins With A View: Urban professionals are buying up
Europe’s rustic properties .And they don’t like the smell of pigs."
Newsweek magazine. Sep 4, 2001.

Appendix 1:
Ruins With A View
by Carla Power
Newsweek International Edition, September 4, 2001
Urban professionals are buying up Europe’s rustic properties.
And they don’t like the smell of pigs.

١In the August heat on a Tuscan hillside, a tractor drones,

cicadas
٢chirp, and the odd cow lows. But there are other sounds of summer
٣in the Italian countryside- the Windows 98 chime as a laptop boots
٤up, the chink of a sculptor’s chisel on stone and snatches of chat
٥in English. The newer sounds came after American sculptor Peter
٦Rockwell bought a few 14th-century stone houses abandoned by
٧farmers after World War II. With his wife Cynthia and four
children،
٨the Rome-based artist started to fix them up as a place for
vacations.
٩The earlier summers felt like camping trips- the houses had
١٠medieval plumbing and no electricity. “The local people
considered
١١us insane for buying the place,“ recalls Rockwell. “They were busy
١٢building cement things in towns“.
١٣Twenty-one years ago the Rockwells were practically the only
١٤non-Italians for miles. Today Americans, Britons, and Germans
١٥have bought ruins with views all over Tuscany. Wealthier Italians
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١٦whose parents quit farms for the cities in the 60’s are coming
١٧back. Hardscrabble poverty has given way to relative wealth- both
١٨international and local. The newsstand in the tiny town near the
١٩Rockwells now sells the International Herald Tribune, and the
٢٠ex-sharecropper down the mountain cooly ticks off the merits of
٢١Thailand as a holiday destination.
٢٢Globalization has shrunk the world, and that includes the
distance
٢٣between Europe’s countryside and cities. Today the quest for
quaint
٢٤rubble amid olive groves is practically a rite of passage: a strong
٢٥economy, new technology and budget air fares have turned the
dream
٢٦of clean air, cheap wine and a stress-free lifestyle into a reality
for
٢٧Europe’s urban professionals. Millions of white-collar
professionals
٢٨are buying properties in no-collar zones. In the past year, the
number
٢٩of Britons buying second homes in France and Italy has risen by
٩٠ ٣٠percent, according to the Abbey Nationalbank. So many
British
٣١have settled in the winegrowing region outside Florence that wags
٣٢have dubbed it Chiantishire. Germans have purchased 20 percent
٣٣of the homes on the Balearic island of Mallorca. Americans are
٣٤thronging to Umbria, Tuscany and Provence. And developers are
٣٥buying up the countryside to build golf courses, hotels and leisure
٣٦centers.
٣٧The stampede has triggered debates about whether the urban
٣٨migrants will help or hurt rural Europe. Small-town mayors and
٣٩shopkeepers argue that new blood from the city boosts the local
٤٠economy, improves local services and helps preserves local build-
٤١ings and culture. But others worry that Europe’s countryside has
٤٢become a playground for the urban rich. Countryside advocates
and
٤٣farmers’ unions argue that rich city folk drive up house prices and
٤٤don’t make for a sustainable rural economy. Says Jim Connolly،
٤٥who founded Resettlement Rural Ireland, an organization devoted
٤٦to repopulating the Irish countryside: “A new summer home is like
٤٧another nail in the coffin of [a rural] community“.
٤٨The new urban migrants are reaping the rewards of one of the
great

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٤٩demographic shifts of the past century. After World War II,

Europe’s
٥٠agricultural sector radically reformed by modernizing, mechaniz
٥١ing and enlarging farms. The change meant a drastic reduction in
٥٢the need for semiskilled agricultural labor and triggered a mass
٥٣migration to Europe’s cities. Forty years ago one in five people
٥٤of Europe’s labor force worked the land. Today farmers and farm
٥٥laborers make up a scant 5 percent of the European Union’s work
٥٦force. Those who still work the land rely on subsidies from their
٥٧governments or the European Union, or turn to agrotourism,
catering
٥٨to visitors who want farm holidays. In Ireland the average farm
٥٩income during the late 1990s was £11,000, with four in 10 farmers
٦٠surveyed earning less that £5,000. In Britain, a mere 2 percent of
٦١the labor force works the land. In Spain, the Spanish
Environmental
٦٢Ministry estimates that there are some 3,000 abandoned villages
٦٣whose residents have given up on farming and moved to cities.
Who
٦٤will fill all these tumbledown villages in the Algarve or Umbria if
٦٥not the Brits, Dutch or Americans? Now the middleclass are
buying
٦٦fixer-uppers with three bedrooms for prices that would barely buy
a
٦٧closet in New York or London. “The only problem now is that we
٦٨don’t have enough houses,” says Homard Townsend, a real-estate
٦٩agent in Luberon in the south of France.
٧٠Urbanites who make a break with the cities encourage others
to
٧١come. Peter Mayle’s “A Year in Provence” lingered at the top of
٧٢the best-seller lists for months, and Francis Maye’s book on fi xing
٧٣up an old villa in Tuscany spawned not only a sequel, but its own
٧٤desk calendar. Laura Skoler, a New York philanthropist who has
٧٥been coming to Luberon for the past decade, organizes trips for
٧٦other Americans keen on discovering Provence- but she doesn’t
٧٧want them all to move there. “I hesitate to bring people here,” she
٧٨says. “It’s so wonderful that I want to keep it a secret“.
٧٩The Umbrian hill town of Todi was one secret that spread
quickly،
٨٠particularly among Britons and Americans. When New Yorker
Laura
٨١Richardson came to Todi in 1985, the village shops didn’t sell

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٨٢Kleenex and there were two real-estate agents in town. Five years
٨٣later there were 14 of them, some whose “offi ces” were a car and
٨٤a mobile phone. Many locals obligingly sold up, using the money
٨٥to move to modern apartments on the outskirts of town. “Today it’s
٨٦rare that an Italian from Todi could ever get the scratch together to
٨٧buy where their grandparents lived,” says Richardson.
٨٨Paradoxically, it’s sometimes the city folk who may help protect
٨٩the landscape and culture. Tuscany and Umbria’s strict preserva
٩٠tion laws stipulate that if you buy a historic structure, you must
٩١restore it faithfully to its original design. Alessandro and Chiara
٩٢di Paola, a Roman couple who bought a hamlet outside Todi “for
٩٣nothing”, lovingly restored it; today aging couples come back to
٩٤see the restoration. In Luberon, Laura Skoler throws bouillabaisse
٩٥parties. Andrew Currie, a retired British apple farmer, has taken
to
٩٦giving lectures to local olive growers on cultivation. “[The foreign
٩٧ers] become guardians of the local heritage,” says Roland Baud of
٩٨SAFER, a French demographic institute. “They take French
culture
٩٩on as their own“.
١٠٠The tech revolution has also helped skilled professionals move
١٠١from town to rural areas. High-speed trains mean that money
١٠٢managers can commute daily from jobs in skyscrapers to dream
١٠٣cottages. E-mail lets CEOs send memos from Umbrian hamlets
١٠٤to Manhattan. Some Britons buying second homes in France have
١٠٥taken to bringing their own Sky Television decoders so that they
١٠٦can get their cable favorites.
١٠٧Pierre Pages of the chamber of commerce in Mende, in the
١٠٨southern French region of Lozere, hopes the Internet revolution
١٠٩will help level the inequities in rural and urban economies. He
١١٠estimates that around 20 percent of new IT companies won’t
have
١١١to rely on urban infrastructures. That’s an encouraging statistic
for
١١٢regions like Lozere, which, with 14 people per square kilometer،
١١٣has the sparsest population in the country. In the last eight
١١٤months four high-tech companies have moved from Paris to “The
١١٥Green Desert,” lured by cheap rents and lovely countryside. Lo
١١٦cal employees who don’t want to leave the region have a vested
١١٧interest in the business’s success. Lionel Boudoussier, CEO of the
١١٨online accounting firm AGT, was born in Lozere and wanted to
١١٩stay, but moved when he couldn’t find a decent job. After seven

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١٢٠years working in the financial sector in Paris, he took a 50 percent

١٢١pay cut and moved back to set up his business. Now he does all
١٢٢chis work- with 650 clients all over Europe- on the Internet. From
١٢٣his offices outside town, he can see cows.
١٢٤But as some new migrants have discovered, not all is peaceful
١٢٥in the country. In Britain, some recent migrants have sued farmers
١٢٦over the smell of their pigs, or complained to neighbors about the
١٢٧early rooster’s crow. The German expatriates who bought derelict
١٢٨farmhouses by the sea in the Mani region of Greece didn’t
appreciate
١٢٩the timing of pieties at the local church. “The Germans in
١٣٠Horioudaki have asked that the church bells stop ringing so early
١٣١in the morning,” complains one Mani resident. “They can do that
١٣٢because they’re all German.” The locals are quick to fi ght back.
١٣٣Last year residents on Mallorca passed out pamphlets urging
fellow
١٣٤Spaniards to say “No to German Colonialism” and started an
Association
١٣٥for the defense of Majorca. In 1998 the Balearic Islands‘
١٣٦regional parliament passed laws requiring businesses advertising
or
١٣٧labeling products in foreign languages to provide parallel labels
١٣٨in Spanish or Catalan. And earlier this summer environmentalists
١٣٩picketed model Claudia Schiffer’s holiday home with CLAUDIA
١٤٠OUT! signs, claiming her villa blocks access to a 16th-century
١٤١fortress on the Mediterranean.
١٤٢When big money gets involved, the sense of being colonized
١٤٣by outsiders can become even more blatant. The 4,000 odd golf
١٤٤courses that now dot Europe were frequently built on what was
١٤٥once farmland. In Kinsale, County Cork, developers paid
£250,000
١٤٦for the Old Head, a craggy peninsula jutting off the Irish coast
١٤٧with 200 acres of scrub grazing land and fields. A farmer owned
١٤٨that land and grazed his sheep there, and locals used to freely
١٤٩ramble through the remains of a 13th century castle to the bluffs.
١٥٠Since developers spent millions to create the Old Head Golf
Links،
١٥١the land is off-limits not only to the ramblers and farmers but to
١٥٢everyone else. It’s open only to overseas residents – 90 percent of
١٥٣who are American – who pay $50,000 for lifetime membership in
١٥٤addition to annual fees. An American flag flies at the main gate،
١٥٥and Americans don’t even have to change money; the bar takes

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١٥٦dollars. Says fisherman Jerome Lordon, “The developers just

swept
١٥٧in with their permits, burned off the heather and dumped tons of
١٥٨soil over all that life and history“.
١٥٩But even as the old way of rural life fades, there remains a
١٦٠collective memory of the European countryside that won’t seem to
١٦١die. Even American companies like Disney are working to
preserve
١٦٢it. Minutes from the main entrance to Disneyland Paris in the Val
١٦٣d’Europe, the company has underwritten the expansion of nearby
١٦٤hamlets amid rolling cornfi elds and crumbling churches,
developments
١٦٥that are scheduled to be home to 38,000 people by 2015. Only
٤٠ ١٦٦minutes from Paris, there ‘s the pastel-pretty “French village”
of
١٦٧Apollonia, purpose-built, complete with apartments, town houses,
a
١٦٨boulangerie and a Thai restaurant. Anglophiles can opt for
“English
١٦٩cottages”; shoppers will soon be able to frequent La Vallee,
modeled
١٧٠on villages in the Brie region but housing 70 factory outlets.
Country
١٧١life, however bowdlerized, seems to suit Jean-Jacques Maillot. “In
١٧٢Paris, it’s metro, boulet, dodo [subway, work, sleep],” says
Maillot،
١٧٣who has a place in the Disney-spawned development at Serris. Up
١٧٤the street Jean Marx is playing petanque in front of the brand-
new
١٧٥house he bought last November. “It’s good to be out of the cite“.
١٧٦He hesitates. “Well, I guess they’ve sort of made a cite here. But
١٧٧it’s more fl at.” Maillot has a point. With more and more city
types
١٧٨fleeing for the country, it’s getting harder and harder to tell
where
١٧٩the city ends and the countryside begins.

Appendix 2:
Referencing Summary
Personal references
Line Reference Line Reference
Referenced item

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AL-Faith Journal. No . 37 December 2008

٧his (wife and...) 5–6

Peter Rockwell
) ٨fix) them 6
stone houses
١١us 7
Rockwell family
١١they 10
local people
٥٧–٥٦their (governments) 54–55
farm laborers
٧٧I/she 74
Laura Skoler
٧٨it 75
Luberon
٨٣them 82
real estate agents
٩٩–٩٨they/their (own) 96–97
the foreigners
١٠٩he 107
Pierre Pages
١١٩he 117
Lionel Boudoussier
١٢٢–١٢١his (business)/his (work) 117
Lionel Boudoussier
١٢٣his (offices), he 117
Lionel Boudoussier
١٣٢–١٣١they/they’re 129
the Germans
١٥٢It’s (open) 150
Old Head golf links
) ١٦٢preserve) it 160
countryside
١٧٥he 174
Jean Marx
١٧٧it’s (more flat) 173
Serris
Demonstrative references
Line Reference Line Reference
Referenced item
٨the Rome-based artist 5–6
Peter Rockwell

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AL-Faith Journal. No . 37 December 2008

١١the place 6
stone houses
١٣the Rockwells 7–8
Peter Rockwell family
٣٧the stampede 27–36
land purchases/development
٣٨–٣٧the urban migrants 27
urban professionals
٤٢the urban rich 27
urban professionals
٤٨the new urban migrants 27
urban professionals
٥١the change 49
demographic shifts
٥٦those who 54–55
farmers and farm laborers
٦٤these tumbledown villages 62
abandoned villages
٧٨–٧٧here/there 75
Luberon
١١١that’s….statistic 110
20 percent of new IT companies
١١٣the country 112
France (French region of Lozere(
” ١١٥–١١٤The Green Desert” 112
Lozere
١١٧the business’s success 114
four high tech companies
١٣٢the locals 131
one Mani resident
١٣٢the locals 133
residents on Mallorca
١٤٨that land/there 146
the Old Head
١٥١the land 146
the Old Head
١٥٦the developers 150
developers
١٥٨that life and history 147–149
farming/13th century castle
١٦٣the company 161
Disney

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AL-Faith Journal. No . 37 December 2008

١٧٥the cite 172

Paris

Comparative references
Line Reference Line Reference
Referenced item
٥the newer sounds 3–5
Windows 98 chime/chink of a …chisel
٩the earlier summers 13
Twenty-one years ago
٣٠So many British 28–29
the number of Britons....
٧٦other Americans 74
Laura Skoler
١٧٧it’s more flat 173
Serris is flatter than Paris

Appendix 3:
Substitution / Ellipsis / Conjunction Summary

Substitution
Line Reference Line Reference
Substituted information
١٣١do that 130
ask that the church bells....

Ellipsis
Line Reference Line Reference
Ellipsed information
١٧–١٦coming back 16
to the farms they quit
١٧Hardscrabble poverty 16
on the quit farms
٣٧the stampede 27–36
to buy and develop land/property
٦٨not enough houses 66
fixer-uppers (to buy or sell(
٧١–٧٠to come 70
urbanites (with them…cities(
٨٩the landscape and the culture entire article theme
rural Europe/rural villages

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AL-Faith Journal. No . 37 December 2008

٩٩their own 98
culture
١١٦–١١٥local employees 114
of the four high tech companies
١١٩–١١٨wanted to stay 118
in Lozere
١١٩a decent job 118
in Lozere
١٢٤discovered general
after moving to the countryside
١٢٥migrants general
from urban areas
١٤٢big money gets involved general
in the develop. of the countryside
١٥٤main gate 150
of the Old Head golf links
١٥٧–١٥٦swept in 145
to the area
١٧٧But it’s more flat 173
Serris is flatter than Paris.
Conjunction
Line Reference Line Reference
Conjunction reference
٢But there are... 1–2
a tractor drones, cicadas chirp...
٣٤And developers are... 27–35
Millions of … professionals...
٤١But others.... 38–39 ...
mayors and shopkeepers...
٦٥Now the middle class... 48–53
The demographic shift... villages.
٨٣–٨٢Five years later... 80–81
When... in 1985
١٢١Now he does... 119–120
After seven years working…
١٣٨And earlier this summer 133–135
Last year..../ In 1998....
١٥٩But even as the old way general
…migration.. urban professionals
١٧٧–١٧٦But it’s more fl at. 172–173
Serris and Paris

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AL-Faith Journal. No . 37 December 2008

Appendix 4:
Lexical Cohesion Summary

)NOTE: Repetition of lexis is due to repetition in the text(.

Sounds:
drone/chirp/low/chime/chink/snatches of chat/crow/ringing/
Ruins:
ruins/rubble/derelict
farmhouses/abandoned/tumbledown/remains/crumbling
Rural:
rustic/quaint/rural/rural/rustic properties/stone houses/hamlet/villages
Agriculture:
farmer/farmer’s unions/agricultural sector/agricultural
labor/farmers/farm laborers/
work the land/work the land/farm income/farmers/farming/apple
farmer/olive growers/
cultivation/farmers/farmland/rustic/tractor/cow/farmers/cows/pigs/roos
ter/work force/
farm laborers
Holidays:
vacations/camping trips/agro tourism/farm holidays
Vacation homes:
second homes/summer home/dream cottages/second homes/holiday
home/villa
Nationalities/ people:
Americans/Britons/Germans/Italians/Britons/British/Irish/Spanish/Brit
s/Dutch/
Americans/Americans/Britons/Americans/New
Yorker/Italian/Roman/British/
French/French/Britons/French/German/Germans/German/Spaniards/
German
Europe/ countries:
Europe/France/Italy/Europe/Europe’s/Ireland/Europe’s/Europe’s/Spai
n/France/France/
Britain/Greece
Area/ regions:
Tuscany/Umbria/Provence/Algarve/Umbria/Provence/Tuscany/Provenc
e/Umbrian/
Tuscany/Umbria/Umbrian/Manhattan/Lozere/Lozere/regions/“The
Green Desert/“
region/Lozere/Europe/Mani/Mani/Mallorca/Majorca/the Balearic
Islands/

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AL-Faith Journal. No . 37 December 2008

Cities/ towns:
Florence/New York/London/Luberon/New
York/Luberon/Todi/Todi/Todi/Luberon/
Manhattan/Mende/Paris/Horioudaki/Kinsale
Buildings:
houses/villa/farmhouses/second home/dream
cottages/fortress/castle/stonehouses/
skyscrapers/villa/
Purchase:
buying/buying/buying/buying up/buying/buy/sell/sold up/buy/buy/
Communities:
countryside/cites/countryside/rural/small/town/city/countryside/country
side/cities/
villages/cities/villages/cities/village/hamlets/rural/urban/urban/countrys
ide/
outside town/countryside/local/local/local/locals/rural/local
employees/locals/hamlet
Temporal expressions:
today/today/today/after WWII/21 years ago/in the 60’s/in the past
year/after WW
II/past century/forty years ago/for the past decade/in 1985/in the last
eight months/
earlier this summer/
Urban people:
urban professionals/white-collar professionals/no-collar zone/urban
migrants/
urban rich/rich city folk/new urban migrants/urbanites/city
folk/migrant/migrants/
expatriates/foreigners/outsiders/urban migrants/migration/
Business:
skilled professional/money managers/CEOs/big money
Technology:
tech revolution/high speed trains/email/Internet revolution/IT
companies/
high tech companies/the Internet
Economy:
economy/economy/farm income/middle class/prices/house prices/
rural and local economies/big money
Leisure:
golf courses/hotels/leisure centers/playground/golf courses/Old Head
Golf Links
Restore:

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 AL-Faith Journal. No . 37 December 2008

fix up/fixer-uppers/fixing up/restore/restoration/preserve

Family:
wife/children/couple/couple/
Other:
real estate agent/real estate agents/
best seller list/book/sequel
make a break/move/
secret/secret/
the quest/discover/discovered/
the money/the scratch/big money
historic structure/restore/restored/restoration/
for nothing/cheap/
culture/culture/(cultivation(
job/working/pay cut/work/work force/labor force
Colonialism/colonized

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