Henney - The Radio Engineering Handbook 3 Ed 1941

THE
RADIO ENGINEERING
HANDBOOK
PREPARED BY A STAFF OF
TWENTY -THREE SPECIALISTS
KEITH HENNEY, EDITOR-IN -CHIEF

Member, The Institute of Radio Engineers; Author, "Principle.
of Radio," "Electron Tubes in Industry ";
Editor, "Electronics"
THIRD EDITION
SEVENTH IMPRESSION
MCGRAW -HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

NEW YORK AND LONDON
1941
THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
COPYRIGHT, 1933, 1935, 1941, BY THE
MCGRAW -HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
All rights reserved. This book, or

parts thereof, may not be reproduced
in any form without permission of
the publishers.
THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA,

PREFACE
In preparing new material and in revising existing material for the
Third Edition, the same principles were followed as in the First Edition.
An endeavor has been made to prepare a comprehensive working manual
of the radio science and to compile in a single book concise information
on each of the branches of radio engineering. As in earlier editions, there
is in this volume a considerable amount of what may be called funda-
mental background, but the emphasis is on practice rather than on theory.
Each of the sections has been brought up to date. Several have been
completely rewritten, notably those on television, high- frequency tech-
nique, loud -speakers and acoustics, detection and modulation, facsimile,
and aircraft radio. In each of these fields, much progress has been made
since 1935. The authors of the individual sections have the requisite
theoretical background as well as the very necessary practical experience
in the field.
The engineer will find in this book many man-hours of effort compiled
in the form of tables and curves and converted into concise English by
the engineers, physicists, and teachers who have aided the editor in
preparing this new edition.
KEITH HENNEY.
NEW YORK,
April, 1941.
v
rt
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE V
SECTION 1
MATHEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES 1
Greek alphabet-Decimal equivalents-Trigonometric func-
tions-LC table -Wire tables- Logarithms -Exponential and
hyperbolic functions- Harmonic computations -Meter shunts
and multipliers.
SECTION 2
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, by E. A. UEHLING 27
Electric charges-Coulomb's law -Nature of potential -Ohm's
law- Inductance -Capacitance -Continuous and alternating
currents-Harmonics- Power-Direct -current circuits-Alter-
nating-current circuits-Impedance- Kirchhoff's laws -Mag-
netic circuits -Core materials- Radiation -Antennas-Radia-
tion formulas.
SECTION 3
RESISTANCE, by JESSE MARSTEN 48
Units of resistance -Resistors in series and parallel-Resistance
as function of frequency -Types of resistors-Rating and
measuring resistors-Color code -Test specifications -Uses of
resistance.
SECTION 4
INDUCTANCE, by COMER L. DAVIES 70
Magnetic flux -Definition of inductance -Units-Time con-
stant- Inductive reactance-Power in inductive circuit
Measurement of inductance -Iron -core coils-Coil capacity
--
Types of inductors- Inductance -coil design- Calculation of
air-core coils-Standards-Mutual inductance.
SECTION 5
CAPACITANCE, by E. L. HALL
Units -Energy in charged condenser-Dielectric materials - 100
-Fixed and variable condensers -Electrolytic condensers

Variable condenser design-Measurements of capacity.
-
Power factor- Dielectric properties-Calculation of capacitance
SECTION 6
COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, and R, by W. F. LANTERMAN . . . . 125
Transients -Steady-state currents -Q- Resonance- Equalizers
-Resonant-circuit design -Oscillator tracking circuits-Tank
vii
CONTENTS
circuits-Measurement of resonant circuits -Coupled circuits

Band -pass r-f circuits-Decoupling filters -Recurrent networks
- I'Aus
-Transmission lines- Pads -Wave filters.

SECTION 7
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, by R. F. FIELD AND JOHN H. MILLER 179
Standards- Current-measuring instruments- High-frequency
current meters -Rectifiers meters-Power level meters
Voltage-measuring instruments- Measurement of resistance,
-
capacitance, impedance, frequency- Moving -diaphragm meters
-Electron-tube meters-Bridge measurements-T networks.
SECTION 8
VACUUM TUBES, by J. M. STINCHFIELD
Electmna- Emission-Filament calculations-Space charge
Diodes-Triodes -Space current calculations- Amplification
231
-
factor-Plate resistance- Transconductance-Pentodes -Out-
put and distortion calculation-Tetrodes-Converters -U-h -f
tubes -Beam-power tubes -Gas -filled tubes-Surge and pro-
tector tubes-Ballast tubes-Cathode -ray tubes-Photoelectric
tubes -Interelectrode capacitance -Bases.
SECTION 9
VACUUM -TUBE OSCILLATORS, by ROBERT I. SARBACHER 283
Types of oscillators- Feedback oscillators- Frequency stabili-
zation-Piezoelectric crystals- Magnetostriction-Amplitude
control- Dynatrons -Beat-frequency oscillators- Relaxation
oscillators -High-frequency oscillators-Klystron-Automatic-
frequency control -Power oscillator design.
SECTION 10
MODULATION AND DETECTION, by L. F. CURTIS 322
-
Modulated waves -Amplitude, phase, and frequency modula-
Detection -Ampli-
tion- Modulation Frequency conversion--Phase
tude modulators-Copper oxide modulators modulators
-Frequency modulators-Converters and mixers- Detectors-
Square -law detectors-Limiters.
SECTION 11
AUDIO -FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS, by GLENN KOEHLER 359
Types of a -f amplifiers-Class A amplifiers- Multistage amplifier
design-Resistance- capacitance amplifiers- Resistance -coupled
amplifier charts -Transformer- coupled circuits- Impedance-
matching transformers- Push -pull amplifiers- Pentode and
beam -tube amplifiers-Feedback amplifiers-Power supply
Direct-coupled amplifiers-Frequency -response control- Equal-
-
ization -Testing and measurements.
CONTENTS ix
PAGE
SECTION 12
RADIO -FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS, by R. S. GLASGOW
Resistance- coupled amplifier -Impedance -coupled amplifier
Tuned- transformer-coupled amplifiers- Cascade amplifiers-
- 395
Band-pass amplifiers- Regeneration in r-f amplifiers- Neutral-

izing circuits-R -f power amplifiers -Class B amplifiers -Modu-
lated amplifiers-High- efficiency amplifiers- Frequency multi-
pliers.
SECTION 13
RECEIVING SYSTEMS, by G. L. BEERS
Types of receivers -Methods of testing and rating receivers
-T
Receiver- circuit design -r-f receivers- Frequency converters
- 423
-Superheterodyne receivers-Volume control-Automatic vol-

ume control -Receiver noise-Shielding and filtering -Push-
button tuning-Regenerative receivers-Superregenerators-
All -wave receivers- Automobile receivers- High -fidelity re-
ceivers- Frequency- modulation receivers -Direction finders
-Short-wave receivers.
SECTION 14
POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS, by R. C. HITCHCOCK 459
D-c power requirement -Sources of power- Measurements of
d.c.- Dry -cell primary batteries- Secondary or storage bat-
teries- Fuel-driven generators-Motor -generator sets-Wind-
driven generators-Rectifiers and chargers- Voltage doublers
Tube rectifiers- Dry- contact rectifiers -Low-power trans-
-
formers- Filters-Design of filter chokes.
SECTION 15
HIGH -FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION, by DALE POLLACK 514
Properties of h-f waves-The ground wave -The sky wave
Properties of u-h-f waves- Ionosphere characteristics-Noise-
-
Frequency allocation -Transmitters -Tubes for u.h.f. -Fre-
quency modulation -Receivers.
SECTION 16
CODE TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION, by JOHN B. MOORE
Codes- Multiplex-Character formation -Frequency range
Speed attainable -Radiotelegraph services -Alternators -Tube
- 564
transmitters- Marine transmitters-Receivers-Limiter cir-

cuits- Central office-Automatic keyers-Transcribing methods.
SECTION 17
AIRCRAFT RADIO, by HARRY DIAMOND 589
Civil radio facilities- Military facilities- Aircraft frequency
-- - - - -
allocation- Propagation characteristics -Ground-station equip-
ment -Range beacons Transmitters Receivers
radio installations Antennas Shielding Transmitters
Airplane
Navigation equipment -Blind-landing systems -Altimeters.
-
X CONTENTS
PAGE
SECTION 18
ANTENNAS, by EDMUND A. LAPORT 628
Definitions- Radiation -Current distribution -Radiation re-
sistance-Directive antennas -Broadcast antennas -Ground
systems-Antenna measurements -Transmission lines- Marine
antennas-H -f antennas- Antenna arrays-U -h -f antennas
Receiving antennas -Diversity reception -Antinoise antennas.
-
SECTION 19
TELEVISION, by DONALD G. FINN 691
Elements of system- Scanning and image analysis-Video-
signal wave form -V -f generators- Camera tubes -Image tubes
-Synchronization signal generators -Video amplifiers -Noise
limitations -Modulation and detection-Channel allocation
Separation circuits -Picture tubes and circuits-Contrast and
-
gradation.
SECTION 20
-
FACSIMILE, by R. E. MATHES
-
History-Scanning Modulation Precision required Fac- --
simile reception- Recording systems-Synchronizing circuits
747
Propagation of signals- Tape -facsimile system -Operating

standards.
SECTION 21
RADIO BROADCASTING, by CARL G. DIETSCH
Audio-frequency range required-Standard reference levels
Microphone requirements-Types of microphones- Studio
- 769
technique- Volume indicators- Program recording-Playback

reproducers -Orthacoustic system -Radio equipment -Moni-
toring equipment -Transmitters -R -f amplifiers- Frequency
modulation- Degeneration -Modulation equipment-Merits of
f.m. versus a.m. -Power supply- Parasitic oscillations-Har -
monic control-Transmission lines- Antenna measurements
Station coverage -Field intensity measurements-High-fre-
-
quency broadcasting.
SECTION 22
LOUD- SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS, by HUGH S. KNOW LES. . . . 876
Nature of sound-Articulation and naturalness -Music-Power
and frequency in music-Characteristics of human ear -Loud-
speakers -Radiation impedance- Multiple loud- speakers -Di-
rectivity of speakers-Horns- Diaphragms -Cone materials -
Speaker distortion- Motors- Moving -coil speakers -Baffles
and enclosures -Room acoustics -Room power requirements
Loud- speaker tests.
-
INDEX . . 929
THE RADIO ENGINEERING
HANDBOOK
SECTION 1
MATHEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES

1. Greek Alphabet.
Letters
Name Commonly used to designate
Cap. Small
Alpha A a Angles. Coefficients. Area
Beta B ß Angles. Coefficients
Gamma T 7 Angles. Specific gravity. Conductivity
Delta A d Decrements. Increments. Variation. Density
Epsilon E < E.m.f. Base of natural logarithms. Very small
quantity
Zeta Z f (Cap.) Impedance. Coordinates
Eta H n Hysteresis coefficient. Efficiency
Theta. O O. ,1 Angular phase displacement. Time constant
Iota I Current in amperes
Kappa K .. Dielectric constant. Susceptibility. Visibility
Lambda A X (Small) Wave length
Mu M p Permeability. Amplification factor. Prefix micro-
Nu N v Reluctivity
Xi Z E
Omicron O o
Pi H w Circumference divided by diameter 3.1416
Rho P p Resistivity
Sigma Z o, s (Cap.) Sign of summation
Tau T r Time constant. Time -phase displacement
Upsilon T u
Phi 4. 0,a, Flux. Angle of lag or lead
Chi X x (Cap.) Reactance
Psi W tt Angular velocity in time. Phase difference.
Dielectric flux. Angles
Omega It u Resistance in ohms. Resistance in megohms. 2.F.
Angular velocity
2. Decimal Equivalents of Parts of One Inch.
4 0.01 .' 5 764 0.265625 64 0.515625 4,44 0.7656' 5
542 0.031250 932 0.281250 7742 0.531250 9542 0.781250
364 0.046875 '944 0.296875 3464 0.546875 3ti4 0.796875
4s 0.062500 916 0.312500 916 0.562500 '313 0.812500
944 0.078125 2564 0.328125 3744 0.578125 6344 0.828125
312 0.093750 1542 0.343750 1942 0.593750 2732 0.843750
364 0.109375 2364 0.359375 3364 0.609375 5564 0.859375
56 0.125000 34 0.375000 94 0.625000 74 0.875000
964 0.140625 2364 0.390625 4'64 0.640625 5744 0.890625
442 0.156250 1342 0.406250 2542 0.656250 2942 0.906250
1564 0.171875 2364 0.421875 4364 0.671875 6964 0.921875
946 0.187500 afe 0.437500 14 6 0.687500 13f6 0.937500
'364 0.203125 2%4 0.4o3125 4944 0.703125 6544 0.953125
342 0.218750 1942 0.468750 2943 0.718750 3542 0.968750
1964 0.234375 3544 0.484375 4 344 0.734375 6364 0.984375
fia 0.250000 S4 0.500000 34 0.750000 1 1
2 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 1
3. Trigonometric Functions.
° ' ein tan cot cos I ° 'I ein I tan cot I cae
0 0 0.0000 0.0000 infinit. 1.0000 0 90 8 0 0.1392 0.1405 7.1154 0.9903 0 82
10 0.0029 0.0029 343.7737 1.0000 50 10 0.1421 0.1435 6.9682 0.9899 50
20 0.0058 0.0058 171.8854 1.0000 40 20 0.1449 0.1465 6.8269 0.9894 40
30 0.0087 0.0087 114.5887 1.0000 30 30 0.1478 0.1495 6.6912 0.9890 30
40 0.0116 0.0116 85.9398 0.9999 20 40 0.1507 0.1524 6.5606 0.9886 20
50 0.0145 0.0145 68.7501 0.9999 10 50 0.1536 0.1554 6.4348 0.9881 10
1 0 0.0175 0.0175 57.2900 0.9998 0 89 9 0 0.1564 0.1584 6.3138 0.9877 0 81

10 0.0204 0.0204 49.1039 0.9998 50 100.1593 0.1614 6.1970 0.9872 50
20 0.0233 0.0233 42.9641 0.9997 40 20 0.1622 0.1644 6.0844 0.9868 40
30 0.0262 0.0262 38.1885 0.9997 30 30 0.1650 0.1673 5.9758 0.9863 30
40 0.0291 0.0291 34.3678 0.9996 20 40 0.1679 0.1703 5.8708 0.9858 20
50 0.0320 0.0320 31.2416 0.9995 10 50 0.1708 0.1733 5.7694 0.9853 10
2 0 0.0349 0.0349 28.6363 0.9994 0 88 10 0 0.1736 0.1763 5.6713 0.9848 0 80

10 0.0378 0.0378 28.4316 0.9993 50 10 0.1765 0.1793 5.5764 0.9843 50
20 0.0407 0.0407 24.5418 0.9992 40 20 0.1794 0.1823 5.4845 0.9838 40
30 0.0436 0.0437 22.9038 0.9990 30 30 0.1822 0.1853 5.3955 0.9833 30
40 0.0465 0.0466 21.4704 0.9989 20 40 0.1851 0.1883 5.3093 0.9827 20
50 0.0494 0.0495 20.2056 0.9988 10 50 0.1880 0.1914 5.2257 0.9822 10
3 0 0.0523 0.0524 19.0811 0.9986 0 87 11 0 0.1908 0.1944 5.1446 0.9816 0 79
10 0.0552 0.0553 18.0750 0.9985 50 10 0.1937 0.1974 5.0658 0.9811 50
20 0.0581 0.0582 17.1693 0.9983 40 20 0.1965 0.2004 4.9894 0.9805 40
30 0.0610 0.0612 16.3499 0.9981 30 30 0.1994 0.2035 4.9152 0.9799 30
40 0.0640 0.0641 15.6048 0.9980 20 40 0.2022 0.2065 4.8430 0.9793 20
50 0.0669 0.0670 14.9244 0.9978 10 50 0.2051 0.2095 4.7729 0.9787 10
4 0 0.0698 0.0699 14.3007 0.9976 0 86 12 0 0.2079 0.2126 4.7046 0.9781 0 78
10 0.0727 0.0729 13.7267 0.9974 50 10 0.2108 0.2158 4.6382 0.9775 50
20 0.0758 0.0758 13.1969 0.9971 40 20 0.2136 0.2186 4.5736 0.9769 40
30 0.0785 0.0787 12.7062 0.9969 30 30 0.2164 0.2217 4.5107 0.9763 30
40 0.0814 0.0816 12.2505 0.9967 20 40 0.2193 0.2247 4.4494 0.9757 20
50 0.0843 0.0846 11.8262 0.9964 10 50 0.2221 0.2278 4.3897 0.9750 10
5 0 0.0872 0.0875 11.4301 0.9962 0 85 13 0 0.2250 0.2309 4.3315 0.9744 0 77
10 0.0901 0.0904 11.0594 0.9959 50 10 0.2278 0.2339 4.2747 0.9737 50
20 0.0929 0.0934 10.7119 0.9957 40 20 0.2306 0.2370 4.2193 0.9730 40
30 0.0958 0.0983 10.3854 0.9954 30 30 0.2334 0.2401 4.1653 0.9724 30
40 0.0987 0.0992 10.0780 0.9951 20 40 0.2363 0.2432 4.1126 0.9717 20
50 0.1016 0.1022 9.7882 0.9948 10 50 0.2391 0.2462 4.0611 0.9710 10
6 0 0.1045 0.1051 9.5144 0.9945 0 84 14 0 0.2419 0.2493 4.0108 0.9703 0 78
10 0.1074 0.1080 9.2553 0.9942 50 10 0.2447 0.2524 3.9617 0.9696 50
20 0.1103 0.1110 9.0098 0.9939 40 20 0.2476 0.2555 3.9136 0.9689 40
30 0.1132 0.1139 8.7769 0.9936 30 30 0.2504 0.2586 3.8667 0.9681 30
40 0.1181 0.1169 8.5555 0.9932 20 40 0.2532 0.2617 3.8208 0.9674 20
50 0.1190 0.1198 8.3450 0.9929 10 50 0.2560 0.2848 3.7760 0.9667 10
7 0 0.1219 0.1228 8.1443 0.9925 0 83 15 0 0.2588 0.2679 3.7321 0.9659 0 75

10 0.1248 0.1257 7.9530 0.9922 50 100.2616 0.2711 3.6891 0.9652 50
20 0.1276 0.1287 7.7704 0.9918 40 20 0.2644 0.2742 3.6470 0.9644 40
30 0.1305 0.1317 7.5958 0.9914 30 30 0.2872 0.2773 3.6059 0.9636 30
40 0.1334 0.1346 7.4287 0.9911 20 40 0.2700 0.2805 3.5656 0.9628 20
50 0.1383 0.1376 7.2687 0.9907 10 50 0.2728 0.2838 3.5261 0.9621 10
8 0 0.1392 0.1405 7.1154 0.9903 0 82 16 0 0.2758 0.2867 3.4874 0.9813 0 74

cos cot tan ein ' ° cos cot tan sin °
Sec. 11 MATHEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES 3
° ' sin I tan cot cos ° ' ein tan cot coe
I
16 0 0.2756 0.2887 3.4874 0.9613 0 74 24 0 0.4067 0.4452 2.246010.9135 066

10 0.2784 0.2899 3.4495 0.9605 50 10 0.4094 0.4487 2.2286 0.9124 50
20 0.2812 0.2931 3.4124 0.9596 40 20 0.4120 0.4522 2.2113 0.9112 40
30 0.2840 0.2962 3.3759 0.9588 30 30 0.4147 0.4557 2.1943 0.9100 30
40 0.2868 0.2994 3.3402 0.9580 20 40 0.4173 0.4592 2.1775 0.9088 20
50 0.2896 0.3026 3.3052 0.9572 10 30 0.4200 0.4628 2.1609 0.9075 10
17 0 0.2924 0.3057 3.2709 0.9583 0 73 25 0 0.4226 0.4683 2.1445 0.9063 0 65
10 0.2952 0.3089 3.2371 0.9555 50 10 0.4253 0.4899 2.1283 0.9051 50
20 0.2979 0.3121 3.2041 0.9548 40 20 0.4279 0.4734 2.1123 0.9038 40
30 0.3007 0.3153 3.1716 0.9537 30 30 0.4305 0.4770 2.0965 0.9026 30
40 0.3035 0.3185 3.1397 0.9528 20 40 0.4331 0.4806 2.0809 0.9013 20
50 0.3062 0.3217 3.1084 0.9520 10 50 0.4358 0.4841 2.0655 0.9001 10
18 0 0.3090 0.3249 3.0777 0.9511 0 72 26 0 0.4384 0.4877 2.0503 0.8988 0 64
10 0.3118 0.3281 3.0475 0.9502 50 100.4410 0.4913 2.0353 0.8975 50
20 0.3145 0.3314 3.0178 0.9492 40 20 0.4438 0.49 0 2.0204 0.8982 40
30 0.3173 0.3346 2.9887 0.9483 30 30 0.4462 0.4986 2.0057 0.8949 30
40 0.3201 0.3378 2.9600 0.9474 20 40 0.4488 0.5022 1.9912 0.8936 20
50 0.3228 0.3411 2.9319 0.9465 10 50 0.4514 0.5059 1.9768 0.8923 10
19 0 0.3256 0.3443 2.9042 0.9455 0 0.4540 0.5095
71 27 0 1.9626 0.8910 0 63
10 0.3283 0.3476 2.8770 0.9448 50 10 0.4566
0.5132 1.9488 0.8897 50
20 0.3311 0.3508 2.8502 0.9436 40 20 0.4592 0.5169 1.9347 0.8884 40
30 0.3338 0.3541 2.8239 0.9426 30 30 0.4617 0.5206 1.9210 0.8870 30
40 0.3365 0.3574 2.7980 0.9417 20 40 0.4643 0.5243 1.9074 0.8857 20
.500. 3393 0.3607 2.7725 0.9407 10 50 0.46669 0.5280 1.8940 0.8843 10
20 0 0.3420 0.3640 2.7475 0.9397 0 70 28 0 0.4695 0.5317 1.8807 0.8829 0 82
10 0.3448 0.3673 2.7228 0.9387 50 10 0.4720 0.5354 1.8676 0.8816 50
20 0.3475 0.3706 2.6985 0.9377 40 20 0.4746 0.5392 1.8546 0.8802 40
30 0.3502 0.3739 2.6746 0.9367 30 30 0.4772 0.5430 1.8418 0.8788 30
40 0.3529 0.3772 2.6511 0.9356 20 40 0.4797 0.5467 1.8291 0.8774 20
50 0.3557 0.3805 2.6279 0.9346 10 50 0.4823 0.5505 1.8165 0.8760 10
21 0 0.3584 0.3839 2.6051 0.9336 0 69 29 0 0.4848 0.5543 1.8040 0.8746 0 61
10 0.3611 0.3872 2.5826 0.9325 50 100.4874 0.5581 1.7917 0.8732 50
20 0.3638 0.3906 2.5605 0.9315 40 20 0.4899 0.5619 1.7796 0.8718 40
30 0.36665 0.3939 2.5386 0.9304 30 30 0.4924 0.5658 1.7675 0.8704 30
40 0.3892 0.3973 2.5172 0.9293 20 40 0.4950 0.5696 1.7558 0.8689 20
50 0.3719 0.4006 2.4960 0.9283 10 50 0.4975 0.5735 1.7437 0.8675 10
22 0 0.3746 0.4040 2.4751 0.9272 0 68 30 0 0.5000 0.5774 1.7321 0.8660 0 60
10 0.3773 0.4074 2.4545 0.9261 50 10 0.5025 0.5812 1.7205 0.8646 50
20 0.3800 0.4108 2.4342 0.9250 40 20 0.5050 0.5851 1.7090 0.8631 40
30 0.3827 0.4142 2.4142 0.9239 30 30 0.5075 0.5890 1.8977 0.8616 30
40 0.3854 0.4176 2.3945 0.9228 20 40 0.5100 0.5930 1.68644 0.8601 20
50 0.3881 0.4210 2.3750 0.9216 10 50 0.5125 0.5989 1.6753 0.8587 10
23 0 0.3907 0.4245 2.3559 0.9205 0 67 31 0 0.5150 0.6009 1.6643 0.8572 0 59
10 0.3934 0.4279 2.3389 0.9194 50 100.5175 0.6048 1.6534 0.8557 50
20 0.3961 0.4314 2.3183 0.9182 40 20 0.5200 0.6088 1.6426 0.8542 40
30 0.3987 0.4348 2.2998 0.9171 30 30 0.5225 0.6128 1.6319 0.8526 30
40 0.4014 0.4383 2.2817 0.9159 20 40 0.5250 0.6168 1.6212 0.8511 20
50 0.4041 0.4417 2.2637 0.9147 10 50 0.5275 0.6208 1.6107 0.8498 10
24 0 0.4067 0.4452 2.2480 0.9135 0 66 32 0 0.5299 0.6249 1.6003 0.8480 0 58
roe cot tan ein ' ° cos cot tan ein ' °
4 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Sec. 1
° ' ein tan cot coe II 0 ' I ein tan cot cae
32 0 0.5299 0.8249 1.6003 0.8480 0 ::39 0 0.6293 0.8098 1.2349 0.7771 0 51
10 0.5324 0.6289 1.5900 0.8465 50 10 0.6316 0.8146 1.2276 0.7753 50
20 0.5348 0.6330 1.5798 0.8450 40 20 0.6338 0.8195 1.2203 0.7735 40
30 0.5373 0.8371 1.5697 0.84:34 30 30 0.6361 0.8243 1.2131 0.7716 30
40 0.5398 0.8412 1.5597 0.8418 20 40 0.6383 0.8292 1.2059 0.7698 20
50 0.5422 0.6453 1.5497 0.8403 10 50 0.6406 0.8342 1.1988 0.7679 10
33 0 0.5446 0.6494 1.5399 0.8387 0 57 40 0 0.6428 0.8391 1.1918 0.7680 050

10 0.5471 0.6536 1.5301 0.8371 50 10 0.6450 0.8441 1.1847 0.7642 50
20 0.5495 0.6577 1.5204 0.8355 40 20 0.6472 0.8491 1.1778 0.7623 40
30 0.5519 0.8619 1.5108 0.8339 30 30 0.6494 0.8541 1.1708 0.7604 30
40 0.5544 0.6661 1.5013 0.8323 20 40 0.6517 0.8591 1.1840 0.7585 20
50 0.5568 0.6703 1.4919 0.8307 10 50 0.6539 0.8642 1.1571 0.7566 10
34 0 0.5592 0.8745 1.4826 0.8290 0 56 41 0 0.6561 0.8693 1.1504 0.7547 0 49

10 0.5816 0.6787 1.4733 0.8274 50 10 0.6583 0.8744 1.1436 0.7528 50
20 0.5640 0.6830 1.4641 0.8258 40 20 0.6604 0.8796 1.1369 0.7509 40
30 0.5664 0.6873 1.4550 0.8241 30 30 0.6626 0.8847 1.1303 0.7490 30
40 0.5888 0.6916 1.4460 0.8225 20 40 0.6648 0.8899 1.1237 0.7470 20
50 0.5712 0.6959 1.4370 0.8208 10 50 0.6670 0.8952 1.1171 0.7451 10
35 0 0.5738 0.7002 1.4281 0.8192 0 5 42 0 0.6691 0.9004 1.1108 0.7431 0 48

10 0.5760 0.7046 1.4193 0.8175 50 10 0.6713 0.9057 1.1041 0.7412 50
20 0.5783 0.7089 1.4106 0.8158 40 20 0.6734 0.9110 1.0977 0.7392 40
30 0.5807 0.7133 1.4019 0.8141 30 30 0.8756 0.9163 1.0913 0.7373 30
40 0.5831 0.7177 1.3934 0.8124 20 40 0.6777 0.9217 1.0850 0.7353 20
50 0.5854 0.7221 1.3848 0.8107 10 50 0.6799 0.9271 1.0786 0.7333 10
36 0 0.5878 0.7265 1.3764 0.8090 0 54 43 0 0.6820 0.9325 1.0724 0.7314 0 47
10 0.5901 0.7310 1.3680 0.8073 50 10 0.6841 0.9380 1.0661 0.7294 50
20 0.5925 0.7355 1.3597 0.8056 40 20 0.6862 0.9435 1.0599 0.7274 40
30 0.5948 0.7400 1.3514 0.8039 30 30 0.6884 0.9490 1.0538 0.7254 30
40 0.5972 0.7445 I.3432 0.8021 20 40 0.6905 0.9545 1.0477 0.7234 20
50 0.5995 0.7490 1.3351 0.8004 10 50 0.6926 0.9601 1.0416 0.7214 10
37 0 0.6018 0.7538 1.3270 0.7988 0 53 44 0 0.6947 0.9657 1.0355 0.7193 0 48
10 0.6041 0.7581 1.3190 0.7989 50 10 0.6967 0.9713 1.0295 0.7173 50
20 0.6065 0.7627 1.3111 0.7951 40 20 0.6988 0.9770 1.0235 0.7153 40
300.60880.7673 1.3032 0.7934 30 30 0.7009 0.9827 1.0176 0.7133 30
40 0.6111 0.7720 1.2954 0.7916 20 40 0.7030 0.9884 1.0117 0.7112 20
50 0.6134 0.7766 1.2876 0.7898 10 50 0.7050 0.9942 1.0058 0.7092 10
38 0 0.6157 0.7813 1.2799 0.7880 0 52 45 0 0.7071 1.0000 1.0000 0.7071 0 45
10 0.6180 0.7880 1.2723 0.7862 50
20 0.6202 0.7907 1.2647 0.7844 40
30 0.6225 0.7954 1.2572 0.7826 30
40 0.6248 0.8002 1.2497 0.7808 20
50 0.6271 0.8050 1.2423 0.7790 10
39 0 0.6293 0.8098 1.2349 0.7771 0 51
cos cot tan ein ' ° cos cot tan ein ' °
4. Functions of Angles in Various Quadrants.

Function r 90° ± z 180° ± z 270° ± z 360° ± z
- sin xx + cos -± cos

-± sin
l`3in x 1= x x ± sin x
Coe + cos T sin x cos x sin z + coa x
Tan
Cot
-- tan z 1: cot x tan z cot x
1: ± tan z
cot z tan x cot z T tan x ± cot z
Sec
Cosec
+ sec x
- cosec x
1=
1-
+
cosec x
sec z
-± sec z ± cosec x
cosec x - sec x
+ sec z
1= ± cosec z
5. Mathematical and Physical Constants.

= 3.14159 log,, r = 0.49714
1/x = 0.31830 log, x = 1.14472
r = 9.86960 login 2 = 0.30102
1/r = 1.77245 login e = 0.43429
= 2.71828 log, 10 = 2.30258
log, 2 = 0.69314
Velocity of light = 2.99796 X 101° cm per second
1.5911 X 10 -40 abs. e.m.u.
Electron charge = { 4.770
X 10 -10 abs. e.s.u.
Planck's constant = h = 6.547 X 10 -i7 erg -sec.
6. Table of Circuit Constants. (Pages 6, 7, 8 and 9).
Values of m, 1 /6), inductive and capacitive reactance, wave length,
and LC products for frequencies from 10 cycles to 100 Mc for inductance
in henrys and capacity in microfarads.
The following table, in conjunction with the multiplying factors given below, gives
the values of circuit constants, for any frequency between 10 cycles and 100 mc:
MULTIPLYING FACTORS
Mult. X
For frequencies between Mutt. Mult. (wave \lult.
by 1 /i., by length) LC by
by
10.5 cycles and 100 cycles 1.0 10 -' 100 10

105 cycles and 1,000 cycles 10.0 10-0 104 10-2
1,050 cycles and 10,000 cycles 102 10-0 100 10-4
10.5 kc and 100 kc 102 10-2 102 10-'
105 kc and 1,000 kc 104 10-2 101 10-2
1,050 kc and 10,000 kc 10' 10-0 1.0 10-10
10.5 me and 100 me 100 10-10 0.1 10 -0
Inductive Reactance. To obtain the inductive reactance of an inductance of L henrys

at any frequency:
a. Apply the proper multiplying factor to column 2.
b. Multiply by L, the number of henrys.
Capacitive Reactance. To obtain the capacitive reactance of a condenser of C µf at any
frequency:
a. Apply the proper multiplying factor to column 3.
b. Divide the result by C, the number of microfarads.
e. Multiply by 10'.
If C is in micromicrofarads instead of microfarads, multiply by 101s instead of 10'.
Example. Thus an inductance of 250 mh at 2,500 cycles has a reactance

of 250 X 10 -2 X 157.08 X 10' = 3,940 ohms. A capacity of 250 piaf at
2,500 kc has a reactance of 10 -' X 63.665 X 101! -
250 = 254 ohms.
6 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (See. 1
X
Frequency o = 2r1 1/w 1/21i1 Wave length LC
105 65.974 151.57 285.71 229.75

110 69.115 144.79 272.73 209.34
115 72.257 138.49 260.87 191.52
120 75.398 132.83 250.00 175.90
125 78.540 127.33 240.00 182.18
130 81.882 122.43 230.77 149.88

135 84.823 117.89 222.22 138.99
140 87.985 113.68 214.28 129.23
145 91.108 109.78 208.90 120.48
150 94.248 108.10 200.00 112.58
155 97.389 102.60 193.55 105.44

180 100.53 99.472 187.50 98.945
165 103.87 98.459 181.82 93.040
170 108.81 93.624 178.47 87.848
175 109.98 90.983 171.43 82.708
180 113.10 88.418 168.87 78.179

185 116.24 86.030 182.16 74.011
190 119.38 83.766 157.90 70.187
195 122.52 81.818 153.85 68.815
200 125.88 79.562 150.00 63.325
205 128.81 77.633 148.35 60.274

210 131.95 75.785 142.85 57.837
215 135.09 74.024 139.54 54.798
220 138.23 72.395 138.38 52.335
225 141.37 70.738 133.33 50.035
230 144.51 69.245 130.43 47.880

235 147.85 67.727 127.86 45.866
240 150.80 68.315 125.00 43.975
245 153.94 84.959 122.45 42.198
250 157.08 83.665 120.00 40.545
255 160.22 62.415 117.65 38.954

260 163.38 81.215 115.38 37.470
265 166.50 60.060 113.20 36.068
270 189.65 58.995 111.11 34.747
275 172.89 57.841 109.09 33.494
280 175.93 58.840 107.14 32.307

285 179.07 55.844 105.28 31.185
290 182.21 54.880 103.45 30.120
295 185.35 53.952 101.70 29.107
300 188.47 53.050 100.00 28.145
305 191.84 52.181 98.36 27.229

310 194.78 51.300 96.77 28.360
315 197.92 50.525 95.238 25.528
320 201.06 49.736 93.700 24.736
325 204.20 48.977 92.308 23.981
330 207.35 48.229 90.910 23.280

335 210.49 47.508 89.559 22.571
340 213.83 46.812 88.245 21.911
345 218.77 48.132 88.958 21.281
350 219.91 45.491 85.715 20.877
355 223.05 44.833 84.390 20.099

380 225.20 44.209 83.335 19.565
365 229.34 43.602 82.192 19.013
370 232.48 43.015 81.080 18.503
375 235.82 42.440 80.000 18.013
See multiplying factors on page 5.

See. 11 MATHEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES 7
Frequency 211 1/fo 1/2.1 Wave length

LC
380 238.76 41.883 78.950 17.542

385 241.90 41.339 77.922 17.089
390 245.04 40.809 76.975 16.654
395 248.19 40.293 75.948 16.234
400 251.33 39.781 75.000 15.831
405 254.47 39.298 74.073 15.442

410 257.61 38.816 73.175 15.068
415 260.75 38.355 72.288 14.707
420 263.89 37.892 71.425 14.409
425 267.04 37.448 70.588 14.023
430 270.18 37.012 69.770 13.699

435 273.32 36.587 68.965 13.388
440 276.46 36.197 68.180 13.084
445 279.60 35.764 67.416 12.788
450 282.74 35.368 66.668 12.509
435 285.89 34.980 65.934 12.238

460 288.03 34.622 65.215 11.970
485 292.17 34.227 64.516 11.715
470 295.31 33.863 63.830 11.466
475 298.45 33.505 63.161 11.227
480 301.59 33.157 62.500 10.994

485 304.74 32.815 61.856 10.768
490 307.88 32.479 61.225 10.549
495 311.02 32.152 60.604 10.337
500 314.16 31.832 60.000 10.138
505 317.30 31.516 59.406 9.9322

510 320.44 31.207 58.825 9.7380
515 323.59 30.903 58.251 9.5524
520 326.73 30.607 57.690 9.3675
525 329.87 30.317 57.142 9.1898
530 333.01 30.030 56.600 9.0170

535 336.15 29.748 56.075 8.8498
540 339.29 29.497 55.555 8.6867
545 342.43 29.203 55.045 8.5276
.550 345.58 28.920 54.545 8.3735
555 348.72 28.678 54.054 8.2234

560 350.88 28.420 53.570 8.0767
565 355.00 28.169 53.097 7.9348
570 358.14 27.922 52.630 7.7962
575 361.28 27.879. 52.174 7.6610
580 364.43 27.440 51.725 7.5296

585 387.57 27.207 51.280 7.4013
590 370.71 26.976 50.850 7.2767
595 373.85 26.749 50.420 7.1547
600 376.99 26.525 50.000 7.0362
605 380.13 26.308 49.588 6.9200

610 383.28 26.090 49.180 6.8072
615 386.42 25.878 48.780 6.6968
620 :389.56 25.650 48.385 6.5900
625 392.70 25.468 48.000 6.4844
630 395.84 25.262 47.619 6.3820

635 398.98 25.063 47.244 6.2819
840 402.12 24.868 46.850 6.1840
645 405.27 24.874 46.511 6.0885
650 408.41 24.488 46.154 5.9952

8 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. 1
X
Frequency m2111 1/m - 1/1-' Wavelength
LC
655 411.55 24.298 45.801 5.9040

660 413.69 24.114 45.455 5.8150
665 417.83 23.933 45.113 5.7279
670 420.97 23.754 44.779 5.6425
675 424.12 23.578 44.445 5.5466
680 427.26 23.406 44.122 5.4777

685 430.39 23.238 43.796 5.3982
690 433.54 23.088 43.478 5.3202
695 438.88 22.900 43.166 5.2441
700 439.82 22.745 42.857 5.1492
705 442.97 22.575 42.553 5.0962

710 446.11 22.418 42.195 5.0247
715 449.25 22.259 41.957 4.9548
720 452.39 22.104 41.667 4.8912
725 455.53 21.953 41.379 4.8189
730 458.67 21.801 41.096 4.7532

735 461.82 21.655 40.817 4.6887
740 464.96 21.507 40.540 4.6257
745 468.10 21.363 40.288 4.5636
750 471.24 21.220 40.000 4.5032
755 474.38 21.080 39.735 4.4436

760 476.52 20.941 39.475 4.3855
765 480.87 20.804 39.215 4.3282
770 483.81 20.669 38.981 4.2722
775 486.95 20.536 38.710 4.2173
780 490.09 20.404 38.487 4.1835

785 493.23 20.275 38.218 4.1105
790 496.37 20.148 37.974 4.0585
795 499.51 20.019 37.735 4.0076
800 502.66 19.891 37.500 3.9577
805 505.80 19.770 37.267 3.9087

810 508.94 19.649 37.036 3.8605
815 512.08 19.528 36.810 3.8134
820 515.22 19.408 36.587 3.7670
825 518.36 19.292 36.364 3.7216
830 521.51 19.177 36.144 3.6767

835 524.65 19.060 35.927 3.6337
840 527.79 18.948 35.712 3.6022
845 530.93 18.835 35.502 3.5474
850 534.07 .18.724 35.294 3.5062
855 537.21 18.814 35.087 3.4657

860 539.38 18.508 34.885 3.4242
885 543.50 18.399 34.882 3.3852
870 548.84 18.293 34.487 3.3485
875 549.78 18.189 34.285 3.3082
880 552.92 18.098 34.090 3.2710

885 556.06 17.988 33.898 3.2341
890 558.92 17.882 33.708 3.1970
895 582.35 17.783 33.520 3.1822
900 565.49 17.889 33.333 3.1272
905 568.63 17.588 33.150 3.0928

910 571.77 17.490 32.967 3.0595
915 574.91 17.378 32.787 3.0254
920 578.05 17.311 32.807 2.9925
925 581.20 17.206 32.432 2.9804
See multiplying facture un pean 5.

Frequency I co = 214 1/w = 1/214 Wavelength LC
930 584.34 17.113 32.258 2.9287

935 587.48 17.022 32.088 2.8974
940 590.62 16.931 31.915 2.8685
945 593.78 18.842 31,748 2.8384
950 596.90 16.752 31.580 2.8087
955 800.05 18.885 31.414 2.7774
960 802.19 16.578 31.250 2.7485
965 608.33 16.492 31.088 2.7200
970 609.47 18.407 30.928 2.6920
975 812.81 18.324 30.770 2.6646
980 815.75 18.239 30.817 2.6372

985 818.90 18.158 30.456 2.8408
990 822.04 18.071 30.302 2.5842
995 825.18 15.995 30.150 2.5588
1000 828.32 15.918 30.000 2.5330
',\_1
7. L, C, X Chart.
. w
po0911\\IMIIIIIIIIMIN..IIMIIIIIIIMMIIIMII.
'
V004111I211111111M1M1111111111MM..9111M111111111111M1191..
+11
\I\à`-\15 ;,. i,-
7.°°°
ACCmmun:: ommime:
nu
IIII
5
.4 000,... ;-
\p\r
111
-1
:
,000
EN
500
\1111
2004
.600
\\
\;, \` \_
tii\\
11!\
\ \\
\'10
.iii\
20
00°
30
600 .
40
l00
\-__ .-\. :zN'%1\V M`0,80
11.EM\` \ \;`
400
\\`
500Mil_' \s \s2N
600 gym,
\;
Kii. \
\\ \
fßì
*..\\\,, \V,
sNalin
r
\-
.. 6S
10
IS
C
v
ó
\
\.` SO;\;
For valves greater than 20
any given on the chart, always
300 ENS
add twice as man ciphers
\ \\'SZ\\s.
30
250 inductance or '79 be as = .0
III 1\M
are dropped from frequency numbers `50
i
200 for values less than any given on the _ 60
180 chart,a /ways drop twice. as many ciphers N0
100
160
140
120
from inductance or capacity number. as m
are added to frequency number
....4
,\_
-
1pi 0
18i 0
9íi 0
IO I2 14 161820 25 30 40 50 601080901111120140160181200 250300 400 500 600 800 I
Capacity, Micromicrofarads
10 THE RADIO ENGINEERING !/ANDBOOK ISec. 1
8 Dimensions, Weights, and Resistances of Pure, Solid, Bare Copper

Wire.
(Copper -wire Tables, Circ. 31, Bur. Standards.)
V Cross-sectional area
Carrying
o t1'rigl t
N (88 FÇ capacities
a á
I. e4t
,9;c,
em ádß, áU
B
lm
ils
0001 Square inches dá
d ó ú B 'r & Pounds per Poundr per
1.000lí. mile
41 6
e in. rá
0000480.0 211,800.0 0.188,2 225 270 325 840.5 3,381.840
000409.8 167,800.0 0.131.8 175 210 275507.9 2.881.712
00384.8 133,100.0 0.104,5 150 180 225 402.8 2,128.784
0324.9 105,500.0 0.082,89 125 150 200 319.5 1,888.960
1289.3 83.690.0 0.065,73 100 120 150 253.3 1.337.424
2257.6 66.370.0 0.052,13 90 110 125 200.9 1,080.752
3229.4 52,640.0 0.041.34 80 95 100 159.3 841.104
4204.3 41,740.0 0.032.78 70 85 90128.4 887.392
181.9 33,100.0 0.028,00 55 65 80100.2 529.056
8162.0 28,250.0 0.020,62 50 60 70 79.48 419.548.8
7144.3 20,820.0 0.016,35 38 54 63.02 332.745.6
:128.5 18.510.0 0.012,97 35 40 50 49.98 283.894.4
9114.4 13,090.0 0.010.28 28 38 39.63 209.248.1
11101.9 10,380.0 0.008,155 25 30 30 31.43 165.950,4
11 90.74 8,234.0 0.006.487 20 . 27 24.02 131.577.8

12 80.81 8,530.0 0.005.129 20 25 25 19.77 104.385,6
13 71.98 5,178.0 0.004.087 17 . . 15.08 82.790,4
14 84.08 4,107.0 0.003.225 15 18 20 12.43 85.830.4
1 57.07 3,257.0 0.002,558 9.856 52.050,24
18 50.82 2,583.0 0.002,028 8 ... 10 7.818 41,279.04
17 45.28 2,048.0 0.001.809 6.200 32.738.00
1: 40.30 1,824.0 0.001,278 3 ... 6 4.917 25.981.76
19 35.89 1,288.0 0.001,012 3.899 20.588.72
21 31.98 1,022.0 0.000,802.3 The above 3.092 18.325,70
values are
21 28.46 810.1 0.000,838.3 those specified 2.452 12.948.56
22 25.35 642.4 0.000.504.8 in the 1931 1.945 10.269.60
23 22.57 509.5 0.000.400,2 National 1.542 8.141.76
24 20.10 404.0 0.000,317.3 Electrical 1.223 8.457.44
2 17.90 320.4 0.000.251.7 Code. In 0.989.9 5.121,072
lighting work.
26 15.94 254.1 0.000. 199.8 no wire smaller 0.789.2 4.061 .376
27 14.20 201.5 0.000.158.3 than Nn,14ie 0.810.0 3.220.800
2: 12.84 159.8 0.000,125,5 used, except 0.483.7 2.553.936
29 11.28 126.7 0.000.099,53 in fixtures 0.383.6 2.025.408
i 10.03 100.5 0.000,078,94 0.304,2 1.608.176
31 8.92: 79.70 0.000,062,60 0.241.3 1.274.060
32 7.9 1 83.20 0.000,049,84 0.191,3 1.010,084
33 7.0:1 50.13 0.000,039,37 0.151,7 0.800.978
34 8.305 39.75 0.000,031,22 0.120.3 0.635.184
35 5.815 31.52 0.000,024.78 0.095.42 0.513.717,6
36 5.111 25.00 0.000,019.64 0.075.88 0.399.590.4
37 4.453 19.83 0.000,015.57 0.080.01 0.318.852.8
38 3.98 15.72 0.000,012.35 0.047.59 0.251.275.2
39 3.531 12.47 0.000.009,793 0.037.74 0.199.267.2
41 3.14. 9.8&30.000.007.788 0.029.93 0 158.030.4
Sec. 1 J MATHEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES 11
Length, 25 °C. (77 °F.) Resistance at 25 °C. (77°K)

B. & S.
or
Amer-
ican
wire
Feet per Feet per R ohm. per Ohms per Ohms per gage
ohm 1,000 ft. mile pound
1.561 20,010.0 0.049.98 0.283,894,4 0.000,078,03 0000

1.988 15.870.0 0.083.02 0.332.745.8 0.000,124,1 000
2.482 12.580.0 0.079.47 0.419,501,8 0.000,197,3 00
3.130 9,980.0 0.100,2 0.529,058 0.000,313,7 0
3.947 7,914.0 0.128.4 0.887,392 0.000.498,8 1

4.977 8.270.0 0.159.3 0.841.104 0.000,793.1 2
6.276 4.977.0 0.200,9 1.060,752 0.001.281 3
7.914 3.947.0 0.253,3 1.337.424 0.002.005 4
9.980 3,130.0 0.319,5 1.888,980 0.003.188 5
12.58 2,482.0 0.402,8 2..128.784 0.005,089 6

15.87 1.969.0 0.508.0 2.882,240 0.008.061 7
20.01 1,581.0 0.840.5 3.381,840 0.012.82 8
25.23 1,238.0 0.807,7 4.284,858 0.020.38 9
31.82 981.8 1.018 5.375,04 0.032,41 10
40.12 778.7 1.284 8.779.52 0.051,53 11

50.59 817.5 1.819 8.548.32 0.081,93 12
83.80 489.7 2.042 10.781.78 0.130,3 13
80.44 388.3 2.575 13.598,00 0.207,1 14
101.4 308.0 3.247 17.144,18 0.329,4 15
127.9 244.2 4.094 21.818,32 0.523,7 18

181.3 193.7 5.183 27.280,84 0.832.8 17
203.4 153.8 8.510 34.372.80 1.324 18
256.5 121.8 8.210 43.348.80 2.105 19
323.4 98.80 10.35 54.848,0 3.348 20
407.8 76.81 13.05 88.904,0 5.323 21
514.2 80.75 18.48 86.908,8 8.484 22
848.4 48.18 20.78 109.812,8 13.48 23
817.7 38.21 28.17 138.177,8 21.40 24
1.031.0 30.30 33.00 174.240,0 34.03 25
1.300.0 24.03 41.62 219.753.8 54.11 26

1.839.0 19.06 52.48 277.094.4 88.03 27
2,087.0 15.11 88.17 349.377.6 138.8 28
2.607.0 11.98 83.44 440.563,2 217.5 29
3,287.0 9.504 105.2 555.456 345.9 30
4,145.0 7.537 132.7 700.858 549.9 31

5.227.0 5.977 187.3 883.344 874.4 32
6,591.0 4.740 211.0 1,114.080 1,390.0 33
8,310.0 3.759 288.0 1,404.480 2,211.0 34
0.480.0 2.981 335.5 1.771.440 3,515.0 35
3.210.0 2.364 423.0 2,233.440 5.590.0 36

8,800.0 1.875 533.4 2,818.352 8.888.0 37
1.010.0 1.487 872.8 3,551.328 14,130.0 38
8.500.0 1.179 848.1 4,477.988 22.470.0 39
3,410.0 0.935 1,089.0 5,844.32 35.730.0 40
9. Tensile Strength of Pure Copper Wire in Pounds.
Hard drawn Annealed tiara urawll .7llllCallV

ai
Sise, 41
d a
B.d:8 da dm dm
V.
;p mt
gage
C
e0epp8
op7s
ÿ óC
<$
... <
7
...ÿ-
amCQ.0
Ñm
;ñ a
ÿ o g
Q
mCú
w._ 4
7
<. ÿ
..._
C
a á X
49,700 5.320 32,111 7 1050.0 64.200 556.0 34,000

0000 8.280
000 8,550 49,700 4,220 32,111. 8 843.0 65.000 441.0 34,000
00 5,440 52,000 3.340 32,111 9 678.0 66.000 350.0 34,000
0 4,530 54,800 2,850 32,111 10 548.0 87.000 277.0 34,000
1 3,880 58,000 2,100 32,111 12 343.0 87.000 174.0 34.000

2 2,970 57,000 1,870 32.111 14 219.0 88.000 110.0 34,000
3 2,380 57,800 1,323 32,111 18 138.0 88,000 88.9 34,000
4 1,900 58.000 1,050 32,111 18 88.7 88.000 43.4 34.000

5 1,580 60.800 884 34.111 19 88.8 88,000 34.4 34,000
8 1,300 83,000 700 34.111 20 54.7 88.000 27.3 34,000
10. Insulated Copper Wire.
Enamel wire Single-silk covered I Double-silk covered
Size,
B. k S. Outside Turns Pounds Outside Turns Pounds Outside Turns Pounds
diem- per per diem- per per diem- per per
gage
eter, linear 1,000 eter, linear 1,000 eter, linear 1,000
mils inch ft. mile inch ft mils inch ft.
8 130.6 7.7 50.8

9 116.5 8.8 40.2
10 104.0 9.8 31.8
11 92.7 10.8 25.3
12 82.8 12.1 20.1
13 74.0 13.5 15.90

14 88.1 15.1 12.60
15 59.1 18.9 10.00
16 52.8 18.9 7.930 52.8 18.9 7.89 54.6 18.3 8.00
17 47.0 21.3 8.275 47.3 21.1 8.26 49.1 20.4 8.32
18 42.1 23.8 4.980 42.4 23.8 4.97 44.1 22.7 5.02

19 37.7 26.5 3.955 37.9 26.4 3.94 39.7 25.2 3.99
20 33.7 29.7 3.135 34.0 29.4 3.13 35.8 28.0 3.17
22 26.9 37.2 1.970 27.3 36.8 1.98 29.1 34.4 2.01.
21.5 48.5 1.245 22.1 45.3 1.25 23.9 41.8 1.27
24
26 17.1 58.5 0.785 17.9 55.9 0.791 19.7 50.8 0.810

28 13.8 73.5 0.494 14.8 88.5 0.498 18.4 81.0 0.514
30 10.9 91.7 0.311 12.0 83.3 0.318 13.8 72.5 0.333
32 8.7 115 0.196 9.9 101 0.210 11.8 84.8 0.217
8.9 145 0.123 8.3 121 0.129 10.1 99.0 0.141
34
38 5.5 180 0.078 7.0 143 0.082 8.8 114 0.092

38 4.4 227 0.049 8.0 167 0.053 7.8 128 0.062
40 3.5 288 0.031 5.1 198 0.035 6.9 145 0.043
Sec. 1; .MATHEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES 13
11. Insulated Copper Wire.

.,..,S.v,:.,,,,.,.. LAY .V.C,. .,,,,,.,.e- .,,,,a,,,.. UUVUrV,.
Size,
B. & 5.
Ohms per
1,000 ft. Outside Turns per Pounds Outside Turns per
diameter, linear per 1,000 diameter, linearr per 1,000
mils inch ft mils inch ft.
0000 0.0500 487 2.14 477 2.10

000 0.0630 418 2.39 428 2.34
00 0.0795 373 2.68 382 2.62
0 0.100 334 3.00 343 3.00
1 0.126 300 3.33 308 3.25
2 0.159 267 3.75 275 3.64

3 0.201 239 4.18 248 4.03
4 0.253 214 4.67 222 4.51
5 0.319 192 5.21 200 5.00
6 0.403 170 5.88 175 5.62
7 0.508 153 6.54 160 6.25

8 0.641 136 7.35 50.6 142 7.05 51.2
9 0.808 121 8.26 40.2 127 7.87 40.6
10 1.02 108 9.25 31.9 113 8.85 32.2
11 1.28 97 10.3 25.3 102 9.80 25.6
12 1.62 87 11.5 20.1 92 10.9 20.4
13 2.04 78 12.8 16.0 82 12.2 16.2
14 2.58 70 14.3 12.7 74 13.5 12.9
16 4.1 56 17.9 8.03 60 16.7 8.21
18 6.5 45 22.2 5.08 49 20.4 5.24
20 10.4 37 27 3.22 41 24.4 3.37
22 16.6 29.5 33.9 2.05 33.3 30.0 2.17
24 26.2 24.1 41.5 1.3 28.1 35.6 1.4
26 41.6 19.9 50.2 0.834 23.9 41.8 0.914
28 66.2 16.6 60.2 0.533 20.6 48.6 0.608
30 105 14 71.4 0.340 18.0 55.6 0.400
32 167 12 83.4 0.223 16.0 62.9 0.270
34 266 10.3 97.1 0.148 14.3 70.0 0.193
36 423 9.0 111 0.099 13.0 77.0 0.136
38 673 8.0 125 0.070 12.0 83.3 0.105
40 1,070 7.1 141 0.052 11.1 90.9 0.084
12. Properties of Commercial Insulating Oils.'

Resistivity at Power Dielectric
Dielectric 500 volts d.c. strength,
Oil factor
constant 100 °C., ohm- 25°C.
.; 0 . 1-
cm in. gap, kv
Mineral oil 2.23 21.0 X 10,= 0.0004 30 to 40

Whale oil 3.05 0.032 X 1022 0.0015 30 to 40
Linseed oil 3.3 0.61 X 10,2 0.0027 30 to 40
Castor oil 4.7 0.066 X 10,2 0.0070 30 to 40
Cottonseed oil 3.2 0.01 X 102= 0.0005 30 to 40
China wood oil 3.2 0.08 X 10,2 0.0090 30 to 40
' CLARK, F. M., Liquids as Insulators, Gen. Elec. Rev., April, 1928.
J
13. Wire Table Chart.

100,000
\11IE=
1111A1111w 11
1111
iri.
I.Ii11i
.2111
211111PA11
[0,000
111111111-
111111111
--- ---- s Q
:11111!
4lI!FlII
/
E1111m111111m111111.
1111 1111 \^
11N 1111
11111111111111 1111111
IG
1111111111111111 11111
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.i ii_ Ai
6i11
1,000 IIIIII!lIIIIIIIIII'!l
.... :_
A 1e 1 11 111i111
100
iiiiii ci1: ;/wiiiiiiii

,
lI1IIoIII1,1
A.ii
I...P.1.
.I1I ..
cA i%ïiiii
111i1'Iliií'cS:illllii'illlllllil'1
i 1,.AIIIIIIIIII
e
1!!!11
ii
a.
10
/:_o1.Ìi
11
..... .._
11í11.íí11w iiloiiiii
._ .,i11
..i..
I/yU111111111111111111
PoIPHlP:iÌHoIInih.Pl
1111
\,
lii
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
American Wire Gage or Brown and Sharpe
Sec. 11
A
MATHEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES
14. Chart for Converting Loss or Gain into Decibels.
k00'
,
-IOLog
-2p
9io
9,0
N On
1
~
D.B.)
.,.05
..,
IIIIIIIII I
D
10 30
4°0.0001
0.00015
0002f
000025
15
. "'""
IHH1HOO,,
... ............ 1l1HlHHIflPdHlIoos

0.0025
+
0
HIÌIIHIIp.
NO
6
oe
0111111 , ,Q, 11lilt ;
...E '
c
om___t__m_
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IMENNI a ; 0.05 .
.0.050
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A
0
4
,+'``
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-0111114°
0.15
3 II P 0.20
0.25
0.50
2 4 6 6 10 n 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 26 30 32 34 36 38 401D°
D B.
Ili 'l /1/:' R.-1!)M ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 1
16. Logarithms of Numbers.

N 0 1 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 075
12 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1101
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1431
14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732
15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014
16 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279
17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529
18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2895 2718 2742 276
19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989
20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3.560 3579 359:
23 3617 363.6 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 37'
24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 396
25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 41.
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 429
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 475
30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 490
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 50 :
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 517
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 54
35 5441 5453 546.5 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551
38 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 57
38 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 589!
39 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 611
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 622
42 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 632
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 642.
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 652
45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 661:
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6075 6684 6693 6702 671
47 6721 6730 8739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803
44 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 8884 6893
49 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981
50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 706
51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152
52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 723
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7311
54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7391
Sec. 11 .IIATIIEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES 17
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
55 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474
56 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551
57 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627
58 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701
59 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774
60 7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846
61 7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7968 7973 7980 7987
63 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055
64 8062 8069 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122
65 8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189
68 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254
87 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319
88 8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382
69 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445
70 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 84948500 8506
71 8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 85558561 8567
72 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 86158621 8627
73 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686
74 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745
75 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802
76 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859
77 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915
78 8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971
79 8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025
80 9031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133
82 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186
83 9191 9196 9201 9208 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238
84 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289
85 9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340
80 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390
87 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440
88 9445 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489
89 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538
90 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9568 9571 9576 9581 9586
91 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633
92 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680
93 9685 9689 9694 9899 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727
94 9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9768 9773
95 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818
96 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863
97 9868 9872 9877 9881 9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908
98 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952
99 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9996
lk THE /rim() R.\Gi. EERING HANDBOOK Mee.1
16. Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions.

e = 2.71828;
e
= 0.36787; loato e = 0.43429; sinh r - e 2s -j. cosh x - e. Zs -.
Natural values Log10
r
e e- sinh r cosh r tauh r e sinh z cosh r tanh r
0.00 1.000 1.0000 0.000 1.000 0.0000 0.0000 + 0.0000 m
0.10 . I.1052 0.9048 0.100 1.005 0.0997 0.0434 1.0007 0.0022 1.9986
0.20 1.2214 0.8187 0.201 1.020 0.1974 0.0869 1.3039 0.0086 1.2953
0.30 1.3499 0.7408 0.304 1.045 0.2913 0.1303 1.4836 0.0193 1.4644
0.40 1.4918 0.6703 0.411 1.081 0.3796 0.1737 1.6136 0.0336 1.5797
0.50 1.6487 0.6065 0.521 1.128 0.4621 0.2172 1.7169 0.0522 1.6647
0.60 1.8221 0.5488 0.637 1.186 0.5371 0.2606 1.8040 0.0739 1.7300
0.70 2.0138 0.4966 0.759 1.255 0.6044 0.3040 1.8800 0.0987 1.7813
0.80 2.2255 0.4493 0.888 1.337 0.6640 0.3474 1.9485 0.1263 1.8222
0.90 2.4596 0.4066 1.026 1.433 0.7163 0.3909 0.0114 0.1563 1.8551
1.00 2.7183 0.3679 1.175 1.543 0.7616 0.4343 0.0701 0.1884 1.8817
1.10 3.0042 0.3329 1.335 1.669 0.8005 0.4777 0.1257 0.2223 1.9034
1.20 3.3201 0.3012 1.509 1.811 0.8337 0.5212 0.1788 0.2578 1.9210
1.30 3.6693 0.2725 1.698 1.971 0.8617 0.5646 0.2300 0.2947 1.9354
1.40 4.0552 0.2466 1.904 2.151 0.8854 0.6080 0.2797 0.3326 1.9471
1.50 4.4817 G.2231 2.129 2.352 0.9052 0.6514 0.3282 0.3715 1.9567
1.60 4.9530 0.2019 2.376 2.578 0.9217 0.6949 0.3758 0.4112 1.9646
1.70 5.4739 0.1827 2.646 2.828 0.9354 0.7383 0.4225 0.4515 1.9710
1.80 6.0496 0.1653 2.942 3.108 0.9468 0.7817 0.4687 0.4924 1.9763
1.90 6.6859 0.1496 3.268 3.412 0.9562 0.8252 0.5143 0.5337 1.9806
2.00 7.3891 0.1353 3.627 3.762 0.9640 0.8686 0.5595 0.5754 1.9841
2.10 8.1662 0.1225 4.022 4.144 0.9705 0.9120 0.6044 0.6175 1.9870
2.20 9.0250 0.1108 4.457 4.568 0.9757 0.9554 0.6491 0.6597 1.9893
2.30 9.9742 0.1003 4.937 5.037 0.9801 0.9989 0.6935 0.7022 1.9913
2.40 11.023 0.0907 5.466 5.557 0.9837 1.0423 0.7377 0.7448 1.9928
2.50 12.182 0.0821 6.050 6.132 0.9866 1.0857 0.7818 0.7876 1.9942
2.60 13.464 0.0743 6.695 6.770 0.9890 1.1292 0.8257 0.8305 1.9952
2.70 14.880 0.0672 7.406 7.473 0.9910 1.1726 0.8696 0.8735 1.9961
2.80 16.445 0.0608 8.192 8.253 0.9926 1.2160 0.9134 0.9166 1.9968
2.90 18.174 0.0550 9.056 9.115 0.9940 1.2595 0.9571 0.9597 1.9974
3.00 20.086 0.0498 10.018 10.068 0.9951 1.3029 1.0008 1.0029 1.9979
3.10 22.198 0.0451 11.077 11.122 0.9960 1.3463 1.0444 1.0462 1.9982
3.20 24.533 0.0408 12.246 12.287 0.9967 1.3897 1.0880 1.0894 1.9986
3.30 27.113 0.0369 13.538 13.575 0.9973 1.4332 1.1316 1.1327 1.9988
3.40 29.964 0.0334 14.965 14.999 0.9978 1.4766 1.1751 1.1761 1.9990
Sec. 1i MATHEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES 19
Natural values Logis
e. e-. sink s cosh s tanh r e= Binh z cosh z tanh a
3.50 33.115 0.0302 16.543 18.573 0.9982 1.5200 1.2186 1.2194 1.9992
3.60 36.598 0.0273 18.285 18.313 0.9985 1.5635 1.2621 1.2628 1.9994
3.70 40.447 0.0247 20.211 20.236 0.9988 1.6069 1.3056 1.3061 1.9995
3.80 44.701 0.0224 22.339 22.362 0.9990 1.6503 1.3491 1.3495
1.9996
3.90 49.402 0.0202 24.691 24.711 0.9992 1.6938 1.3925 1.3929 1.9996
4.00 54.598 0.0183 27.290 27.308 0.9993 1.7372 1.4360 1.4363 1.9997
4.10 60.340 0.0166 30.162 30.178 0.99945 1.7806 1.4795 1.4797 1.99971
4.20 66.686 0.0150 33.336 33.351 0.99955 1.8240 1.5229 1.5231 1.99981
4. :i0 73.700 0.0136 36.843 36.857 0.99963 1.8675 1.5664 1.5665 1.9998,
4.40 81.451 0.0123 40.719 40.732 0.99970 1.9109 1.6098 1.6099 1.9998
4.50 90.017 0.0111 45.003 45.014 0.99975 1.9543 1.6532 1.6534 1.99981
4.60 99.484 0.0101 49.737 49.747 0.99980 1.9976 1.6967 1.6968 1.99991
4.70 09.95 0.0091 54.969 54.978 0.99983 2.0412 1.7401 1.7402 1.9999:
4.80 21.51 0.0082 60.751 60.759 0.99986 2.0846 1.7836 1.7836 1.99995
4.90 34.29 0.0075 67.141 67.149 0.99989 2.1280 1.8270 1.8270 1.9999:
5.00 48.41 0.0067 74.203 74.210 0.99991 2.1715 1.8704 1.8704 1.99991
5.10 64.02 0.0061 82.008 82.0140.99993 2.2149 1.9137 1.9139 1.99991
5.20 81.27 0.0055 90.633 90.639 0.99994 2.2583 1.9573 1.9573 1.99997
5.30 00.34 0.0050 100.17 100.17 0.99995 2.3018 2.0007 2.0007 1.99991
5.40 2 21.41 0.0045 110.70 110.71 0.99996 2.3452 2.0442 2.0442 1.99991
5.50 2 44.69 0.0041 122.34 122.35 0.99997 2.3886 2.0876 2.0876 1.99999
5.60 2 70.43 0.0037 135.21 135.22 0.99997 2.4321 2.1310 2.1310 1.99991
5.70 298.87 0.0034 149.43 149.44 0.99998 2.4755 2.1744 2.1744 1.99999
5.80 330.30 0.0030 165.15 165.15 0.99998 2.5189 2.2179 2.2179 1.99999
5.90 3 65.04 0.0027 182.52 182.52 0.99998 2.5623 2.2613 2.2613 1.99999
6.00 4 D3.43 0.0025 201.71 201.72 0.99999 2.6058 2.3047 2.3047 1.99999
20 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec.
. '
.n ó
01
Y M 00 v0
O 000 0
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1111
Iilii, Z\
uiiii
11uII o1l
"CEC
uuN
MIME
1mMIIIII=MIIIMI11u1111..MIli.\
1=,:.ta:
:C:Ha=L . .
N
á
g
a
111111 11111111 11111
OW ...Y IM N ^.O, .p.efQ

O 000 O O
M C! -,.O
Ó0 .O.flf
000 MO fÒ
ÓÓÓ 0
C.OQC
000 0 N0
0 000
O
00c
O
0 000 0 O
(01) s/(luayo.13N ui 1103 40 aoun.pnpui
Sec. 11 31.1 THE .11.1 TIC.41. AND ELECTRICAL TABLES 21
18. Systems of Electrical Units.
l'raut icall E.m.u. E.8.11. R.f. A.f.
Volt(v) 10_9 v 300 v v v

Ampere(e) lo a 3.33 X 10 -10 a ma ma
Second sec. sec. pane. mace.
Cycle cycle cycle Mc kc
Ohm 10 -e ohm 0.9 X 1013 ohm k-ohm k-ohm
Mho 109 mho 1.11 X 10 -33 mho m-mho m-mho
Henry(h) 10-9 h (cm) 0.9 X 10,2 h mh h
Farad(f) 109 f 1.1 µµf (cm) mµf µf
Watt(w) 10 -3 w 10-3 w mw mw
Joule(j) 10 -3 j (erg) 10-3j meli si
Coulomb(c) 10 c 3.33 X 10 -1a c mµc µc
p - 10 -9; m - 10 -e; k - 103; M e 109; mp P. 10-9.

19. Computing the Harmonic Content of Any Given Periodic Complex
Wave Form. When an oscillogram (or other graphical representation)
of a periodic complex wave is available, it is possible to compute the
percentage of each harmonic up to and including the sixth, by means of
the following scheme:'
1o Y1 9i Y3 1q f./s y6 9i
O Time Axis
L Period 9.l
Fla. 1.- Example of complex wave for analysis.

The oscillogram must contain at least one complete period of the wave,
i.e., from any given point on the wave to the corresponding point at the
left or right at which the form of the wave begins to repeat itself. In
Fig. 1 the complete period is given by the distance OX, a distance of
360 electrical degrees. With a compass or dividers, divide this com-
plete period into 12 equal parts, and erect the 12 equally spaced ordinates
Yo, Y', y21 ..
, y,,. Each of these vertical lines is drawn from the
This method is known as the twelve ordinate scheme, and is a convenient form for
1
solvinf the equations of the Fourier analysis. The form given here has been adapted
from 'Graphical and Mechanical Computation," Part II, Experimental Data, by
Joseph Lipka, published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, pp. 181 -185. See
also Terebesi, Rechenschablonen für harmonische Analyse and Synthese," Julius
Springer, Berlin, 1930.
horizontal time axis to the curve. With a rule (preferably one divided
into tenths of inches or a millimeter rule, so that the lengths can be
expressed in decimal form), measure the length of each of these ordi-
nates. It makes no difference whether inches, millimeters, or any other
arbitrary unit is used, so long as all ordinates are measured with the
same unit. Record the length of each ordinate in the spaces given in the
table below:
Ordinate number yo y, y= y+ y1 I y1 ya I in ye yo I :no y
Length of ordinatel5.5I37.O 68.676.4 93.2 89.6 68.7 34.31-8.8 -28.4 -44. 1- 15. C
The lengths given are the lengths taken from Fig. 1.

The computation consists in substituting these lengths in the following
schedule of additions subtractions, and multiplications, and in per-
forming the indicated operations. First set down the values of the
ordinates in the following arrangement, adding and subtracting as
indicated:
yo yl y= y, y4 Vs ya
VII VIO in y9 in
Sum: do at 83 8, 84 85 86
Difference: d, d, d, (I, rit
Then take the sum terms in the Take the difference terms in this
following arrangement: arrangement:
So Si St e, d, d, d,
86 80 d, de d,
SUM: So S, St S, S S. Sa
I)ifference: Do D1 Dt D3 D,
Finally:
So Si S, Do
St S, and Sa Dt
Sum: S7 Se Difference: D5 Da
We are now in a position to find the coefficients in the equation of the
complex wave. This equation is written:
y = Ao + Al cos cut + A, cos 2w1 + A, cos 3cut + A, cos 4to1 + A, cos 5w1
+ Aa cos Owl + B sin wt + By sin 2w1 + By sin &ut + B, sin 4w1
+ B, sin 5w1
where A and B are the coefficients of the cosine and sine terms, respec-
tively.
The formulas for the A's and B's are as follows:
Ao
S7+Ss,AI Do+0.866D1+0.5Dt;A== So+0.5S1s 0.5S,-S,
12 ' 6
A, =
Dai
A,
So - 0.581 0.5S, + S, A6
_
Do - 0.8666D1 + 0.5D2
6 6
As
87 - S,. Bl 0.5S, + 0.ß66S, + S,; B, 0.866(D, + D,)
12 '
B,
D6 0.866(D, - D4), B6,
0.584 - 0.866S6 + 86
6 ' /3 4 = 6 6
There are several checks which may be made on the arithmetic of the
above computations:
Jo= Ao +A, +A, +A, +A4 +A6 +A6
?, -
m = (B, + B6) + 1/3(B, + B4) + 2R,
For computing the percentage harmonic content of the wave, it is
convenient to express the equation of the wave in somewhat simpler
form, reducing the cosine terms to sine terms in the following manner:
?/ = Ao + ,/A,' + B,' sin (wt + a,) + VA + B,' sin (2w1 + a,) +
A,' + B,' sin (3i4 + a,) + 1/A4' + R4' sin (4a + a4) +
V n4' + B6' sin (5w1 + ab) + A, sin (6w1 + a6)
The coefficient of each sine term in the above equation is proportional to
the magnitude of the harmonic, that is, i/A,' + B,' is the amplitude of
the fundamental, VA,' B,' the amplitude of the second harmonic
(double frequency), 1/A,' + B,' the amplitude of the third harmonic
(triple frequency), and so on. A. is the d-c component of the wave,
w is equal to 22f, where f is the fundamental frequency. The angles
a,, a,, a,, etc., are equal to tan-' AB-, tan -' B?, etc. These angles do not
enter into the computation, unless the phase displacements between the
various harmonics are desired.
To find the percentages of the various harmonics, in terms of the
magnitude of the fundamental, use the following expressions:
Per cent second harmonic:
Per cent = V'A,' + B,' X 100 per cent
VA,' + B,'
For the third harmonic:
Per cent - VA,'
-VA
+ B,'
B,' 12
X 100 per cent
and so on. For all harmonics up to the sixth taken together, the total
harmonic content expressed as a percentage is:
Per cent 1/A, + Ass +A4' + As' +A6' +B,' +B,' +B4' +Bo'
VA,'
X 100 per cent.
It to compare the r-m -s value of the fundamental
is sometimes useful
with the d-c component, expressed as a percentage. To obtain this per-
centage from above figures, substitute in the following expression:
0.707 /
D -c component, expressed as a per cent of r-m-s fundamental,
A6
,_ + g,= X 100 per cent
24 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK ISee. 1
Example (see Fig. 1 and values in table above):
5.5 37.0 68.6 76.4 93.2 89.6 68.7

-15.0 -44.1 -28.4 -8.8 34.3
Sum: 5.5 22.0 24.5 48.0 84.4 123.9 66.7
80 el 82 83 84 !e 86
Difference: 52.0 112.7 104.8 102.0 55.3
d, d, d, de (Is
5.5 22.0 24.5 48.0 52.0 112.7 104.8
66.7 123.9 84.4 55.3 102.0
72.2 145.9 108.9 48.0 Sum 107.3 214.7 104.8
So Si S: Si S4 S. Se
-61.2 -101.9 -59.9 Difference: -3.3 10.7
Do Di Ds D, D4
72.2 145.9 107.3 -61.2
108.9 48.0 104.8 -59.9
Sum: 181.1 193.9 Difference: 2.5 -1.3
S7 Si Ds De
A. =
181.1 +193.9 +31.3
12
A> _ -61.2
+ 0.866( - 101.9) + 0.5( -59.9) 29.8
6
A, =
72.2 + 0.5(145.9) - 0.5(108.9) - 48.0 = +7.1
6
A,
8.3=-0.2
A. = 72.2
- 0.5(145.9) - 0.5(108.9) + 48.0 _1.2
6
-61.2 - 0.868( -101.9) + 0.5( -59.9) 0.4
As 6
181.1
Ae= 12
1.1
B, =
0.5(107.3) + 0.866(214.7) + 104.8 +57.3
8
0.866( -3.3 + 10.7) _
B, = 6 +1.1
28
B, = = +0.4
B4 =
0.866( -3.3
6
- 10.7) --
Bs _ 0.5(107.3) - 0.866(214.7) + 104.8 - -4.5
6
Result:
y = 31.3 - 29.6 cos- 0.4+ cos7.1 cos -tort1.1-cos0.2 cos 36.t
- 57.3
1.2 cos Oort
cot
Scot Bort
1.1 sin 2wt + 0.4 sin amt
- 2.0 sinsin4ort +- 4.5
+ cot
sin Scot
Percentage of various harmonics:

x/(7.1) + (1.1) X 100 per cent = 11.1 per cent
-
Second: Per cent
ß/(29.6)1 + (57.3)2
Sec. 1J MATHEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES 25
Third: Per cent + (0.4)2

X 100 per cent = 0.7 per cent
x'2)84
QÌ(1.2)' + (2.0)
Fourth: Per cent = X 100 per cent = 3.6 per cent
x/(0.4) -I- (4.5)2 X
Fifth: Per cent 100 % = 7.0 per cent
Sixth: Per cent = 1-'55

64.
X 100 % = 1.7 per cent
Total harmonic content:

Per cent =
f( 7. 1)2+( 0. 2)2+( 1. 2)2+( 0. 4)2+( 1. 1)2+(1.1)= +(0.4)= +(2.0)= +(4.5)=
64.5
= 13.8 per cent
Percentage d -c component:
31.3
Per cent = 0.707(64.5)
68.9 per cent
20. Evaluation of Square Root of the Sum of the Squares of Two

Numbers. In the calculation of impedance as the square root of the
sum of the squares of a reactance and a resistance, a useful and convenient
method of solution consists in rewriting the equation as follows.
Va' +b =b = 1 +
where a is the large number.
The operations can now be carried out fairly simply with the slide rule.
If the right-hand side of this equation be multiplied and divided by a/b
the solution becomes simply one of multiplying the larger number a by
a factor which is a function of the ratio of a /b.
A table may be worked out for this function. W. J. Seeley of Duke
University, Durham, N. C., has copyrighted such a table in which the
factor has been worked out to five decimal places for various values of
a/b from 0.001 to 30. Curves may be drawn from calculations of this
nature which will be useful in graphically determining the value of the
function a /b.
21. Shunt and Multiplier Data for Meters. It is often useful to con-
vert a low -reading current meter to a voltmeter or a current meter of
higher maximum current reading. The following table will cover the
usual situations arising in the average laboratory. The values of shunt
are calculated from the equation for meter shunts,
Rm X 1m
1 - Im
where Rin = meter resistance in ohms
hn = full -scale current of meter
I = current desired to be read.
26 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK ¡Sec. 1
SHUNT AND MULTIPLIER VALUES

27-ohm (0-1) Milliammeter
Scale Use as Resistance in ohms of mul- Multiply old
tiplier or shunt scale by
0-10 Voltmeter 10,000 10
0-50 Voltmeter 50,000 50
0-100 Voltmeter 100.000 100
0-250 Voltmeter 250,000 250
0-500 Voltmeter 500,000 500
0-1000 Voltmeter 1,000,000 1000
0- l0 Milliammeter 3 10
0-50 Milliammeter 0.551 50
0-loo Milliammeter 0.272 100
o-500 Milliammeter 0.0541 500
35-ohm (0-1.5) Milliammeter

0-15 Voltmeter 10,000 M 10
0-150 Voltmeter 100,000 M 100
0-750 Voltmeter 500,000 M 500
0-15 Milliammeter 3.89 S 10
SECTION 2
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
By E. A. UEHLING
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
1. Nature of Electric Charge. According to modern views all natural
phenomena may be explained on the basis of fundamental postulates
regarding the nature of electric charge. In the neighborhood of an
electric charge is postulated the existence of an electric field to explain
such phenomena as repulsion and attraction. The force which acts
between electric charges by virtue of the electric fields surrounding them
is expressed by Coulomb's law which states that
= gsgs
r2
The value of the unit charge in the electrostatic system is based on this
law and is defined, therefore, as that value of electric charge which when
placed at 1 cm distance from an equal charge repels it with a force of
1 dyne.
2. Electrons and Protons. There are two types of electricity: positive
and negative. The electron is representative of the latter and the
proton of the former. All matter is made up simply of electrons and
protons. Exhaustive experiment has proved that all electrons, no
matter how derived, are identical in nature. They are easily isolated
and as a consequence have been thoroughly studied. Among the most
important results of this study are the following facts:2
Charge of the electron 4.770 X 10 -m e.s.u.
Mass 9.04 X 10 -20 g
Radius 2 X 10 -"" cm, approx.
The proton has not been so thoroughly studied. It is not so easily

isolated, and the effects of electric and magnetic fields on its motion am
considerably smaller than similar effects obtained when electrons are
studied. The proton apparently has a mass of about 1,838 times that
of the electron and a considerably smaller radius.
The mass of electrons and protons is purely inertial in character. In
other words these fundamental units of electric charge consist simply
of pure electricity. For the sake of completeness it should he added
that this mass is not independent of velocity and that the values given
for both the electron and proton assume velocities which are small
in comparison with that of light.
1 Department of Physics, University of Washington.
2 MILLIÀN, R. A., "The Electron.'
27
28 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. !
3. Atomic Structure. The atoms of matter consist of a central

positive nucleus surrounded by such a number of electrons as will
neutralize the nuclear charge. The central positive nucleus consists of
both electrons and protons with an excess of the latter. This excess
determines the chemical characteristics of the atom by determining the
number of electrons outside the nucleus, while the total number of pro-
tons determines the atomic weight of the element. According to one
view the electrons outside the nucleus move in planetary elliptic orbits
about it. The radius of the different orbits varies within a single atom,
and as a consequence the strength of the bond existing between the
nucleus and the different electrons varies.
4. Ionization. The outer electrons are in general loosely bound to
the nucleus and under favorable conditions may be completely disso-
ciated from the remainder of the atom. This process of the removal
of an electron is known as ionization. It is the process by which electrons
are removed from a heated filament in a vacuum tube from an alkali
metal surface in the photoelectric cell, and from the plate and grid of
vacuum tubes when bombarded by the filament electrons giving rise to
the secondary emission so commonly experienced.
5. The Nature of Current. The modern view of electricity regards a
current as a flow of negative charge in one direction plus a flow of positive
charge in the opposite direction. In electrolytic conduction the unit of
negative charge is an atom with one or more additional electrons called a
negative ion, and the unit of positive charge is an atom with one or more
electrons less than its normal number known as the positive ion.
In conduction through gases, as, for example, through the electric
arc, the negative ion is usually a single electron, whereas the positive
ion is as before an atom with one or more electrons removed.
In conduction through solids, however, the current is strictly electronic
and is not made up of two parts as in the previous cases. The electrons
constituting the current are the outer orbital electrons of the atoms.
Since these electrons are less tightly bound to the atom than the other
electrons they are comparatively free and are often spoken of as free
electrons. These electrons move through the solid under the influence
of an electric field colliding with the atoms as they move and continuously
losing energy gained from the field. As a consequence the motion of the
electrons in the direction of the field is of a comparatively small velocity'
(of the order of 1 cm per second), whereas the velocity of thermal agita-
tion of the free electrons is high (about 107 cm per second). According
to this view of the electric current in solids, conductors and insulators
differ only in the relative number of free electrons possessed by the
substance.
Since current consists of a motion of electric charges, it may he defined
as a given amount of charge passing a point in a conductor per unit time.
In the electrostatic system the unit of current is defined to he a current
such that an electrostatic unit of electricity crosses any selected cross
section of a conductor in unit time. In the practical system the unit of
current is the ampere which is approximately equal to 3 X 109 elec-
trostatic units of current and is defined on the basis of material constants
as that current which will deposit 0.00111800 g of silver from a solution
of silver nitrate in 1 sec.
JEANS, J. H., "Electricity and Magnetism," p. 306.
See. 21 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 29
6. The Nature of Potential. An electric charge that is resident in

an electric field experiences a force of repulsion or attraction depending
on the nature of the charge. Its position in the field may be considered
as representing a certain quantity of potential energy which may be
taken as the amount of work which is capable of being done when the
electric charge moves from the point in question to an infinite distance.
If the convention of considering a unit positive charge as the test charge
is adopted, the potential energy at a point may be taken as characteristic
of the field and consequently will be regarded simply as the potential.
In a similar manner the difference of potential of two points may be
described as the amount of work required to move a unit positive test
charge from one point to another. More specifically a difference of
potential in a conductor may be spoken of as equal to the energy dissi-
pated when an electron moves through the conductor from the point of
low potential to the point of high potential. This energy is dissipated
in the form of heat caused by the bombardment of the molecules of the
conductor by the electrons as they proceed from one point to another.
7. Concept of E.M.F. The idea of potential leads directly to a con-
ception of an electromotive force. If a difference of potential between
two points of a conductor is maintained by some means or other, electrons
will continue to flow, giving rise to a continuous current. A difference
in potential maintained in this way while the current is flowing is known
as an electromotive force. Only two important methods of maintaining a
constant e.m.f. exist: the battery and the generator. Other methods,
as, for example, the thermocouple, are not primarily intended for the
purpose of maintaining a current.
The unit of e.m.f. in the practical system is the volt. It is defined as
10° e.s.u. of potential or as 1.0000/1.0183 of the voltage generated by a
standard Weston cell.
8. Ohm's Law and Resistance. The free electrons which contribute
to the electric current have a low drift velocity in the negative direction
of the field within the conductor. In moving through the metal in a
common general direction they enter into frequent collisions with the
molecules of the metal, and as a consequence they are continually retarded
in their forward motion and are not able to attain a velocity greater than
a certain terminal velocity u, which depends on the value of the field
and the nature of the substance. The collisions which tend to reduce
the drift velocity of the electrons act as a retarding force. When a
current is flowing, this retarding force must be exactly equal to the
accelerating force of the field. The retarding force is proportional to N,
the number of free electrons per unit length of conductor, and to u, their
drift velocity. It may be designated as kNu. The accelerating force
is proportional to the field E per unit length of conductor, to the number
N of electrons per unit length, and to the electronic charge e and may
be represented as NEe. Then NEe = kNu. Since the current i has
been given as
i = Neu
NEe = k te
E Net i = Ri
30 TIlE R.4DlO ENGINEERING 11.4NDBOOK [Sec.2
where
R = Ne2
The statement E = Ri is known as Ohm's law. R is here defined as the
resistance per unit length. The unit of resistance is.the ohm. It may be
obtained from Ohm's law when the e.m.f. is expressed in volts and the
current in amperes.
9. Inductance. Circuits possess inductance by virtue of the electro-
magnetic field which surrounds a conductor carrying a current. The
coefficient of self- inductance is defined as the total number of lines of
force passing through a circuit and due entirely to one c.g.s. unit of cur-
rent traversing the circuit. If N is the number of lines of force linked
with any circuit of inductance L and conveying C c.g.s. units of current,
N = LC.
The practical unit of inductance is the henry. It is equal to 10' c.g.s.
units of inductance. If the number of lines of force N through a circuit
is changed, an e.m.f. due to this change of flux is induced in the circuit.
This e.m.f. is given by the equation
_dN C
The inductance of a circuit is equal to 1 henry if an opposing e.m.f:

of 1 volt is set up when the current in the circuit varies at the rate of 1
amp. per second.
10. Mutual Inductance. The coefficient of mutual inductance is
defined in the same way as that of self -inductance and is given in c.g.s.
units as the total magnetic flux which passes through one circuit when
the other is traversed by one c.g.s. unit of current, or
N = MC
dN dC
e
= -t
c = -Mc-It
The practical unit is the henry as in self-inductance.
11. Energy in Magnetic Field. Energy is stored in the electromagnetic
field surrounding a circuit representing the energy accumulated during
the time when the free electrons were initially set in motion and the cur-
rent established. This energy is given by the equation, W = %LI',
where, if L is in henrys and I in amperes, the energy is in joules.
12. Capacitance. The ratio of the quantity of charge on a conductor
to the potential of the conductor represents its capacity. If one con-
ductor is at zero potential and another at the potential V, the capacity
is given as the ratio of the charge stored to the potential difference of the
conductors
C =
V
If Q is in coulombs (the quantity of charge carried by 1 amp. flowing
for 1 see.) and V is in volts, C is known as the farad.
The energy stored in a condenser is given byte equation, W = !/C1' =.
where, if V is in volts and C is in farads, W is in joules.
The force acting per unit area on the conductors of the condenser
tending to draw them together is
Sec. 21 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 31
F =
E' V!
8w 84143
where d is the distance separating the condenser plates, and V is the
potential difference.
Other expressions relating charge or current to capacity and potential
difference are
V = fcidg
and
i=tdt
V
13. Units. The practical units that have been described are related
to the electrostatic units as shown by the following table. A third
set of units, known as the electromagnetic, is also related to the prac-
tical units, the ratios of which are given in this table.
Name of Measure in Measure in

Quantity unit electromagnetic electrostatic
unite unite
Charge of electricity Coulomb 10-1 3 X 100

Potential Volt lo+ 55oo
Capacity Farad 10-0 9X 10,,
Current 4mpere 10-1 3 X 100
Iteeietance Ohm 1tP 54 X 10-11
Inductance Henry 100
14. Continuous and Alternating Currents. If the free electrons of a

conductor move with a constant drift velocity under the mpelling force
of an invariant electric field, the electric current in the conductor is
spoken of as being continuous, or direct. If, however, the impressed
electric field is varying in both direction and magnitude, the drift velocity
of the electrons will vary in both direction and magnitude, since electrons
always flow in a direction opposite to that of the electric field. A current
of this kind which varies periodically with the time is known as an
alternating current.
15. Wave Form. The current or the e.m.f. may be represented
graphically as a function of the time by assigning to successive values
of the latter variable the value of the former. There is an infinite
variety of functional relationships between current and time, but of all
the laws by which these two variables may he connected there is one
that can be differentiated from all others. This law is that of the sine
or cosine function. All other relationships can be resolved into a linear
combination of functions of this simple type.
The form of the sine function is shown in Fig. la. It is represented
analytically by the following type of equations
i = Io sin wt
e = Eo sin wl
where i and e are the instantaneous values of the current and voltage,
/o and E. urc the maximum values, and w is 2w times the frequency with
32 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. 2
which the current or voltage alternates. The sine wave is the ideal
toward which practical types approach more or less closely. Since it
cannot be resolved into other types, it is the pure wave form.
16. Harmonics. Current and voltage waves, in practice, are not pure
and may therefore be resolved into a series of sine or cosine functions.
One of the functions into which the original wave is resolved will have a
frequency term equal to that of the original wave. All of the other
functions will have frequency terms of higher value, which will in general
be designated as harmonics of the lowest or fundamental frequency.
A few types of complex waves which may be resolved into two or more
pure sine waves are shown in Fig. lb and c. The resolution of a complex
wave into its component parts may be accomplished physically as well
as mathematically. This may be demonstrated by means of high- and
low-pass filters in the output circuit of an ordinary vacuum-tube oscillator.
t %jur cut
WW /yrn /FeaxNmro 'bar C wr*, $ ero' 2 *lobe 'nib Ara Cows*
/,s"aA lerO4 i3sJ4 smari I1,'ZUa /j Yn3we
(a) (b) lc)
Fta. 1.-Sine wave and complex waves.
and Average Values. The effective value of an a-c wave
17. Effective
is the value of continuous current which gives the same power dissipation
as the a. c. in a resistance. For a sine wave this value of continuous
current is equal to the maximum value divided by V2. The average
value of an alternating current is equal to the integral of the current
over the time for one -half period divided by the elapsed time. For a
sine wave the average value is equal to the maximum value of the current
divided by T /2. The ratio of the effective value of the current to the
average value is often taken as the form factor of the wave. Thus all
types of.waves may be simply characterized by means of this ratio.
Direct- current meters read average values of currents over a complete
period. Such meters therefore read zero in an a-c circuit. Thermocouple
and hot -wire -type meters read effective values. Such meters are there-
fore used for making a-c measurements at radio- as well as at audio-
f requencies.
18. Phase. The current in a circuit may have its maximum and
zero values at the same time as those of the e.m.f. wave, or these values
may occur earlier or later than those of the latter. These three cases
are illustrated in Fig. 2. When the corresponding values of the current
and e.m.f. occur at the same time they are said to be in phase. If the
current values occur before the corresponding values of the voltage wave,
the current is said to be in leading phase, and if these values occur
after the corresponding values of the voltage wave, it is said to be in
lagging phase.
19. Power. The power consumed in a continuous -current circuit is
W = ET = PR, where R is the effective resistance of the circuit. The
Dower consumed in an a-c circuit having negligible inductance and
Sec. 2I ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 33
capacitance is given by the same equation with the necessary restrictions

on I so that it represents the effective value of the current and not the
average value. The power consumed in an inductive or capacitative
circuit is W = El cos ç, where .P is the phase angle, that is, the angle
of lag or lead of current. The term "cos ç" is commonly referred to as
the power factor of the circuit.
Zero Phase Currentin 9OL eirçPhase Cun,tin90tLeadmPhaAe

2. -Phase in a -c circuits.
DIRECT -CURRENT CIRCUITS

20. Direction of Current Flow. An electric current is a flow of electric
charges. Electric charges will move through a medium of finite resist-
ance if a difference of electric potential exists between two points of
that medium. In metallic conductors there is but one type of charge
which is free to move, the negative charge or the free electrons of the
conductor. The current in a metallic conductor then consists solely
of an electron current. The convention arose historically of speaking
of an electric current as flowing from the high potential (positive)
to the low potential (negative) point, while, as a matter of fact, the
electrons of the conductor actually move in the opposite direction. It is
necessary to distinguish, therefore, between the direction of current
flow in the historical sense and the direction of flow of electrons.
21. Constant Positive Resistance, Negative Resistance, and Infinite
Resistance. In a d-c circuit the relationship between voltage and current
is governed solely by the resistance of the circuit and all equivalent
resistances such as counter e.m.fs. Some knowledge regarding the nature
of this resistance is needed. Three cases present themselves. In the
first case are those circuits in which
de
di
=R
where R is positive and is constant in value over a rather large range.
Conduction in solids and electrolytes is of this type. In the second class
are those circuits in which de /di has a value which is negative and is
usually not constant. Conduction in arcs and glow discharges is gener-
ally of this type. In the third class are those circuits in which
de__ ro
di
Conduction in the plate circuit of a vacuum tube under saturation con-
ditions is of this type.
Circuits of the first class, in which the differential coefficient de /di
has a positive value, may be subdivided into two other classes. If the
34 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. I
value of de /di is constant over the entire range of voltage and current
from zero to the maximum value, and if this value is designated by the
quantity R, then Ohm's law may be used and e = iR. In this case, R
is both the d-c and a-c resistance. If, however, R is not constant over
this range of values, the value of R given at a particular value of e and
i given by the equation
de
R di
is only the a -e resistance of the circuit at the particular value of e and i

chosen. The a -e resistance given by this equation may he quite different
from the d -c value as given by the equation
e
In a vacuum -tube plate circuit the d-e value of the resistance is frequently
about twice as high as the a-c value.
jwLt
11?
,jwC
-- Zi
Zero Phase Current in Layymy Phase Current m Ceodiehase
Flu. 3.- Vector representation of a -e circuits.

ALTERNATING- CURRENT CIRCUITS
22. Impedance. The resistance to the flow of an electric current
having the value i = to sin wt depends on the circuit element through
which the current is passing. In a pure resistance the potential fall
would be E, = IoR sin wt, which is seen to he in phase with the current
passing through it. In an inductance the potential fall would he
E2 = = wLlo cos wt = jwLlo sin wt = joLi
dt
-
and therefore leads the current by a phase angle of 90 deg. In a capaci-
tance the potential fall would he
E, = C f idt o cos w -we sin wt
jwC
rr
Sec. 2j ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 35
and is therefore led by the current by a phase angle of 90 deg. The

potential fall through all three elements taken together is equal to
E = (R + jerL jusC
)i
The coefficient of i is termed the impedance of the circuit. It is written,
in general, as
where R is the total series resistance of the circuit, L is the total series
inductance, and C is the effective series capacitance. The term involv-
j
ing is of special importance, for it is this term which gives to the current
its leading or lagging characteristics depending on whether ceL is smaller
or larger than 14C. This quantity is known as the circuit reactance
(c)
4.- Reactance and impedance of parallel circuit.
and is designated by the letter X. The impedance may be written,
therefore,
z =R +jX
Occasionally the absolute value of the circuit impedance is required.
It is then written in the following form
z = Ze'm
where Z = N/R2 + X!
= arctan`Y
36 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. I
In this expression Z represents the absolute value of the impedance, z

the complex value, and 0 the phase angle.
The impedance of a single circuit will be given to illustrate the method
of obtaining this quantity for any circuit. For a parallel combination
of circuit elements, such as illustrated in Fig. 4a, it would be obtained
as follows:
fad,
- 1
1
1 1- m =LC
1 jut' + jwL
This equation shows that when m= = 1 /LC the impedance is infinite.
It may be represented graphically as a function of w as shown in Fig.
4b. The figure and the equation illustrate the case of parallel resonance.
The case of series resonance is illustrated in Fig. 4c, and the equation is
z = - C), which holds for a circuit having only an inductance L
and capacitance C in series with the e.m.f. In the series case, the
impedance is zero at resonance; that is, when w2 = 1/LC and in the
parallel case the impedance is infinite at resonance.
23. Circuit Parameters. Every electric circuit, no matter how com-
plicated, is made up of a particular combination of inductances, capaci-
tances, and resistances. These parameters and the manner in which
they are combined with one another completely govern the performance
of a circuit and determine the value of the current at any point of the
circuit at any time for any given value of the impressed e.m.f. or combina-
tion of e.m.fs.
Inductances, capacitances, and resistances may be lumped or distrib-
uted in nature. They are regarded as of the former type if their values
are more or less concentrated at one or a finite number of points in a
circuit. For example, the inductance of a circuit would be considered
as lumped if a definite number of places in the circuit is found where
inductance exists, and at all other points a comparative non -existence of
inductance. On the other hand the inductance of a uniform telephone
line is considered as distributed since it exists along the entire line and
may, at no point in the line, be neglected.
24. Circuit Equations. Every circuit may be completely expressed
by a system of simultaneous equations. Having expressed a particular
circuit in this manner, a solution may be obtained frequently without
difficulty. Since the equations are of primary importance, methods of
obtaining them will be given.
There are two distinct cases. When a sinusoidal voltage or combina-
tion of sinusoidal voltages is impressed on a circuit, a.c. flows in every
branch of the circuit as a consequence of the impressed e.m.f. This
current may be divided into two parts. One part is known as the
transient current, and the other as the current of the steady state. The
transient current disappears very shortly after the voltage has been
impressed. The steady state continues as long as the e.m.f. continues
in its initial state of voltage, frequency, and wave form. Often only
the steady state is of interest. Examples of this are to he found in
studies of r-f transformer performance and in studies of electric filters
of the low -pass, high -pass, or band -pass types and in the studies of the
various characteristics of different antenna -coupling methods. At other
Sec. SI ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 37
times the transient condition may be of primary interest; as, for example,
in the study of the fidelity of reproduction with regard to wave form of
an electromagnetic or electrodynamic loud -speaker motor.
If interest centers only in the steady state the following method is
to be used: Apply Kirchhoff's second law which states that the sum of
all the e.m.fs. around any circuit is zero, writing one equation for each
branch of the circuit, and using as the potential falls the values jwLl for
each inductance, I /jwC for each capacitance, and IR for each resistance.
If inductances, capacitances, and resistances occur that are common
to two or more branches, they will be used once for each of the common
branches paying due regard to the sign of the term.
J0000
L R, i RzI R L
NE
I
le,
C
T
6
I. , Ll: -Lp
,b1
, niE
I
%
,u
FIG. 5.- Circuits illustrating
use of Kirchhoff's laws.
This method may be illustrated by the examples of Fig. 5 and the following
equations:
For circuit a:
E = IR +jwLI + I = 1[R +j(wL
j C - c l>]l
= I(R +IX)
E
I sR +IX
For circuit b:
E = I,R1 + jwLlll + Cl -jw 3//2 = I,z, - jw.11I2
+jwI.2I2 + jwLz jw.1111 = 1222
0 = 12R2 - - jw.1/I1
where 21 is the total complex impedance of circuit 1, and z: is the total com-
plex impedance of circuit 2.
For circuit c:
E = I, R, + IwL,1, + jwLoI) jwMI2 jwLol2 - -
= I,z, -
jw12(3I + Lo)
0 = 12R2 +16211212 + jwLoI + jwL212 - jwM11 - jwLoI,
= 1222 -
jwl1(3I + Lo)
In these equations I is the maximum value of the sinusoidal current, and
E is the maximum value of the sinusoidal e.m.f. These equations may be
solved for any of the currents by the method of simultaneous equations.
In the transient values of the various currents, Kirchhoff's second law may
be used as before, but instead of using the values of potential fall as given
in the preceding equations, use the instantaneous values. The equation for
circuit a of Fig. 5 is then written
e =iR +L4y +l,fidt
38 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. I
or
da Ldri R-di i
dt C d12 ell
where r and i are the instantaneous values of the impressed e.m.f. and cur-
rent respectively. For circuit 6,
e = iila +Li- +L-,tJttdt - Mdi

0 = i2R2 +L 2 + CJi2dt
To obtain the transient solution, e and de /dt are replaced by zero and the
-bf dit
dt
equation solved by the methods used for linear, homogeneous equations of
the first degree.
25. General Characteristics of A -c Circuits. The general equations
applied to a number of the more important radio circuits yield the
following results.
Current Flow in an Inductive Circuit:
i =
where E is the constant impressed e.m.f.
R(
\1 - E
/
_Rtl
Time Constant of an Inductive Circuit: The time required for a current to

rise to (1 -
e) or tu about 63 per cent of its final value. This time is equal
to Lí R.
Current Flow in a Capacitive Circuit:
E - RC
2
Re
where E is the constant impressed e.m.f.
Time Constant of a Capacitive Circuit. The time required for the current
to fall from its initial value to 1/, or about 0.37 of this value. This time is
equal to RC.
Current Flow in an Inductive -capacitive Circuit:
Rt
i =
c/ 2L sin wt, if R2 <
Rt
t -wI.E
_t ,ifir2=4L
where w is 2r times the natural frequency of the circuit which is given by the
equation
1 1 R=
f
LC 4L2 2r
Logarithmic Decrement. Ratio of successive maxima of the current in an
oscillatory discharge is equal to
RT R
E 2L = elf
where R /2Lf is called the log. dec. of the circuit, T is the natural period, and
f the natural frequency of the circuit.
Sec. Il ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 39
Currents in Two Circuits Coupled by a Mutual Impedance, M, when a

Sinusoidal E.M.F., E, Exists in Circuit 1:
I, E
OM!
Z1 + E2
jw.1ll, jwME
72
zz z,z2 + w2 M2
where z, and z2 are the complex impedances of circuits 1 and 2 respectively.
Effective Reactance of One Circuit Coupled to a Second Circuit:
X' =X, -w22 :X2

where X, and X2 are the actual reactances of circuits 1 and 2 respectively
and Zz is the absolute value of the complex impedance of circuit 2.
Effective Resistance of One Circuit Coupled to a Second Circuit:
R' = R, + wZM R2
where R, and R2 are the actual resistances of circuits 1 and 2 respectively.
Effective Total Impedance of One Circuit Coupled to a Second Circuit:
z' = z,
+ w 22/ = R, +/X: + Rw + jX 2
= R, +wZ1,2 R2 +j)X,
Partial Resonance Relation Obtained When Only the Reactance of Circuit 1
Is Variable:'
X, = Xz
w2=,
Partial Resonance Relation Obtained when only the Reactance of Circuit 2
Is Variable: 1
w21 =2X,
.12 =
Total Optimum Resonance Relation when the Reactance of Both Circuits
1 and 2 Are Variable.'
Case I: If 01/2 < R,R2
Resonance relation X, = O and X2 = 0
Case II: If w2M2 > R,R2
Case III: If
Resonance relation R,
w2.1/2 = Riff!
Resonance relation X, = 0, X2 = 0
R2
2,,
(.0221/2 12
R2 w2.1/2
Total Secondary Current at Total Optimum Resonance, Relation, the E.M.F.,

E, Being Impressed in C,reuit 1.
Case I: II w2M2 < R,R2
Iz - (0.11E
R,R2 + w2.1/2
PIERCE, C. W., "Electric Oscillations and Electric Waves," Chap. NI.
Cases II and III: If 0,2312 z R1R2

I_ - E
21/RIR2
I: for cases II and III is seen to be greater than for case I and is independent
of 0,M.
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
26. The Fundamental Quantities of Magnetic Circuits. The first
fundamental quantity is the magnetic flux or induction. The unit of
flux is known as the maxwell and is defined by the statement that from a
unit magnetic pole 4,r maxwells, or lines of force, radiate.
The second fundamental quantity is the reluctance. It is analogous
to the resistance of electric circuits, as the flux is analogous to the current.
The unit of reluctance is the oersted and is defined as the reluctance
offered by 1 cm cube of air.
The third fundamental quantity is the magnetomotive force (m.m.f.).
It is analogous to the e.m.f. of electrical circuits. The unit of m.m.f. is
the gilbert and is defined as the m.nul required to force a flux of 1 maxwell
M 0
through a reluctance of 1 oersted. Thus the fundamental equation in
which these three quantities are related to one another is:
Other important quantities of magnetic currents may be defined as

follows: the magnetic field strength is represented by the quantity H and is
equal to the number of maxwells per unit of area when the medium
through which the flux is passing is air. This unit is known as the gauss
if the unit of area is the square centimeter.
In any medium other than air the lines of force are known as lines of
induction and the symbol B is used instead of H to represent them. In
air the induction B and the field strength H are equal to one another, but
in other mediums this is not true.
The permeability n is the ratio between the magnetic induction B and
the field strength H. In air this ratio is unity. In paramagnetic mate-
rials the permeability is greater than unity, in ferromagnetic materials
it may have a value of several thousand, and in diamagnetic materials it
has a value of less than unity.
The intensity of magnetization I is the magnetic moment per unit
volume or the pole strength per unit area. The unit of magnetic pole
strength is a magnetic pole of such a value that when placed 1 cm from a
like pole, a force of repulsion of 1 dyne will exist between them. The
magnetic pole strength per unit area of any pole is measured in terms of
this unit. The magnetic moment of a magnet is the product of the pole
strength and the distance between the poles.
The susceptibility K of a material is equal to the ratio of the magnetiza-
tion I produced in the material to the field strength H producing it. All
of these quantities are connected by the following equations
B = pH
I = KH
B = 471 +H
A =4wK+1
Magnetization curves are of great importance in the design of magnetic
structures and should be immediately available for all materials with
which one intends to work. These curves may give either the values of
Sec. I] ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 41
B as a function of H for the material, or the values of I as a function of

H. A typical B -H curve is shown in Fig. 6. The ratio of the coordinates
of a B-H curve gives the val-
ue of A for the material at the
particular value of H chosen.
The ratio of the coordinates
in an il -H curve similarly
gives the value of the sus-
ceptibility K.
Magnetic saturation is a
phenomenon occurring at
large values of H when the
induction B increases at a
much lower rate with in-
crease of H than is the case
for small values of H.
The retentivity of a sub-
stance is the value of B in the
material when the field H is Fla. 6.- Typical B-H curve.
reduced to zero after having
first been raised to above its saturation value. It is given by the point A
of the B -H curve of Fig. 6.
The coercivity of a material is the minimum negative value of H
required to just reduce the induction to zero after the field strength H
has first been raised to a positive value sufficiently large to saturate the
material. It is given by the point C of the B -H curve of Fig. 6.
27. Magnetic Properties of Iron and Steel.
Coercivity Retentivity Maximum 4w/ at

Material permeability saturation
Electrolytic iron 2.83 11,400 1.850 21.620

Annealed 0.36 10,800 14,400 21,630
Annealed electrical iron in
-sheets 1.30 9.400 3,270 20.500
Cast steel 1.51 10,600 3.550 21.420
Annealed 0.37 11.000 14.800 21,420
Steel hardened 52.4 7.500 110 18,000
Caatiron 11.4 5,100 . 240 16.400
Annealed 4.8 5.350 600 16,800
Tungsten magnet eteel 64.0 9.600 105 13.600
Chrome magnet steel 64.0 9.000 94 12.800
Cobalt steel (15 per cent) 192.0 8,000
28. Electromagnetic Structures. In this type of structure the mag-

netic material is usually very soft; is coercivity is very low; and as a
consequence the m.m.f. must be supplied by a continuous electric current.
The m.m.f., M, due to an electric current, is given by the equation
M = 0.42-NI, where I is the current in amperes, and N is the number of
turns on the electromagnet.
By our most fundamental relation for magnetic circuits
M
= R4,
Ryb
NI =04,r
The design of a magnetic structure is usually begun by a consideration

of the flux requirements in a particular air gap. The size and shape of
the air gap are generally given, and the flux density desired in the air
gap is known. From these data one can compute R and 0. For the
quantity ¢, ¢ = BA, where A is the area of the air gap and B is the flux
density desired. This equation assumes no leakage flux, and since this
is a condition never realized in practice and from which there may be a
far from negligible departure, one must add to the value of given by
this equation a correction the value of which is dictated by experience.
For the quantity R, R = LIA, where L is the length of the air gap and
A is the area. This equation neglects the reluctance of the magnet
itself and of all other iron parts of the magnetic circuit. Since all
reluctances but that residing in the air gap are very small in comparison,
this procedure is usually justified, although there are cases in which
additional reluctance must he taken into account. In such cases the
reluctance of the other parts of the circuit is computed in the saine manner
as that of the air gap, except that an estimate of the permeability of
the part in the circuit in question must he made and its equivalent air-gap
reluctance computed by dividing by this permeability. Finally,
Rik LBA LB
NI = 0.4,r 0.4wA 0.4r
This equation then completely determines the value of the ampere -
turns NI from the original data. This is the important quantity in the
design of the electromagnet. The separate values of N and I are unde-
terminod by this equation, other considerations such as the nature of
the current supply, the size of the coil, the heat dissipation that can be
permitted and the cost being of paramount importance.
29. Core Materials for Receiver Construction (The Editor). Since
such materials operate under widely different conditions each material
must he properly selected for its particular task. For example, materials
used in economical audio transformers are too expensive to be used in
power transformers.
Power Transformers. Material for cores of transformers supplying
energy for plate and filament circuits is selected as for any power trans-
former upon a watt -loss basis. This information is reliably supplied by
manufacturers of such material, and measurements of this factor are not
generally made by the user of the material. Loss tests are made on
complete transformers to determine the suitability of the material under
consideration.
The mechanical properties of the sheets submitted by various sup-
pliers are important. By causing injury to or premature loss of a die,
poor mechanical properties may tie up a production schedule. Wavy
irregular sheets necessitate scrapping wide strips from both sides of each
sheet and introduce an unexpected cost.
Permeability of the core material is of importance where limited space
or weight requirements make necessary the use of flux densities of
14,000 gausses or higher. Here a high permeability is indicated to avoid
high exciting copper losses and poor voltage regulation.
A ridio Transformers: Filter Reaetors. Here the permeability is of
importance. The factor to be used is the working permeability or apparent
Sec. 21 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS -13
a-c permeability instead of the theoretical value obtained from B -H or

a-B curves. This useful value must be obtained from the working
inductance of some definite design of choke or transformer. Such values
will take care of the fact that in audio transformers and chokes the core
material is polarized by a relatively high unidirectional magnetizing
force (plate current or load current through the filter).
The apparent a -c permeability may be determined from the following
expression taken from the Allegheny Steel Company's book, " Magnetic
Core Materials for Radio."
La X l X 108 1 X 108 La
/la 1.256 X AKIN, = 1.256AN2 X Kt
where La = apparent inductance in henrys
A = cross -sectional area of core in square centimeters
K, = core stacking factor
N = number of turns in the winding
= length of magnetic path in centimeters.
-
1
The quantity (1 X 108 ANT) is a constant determined by the physical

dimensions of the core and the number of turns in the coil. The quantity
(La /K,) indicates the way in which the stacking factor as affected by the
punching characteristics enters into the determination of the permeability.
Material which acts badly mechanically results in burrs in punching and
gives a reduced number of pieces in a given design. This gives lower induc-
tance but does not affect the permeability determination.
The value of the stacking factor for any design is given by dividing the
product of the core volume (cubic centimeters) and the specific gravity
of the core material into the actual measured weight of the core material
in grams. Thus,
K, -W
Vp
where W = weight of core in grams; l' = volume in cubic centimeters; p =
specific gravity of the core material.
The value of g may vary as follows:
Silicon steel with silicon content 2 per cent or less 7.7
Silicon steel with silicon content more than 2 per cent 7.5
Allegheny electric metal 8.3
Manufacturers of transformer iron supply curves from which a designer
may learn the incremental or apparent a -c permeability of the iron he pro-
poses to use. From these curves the inductance of a core winding may be
determined by using the above formula.
To determine the inductance of a winding on a core with an air gap use the
following schedule:
Total m.m.f. = 1.256 X I X N = H,11 + H212 = 11111 + Bol2
where I = current (d -c)
1, and l2 = the iron and air paths
H2 and H2 = magnetic potential gradients along these paths
H2 = Bo in air
This equation is that of a straight line intersecting the vertical axis of a
B -H curve at a point corresponding to H, = O and Bo = m.m.f. /12 and inter-
secting the horizontal axis at a point corresponding to Bo = 0 and
H, = m.m.f.'i,. Thus the d -c flux density in the core and the magnetic
44 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See.
potential gradient in the iron part of the circuit and the a-c permeability
BH) may be determined. The a -c reluctivity is the reciprocal of the a -c
permeability. The apparent reluctivity is equal (in cases where the air gap is
1 per cent or less of the iron path) to the a -c reluctivity plus the ratio of the
air gap to the length of the mean iron path. The reciprocal of this value of
apparent reluctivity is the apparent permeability which, substituted in the
formula above, determines the inductance.
RADIATION
30. Nature of Radiation. Electromagnetic energy may arise from
continuously varying electronic currents in a conductor, displacement
currents, or oscillating dipoles. In order that this energy may be
appreciable it is necessary that the system of conductors be of such a
form that the electromagnetic field will not be confined in any way and
that the frequency of oscillation of the current or charges be high. The
various forms of antennas and the employment of radio frequencies
satisfy these requirements.
The nature of radiation may be understood only after a complete
examination of Maxwell's equations and the various transformations
of the wave equation. Any attempt to give a simple yet accurate picture
of the phenomenon of radiation must be fruitless, though such pictures
may aid in an understanding of the subject. Such descriptions may
be found in any text on radio. An exact analysis of Maxwells equations
shows that whenever an electric wave moves through space an associated
magnetic wave having its vectors at right angles to that of the electric
wave must accompany it. Both vectors, furthermore, are at right
angles to the direction of propagation. This analysis also shows that
an electromagnetic field due to an oscillating dipole or to an oscillating
current in a conductor has two components. One of these varies inversely
as the first power of the distance from the source and is, furthermore,
directly proportional to the frequency, and the other varies inversely
as the second power of the distance. The former is known as the
radiation field and the latter as the induction field. Though indis-
tinguishable physically, the induction and radiation fields have a separate
mathematical existence accounting completely for the phenomenon of
energy radiation. The energy of the induction field returns to the con-
ductor with the completion of each cycle. Its existence is confined, as
one might expect, to the neighborhood of the conductor, whereas the
radiation field may be thought of as a detached field traveling outward
into space with the velocity of light and varying much more slowly in
intensity with distance from the conductor than the other.
31. Vertical Antenna. The most simple form of antenna is the vertical
wire. The electromagnetic radiation held depends on the strength of
the current in the wire, and as a consequence its intensity is increased
if the current throughout the vertical wire is uniform. It is for this
reason that a counterpoise is usually attached to the lower end of the
antenna and a horizontal aerial to the upper end. The capacity of
the counterpoise and aerial may be made so high that the current through-
out the vertical portion of the wire is practically uniform.
Under these conditions the magnetic field at any distant point is given by
the equation
H =
whlo
(t
cos 41(t - 1c/
1 gauss
Sec. 2J ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 45
where w = 24
j
Io
=
=
frequency of oscillation
maximum value of the current in the antenna
c = velocity of light in centimeters per second in vacuum
/ = distance from the source in centimeters
h = height of antenna or length of vertical wire in centimeters
and
300wllo
_ cos co( - c) volte
These equations' are derived by considering the/antenna as an oscillating
Hertzian doublet of separation h. The effective values of the magnetic and
electric fields are
_whl.
H. 10c1 10X1 -
300whI. 6008-141.
E. _ 10c1 10X1
where!. is the effective value of the antenna current, and X is the wave length
of the electromagnetic wave.
32. Loop Antenna. The field due to a loop antenna is given by the
equations
48141. 7ra
H' = 10X1 sin X
1,200orhl. xs
E. = efn
10X1 X
where s is the distance of separation of the vertical portions of the loop in
centimeters.
33. Coil Antenna. For a coil of N turns having negligible capacity
between turns at the frequency considered so that the current in all turns
is substantially the same, the field is given by the equations
4TNhI, ira
H. sin
10X/
1,200s-Nhl,
E.
10XI
sin 'a
X
34. The fundamental and harmonic frequencies of oscillation in an

antenna may be calculated in many eases. If the inductance and
capacity of the vertical wire of the antenna are neglected, the low frequency
capacity and inductance are given by the equations'
C = lc;
L =3L;
where C; and L; are the capacity and inductance per unit length of con-
ductor, and l is the length of conductor. These equations may be
calculated by means of accurate formulas which are available.'
Then the low -frequency reactance of the antenna is
wlL; 1
X; = 3 w /C;
I Bzao, "Electrical Engineering. "Advanced Course, pp. 278ff.; Moaaceorr, "Princi-
ples of Radio Communication," p. 706.
2 Bur. Standards Circ. 74, pp. 72 ff.
Bur. Standards Cire. 74, pp. 237 -243.
The high-frequency reactance of the antenna is given by the equation

X,. = - v C;
cot wk/1;C%
The reactance of the antenna becomes zero when
wlVC:L: = n2(n = 1, 3, 5 )
that is. when
w n
I = 2a 4ls/CLi
The reactance becomes infinite when
wIVC;L = m2(ni = 0, 2, 4 . )
that is, when
J 2r 4IA/C;L,
If the inductance of the vertical wire is to be considered, or if a series induc-
tance is used with the antenna
X = col" - cot wl./C;L;
V C;
where L. is the total inductance of the vertical wire and any coils in series
with the antenna.
The harmonic frequencies of the antenna at which the reactance is zero
do not differ by multiples of yr as before. The natural frequency of oscilla-
tion is given, however, quite generally by the equation
uL, - Li cot wlVC:Li = 0

cot wlv/C;L;
wVC c ' L.
L;
35. Antenna Resistance. The resistance of an antenna may be divided
into three parts in which the power dissipation is of the following kinds:
1. Radiation.
2. Joule heat.
3. Dielectric absorption.
The power radiated depends on the form of the antenna. It is propor-
tional to the square of the frequency of oscillation and to the square of
the current flowing in the antenna. Due to the latter consideration one
may write P = Al2, where A is a constant factor depending on the form
of the antenna and the frequency. It may be called the radiation
resistance. For a given antenna the radiation resistance varies inversely
as the square of the wave length. The ohmic resistance to which the
joule heat is due is approximately constant, the skin effect and other
factors being comparatively small. The resistance due to dielectric
absorption is directly proportional to the wave length. When these three
components of resistance are added to obtain the total resistance, one
finds that for every antenna there is a wave length for which the total
resistance is a minimum.
Sec. 21 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 47
36. Energy in the Field. The energy of an electromagnetic field at

any point is given by the equations
U = - 1
(.E,2 + 012)
where E is in electrostatic units instead of volts as in the previous equa-
tions, e is the dielectric constant, and µ the permeability of the medium.
In free space
U
8tr(E2
+ H2)
But, in general,
H= µ
E
U = _E2 =
4x1/2
E2 If2.
74; in free space.
4r =
The energy flux through 1 sq cm of surface, perpendicular to tFe
direction of propagation, is given by the equation
S = vU =
VEIL 4,r µE°2 = 4rr\ EH,
= 4_E,2 =
42211?
in free space.
ar 8wH,,, 2 1
where E. and H. represent effective values, and E,,, and H,,, the maximum
values of the electric and magnetic fields respectively. Therefore, for
the effective values of the electric and magnetic fields due to a vertical
wire antenna,
E, _ -22rhT, e.s.u.
10x1
2,rhl.
H, =
10x1
S= c (2xhl, 2
4a r \ 10x1) 102x212
Then the total radiation from a vertical antenna, assuming that H has
its maximum value in the equatorial plane of the antenna and that its
variation in a vertical plane at a distance 1 from the antenna follows a
sine law, is given by the expression
car
271 _ =`2 ergs per second
10x1)
or
60,r2h21.2
watts
JEAN,. H.. "Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism." p. 518
SECTION 3
RESISTANCE
BY JESSE MARSTEN, B.S.,
1. General Concepts. In any electrical conductor or system in which
there is a flow of current there is a certain amount of energy continually
being lost or converted into forms not readily available for use. As far
as is known at present this dissipation of energy may take one of two
forms: there may be an evolution of heat, and there may be radiation
of energy into space. Such energy dissipation is attributed to a property
of electric conductors or systems termed resistance.
When dealing with continuous currents, the resistance of a conductor
or network, R, is adequately defined by Ohm's law,
E = iR (1)
where E is the voltage drop across the conductor or network and i is
the current through it. This assumes no hack e.m.f. due to polarization
or other causes. In this case the dissipation of energy takes place entirely
in the form of heat generation, and the rate at which electrical energy
is thus converted into heat is given by Joule's law,
P = i2R (2)
where P is the power or rate at which electrical energy is being dissipated
in the form of heat, i is the continuous current in the circuit, and R the
resistance of the circuit.
Ohm's law is insufficient to define resistance in a-c circuits. It is
found experimentally that the rate at which heat is evolved in a circuit
exceeds that which would be necessitated by the resistance of the circuit
as determined by Ohm's law. This is due to the fact that the electro-
magnetic and electrostatic fields around the circuit vary with time and
introduce effects which increase the losses in the circuit. Among these
effects may be enumerated the following major ones:
1. Eddy- current losses in conductors and other masses of metals in and near
the circuit.
2. Hysteresis losses in magnetic materials.
3. Dielectric losses in the insulating mediums.
4. Absorption of energy by neighboring conductors or circuits by induction.
5. Radiation of electromagnetic energy into space.
6. Skin Effect. Increase of conductor resistance due to non -uniform
current density.
Member, Institute of Radio Engineers; associate member, American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, chief engineer, International Resistance Company.
48
Sec. sl RESISTANCE .49
All these effects result in an increase in energy loss in the circuit over
and above that given by Ohm's law. It therefore becomes necessary to
introduce the concept of a-e resistance or effective resistance, which is
defined by the more general joulean relationship,
P = i2R effective (3)
where P is the power loss in the circuit due to all causes and i is the effec-
tive current in the circuit. Ohm's law for continuous currents follows
directly from this more general definition.
2. Units of Resistance. The practical unit of resistance is the ohm
and is defined by Ohm's law when the voltage and current are unity in
the practical system. It has, however, been arbitrarily defined as the
resistance at 0°C. of a column of mercury having a uniform cross section,
a height of 106.3 cm, and weighing 14.4521 g. Owing to the increasing
use of resistors having resistances of the order of millions of ohms, the
megohm unit is also employed. The megohm is equal to 104 ohms.
3. Specific Resistance. It is found experimentally that the resistance
of an electric conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely
to its cross section:
R A (4)
The proportionality factor p is called the specific resistance of the con-

ductor and is a function of the material of the conductor.
From this definition of specific resistance it is apparent that any
number of units may be derived for specific resistance depending upon
the units chosen for l and A. The unit generally employed in practical
engineering is the ohms per circular mil foot, and is the resistance of a
1 ft. length of the conductor having a section of 1 cir. mil (diameter
1 mil for a circular conductor).
4. Volume Resistivity. If, in the above definition, l and A are both
unity, in the same system of units, then p is the resistance of a unit cube
of the material and may be defined as the volume resistivity of the material.
It should be noted that volume resistivity is not the resistance of any
unit volume of the material but is specifically the resistance of unit
volume measured across faces whose areas are each unity.
With a knowledge of the dimensions of a conductor and its specific
resistance the resistance of the conductor to d.c. may be computed from
Eq. (4). Consistent units must be employed. The resistance thus
computed will be correct at the temperature for which the specific
resistance applies. To obtain the resistance of the conductor at any
other temperature a correction will have to be applied.
5. Temperature Coefficient. The resistance of a conductor is a
function not only of the material and dimensions of the conductor but
also of its temperature. Within the temperature limits generally
encountered in practice the change in resistance due to temperature vari-
ation is directly proportional to the change in temperature:
= R,,[1 + a(12 - t,)I (5)
R,, and R,., are the conductor resistances at temperature ti and t5
respectively.
The proportionality factor a is defined as the temperature coefficient of

resistance of the material and is the change in resistance of any material
per ohm per degree rise in temperature.
All conductors do not react alike to changes in temperature. Metals,
for example, have a positive temperature coefficient. Some alloys,
such as manganin and constantan, have practically zero temperature
coefficient and are therefore used primarily for resistance.standards.
A knowledge of the temperature coefficient of conductor materials
enables one at times to make more accurate determinations of tem-
perature change than is possible by thermometer measurements, especially
in cases where parts to be measured are not readily accessible. Resist-
ance determinations of the conductor are made at both temperatures
and the temperature change computed from Eq. (5).
6. Properties of Materials as Conductors.
Specific
Temperature
coefficient per
resistance °C. between 20°
Material at 0 °C., ohms
per cir. mil ft. to 100 °C., ohms
per °C.
Silver 9.75 0.004

Copper 10.55 0.004
Aluminum 17.3 0.0039
Nickel (pure) 58.0 0.0048
Iron (pure) 61.1 0.0062
Phosphor bronze 70.0 0.004
Lead 114.7 0.0041
Nickel silver. 18 per cent (German silver) 190 0.00019
Manganin (copper, 82 per cent; manganese, 14 per 0.00002
cent; nickel, 4 per cent) 290
Conetantan (Advance, Cupron, Ideal, fa -Ia) (copper, 294 0.00002
55 per cent; nickel, 45 per cent)
Nichrome (nickel, 60 per cent; chromium, 15 per 0.00017
cent; iron, balance) 650 to 675
7. Resistors in Series and Parallel. Simple and complex networks of

resistors may be represented by an equivalent resistor which may he
expressed in terms of the individual resistances making up the network.
ri E
. r°r-r-..er..y..-e,..
E E
Flo. 1.- Simple series Fla. 2.- Parallel cir-
circuit. cuit.
The equivalent resistance of a number of resistors connected in series
is equal to the suns of the individual resistances. Referring to Fig. 1,
Sec. IN Rb IST.4NfK 51
E = =el +es+ +e =R,i+Rsi+ +Ri =

i(R,+Rs+ +R)
= R.,.. = (R1 + R2 + . + R.)
Ra.. _ ER
The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a number of resistors
connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the indi-
vidual resistances. Referring to Fig. 2:
i = i, +is+ -F in = E+R+ +R
É Re, R, + Rs + +
n
I rr1
-
RESISTANCE AS FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY
8. Skin Effect. It may be shown that the resistance of a conductor
is a minimum when the current density is uniformly distributed over the
cross section of the conductor. This condition obtains for d.c. The
resistance increases for non-uniform distribution of current density over
the cross section of the conductor. This latter condition obtains in
conductors carrying a.c. This is a result of the distribution of magnetic-
flux lines, outside and inside the conductor. If the conductor is assumed
to be made up of a number of conducting elements in parallel, then the
interior elements, being surrounded by more flux lines than the exterior,
will have greater reactance and, therefore, the current in the interior
elements will be less than that in the exterior elements. As a result the
current crowds toward the surface of the conductor, iving a non-
uniform current density. This imperfect penetration of current in a
conductor, resulting in an increase in resistance, is termed skin effect.
Skin effect in a conductor is a function of the following factors:
(6)
where = thickness of the conductor

t
fµ ==
frequency of current
permeability of the conductor
P = specific resistance of the conductor in microhm-centimeters.
It is possible to compute accurately the h-f resistance of simple round

cylindrical conductors from involved functions of the above factor. To
facilitate these computations tables have been prepared from which
the ratio of h-f resistance R, to d-c resistance Ro may be quickly deter-
mined. From this factor and the easily measured d -c resistance the h -f
resistance may be computed.
52 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. S
The table below gives the values of RI /Ro for different values of the
factor
x= ad _ 12Pf V l000
where d is the diameter of the wire in centimeters, p is the volunle resis-

tivity in microhm -centimeters (1.724 at 10 °C. for copper), x may be com-
puted for any particular case, and Ro may be measured at d.c. or computed.
9. Ratio of H -f Resistance to the D-c Resistance for Different Values

of x = d 2µf /p X N/1 /1000.
z RI/Ro z Ri/Ro s RI/Ro
0 1.0000 5.2 2.114 14.0 5.209

1.0003 5.4 2.184 14.5 5.386
0.5 15.0 5.562
0.6 1.0007 5.6 2.254
0.7 1.0012 5.8 2.324
1.0021 6.0 2.394 16.0 5.915
0.8
0.9 1.0034 6.2 2.463
18.0 6.621
1.005 8.4 2.533 19.0 6.974
1.0 7.328
1.008 6.6 2.603 20.0
1.1
1.2 1.011 6.8 2.673
1.3 1.015 7.0 2.743 21.0 '7.681
1.020 7.2 2.813 22.0 8.034
1.4
1.5 1.026 7.4 2.884
24.0 8.741
1.033 7.6 2.954 25.0 9.094
1.6
1.7 1.042 í.8 3.024
1.052 8.0 3.094 26.0 9.447
1.8
1.064 8.2 3.165 28.0 10.15
1.9
2.0 1.078 8.4 3.235
32.0 ' 11.57
1.111 8.6 3.306 34.0 12.27
2.2
2.4 1.152 8.8 3.378
1.201 9.0 3.448 36.0 12.98
2.6 13.69
2.8 1.256 9.2 3.517 38.0
3.0 1.318 9.4 3.587
42.0 15.10
1.385 9.6 3.658 44.0 15.81
3.2
3.4 1.456 9.8 3.728
1.529 10.0 3.799 46.0 18.52
3.6 17.22
3.8 1.603 10.5 3.975 48.0
4.0 1.878 11.0 4.151 50.0
0.0 21.47
1.752 11.5 4.327 70.0 25.00
4.2
4.4 1.826 12.0 4.504
1.899 12.5 4.680 80.0 28.54
4.6 32.07
4.8 1.971 13.0 4.856 90.0
2.043 13.5 5.033 100.0 35.61
5.0
of different
It is frequently useful to know the largest diameter of wire frequencies.
materials which will give a ratio of RI /Ro of 1.01 for differentbelow should
For a ratio of RI/Ro equal to 1.001, the diameters given
be multiplied by 0.55; and for RI /Ro equal to 1.1, the diameters should be
multiplied by 1.78.
See. IN RESISTANCE 53
11. Reduction of Skin Effect. Wen
In view of the tendency of the
current to crowd to the surface
of the conductor at high fre-
8 880
óóó
quencies, the remedies which ób*
have been found practical in
effecting an improvement in m 888
the resistance ratio RI /Rohave óóö
been those in which the con- t.00
e haD d.00 N r] eee
'oto
ductor has been designed so atz NNCVhODNM2x2
that it presents a skin to the o Ñ 88888ó80o.. 888
6666666666 666
current flow. These are: -+ nve
.2tON
1. Use of Flat Copper Strip. ° iO .2M NN.2O1 .2n
While skin effect is present, for 0°
88M
Ñ.n.haO
ó0000e.. 8h8M
O OO
the same cross-sectional area a e óóóóóóóQóóó óóó
flat strip gives a lower resistance Pia e ri
ratio than do round conductors. V ciáávgw8e°ó Met-
2. Use of Tubular Conductors. e I.
Here the external magnetic field S çto g§8ó2Ó2888 G8
is much greater than the internal y óóóóóóóóóó ódó
field, and therefore all parts of ÿ .2MñÓ00Ñwt00N mom
the conductor are affected alike ß¡ 25ó
by the field, thus reducing the W ro
888ósóóó::a OS
skin effect. 6666666666 óóó
3. Use of Litzendraht. Ac-
cording to Eq. (6) the smaller
the diameter of the wire the less
8 ñ 42Q8Ñ 4.. 2
8860883ót:y 888
the skin effect. Litzendraht is a óóóóóóóóóe) óód
toms
braided cable made up of a largo h .2
a°ioaóó0ómwñ2..g
number of fine strands of wire. to 88óóóóónv 858
When certain precautions are óOóóóaóppyyóóóóó óóó
taken this braid shows a very °
much lower resistance ratio than ÿ .N.oMXMaOip..N
does a solid copper wire of equal
section. These precautions are: Ei
258
0000000&a 8 8pp
O 88
a. Each strand must be thor- ae
OóóóOóóóóó óóó
5NOO mc-ao
oughly insulated from every q
other strand to avoid contact 82 0000- 000nOD
papyyppoo
88
resistance. óóóóóóóóóó óóó
b. Braiding must be such that mme
each strand passes from the cen- 88 8.200.t n
M aaew.2
M.N.N. a t- a 00+ ee
ter to the outside of the conduc- OO°..N..... -.t-to 888
tor at regular intervals -a
of transposition. This ensures
sort X ea
660o66066.. 066
that all strands are affected alike
by the magnetic flux.
c. Each strand must be con-
tinuous.
12. Types of Resistors.
Resistors generally used in ra-
dio and allied applications may gá=a 888
be broadly classified as: Ea'Eák;
aNaam-d
1. Fixed resistors. á>=á$ááEm,ña inh
2. Variable resistors. vmeIä=d66C4
Each of these groups may be further classified on the basis of the nature
of the conductmg material of the resistor, as
1. Wire wound.
2. Composition (employing carbon).
13. Fixed Wire -wound Resistors. As commonly made, these are
wound on (1) ceramic forms, (2) strips of fiber or bakelite, and (3) cores
of textile cord or glass fiber. These windings are then embedded in a
covering or coating for protective purposes. The nature of the covering
depends upon the core and power rating of the resistor. The character-
istics of the wire-wound resistor are those of the particular wire employed
and generally show a negligible or slight temperature coefficient and no
voltage coefficient, i.e., the resistance is independent of the applied
voltage. Wire -wound resistors are used in radios at powers ranging
from less than watt to 200 watts or more. To cover this wide band,
different designs and structures are used, which for convenience may be
classified as low -, medium-, and high -power resistors, which correspond
to the core structures (1), (2), and (3) above.
14. Protective Coatings for Wire -wound Resistors. Coatings on wire
are employed to protect the windings from mechanical injury, to prevent
electrolytic effects and consequent corrosion due to penetration of
moisture, and to provide an insulating covering for the winding. Coat-
ings most widely used in practice are as follows:
A. Vitreous enamel coatings.
B. Cement coatings employing inorganic binders.
C. Cement coatings employing organic binders.
D. Molded bakelite.
Coatings in the first two classifications A and B, are capable of with-
standing temperatures in excess of 250 °C. without deterioration. They
afford a high measure of protection against humidity. Exception to the
latter statement are coatings employing sodium silicate (water glass)
binders which are highly hygroscopic and, therefore, unsuitable where
resistance to humidity is an important factor.
Coatings in classification C are capable of withstanding temper-
atures up to about 175°C. this varying with the nature of the binder.
Resinous binders stand lower temperatures than asphaltic binders.
They are, however, superior to the higher temperature coatings in their
moisture-resistant properties.
Coverings of the last classification, D, are capable of withstanding
temperatures from 100 °C. to 160 °C., depending upon the nature of the
bakelite used. The ordinary general- purpose molding materials with
wood -flower base are good for the lower temperatures, whereas the
asbestos- or mien -filled Bakelite is good for the higher temperatures.
15. Rating Wire -wound $ esistors. In view of the low temperature
coefficient of the resistance wires generally employed in radio wire -wound
resistors, the resistance change with loads normally encountered is small.
The rating is, therefore, primarily determined by the power the resistor
can dissipate continuously for an unlimited time without excessive tem-
perature rise or deterioration of the resistor. Some manufacturers rate
resistors on the basis of the power that will produce a temperature rise of
300 °C. in an ambient temperature of 40 °C., when the resistor is mounted
in free air. Such perfect ventilation conditions are seldom encountered.
Set. Sl RESISTANCE 55
As a result, it is generally recommended that such resistors be used at

one -fourth to one-half the nominal rating, which results in a temperature
rise of 100 °C. to 150 °C. In practice even these temperature rises may
be excessive owing to such factors as poor ventilation, proximity of
resistors to parts which may not be subjected to elevated temperatures,
and Fire Underwriter's approval. The specific application, therefore,
limits the practical use of a resistor rather than any nominal rating.
16. Factors Influencing Rating of Wire -wound Resistors.
1. Heat -resistant properties of protective coating.
2. Heat -resistant properties of winding core. (Ceramic cores are most
widely used, which withstand very high temperatures.)
3. Use of intermediate taps. Taps reduce effective winding spare, result-
ing in less active cooling surface, reducing the nominal rating. The extent
of reduction depends upon length of the resistor, being smaller for long units
than for short ones. On short units 2 in. long the rating may be reduced by
as much as 15 to 20 per cent, whereas on long units 6 in. long the reductions
may be 3 to 5 per cent.
17. Types of Resistors. 1. Low -power Resistors. These units dis-
sipate i to 1 watt per square inch of surface. There are two general
types (a) flexible resistors and (b) bakelite-molded resistors. Both have
either a core of cord or glass fiber. The former has a textile or glass-fiber
covering, the latter is molded in bakelite. The latter are made in
sizes having ratings of 3, 1, and 2 watts, corresponding to dimensions
of the order of %6 in. diameter by in. long, in. diameter by 11.1 in.
long, and a f(3 in. diameter by 1% in. long. They are equipped with wire
leads making them very convenient for so- called point to point wiring
in circuits, eliminating the necessity for special fittings for mounting.
The flexible resistors with glass-fiber cores and coverings are capable
of much higher ratings. Low -power resistors are used largely as biasing
resistors, isolation resistors, and voltage- dropping resistors.
2. Medium-power Resistors (Flat Wire-wound Type). These units
dissipate between 2 and 4 watts per square inch. They consist of wire
wound on strips of fiber or laminated bakelite to which lug terminals
are attached at appropriate points. The strip is covered with bakelite
either by molding or other means. This assembly is then tightly enclosed
in a sheet-metal punching with mounting holes, or a metal mounting
strip is attached in intimate engagement with one side of the resistor,
enabling the other side to be mounted flat against a metal chassis.
This design has many advantages. It is easy to mount. The metal
enclosure, or mounting strip, and the chassis act as heat distributors,
preventing excessive differences in temperature along the length of the
unit. Use is made of the metal chassis and metal mounting to conduct
heat away from the resistor, which enables higher power ratings for a
given temperature rise.
They are used in the power range from 2 to 20 watts. Lengths vary
from 2 to 6 in. Widths vary from M to 34 in.
3. High-power Resistors. These are wound on cylindrical ceramic
cores and have cement or vitreous enamel coatings. When inorganic
cement or vitreous coatings are used, they are made to handle powers
from 5 to 200 watts, depending upon the size of the unit, at dissipations
of 5 to 10 watts per square inch of surface. These ratings are based on
250 °C. temperature rise.
56 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. $
When organic cement coatings are used, they are made to handle
powers from 4 to 80 watts, depending upon the size of the unit, at dissipa-
tions of 2 to 4 watts per square inch of surface. These ratings are
based on a temperature rise of 125 °C. This coating is used primarily
when maximum protection is desired against humidity.
18. Temperature Rise of Wire -wound Resistors. Figure 3 shows the
temperature rise to he expected at various loadings of wire -wound
resistors wound on ceramic forms, with vitreous-enamel and cement
coverings. The 100 per cent rating is based on manufacturers' rating
of 250 °C. rise in open air for class A and B coatings (Art. 14) and 125 °C.
rise in open air for class C coating. Temperature is measured at the
center of the outer surface of the resistor.
280
260
240
u
4ú
200
160
cc
15 120
6
80
É
40
0
0 IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Power in Per Cen+ of Rated Value
Fie.3.-Temperature rise of wire -wound resistors. A, vitreous enamel
or inorganic cement; B, organic cement covering.
19. Variable Wire -wound Resistors. These are usually of the con-
tinuously variable type, made by winding resistance wire on a flat
strip of fiber, Bakelite, or other insulating material. This strip may be
formed into an arc and placed in a protecting container. A metallic
sliding arm is arranged to travel over the winding, thus making contact
with each turn as it is rotated. The choice of wire and size is determined
by the resistance and space requirements.
In general, wire-wound continuously variable resistors are wound so
that the resistance changes uniformly with the motion of the sliding
contact. For certain uses, e.g., antenna-type volume controls, it is
desirable that the resistance change be non -uniform. In this case the
form on which the wire is wound is sometimes tapered so that the resist-
ance per degree rotation is not constant. Other methods of tapering
employed are winding with variable pitch, winding sections of the control
with different sizes of wire, and copper plating start and finish of the
winding. Some of the factors to be considered in design are as follows:
1. Contact between slider and resistor element should be positive.
2. Winding should not become loose on the form.
Sec. 31 RESISTANCE 57
3. Sliding contact ahquld not wear away resistance wire.
4. Resistance change per turn should be as small as possible.
5. Slider material should be such that it will not oxidize.
20. Composition -type (Radio) Resistors. The term composition -type
resistor is employed to cover that group of resistors in which a conductor
is mixed with binder in definite proportions and suitably treated to
produce a resistor material. This type of resistor has attained a wide
popularity because of the following advantages: (1) Flexibility in range
it may be made in any value up to several megohms; (2) compactness
--
its physical dimensions are small for any range; they may be made in
sizes as low as 3¡ in. diameter by ?e in. long.
Numerous types of these resistors have been produced, but they take
two general forms:
1. Solid-body Resistor. In this type the resistor material is extruded,
pressed, or molded into its final physical form, which generally is a solid rod,
I after which it may be subjected to some form of heat treatment. The
so- called carbon resistors are examples of this type.
_
Volts
2
Ei
<at- 1.0 Meqohm- /4watt Resistors
ill
Volts
J 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 36(
B
C
-3
(b)- 100,000 ohm - I watt Resistors
Fto. 4.-Voltage characteristic of various resistors. Curves A are metallized -
filament type; others are carbon type.
2. Filament- coated Resistors. In this type a conducting coat or film is
baked on the surface of a continuous glass filament or other form. In the
ease of the glass filament this is completely enclosed in an insulating tube.
The so-called metallized-filament resistors are examples of this type.
21. Characteristics of Composition -type Resistors. Composition -type
(commercially known as radio) resistors possess properties differing very
markedly from those of metallic resistors. The most important ones
are as follows and are possessed by all these types in varying degree:
1. Voltage Characteristics. The resistance is not independent of the applied
voltage and generally falls with increasing voltage. Typical curves showing
the manner in which the resistance varies with voltage (heating effect due to
load not present or corrected for) are shown in Fig. 4.
The percentage change of resistance at a given voltage measurement
referred to its resistance at some low voltage such as 14¢ volts has arbitrarily
58 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec 3
been called the voltage coefficient. This coefficient increases as the physical
size of the resistor decreases and increases with the resistance value. It is
also a function of the ingredients or mix employed in the resistor. Figure 5
shows for a given type of carbon resistor the relationship between voltage
coefficient and size and value of the resistor. The test voltage at which each
measurement was made is indicated for each value of resistance.
2. Radio -frequency Characteristics. Unlike wire-wound resistors, com-
position -type resistors decrease in value w th increasing frequency. This
effect is very marked in the high -valued resistors such as 1 megohm but is
absent, or very small, in the low values such as 100,000 ohms and under.
The effect decreases with the diameter of the active resistor element. Skin
effect is not the factor which determines this characteristic. Two factors
play a prominent part here as follows: (1) the shunting effect of the indi-
0
Na 2 Size-4x/4°
I I
No.4 S/i
No..T Size-i.'r/"
4
No.2
500
d400 4.3
300
IT
Nao
>
+ 200
'1,100
o
0 01 0.2 0.3 0.4 05 0.6 0.1 0.8 0.9 1.0
Megohms
Fin. 5.- Voltage coefficient of carbon resistors.
vidual capacities between conducting masses in the resistor element tends to
reduce the effective resistance; (2) the dielectric in binder and fillers of these
resistors and their housings introduces losses with increasing frequency which
likewise act to reduce the resistance.
3. Humidity Characteristics. The effect of humidity in general is to cause
a rise of resistance. This effect may sometimes be reduced by suitable
treatment.
4. Noise. These types of resistors all show, in varying degree, the presence
of microphonic noise. The degree of noise is a function of the load, size of the
resistor, and the nature of the materials used in the resistor. In general, for a
given set of materials in the resistor, the noise level increases with increasing
resistance and decreasing size of the resistor. Figures 7e and 76 show typical
noise-level curves for two makes of resistors. The change in each curve or
the point of discontinuity shows where a change of mix or materials was
made. The curves also show the increase in noise for a given value as the
resistor size decreases. Noise measurements were made in accordance with
the method described in Art. 25.
1.2 r T
\,
IR IIii
I.0 V41 67""e/7"t Resltor on /mm. diameter Rod in Ceramic Conta;ner
Cor bon I I
Rod
N 0.8 cm i
E
r
o
ú
E
v 0.6
c
bo
nRodo
rm.4n`ymeler
_r
+o
a :CPram/ Ca%ber
s 0.4 11111111111::-.60,),40 d r
in. diameter
0.2
0
0 400 800 1200 1600, 2000 2400 2800
Frequency -kilocycles
Fia. 6a.- Resistance- frequency characteristics of various types of 1- i11egohm
resistors up to 3 megacycles (University of Wisconsin CWA project E- 16-5).
200
Ñ
19015
cc
80 ?
10á
60
ú
50 13
40
a
D.G. 01
05 0.25
1.0 2.5 5 10 2030
Megacycles
Fia. fib.-Characteristic for filament-type resistor, carried to 20 megacycles,
in two different insulating housings.
22. Rating Composition -type Resistors. The rating of composition -

type resistors is a more complicated matter. The temperature coefficient
of this type of resistor being larger, it is possible for a resistance change to
become quite appreciable before a temperature limitation is exceeded.
350
Sizé 2 Resistor
325
300
/`
4 x 114
275
250
225
200
E> 175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
0É 3
óó ìResistance,megohms
a
350
Size 4 Résistor
300 346'
x5/8"
250
(7,200
>
°u 150
100
50
E5 0
0
Resistance ,megohms
b
FIG. 7. -Noise-level curves of typical resistors.
Furthermore, with the higher ranges, such as 0.25 megohm and over, in
which the power dissipation may be very low, the voltage characteristics
may he a determining factor instead of the load -carrying characteristics.
It is therefore customary to rate this type of unit on the basis of the max-
imum load it can carry, or the maximum voltage which can he applied
to it, without exceeding prescribed resistance changes. 'l'he prescribed
Sea !1 RESISTANCE 61
changes generally accepted are 5 per cent for intermittent rated -load
operation and 10 per cent for 50 per cent overload operation.
As a result of recent developments, notably the development of insu-
lated resistors in which the resistance element is molded in bakelite
and also the development of new mixes, it has been possible to increase
the rating of given sizes of resistors. It has especially been possible to
increase the rating of the smaller sizes of insulated resistors. This was
made possible by the discovery that the temperature rise of the very
short resistors is appreciably lower for a given power dissipation than
would be expected from its reduced cooling surface. The reason for
this is that the metal end terminals, because of shortness of the unit,
cover a substantial portion of the entire resistor and are very close to
the center hot section, and therefore cool the resistor by conducting the
heat away.
The following table gives the most generally adopted standard ratings
and sizes of insulated resistors, as these resistors are definitely replacing
the non -insulated type:
Rating, Diameter of Over-all length

Watts resistor, inches of resistor, inches
3.4
23. Composition of Resistors. Radio resistors of the carbon and

filament types generally employ a conducting material of high specific
resistance mixed with a filler and binder. The most widely used conduct-
ing material is some form of carbon or graphite. The fillers and binders
employed vary with the type of resistor. Examples of these are clay,
rubber, and bakelite. The filler, binder and conductor are mixed in
various proportions to obtain resistors having different ranges. The
method of making the resistor varies also with its type. The solid-body
types are generally either molded or extruded. The filament resistor is
made by baking the resistance material on a glass rod which is sealed
in a ceramic or bakelite container.
24. R.M.A. Color Code. The use of resistors has increased to such an
extent and so many are employed in a radio set that it has become desir-
able to identify each resistor for range in a quick and simple manner.
Such identification simplifies assembly of these units in radio sets and
helps in servicing. A color code has therefore been adopted by the
Radio Manufacturers' Association.
This color code takes into consideration the fact that composition
resistors are made with leads coming out at right angles to the axis
of the resistor and also with leads brought out of the ends axially. The
color code also enables the tolerance of the resistor to be identified.
The color code standard follows:
Ten colors shall be assigned to the figures as shown in the table below in
which cable designations indicate the color shades as shown on the Stand-
ard Color Card of America, 8th ed., 1928, issued by the Textile Color Card
Association of the United States.
02 THE RADIO ENOINERRINO HANDBOOK (Sec. 3
Figure Color (Color to be equivalent to
0 Black
1 Brown Cable 60113
2 Red Cable 60149
3 Orange Cable 60041
4 Yellow Cable 60187
5 Green Cable 60105
6 Blue Cable 60102
7 Violet Cable 60010
8 Gray Cable 60034
9 White
It shall be standard in fixed -composition resistors with radial leads to

indicate the nominal resistance value of the resistor in accordance with the
following system and diagram:
body A of the resistor shall be
V Air A B C
CIE
/ACIE colored to represent the first figure of the
® ®0 resistance value. One end B of the
resistor shall be colored to represent
Flo. 8.- Standard resistor of the second figure. A band, or dot, C of
R.M.A. color, representing the number of ciphers
following the first two figures, shall be
located within the body color. Two diagrams (Fig. 8) illustrate two interpreta-
tions of this standard, both of which are deemed to be in accordance with the
standard.
Examples illustrating the standard are as follows:
Ohms A B C
10 Brown Black Black, no ciphers

0
200 Red Black Brown, one cipher
2 0
3,000 Orange Black Red, two ciphers
3 0
3,400 Orange Yellow Red, two ciphers
3 4
40,000 Yellow Black Orange, three ciphers
4 0
44,000 Yellow Yellow Orange, three ciphers
4 4
43,000 Yellow Orange Orange, three ciphers
4 3
It shall be standard in making fixed composition resistors with axial leads to

indicate the nominal resistance value of the resistors by bands of color around
the body of the resistor, in accordance with the following system:
Three or more bands of color shall provide indications as follows:
Band A shall indicate the first significant figure
of the resistance of the resistor.
Band B shall indicate the second significant figure.
Band C shall indicate the decimal multiplier. A BCD
Band D, if any, shall indicate the tolerance limits FIG. Sa. -Fixed corn -
about the nominal resistance value. position resistor with
It shall be standard to indicate the significant axial leads.
figures of the resistance value, the decimal multi-
plier, and the tolerance with the modifications and extensions of the Standard
R.M.A. Color Code M4 -213 as given below:
Decimal multipliers
Tolerance
Color per cent
Significant Power of Multiplying value
figure 10
Black 0 loe 1
Brown 1 10' 10
Red 2 102 100
Orange 3 102 1,000
Yellow 4 102 10.000
Green 5 10' 100.000
Blue 6 102 1,000.000
Violet 7 107 10,000,000
Gray 8 102 100,000.000
White 9 102 1,000,000,000
Gold 10 -2 0.1 ± 5
Silver 10-2 0.01 ±
No color
25. Test Specifications. Over the last few years, a series of tests have
been developed which are designed to establish the performance merit of
composition resistors. While these tests have not been established as
standard, they have gradually been adopted by the leading manufac-
turers as the basis of specifications for composition resistors. These
tests are as follows:
Resistance Measurements. Unless otherwise specified it shall be standard
to measure the resistance under the same voltage drop as normally exists
across the resistor in the application for which it is intended.
The readings are to be made as quickly as possible at 20 °C., preferably
with a limit -bridge circuit arrangement so that the resistors do not have an
opportunity of undergoing an appreciable temperature rise due to the current
passing through them under the conditions of the test.
Normal -load Life Test. It shall be standard to make normal -load life tests
by placing the resistors on load intermittently 1'a hr. on and ;z hr. off at an
ambient temperature of 40°C., for 1,000 cycles or 2,000 hr. at the voltage
representing the rating of the resistor as specified by the resistor manu-
facturer. Any readings taken should be made by uniform method at the
end of 3 -hr. off period. The results of this test shall be plotted, showing
the per cent permanent change in resistance versus time in hours.
Either direct or alternating voltage may be used in the foregoing tests
depending on how the resistors are intended to be used.
It shall be standard for the resistor manufacturer to state the rated potential
in direct voltage with a supplementary rating on alternating voltage when
requested.
Load Characteristics. It shall be standard to plot these characteristics,
showing the per cent change in resistance values versus loads in watts, making
readings at 10 per cent intervals up to 100 per cent overload value or up to
the maximum rated voltage as specified by the resistor manufacturer, con-
ducting the tests at an ambient temperature of 40°C., and allowing a mini-
mum of 15 min. at constant load immediately preceding each reading, so that
the resistor comes up to equilibrium temperature conditions after each
change in load. The resistors are to be exposed 1 hr. at 40°C., before starting
the test. Each reading is to be made under steady -state hot conditions at the
voltage drop existing for the particular wattage setting.
Voltage Characteristics. It shall be standard to plot voltage- characteristic
curves, making readings with uniform voltage increments up to a maximum
64 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. i
voltage representing 100 per cent overload in watts on the resistor or up to
the maximum voltage rating of the resistor. The resistors are to be at 40°C.,
for 1 hr. before starting the test, and readings are to be made as quickly as
possible so that the resistors do not have an opportunity to heat under the
conditions of the test. The resistors are to be connected in the circuit only
during a period of time sufficient for making resistance determinations.
Humidity Test. It shall be standard to expose resistors to a relative
humidity of 32 per cent at an ambient temperature of 40°C. for 150 hr., at
which time the resistance value is recorded. The resistors then are to be
exposed to a relative humidity of 90 per cent for 300 hr. with an ambient
temperature of 40°C., and the final resistance value is to be recorded. Finally,
the resistors are again subjected for 150 hr. to a relative humidity of 32 per
cent at 40 °C., and a final reading taken at the end of this period. The
readings are to be made at 20 °C. by uniform method not later than 30 min.
and not less than 15 min. after the resistors have been removed from the
humidity chamber.
It is recommended that the resistors be suspended in an enclosed chamber
over a saturated solution of cupric chloride or sodium tartrate for the 90 per
cent relative humidity condition and over a saturated solution of magnesium
chloride for the 32 per cent relative humidity condition.
On account of the difficulty in obtaining quantitative results on humidity
tests, it is recommended that the various resistors involved should be tested
together at the same time under exactly the same conditions.
Overload Tests. It shall be standard to make overload tests with a 50 per
cent overload on the resistors for 100 hr. at an ambient temperature of 40°C.
Resistance measurements are to be made by uniform method before com-
mencing the overload test but after the resistors have been at 40°C. for 3.¡ hr.
Resistance measurements are again to be made, under the same conditions, 5í
hr. following the completion of the test. The differences between the initial
readings and final readings are to be expressed as per cent permanent changes
in resistance.
Aging Tests. It shall be standard to make an aging test wherein the
resistors are kept under standard conditions of 40°C. ambient temperature
and 32 per cent relative humidity for a period of 90 days. Readings are to
be taken at intervals by uniform method so that a curve can be plotted
showing the per cent change in resistance versus time in days.
It is recommended that the standard conditions in the foregoing be attained
by means of an enclosed chamber containing a saturated solution of mag-
nesium chloride, further, that the resistors be suspended over the solution as
specified under humidity teat.
If shelf tests are made, it shall be standard to test all the resistors together
under identical conditions. Results of one test should not be compared with
another unless the time, temperature, and humidity cycles are precisely the
same.
Noise Test. It shall be standard to test resistors for noise, using resistors
having the same value tested under the voltage drop normally existing in the
application for which they are intended. A resistance-type amplifier is to be
used with a resistance input circuit, the entire combination to be as inde-
pendent of frequency as is possible. A visual instrument, such as an r -m-s
vacuum -tube voltmeter, shall be used on the output of the amplifier. An
aural test, using a loud -speaker on the output of the amplifier, should also be
used in conjunction with the foregoing.
A circuit arrangement, such as shown in Fig. 9, shall be used. In this
circuit arrangement E represents an adjustable voltage source of constant
value; C a large by-pass condenser; R represents an adjustable, standard,
quiet resistor, such as a laboratory decade box; X represents the unknown
under test; RI is a calibrated potentiometer; S is a source of a -c supply
of 1,000 cycles; and V in both cases represents an indicating voltmeter. In
operation it shall be standard to first connect the resistor as shown, adjusting
R to have approximately the same resistance value as the unknown under
See. SI RESISTANCE 65
test. E is then adjusted until the voltage normally existing across the
resistor, in the application for which it is used, is placed across the terminals
of X. This voltage is, of course, one-half that shown on the voltmeter when
R is adjusted to be exactly the same as X. The switch on the output of the
amplifier is placed on the tube voltmeter setting, and the switch on the input
is connected across the unknown resistor. The gain of the amplifier is
adjusted to obtain a definite deflection on the vacuum-tube voltmeter, after
which it is not changed. The input switch is then thrown to the calibrated
potentiometer setting, and the setting of the potentiometer is adjusted until
the reading of the tube voltmeter on the output of the amplifier is the same
as before. The setting of the calibrated potentiometer, which is calibrated
in microvolts, shows the equivalent r -m -s voltage variation existing across the
particular unknown resistor being tested. It can then be stated that the
noise of the resistor is equivalent to so many microvolts r.m.s. for the particu-
lar voltage drop existing across the same.
Audio
Amplifier
RI =Calibrated Potentiometer
X =Resistor under Test
R Quiet Resistor (having approxima to /y
same resistance value as X 1
Fta. 9.- Circuit for resistor-noise measurement.

26. Acceptable Performance. On the basis of these specified tests
the following is considered acceptable performance:
1. Life Test 5 per cent change or less
2. Overload 10 per cent change or less
3. Humidity 10 per cent change or less
4. Noise 500 or or less
27. Representative Values of Resistors Employed in Radio Sets.
The range of resistors usually employed in radio sets extends from 1 ohm
up to 20 megohms. These resistors are used for various purposes, such
as providing grid bias to radio, audio, and detector tubes; plate coupling;
voltage dividers; and filters. Typical values employed for these various
applications are enumerated below:
1. Detector bias resistors 5,000 to 50,000 ohms
2. Power bias resistors 200 to 3,000 ohms
3. Voltage dividers 1,000 to 100,000 ohms
.4. Plate -coupling resistors "0,000 to 250,000 ohms
5. Grid leaks 100,000 to 20 rnegohms
6. Filter resistors ... 100 to 100.000 ohms
28. Variable Carbon-type Resistors. In numerous radio applications
high variable resistors are required, e.g., for controlling the sensitivity
of a receiver by varying the C bias on the r-f tubes a variable resistor
up to 50,000 ohms maximum is commonly employed. For adjusting
the audio signal level in automatic volume control sets a variable resistor
up to 2.5 lnegohm is not uncommon. From the point of view of coát,
66 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. E
wire -wound resistors of this order of magnitude are prohibitive. Further-

more it is desirable to have a non -uniform rate of change resistance
with respect to angular rotation, which is very difficult to secure with
wire-wound resistors. Carbon or graphitic types of variable resistors
that can be made to meet these requirements at reasonable cost are
therefore widely used. Such resistors generally consist of a resistive
solution applied to some flat form, such as paper, bakelite, or ceramic,
and baked on. A rotating slider or some other form of contact travels
over this resistive element producing a continuous variation of resist-
ance. Since the resistor is essentially painted on the form, its geometrical
form may be varied by design. Also different concentrations of the
(b)
(c) (d)
Fie. 10.-Typical uses of variable resistors.
resistor ink or paint may be employed at different positions of the resistor
element. By the use of these two expedients the resistor may be designed
to give any variation of resistance desired.
29. Uses for Variable Carbon Resistors. Within their power limi-
tation these resistors may be used wherever a continuously variable
resistor is required. They may be used as either potentiometers or
rheostats. They find their widest use as volume controls and tone con-
trols in radio receivers. Some of their specific uses are here listed, and
the basic circuits illustrating these uses are shown in Fig. 10.
1. Sensitivity control for radio receivers, by varying control-grid or
screen-grid potentials of r -f tubes (Fig. 10e).
2. Antenna control for varying r -f input to antenna tube (Fig. 10b).
3. Sensitivity and antenna input control, combination of Figs. 10e and lOb
(Fig. 10e).
4. Audio-level control (Fig. 10d).
Sec. si
fiers for varying a-f frequency

characteristics.
attenuators.
RESISTANCE
9. High -frequency variable re-

sistor when non -reactive feature is
essential, as in signal generator
10. Television controls, such as
brightness, contrast, focusing.
30. Tapers. The circuit con-
siderations involved in these
applications are discussed else-
where in this handbook, par-
ticularly in the section on
Receiving Systems. However,
90
ú
ó
80
70
0
'
5. Combination load -resistor and audio -level control in diode rectifier
circuit.
6. Tapped volume control for acoustic compensation at low levels.
Tuned circuits are shunted across one or more taps to produce varying degrees
of a-f compensation at different levels.
8. Tone control in a -f ampli- 100
S\
7. Gain controls and faders for phonograph and a -f amplifiers.
.S
Antenna
mear
Potentiometer -.
,Sensi/iv'ty
Control
-_at
S
Contro/
forüusCompen
Biiu
Compensation
1111
NNW"
I/
Ail
I
ItAll
67
VAI iii ,I
each of these applications calls Low Levels -
for a resistance curve, or taper fil
cr
as it is termed, which is most 50
suitable for it. This taper de- Double Tapped
fines the law of resistance c Contro/
for Bass
changes versus angular rotation
of the variable arm. Some at Low Levels , IIYIIII
......,...
1-.4', 4
widely used curves are given in
Fig. 11. 30
A suitable specification defin-
ing the taper should include:
1. Curve showing resistance 20
11411121111
variation against active angular
rotation of the contactor. Where
a switch is incorporated in the
variable resistor, the angle taken
up for operation of the switch is
10
,/..osm..
fitelarcAog, ,,, n
considered inactive. Curve
should indicate whether resist-
ance increases with clockwise or 0 20 40 60 80 100
counterclockwise rotation. Per Cent of Rotation
2. Resistance at extreme coun- FIG. 11. -Taper curves of variable
terclockwise end between vari- resistors.
able arm and left terminal; this is
generally called left terminal minimum and is specified as "less than so many
ohms."
3. Resistance at extreme clockwise end between contactor and right
terminal; this is generally called right terminal minimum and is specified as
"less than so many ohms."
4. When a tap is specified, the angular location and resistance of the
tap should be given. The resistance between the tap terminal and the
variable arm, when located at the tap, is sometimes specified.
31. Choice of Volume -control- resistance Curve.' In an audio ampli-
fier in which the maximum output is 40 db above the minimum output,
By the editor.
08 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. E
the volume control should be so made that each i/q0 of the rotation
should correspond to an attenuation of 1 db. If the volume control has a
total attenuation of 80 db, more than is necessary on this particular
amplifier, each 30 of the rotation will correspond to 2 db attenuation
since only half of the total rotation can be used. In the second case the
control should be more critical than in the first case.
In a radio receiver the design of the volume control differs widely
depending upon whether the receiver has automatic volume control or
not. If not, the entire voltage gain of the receiver must be under con -
trol, perhaps 120 db. The tendency for the volume control to become
500 M
100-M
100
100 90 60 10 60 50 40 30 20 10 050
Minks me Per Cent Knob Rotation Max.Vol me
12.- Advantage of special taper for volume control.

noisy or to be difficult to adjust without producing violent jumps of
volume change increases with the total gain that must be controlled.
The fact that a -v -c systems cannot deliver a uniform voltage to the
audio detector because of the wide variations of input voltage (ranging
from a microvolt to several volts) makes necessary a different shape of
attenuation curve than would be used on an audio amplifier used by
itself. A type of curve (Centralab) useful in the a -v -c receiver is
shown. Here, approximately uniform attenuation of 40 db is secured in
80 per cent rotation from the maximum volume. This is the range most
often used. The departure from linearity in the first 15 per cent of
rotation is to keep the resistance gradient within limits representing low
noise.
Between 80 and 100 per cent rotation, the curve changes rapidly to
provide a total attenuation of 80 db. Rapid attenuation in this region
is accomplished without noise because the resistance change per decibel
Sec. Sl RESISTANCE 69
is small. Such a curve is much more satisfactory than a straight logarith-
mic line (note the 80-db curve). In addition they are simpler to build.
A tapered resistance curve such that equal increments in rotation
produce equal increments in attenuation (a straight line when plotted
against the logarithm of the resistance) requires that a change of 300,000
ohms take place in the first 10 per cent, 120,000 ohms in the second 10 per
cent, and so on till the last 10 per cent rotation produces a change of only
75 ohms. This is true of a 500,000-ohm control with a total attenuation
of 80 db.
32. Wear Characteristics. Variable carbon resistors necessarily have
the same general electrical characteristics as fixed carbon resistors. In
addition, owing to the motion of the slider on the resistance element, there
is a certain amount of wear on the resistance element. This produces a
change in resistance value and noise. Factors influencing these changes
are as follows:
1. Hardness of resistance element which determines ability to withstand
abrasion.
2. Pressure of moving contact on resistance element.
3. Smoothness of moving contact surface.
33. Specifications for Variable Resistors. No standard specifications
have been established for variable resistor performance. A typical
specification, however, representative of acceptable performance is here
given.
1. Endurance or Wear. Life test: Units shall not fail before 10,000 com-
plete operations when operated without electrical load. The unit shall be
operated over its full range including operation of switch at a rate of approxi-
mately 1,000 operations per hour. Failure shall be considered as a change in
resistance of greater than 15 per cent of the initial resistance or mechanical
fracture of the switch.
2. Noise. Units shall be of such a nature as to produce no audible sound
in the loud -speaker of the apparatus in which the unit is used.
3. Humidity. The resistance of units shall not show a temporary change
of more than 25 per cent when conditioned 100 hr. at a temperature of 40°C.
and a relative humidity of 90 per cent. Units shall be conditioned 24 hr. in a
desiccator before placing in the humidity chamber.
4. Resistance Curve. The resistance curve and permissible variations over
the entire resistance range of effective electrical rotation shall be in accordance
with the drawing (as supplied by the purchaser). These curves shall be
within the required limits and must conform in general shape to the nominal
curve of the drawing.
References
Bur. Standards Circ. 74.
DRIVER -HARRIS COMPANY: Bull. R-40.
KENNELLY, LAWS, and PIERCE: Experimental Research in Skin Effect in Conductor,.
Trans. A.I.E.E., 1915.
Mosacaorr: "Principles Communication."
of Radio
PENDER: " Handbook for Electrical Engineers."
WILBUR B. DRIVER COMPANY: "Resistance Handbook,"
SECTION 4
INDUCTANCE
BY GOMER L. DAVIES, B.S.1
1. Magnetic Flux. The property of electrical circuits called inductance
depends upon the magnetic effects associated with a flow of electric cur-
rent. In a magnetic system the magnitude of the force of magnetic
attraction or repulsion is proportional to the product of the strengths
of the poles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. A unit magnetic pole is defined as that pole which repels
a similar pole at a .distance of 1 cm with a force of 1 dyne. The force
between two poles acts along the line joining the poles. Consequently
a unit north pole in the vicinity of a magnet is acted upon by two forces:
one of repulsion, due to the north pole of the magnet; and one of attrac-
tion, due to the south pole. The resultant is the total force exerted by
the magnet upon the unit pole. Thus the magnet is surrounded by a
field of force or magnetic field whose direction and magnitude at any point
are defined as the direction and magnitude of the force acting upon a unit
north pole at that point.
If a unit north pole is allowed to move freely in a magnetic field, it will
move in the direction of the field at each point and will trace out a path
which is called a line of force. The total field is considered to be made up
of a large number of such lines. In any region of space the total of all
the lines of force in that region is called the magnetic flux in that region,
and the number of lines of force passing through a unit area of a surface
perpendicular to the direction of the field is the flux density and is deter-
mined by the strength of the field.
2. Magnetic Effects of Current -carrying Conductors. Magnetic
effects are exhibited not only by magnets but also by wires carrying
electric currents. The magnetic field near a straight current-carrying
conductor consists of circular lines of force surrounding the conductor;
the flux density at any point outside the wire is proportional to the cur-
rent and inversely proportional to the distance of the point from the
axis of the conductor. If the wire carrying the current is wound in one
or more layers on a cylindrical form, the field inside of this coil is parallel
to the axis of the cylinder and is proportional to the product of the cur-
rent and the number of turns on the coil. This product of current (in
amperes) and number of turns is called the ampere -turns of the coil. The
flux density along the axis of the coil may be expressed as the product of
the ampere-turns by a constant. If the winding is of infinite length, this
constant is 41r.
Engineer, Washington Institute of Technology, Washington, D. C.
70
Sec. 41 INDUCTANCE 71
3. Inductance-Definition and Units.' When the current in a circuit

varies Ohm's law in the form in which it is stated for constant- current
circuits, no longer serves to define the current.
The magnetic flux associated with the circuit varies with the current and
induces a voltage in the circuit which is given by the equation
e = - (10 (1)
where e is the induced voltage, 4, the flux, and t the time. As the flux is
proportional to the current, it may be written
d = Li (2)
where L is a constant and i the current. Then
e = - dt (Li)_ -L- (3)
If the current is increasing, the induced e.m.f. opposes the current, and
work must be done to overcome this e.m.f. If the work is W,
ddt = ei = -Lid (4)
and
W = -ria
0
Lid. = - (ó)
iobeing the final value of the current, the initial value being taken as zero.
The quantity L in these equations is the coefficient of self -induction,
self -inductance, or simply inductance of the circuit. It may be defined in
three ways: from Eq. (2), as the flux associated with the circuit when unit
current is flowing in it; from Eq. (3) as the back e.m.f. in the circuit caused
by unit rate of change of current; and from Eq. (5), as twice the work done
in establishing the magnetic flux associated with unit current in ¿he circuit.
These three definitions give identical and constant values of L provided
there is no material of variable permeability near the circuit, and pro-
vided the current does not change so rapidly that its distribution in
the conductors differs materially from that of a constant current. If
these conditions do not hold, L is not constant and the values obtained
from the three definitions will in general be different.
The units used for inductance must conform to the units used for the
other quantities used in the defining equations. The practical unit is
the henry which is the inductance of a circuit when a back e.m.f. of 1
volt is induced in the circuit by a current changing at the rate of 1 amp.
per second. The relations between units are as follows:
1 henry =
109 e.m.u.
= 1.1124 X 10'" e.s.u.
The henry is subdivided into two smaller units, the millihenry and the
microhenry. The millihenry is one-thousandth of a henry, and the
microhenry is one -millionth of a henry. The millihenry and microhenry
are abbreviated mh and oh respectively. Thus
1 henry = 1,000 mh = 1,000,000 µh
1
STARLING. S. G., "Electricity and Magnetism," Chap. XI, 1926.
The term "inductance" refers to a property of an electrical circuit or

piece of apparatus but not to any material object. A piece of apparatus
used to introduce inductance into a circuit is properly called an inductor
or coil.
4. Current in Circuits Containing Inductance. If a circuit containing
a source of constant e.m.f. and pure resistance only is closed, the current
rises instantly to its full value as determined by Ohm's law. If the circuit
contains inductance, a back e.m.f. of the value L- acts during the time
the current is changing, so that, if the e.m.f. of the source is E, the actual
e.m.f. available to force current through the resistance is E -d
The equation for the current in the circuit is
E Ri (6)
"'It
or
di
dt tRi = E (7)
The solution of this equation is
Rt\
i = Ñ(1 - E (8)
The time t is reckoned from the instant at which the switch is closed, and e
is the base of natural logarithms.
At a time t = L/R after the circuit is closed, the current has a value equal
to Io(1 - /
11, or about 63 per cent of its final value. The quantity L/R
is called the /time constant of the circuit. The time constant, or the time
required for the current to rise to a value of 1 -
times its final value, does
not depend upon the actual values of inductance and resistance but only
upon their ratio.
The current in such a circuit is shown in Fig. 1 for several values of
L /R. Theoretically the current does not reach its maximum value la
4 6 io i is 16 id t
Time ,thousondths of a second
Fio. 1. -Rise of current in inductive circuit.
except at an infinite time after the circuit is closed, but practically the
difference between the actual current and the value /a becomes negligible
after a relatively short time.
If, after the steady current I. has been established in the circuit, the
source of the e.m.f. is short-circuited, the current does not fall to zero
instantly but decreases according to the equation
Rg
E
RE
z.
(9)
This equation is plotted in Fig. 2 for the same values of the circuit
constants as were used in Fig. 1. In this case the time constant L/R
0.1
\1\ ,, BlO*AI
R 00 Ohms
lo'O/OAmpere
,\r C%
40,
Fia. 2. -}
o
,S
`.
?.0p0
t òc,
6 8 10
Ti me,fhousand$hs of a second
all of current in inductive circuit.

It k 16
represents the time required for the current to fall to 1/e or about 37 per
cent of its initial value.
If, instead of the source of e.m.f. being short- circuited, the circuit is
i opened, the resistance becomes extremely large and the current falls to
zero almost instantly. As a result of this rapid change of current, a large
e.m.f. is induced in the circuit, causing a spark or arc at the point at
which the circuit is opened.
Currenr. Back e.m.f
.,_\/
Impressed c.m.f.
Fia. 3. -Series cir- FIG. 4. -Phase relations in induc-

cuit containing resist- tive circuit.
ance and inductance.
When the current in an inductive circuit is changing, a back e.m.f.
other than that due to resistance acts in the circuit. This back e.m.f.
is proportional to the current and to the quantity wL, which is called
the inductive reactance and usually written XL. Also, the phase of the
back e.m.f. is 90 deg. behind that of the current. To force a current
through a pure inductance, therefore, requires an impressed e.m.f.
180 deg. out of phase with the back e.m.f.. or one leading the current
by 90 deg. (Fig. 4).
Now if a sinusoidal e.m.f. is impressed on a circuit containing resistance

and inductance in series (Fig. 3), the current in the circuit will also be
sinusoidal, provided the resistance and inductance are independent of
the current. The portion of the impressed e.m.f. required to force
current through the resistance will be in phase with the current, while the
portion required to force current through the inductance will lead the
current by 90 deg. The resultant phase of the impressed e.m.f. with
respect to the current will have some value between zero and 90 deg.,
depending upon the values of resistance and inductance in the circuit.
To determine mathematically the behavior of the circuit described
above, it is necessary to set up and solve the differential equation for
the circuit. This equation will have the same form as Eq. (7) with E
replaced by Ear sin cot; that is,
d+ Ri = Ear sin wt (10)
The solution is
i =
EM
vR= + w =L=
sin (wt - m) + ce- ;
Rt
(11)
where tan 4, = wL /R, and c is a constant to be determined. The first

term is the only one of importance after the current has been flowing
for a short time. Thus the current has a peak or maximum amplitude
of Ear /VR: + w =Lz and lags the impressed e.m.f. by the phase angle 4,
whose tangent is wL /R. The quantity 1/R= +wiL= is called the impedance
of the circuit and is denoted by Z. In terms of the effective values of
current and e.m.f. I and E, the equation for the current may be written
I = E or J,i = Em (12)
In complex notation this form is
EM sin wt
z. 13)
R +jwL
or, in terms of the instantaneous e.m.f.,
i e -e (14)
R +.wL
The quantity z is called the complex or vector impedance. It is a vector
with a magnitude 1/R' + c./2142 or Z, and
an angle 0 whose tangent is wL /R. A
vector diagram showing these relations
is given in Fig. 5. Thus the relation
between current and e.m.f. in an a -c cir-
cuit containing resistance and induct-
,A4 c
ance in series may be expressed in the
Ri same form as Ohm's law for d -c circuits,
provided instantaneous values of current
and voltage and vector impedance are
[Eq. (14)]. A similar relation may
Fio. 5.- Vector relations of usedbe written using effective values of cur-
inductive circuit. rent and voltage and the magnitude of
the vector impedance. Both the vector impedance z and its magnitude Z
Sec. 41 /.VbUCTA.VCR 75
are generally referred to simply as impedance, the context usually indicat-
ing which quantity is meant.
The impedance Z increases as the frequency is increased. Con-
sequently, for constant values of E, R, and L, the current I will decrease
1000
R = 100Oems
L=//knry
BOO
600
E
400
2j
TOO
Xi
0
0
.' 20 40 60 BO 100 120 140 160 00
Frequency cycles per second
Fya. 6.-Impedance of inductive circuit with frequency.

as the frequency increases. Figure 6 shows values of Z plotted against
frequency and Fig. 7 shows how the current in the circuit of Fig. 3
vanes with the frequency of the impressed voltage.
Consider Eq. (11). After the
switch has been closed for some 0.10
time, the values of current and I
voltage bear a definite relation coo R = /00 Ohms

to each other at each instant L/Henry
during a cycle, and this series of É o06 =10 *Hs
relations is repeated during
every cycle. The circuit is now 004
said to be in the steady -state
condition, andrhe first term of aot
the right -hand side of Eq. (11)
completely defines the current 0
0 20 40
in terms of the voltage and im- 60 100
Frequency,cycles per second
BO IZO 140 160
pedance. However, for a short

interval of time after the switch Fm. 7.- Current vs: frequency in inductive
is closed, the second or transient circuit.
term generally has an appreciable value and must be considered. By
comparison with Eq. (9) it is seen that this transient current has the
form shown in Fig. 2. It is evident that the duration of the
transient current will depend upon the time constant L /R. The initial
value of the current, which is equal to the constant c, must, however be
determined. Now the current must be zero at the instant the switch is
closed (since it cannot rise to some finite value instantaneously because
of the inductance in the circuit) and, therefore, if t is taken as zero at
the instant of closing the switch, the value of c may be found mathe-
matically to be defined by the equation
Em
r = sin qS = lu sin q5 (15)
The physical significance of this equation is most readily seen by

reference to Fig. 8.' In a of this figure, the curve e represents the voltage
impressed upon the circuit and the curve marked "Steady-state current"
indicates the value the current would have if the switch had been closed
at a time much earlier than the time represented in the figure. Accord-
e
Steady-state
Current
fa)
-Actual Current
Irons ent
Current
E.m.f
/ -Current
/
(b)
Fla. 8.- Effect on transient current of closing circuit at different times in

the cycle.
ingly, at the instant of closing the switch, the current should have
the value given by the intersection of the steady -state current curve
with the vertical axis in the figure. But the actual current must be
zero at this instant; therefore, the transient current must have the
value e, just neutralizing the fictitious steady -state current. This
transient current then decreases
Power taken according to t h e curve labeled
from Generator "transient current," and the actual
current is the sum of the steady-state
current and the transfliht current. If
the switch should be closed at an
instant at which the steady-state cur-
rent would be zero, as in Fig. 8b, the
constant c would be equal to zero and
'Current there would be no transient term.
Consequently the quantity 0 in Eq.
Power returned toGeneratar (15) represents the phase angle of the
Fla. 9. -Power in inductive circuit. instant of closing the switch with
reference to the nearest time at which
the steady -state current crosses the zero axis in passing from negative to
positive values. In Fig. 8a, the switch was assumed to be closed shortly
after the steady-state current passed through such a zero value; therefore,
in this case, the so- called "phase angle" is a lag angle, and sin m is negative,
making c negative as shown.
6. Power in Inductive Circuit. The instantaneous power used in the
circuit of Fig. 3 is the product of the instantaneous values of current and
voltage. Figure 91 shows this power at times to be negative because
' MoBzcaorr, J. H., "Principles of Radio Communication," 2d ed., 1927.
! Ibid.
the current and voltage have opposite signs. Such negative power
represents a restoration to the source of some of the energy stored in the
magnetic field. In a circuit containing inductance only, the current
and voltage are 90 deg. out of phase and the negative loops of the instan-
taneous -power curve are exactly equal to the positive loops, so that the
average power taken by the inductance is zero.
In general, the instantaneous power is given by,
I
- sin- ¢) cos sin 4,)
p = E..5 sin out X sin (cot
= EuIN(sin2 ouf cos 4' rot cot
Eulx
= 2
(cos 4) - cos 2wt cos 4' - sin sin 2cot 4)) (16)
The average value of the second and third ternis in the last parenthesis is
zero, so that the average power taken by the circuit is that expressed by the
first term, or
P= E vil
= F,! cos st, (17)
where, as before, E and Lu are maximum values, and E and I are effective
values of the voltage and current. Since
E = IZ
and
cos 0 =
Z
P=IZX/ X7= l'R
This last equation is often used to define the effective resistnnee of an a -e
circuit.
As a consequence of Eq. (17), the power in an a -c circuit containing
inductance and resistance cannot be determined by measuring the current,
and voltage unless the value of the phase angle 4, can also he measured.
As this is usually difficult, the power must generally be measured with
a wattmeter.
The quantity cos ck is called the power factor of the circuit. In a circuit
containing only resistance, the power factor is unity; in a circuit con -
taining only inductance, the power factor would be zero. As applied to
a coil used as an inductor, the power factor at a given frequency gives the
ratio of the resistance of the coil to its impedance and may be used as a
figure of merit for ithe coil. As the ideal inductor would have zero power
factor, a good coil should have a very small power factor.
6. Measurements of Inductance at Low Frequencies. The measure-
ment of the inductance of air-core coils at low frequencies is relatively
simple, as the inductance is sensibly constant with change in frequency
and current. Iron -core inductors, for reasons which will be examined in
detail later, do not have a fixed inductance under all conditions, and
measurements on them must he made under conditions which duplicate
as nearly as possible the conditions under which the inductor is used.
1 Ibid.
A simple method of approximate measurement uses the circuit of Fig.

10. An a-c voltage of known frequency is applied at E, and the current
and voltage read on the meters. The voltmeter reading divided by the
ammeter reading gives the impedance and, if the resistance is measured
by a d -c -bridge or voltmeter- ammeter method,
_(z2 -R' _0.159 z= -Rs (19)
L y 4,r =f'
The method is usable for iron -core coils that carry a.c. only, provided
the measuring current is adjusted to the value that the coil carries in use.
A C.Souce of
maaunng frequency
Am-ntfer
Fia. 10.- Circuit for Fiu. 11.- Measurement of iron core coil
measurement of indue- carrying a.c. and d.c.
tance.
If measurements are made at a number of current values, the curve of
inductance against current may be plotted. The results obtained by
this method are generally slightly larger than the true values of induc-
tance because the a-c resistance, particularly in iron -core coils, is greater
than the d -c resistance.
7. Measurement of Inductance of Iron -core Coils. When an iron -
core coil must carry relatively large d.c. upon which is superimposed a
small value of a.c., its inductance is dependent upon the magnitudes of
the two currents flowing through it, and other methods must be used.
The impedance of an iron -core coil carrying d.c. and a.c. may be
measured by the circuit of Fig. 11. The d.c. through the circuit is
adjusted to the value carried by the coil during operation, and the a -c
source adjusted to impress a voltage across the coil (measured by the
thermionic voltmeter) equal to the a -c voltage across it under operating
conditions. The resistance Ro is then varied until theralternating voltage
across it is equal to that across the coil, as measured by the thermionic
voltmeter. Then the impedance of the coil at the measuring frequency
is equal to Ro. Readjustments of the impressed direct and alternating
voltages may be necessary as Ro is changed. The condenser C prevents
the direct voltages across the coil and resistor from affecting the thermi-
onic voltmeter. From the impedance and the resistance of the coil,
the inductance may be calculated by Eq. (19).
In Fig. 12 is a simple method of arriving at the impedance of an iron -
core coil based on the supposition that the inductance is high compared
See. 41 INDUCTANCE 79
to the resistance. The voltage across R and X is measured with a

vacuum -tube voltmeter, for example. Then E, /R = I and E:/I = X
= (E: /Er) X R, whence
X = R /E, (20)
In the general case in which M represents the total losses of the coil,
the power factor of the inductance is cos o and
cos O = E2 -a - E, - E, (21)
2E,E,
and the total losses in the core and winding may be thus obtained.
Once the impedance, reactance, and inductance of a coil have been
determined, the permeability and finally the magnetizing force and flux
density of an iron -core coil may be obtained. Thus the a-c flux density
R M
2
Fra. 12.-Circuit for determining inductance of iron -core coil.
_ Ear. X 108
(21a)
Bue' 4.44 X f X N X A X K gausses
where E.n. = r.m.s. voltage across the coil
f = frequency in cycles per second
A = cross section of the core in square centimeters
K = core -stacking factor (see Sec. 2, Art. 29).
The polarizing m.m.f. resulting from the d.c. in the winding, in gilberts
per centimeter is given by
1.256NI
Ho (21b)
where N = number of turns in the winding

I = d.c. in amperes
l = length of magnetic circuit in centimeters.
To get m.m.f. in ampere -turns per inch, multiply Ho by 2.032.
The following table (Allegheny Steel Company) gives values of
and Ha found in practice.
80 THE RADIO RNOINBBRINO HANDBOOK [Sec. 4
Coil Rn, ., gausses I II0, gilberts /cm
Detector-stage audio transformer 0.5 to 10 0.6 to 1.2

Second -stage a-f transformer 250 1.5
Push -pull output transformer with two primaries 7,000 0
Polarized output transformer 4,200 8.7
Heavy -duty filter reactor (80 ma) 300 27
8. Turner Constant -impedance Method. For measurements involv-

ing a.c. only, the constant -impedance method (of Turner'), shown in
Fig. 13, is used. The method is based upon the fact that, when
1- w2LC = 0, the impedance of the parallel circuit is equal to wC and is
independent of the resistance in the inductive branch. Consequently
the line current will have the same magnitude with the switch open or
closed. To measure any value of inductance, then, it is only necessary
to adjust the capacity so that the reading of the ammeter A is the same
for both positions of the switch. Then
L = 1 /(2w2C) (22)
FIG. 13. -T
constant -impedance
u r n e r Fie. 14.- Measuring circuit for coils carrying
a.c. and d.c.
method.
When the coil must carry d.c. as well as a.c., the circuit of Fig. 14 may
he used for the inductance measurement. Two similar inductors are
used, the d.c. through them being adjusted to the proper value by means
of the resistor RI and measured by means of the d -c ammeter M. The
switch S' is then thrown to the right and the resistor R2 adjusted to make
the constant potential difference between the points A and B zero.
Then, with S' thrown to the left, the inductance measurement may be
carried out in the manner already described. The result is the inductance
of the two coils in parallel, which is one -half the inductance of one coil.
9 Measurements of Inductance at High Frequencies. Very often the
low- frequency inductance of a coil, determined by one of the methods
already given, may also be used as the high -frequency inductance. In
I TURNER, H. M., Constant Impedance Method for Measuring Inductance of Choke

Coils, Proc. I.R.E., 16, 1559. 1928.
some instances it is desirable to determine the inductance at the operating

frequency. Bridge methods are not suitable for measurements at high
frequencies. Two other methods are commonly used: comparison of
the coil with a standard, and measurement of the capacity required to
tune the coil to resonance with a known frequency, from which the
inductance may he calculated. Both methods give the apparent
inductance.
In the comparison method, a standard inductor, having an apparent
inductance L. at the measuring frequency, is connected in parallel with a
calibrated variable condenser, coupled to an oscillator and the coil -
condenser circuit tuned to resonance, the capacity C. of the condenser
being noted at the resonance setting. The coil to be measured, whose
inductance is denoted by L., is then substituted for L., the circuit retuned,
and the condenser capacity C. again observed. Since the frequency is
the same in both cases,
L.C. = L.C. (23)
If the low-frequency inductance Lo and internal capacity Co of the
standard coil are known,
L.C. = Lo(C. + Co) (24)
In the second method, it is necessary to determine accurately the
frequency of the source. The coil to be measured is connected to a
calibrated variable condenser, coupled loosely to the generator and
tuned to resonance. If f is the frequency of the source, L. the apparent
inductance of the coil, and C. the condenser capacity at resonance,
1 0.02533
L. (25)
39.48f=C. f=C.
In this equation, L. is expressed in henrys and C. in farads. For L.
in ph and C. in µµf, the equation becomes
L._25.33X1015
(26)
pc.
If the capacity necessary to tune the coil to resonance at a number of
different frequencies is determined, a graph of the squares of the wave
lengths corresponding to the
several measuring frequencies 32
against the measured values of ó24

rapacity will be a straight line
whose slope is the pure induc-
tance and whose intercept with ÿ
he negative -capacity axis is the
nternal capacity of the coil. I
É e
Indrido -500,ah
Inkrwl Copoc,#y 40,yuf -
This is illustrated in Fig. 15. 40 -70 70 40 60 80 100 110 140
10. Inductance of Iron -core Tuning Copoafy,mKnomcrofarads
coils. Iron-core coils are Fla. 15.- Method of determining in-
nainly useful at relatively low ductance and distributed capacity of a
're uencies, and their use is gen- coil.
orally confined to circuits carry-
ng currents within the a -f range. (But see Art. 16.)
The inductance of a circuit is not constant if any material of variable
aermeability is within the magnetic field of the circuit. Consequently,
when a coil is wound on an iron core, its inductance is dependent upon

the circumstances under which it is used. Accordingly, to use iron -core
coils most advantageously, it is necessary to study their characteristics
under varying conditions. Three important cases must be distinguished:
the current through the coil is a.c. of single frequency; the current consists
of a d-c component upon which is superimposed a single- frequency a -c
component; the current is comprised of two a-c
components of different frequencies.
The average inductance of an iron -core coil
carrying a.c. of single frequency is dependent
upon the magnitude of the current. Also, the
a-c resistance of such a coil is higher than that
of an air core coil with an identical winding.
Therefore all inductance measurements of iron -
core coils should be made with the measuring
current equal to the current which will flow
through the coil in operation, or the inductance
may be measured for a number of different
currents and a curve of inductance against
current plotted. l'[e. 16.- Characteristic
In many radio applications a coil carries a of coil carrying large value
relatively large d.c. with a small a-c component of d.c. and small value of
superimposed. The inductance of an iron - a.c.
core coil under such conditions is a function of
the magnitudes of the d-c and a-c components of the current. This is
illustrated by Fig. 16. The constant magnetizing force (due to the d.c.)
may be such as to cause the core to be magnetized to the point A. The
alternating component of the mag-
i netizing force (due to the a.c.) will
then carry the iron through the small
hysteresis loop CB whose slope is not
tao
the same as the slope of the magneti-
nrlucArnce a zation curve. The permeability rep -
Alaasunyu- oemr< /,y/
too
resented by the slope of this small
hysteresis loop is called the incremen-
É 160 tal permeability. As the constant
component of the magnetizing force
Izo or current is increased, the point A
moves farther up the magnetization
80
curve and the incremental permea-
40 bility decreases, as indicated by the
small loops at D and E. As satura-
°o 4 o Iz
tion of the core is approached, the
*pee zing Force -Ampere e per Cm (Steady Cu rent) incremental permeability, and hence
2 6 8 14 16
Tu
the inductance, becomes very small.

F[c. 17.- Effect of d.c. on induc- As the magnitude of the a-c com-
lance of coil.
ponent is increased, the slope of the
hysteresis loop, and accordingly the incremental permeability, increases,
thus increasing the inductance. Consequently the inductance of an iron -
core coil under these conditions decreases with increase of the d-c com-
ponent of the current, and increases with increase of the a-c component.
,,,/ Figure 17 shows the decrease in inductance with increase in constant
agnetizing force.
Sec. 41 INDIICTANCE 83
If an air gap is introduced in the magnetic circuit of an iron -core coil,
the inductance of the coil is generally diminished. If, however, the coil
is carrying both d.c. and a.c., the air gap may so decrease the constant
flux that the incremental permeability is actually increased, so that the
effective inductance for the a-c component is increased. The effective
resistance of the inductor is also decreased by the introduction of an air
gap. These effects are illustrated in Fig. 18.1 As a consequence of
these characteristics, iron -core inductors that are intended for use in
circuits where they must carry d.c. as well as a.c. are usually made with
an air gap in the magnetic circuit of the core.
When theinductor carries t woalternat-
Conslonll.1agnclomot,veforce ing currents of different frequencies, the
(ompere -turns per cm) effects of the variable permeability of the
Curve A 045 iron are somewhat more complicated and
B. 14 of relatively less practical importance
C-45 than in the cases already treated.2
B, sn
11. Inductors at Radio Frequencies.
When inductors are used at radio fre-
Inductance quencies, many factors affecting their
performance come into prominence.
The h -f resistance of a coil is much
larger than its d-c resistance because of
a number of losses which come into
existence with the operation of the coil
in h-f circuits. The factors causing this
increase are skin effect, eddy currents,
Rtssfance
dielectric losses, and internal capacity.
When the wire is wound into a coil,
the effect of the magnetic field of the
coil is such as to concentrate the
current on the inner surfaces of tilt.
Air Gap turns. Figure 19 illustrates this effect,
18.-Effect of air gap on the depth of shading indicating the cur-
rent density. This concentration of
coil characteristics.
current causes a further increase in the
effective resistance of the coil, and also causes a decrease in the induc-
tance as the frequency increases. However, the variation of inductance
with frequency is generally small in comparison with the variation caused
by internal capacity.
Eddy currents in the conductors composing the coil constitute a
serious source of loss at frequencies over 3,000
kc. These losses are minimized by the use of
wire as small as possible without unduly in-
creasing the conductor resistance, or by the
use of tubing instead of wire. Because of these
losses at frequencies higher than 3,000 kc there
is an optimum wire size giving a minimum Fie. 19 -Concentration
resistance in inductance coils. of current at surface at
Any dielectric in the field of the coil also high frequencies.
introduces losses which become important at
Moeacaorr, J. H., "Principles of Radio Communication." 2d ed., 1927.
r Tumors, H. M., Inductance as Affected by Initial Magnetic State, Air Cap, and
Superposed Currents, Prue. 1.R.E., 11, 1822, 1929.
these frequencies, so that the type and amount of dielectric within the field
of the coil must be carefully regulated. The dielectric should be of the
best quality and its volume must be kept at a minimum. The conductors
of the coil should, in general, come in contact with the dielectric as little
as possible. Coils are often wound upon skeleton or ribbed winding forms
so that each turn touches the supporting insulating material at only a few
points and is surrounded for the greater part of its length solely by air.
12. Effect of Coil Capacity. Every inductor behaves not as a pure
inductance and resistance in series but as an inductance and resistance
shunted by a small capacity. This behavior is caused by the self- or
internal capacity of the coil. The resistance and inductance of the
equivalent parallel circuit at any frequency are called the apparent
resistance and apparent inductance of the coil at that frequency. The
apparent resistance is given approximately' by the equation
RA
= (1 - w'LCo)'
w (27)
and the apparent inductance by
(28)
LA
- - Leo
where R and L are the resistance and inductance the coil would have
at the frequency w /2x if the internal capacity Co were absent. These
equations do not hold for frequencies near the natural frequency of the
coil; that is, the frequency for which 1 -
w'LCo = O. These equations
are derived on the assumption that the e.m.f. in the circuit is introduced
in some manner other than by induction in the coil itself. If the e.m.f.
is induced in the coil, the internal capacity is merely added to any other
capacity which may be connected in parallel with the coil. Since a
coil is practically always used at frequencies for which 1 -
w'LCo is
positive, the apparent resistance and inductance of the coil will increase
as the frequency increases, the apparent resistance becoming very large
as 1 -
w'LCo approaches zero. The percentage change in resistance
for a given change in frequency is about twice as great as the change
in inductance. At frequencies for which 1 -
w'LCo is negative, the coil
behaves as a capacity rather than an inductance.
It has been found' that the internal capacity of a single -layer coil is
roughly proportional to the radius and practically independent of the
number of turns and the length. For a closely wound solenoid, the
internal capacity in µµf is very approximately equal to six -tenths of
the radius in centimeters.
13. Types of Inductors. A straight wire has a certain amount of
inductance, but to make inductors small enough to be convenient it is
necessary to wind the wire in the form of a coil thus utilizing a great
length of wire in a small space and also increasing the interlinkages of
flux and wire.
The simplest inductor consists of a single square turn of wire. The
inductance of this arrangement may be calculated accurately, but it has
Radio Instrumente and Measurements, Bur. Standards Cire. 74.
1
G. W. O., Jour. I.E.E. (London), 60, 63, 1922; also MoutLIN, E. B., "Radie
' How.,
Frequency Measurements," p. 340, 1931.
few other advantages. This type is sometimes used as a fundamental

standard.
The single -layer solenoid consists of one layer of wire on a cylindrical form,
the turns either adjacent to one another or spaced. Sometimes the coil is
made self-supporting by means of a binder, such as collodion, and the form
removed after winding.
Multilayer coils must be used when a single -layer coil of the required induc-
1 tance would be inconveniently large. The multilayer coil may take one of
three forma: layer wound, bank wound, and honeycomb or duolateral.
The layer -wound coil is useful only at low frequencies because of its high
internal capacity caused by the proximity of turns of greatly differing poten-
tials. The wire is wound on the coil in layers,
each layer being completed before another is
begun. Iron -core coils are usually wound in this
manner. If a very large number of turns must
be used, it is better for the whole coil to be made
up of a number of "pies," each pie being a short
20.-Bank windin g. layer-wound coil. The pies are assembled side by
side to form the complete coil. Insulation is
greatly facilitated by this type of construction, and the internal capacity is
somewhat reduced.
Bank winding is one result of the attempt to devise a multilayer coil with
relatively low internal capacity. The turns are wound in the order shown
by the cross-sectional view in Fig..20.
Honeycomb and duolaterat windings are further results of the sane effort.
The irire zigzags back and forth from one side of the winding apace to the
other, adjacent turns of the same layer being spaced from each other by
several times the wire diameter. The effect of this type of winding is to
cause turns of adjacent layers to cross each other at an angle and to separate
parallel turns by at least the diameter of the wire. A coil of this type is self -
supporting and quite compact.
Basket-weave and spider -web windings were developed also to minimize the
.nternal capacity. In the basket-weave coil the wire is wound in and out of
a number of pegs set in a circle. Adjacent turns cross at an angle. The
pegs are usually removed after the winding is completed and the coil is self -
supporting. This is essentially a single -layer coil. The spider web, on
the other hand, is primarily a multilayer coil of one turn per layer. The
wire is wound back and forth betwccn a series of pegs fastened radially in
a circular form. This coil may also he self-supporting.
The toroidal coil is wound around a doughnut -shaped form. Its field is
almost entirely internal, so that it may be placed close to other coils and
apparatus.
The flat spiral type of coil is self- explanatory-the wire being
wound in the form of a spiral, each turn having a greater radius
a®
than the preceding one.
e
14. Variable Inductors. Any of the previous types of coils
may be tapped and the number of turns in circuit varied with
a tap switch or clip. This method gives only a step-by -step
variation, and considerable loss may be introduced by the
unused portions of the coil.
A continuously variable inductor may be made by connect-
ing in series or parallel two coils having a variable mutual Fm. 21.
inductance. The coils may be single -layer or multilayer Variable
solenoids and their mutual inductance may be varied by chang- inductor.
ing the distance between the coils or by rotating one with respect to the
other. The most common form of variable inductor, however, is the
arrangement commonly called a variometer, a cross section of which is
shown in Fig. 21. The inner coil is rotatable about the axis A, which is
perpendicular to the plane of the figure. The two coils may be connected
in either series or parallel, thus increasing the range of the instrument
considerably. The mutual inductance between the coils may be increased
by winding the outer coil upon the interior of a spherical surface, instead
of using the cylindrical form shown.
If a slight increase of resistance of a coil is not objectionable, and the
desired range of inductance variation is small, a copper disk slightly
smaller than the inside of the coil form may be mounted on a shaft
perpendicular to the axis of the coil. The inductance of the coil will be
appreciably decreased when the plane of the disk is perpendicular
to the coil axis, the decrease of inductance becoming less as the disk is
rotated away from this position.
15. Design of Inductance Coils. It is desirable that the inductance
should he as large as possible, while the resistance is kept at a minimum.
There are some cases in which a relatively high resistance is permissible
or even desirable. Choke coils for use at high frequencies must have a
high impedance with a minimum internal capacity.
To determine a basis for comparison between coils of different char-
acteristics, a factor of merit for an inductor must be defined. Coils
for use at frequencies above 300 or 400 kc are usually small in size, so
that volume is relatively unimportant and the desirable characteristics
are high inductance (and, t herefore, high reactance) and low resistance.
The ratio of inductance (or reactance) to resistance may then be taken
as a factor of merit, the ideal coil having a large ratio. Sometimes the
power factor of the coil, which is equal to the ratio of resistance to
impedance, is taken as a factor of merit, an ideal coil having zero power
factor. The ratio of reactance to resistance (Lw /R) is sometimes called
the Q of the coil. (See Table I, Sec. 6.)
A coil to be used at frequencies below 300 kc is likely to be somewhat
large if wound in a manner that would be entirely appropriate at higher
frequencies. Consequently the factor of merit for coils designed for use
at the lower radio frequencies should include the volume of the inductor
and may be defined as the inductance-resistance ratio divided by the
volume of the coil.
For a given length of wire, maximum inductance is obtained when the
wire is wound as compactly as possible; that is, in a bank-wound coil
with a winding cross section as nearly square as possible. The bank-
wound type is mentioned because the simple multilayer coil is practically
useless at radio frequencies because of its high internal capacity. A
closely wound single-layer coil made up of the same length of wire has a
considerably lower inductance than the bank -wound coil. However, at
radio frequencies, the resistance of the single -layer coil is so much lower
than that of the multilayer coil that the L/R ratio of the former is much
larger than that of the latter. In view of its simplicity of construction,
the single -layer solenoid wound with solid wire would appear to be the
most desirable coil type at medium and high radio frequencies, even
though within certain ranges of frequency some other types have certain
advantages. At high frequencies (above 3,000 kc), the single-layer
solenoid, either closely wound or spaced, is used almost exclusively.
For a given wire length, this type of coil has a maximum inductance
when the ratio of diameter to length of coil is 2.46,' although this value
Radio Instruments and Measurements, Bur. Standards ('ire. 74.
is not critical. The inductance decreases somewhat rapidly as this ratio

becomes much smaller than 2.46, while the decrease is only slight for
larger values of the ratio. Since the internal capacity of the coil is
approximately proportional to the diameter, it is advantageous to use
a ratio of diameter to length somewhat smaller than 2.46 provided
that the coil is to be used under such conditions that the decrease in
internal capacity effected in this way more than compensates for the
slightly lower inductance -resistance ratio.
A multilayer coil has a maximum inductance when the cross section
of the winding is a square. It has also been shown' that, with a square
cross section given, the inductance of this type of coil is maximum when
the mean diameter is 3.02 times the depth of the winding.
Below 300 kc the volume of the coil must be included in the factor
of merit. In these circumstances, the honeycomb and bank -wound coils
outstrip all others, the honeycomb type being somewhat superior to the
bank wound. Table I gives the characteristics of honeycomb coils.
TABLE I.-HONEYCOMB-COIL DATA
Wave lengths with the
Size of Distrib- Natural following shunt -condenser
Turne wire, Indite- uted wave capacities, pf
on coil B. & S. tam's'
mh capacity, length
gage ppf meters
0.001 0.0005 0.00025 0.0001
25 24 0.038 26.8 60 372 267 193 131

35 24 0.076 30.8 91 528 378 277 188
50 24 0.150 36.4 139 743 534 391 27E
75 24 0.315 28.6 179 1,007 770 560 378
100 24 0.585 36.1 274 1,470 1,055 771 534
150 24 1.29 21.3 313 2,160 1,548 1,110 74f
200 25 2.27 18.9 391 2,870 2,050 1,470 98(
250 25 4.20 22.9 585 3,910 2,800 2,020 1,35!
300 25 6.60 19.0 669 4,900 3,490 2,510 1,67(
400 25 10.5 17.4 806 8,160 4,400 3,160 2.091
500 25 18.0 17.3 1,052 8,070 5.750 4,140 2,74(
600 28 37.5 19.2 1,600 11,600 8.300 5,980 3,98(
750 28 49.0 18.3 1,785 13,300 9,500 6.830 4.54(
1.000 28 85.3 16.8 2.260 17,600 12,500 9,000 5.95(
1,250 28 112.0 15.5 2,490 20,100 14,300 10,250 6.78(
1.500 28 161.5 15.8 3,000 24.200 17,200 12,350 8,15(
16. Coils for Various Frequency Ranges. A study of the characteris-

tics of various types of inductors in the frequency range of 300 to 1,500 kc
has been made by Hund and De Groot.! Their results show that in this
frequency band the single -layer solenoid and the loose basket -weave
coils have the highest inductance- resistance ratios of the coils wound
with solid wire, with the radial basket weave or spider web a close third.
Coils wound with 32-38 Litz wire were found to be somewhat better in all
respects than solid -wire coils. Contrary to a somewhat generally accepted
belief, a few broken strands in the Litz wire made only a slight difference
in the r-f resistance of a coil.
I Radio Instrumente and Measurements, Bur. Standards Cire. 74.
Huso, A000sT, and H. B. DE GaooT, Radio Frequency Resistance and Inductance
of Coils Used in Broadcast Reception, Bur. Standards Tech. Paper 298, Vol. 19, p. 651,
1925.
In solid -wire coils, little is gained by using a wire size larger than No.
24-AWG, although No. 16 gives a slightly lower resistance between 300
and 1,200 kc. Spacing the turns does not decrease the resistance appre-
ciably -not enough to compensate for the extra length necessary. A
number of binders were tried on single-layer coils, all of them causing a
slight increase in the r-f resistance of the coil. Collodion appeared to
be the best of these binders.
At frequencies above 3,000 kc, dielectric losses, eddy currents, and
internal capacity are important. The first two cause relatively large
increases in the coil resistance. The third increases both the resistance
200
,ií,,\\
Cone A-lbyiron Core Gain 163
Cunei- BestComnxrcal
Air Core boin/72
100
80
=
IlL Cur ve C- Poorest Commercio/
Air Core
Type 78 Tube
boin /S/
Sim
=
60 WIII1 E -250voNS WM.
WIMP
ac .
50
e Esy= l00voits ra
3NO/1S
40
30 EMU won
5 20 Ll 11V
0
rl; _ii
i i.. ..W.MI
6
5
1.G« .1111
IMI MM
WA
1MO/M111
4
Plus 40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40 Minus
Kc.Off Resonance
Fla. 22.- Iron -core coil characteristics.
and inductance of the coil if the voltage in the circuit is not induced in
the coil itself. If the circuit e.m.f. is introduced by induction in the
coil, the internal capacity, acting as a parallel condenser, determines the
highest frequency to which the coil can be tuned. As the upper limit of
parallel tuning capacity is not very large (in order that the L/C ratio
be not too small), a large internal capacity seriously restricts the range
over which the coil may be tuned efficiently. It is for these reasons that
the single -layer solenoid is used almost exclusively at such frequencies.
Coils for Short -wave Receivers. A considerable study of coils of
various sizes made from wire of various sizes and for use at frequencies
of the order of 15 Mc was made by W. S. Barden and David Grimes.'
1 Electronics, June. 1934, p. 174. (This material and that on iron -core inductances are
by the Editor.)
See. 41 INDUCTANCE 89
It was determined that maximum value of Q for such coils, of the order
of 1 ah inductance, could be realized when wire diameter and spacing
between turns were of the same order of magnitude. Very large wire
(long coils) was not superior to medium -size wire, say No. 20 or No. 22.
Using wire of No. 14 size, 1-in.- diameter coils were superior to -in-
diameter coils for any winding length. s
It was determined that shielding the coil does not reduce the Q to a
serious extent, provided proper spacing is observed. In reasonable
practice Q need not be decreased by more than 10 per cent. or L by more
than 15 per cent. Bakelite winding forms have some effect upon Q.
Thus a 1 -ph coil of No. 10 wire (0.104 in.) was wound on a 2-in. length of
1.5 -in.-diameter bakelite having a 0.125 -in. wall. This coil had 0.333 -in.
winding pitch. At 15 mc, Q = 212. Upon removing the winding form
it remained self-supporting, and Q increased to 229.
Coils made of No. 14 wire on a 1- in.- diameter form with 0.111 in.
between turns (0.88 ph, 53 ¡ turns) were found to be good compromise
coils. These would have a Q of 184. Coils made on 0.5-in. forms wound
with small wire, say No. 24, have values of Q in the region from 75 to 100.
Iron -core R -f Inductances. From 1931 to 1935 considerable headway
was made in the use of ferro inductors at broadcast and intermediate
frequencies. The advantages offered by iron coils over air coils are the
small size and high Q. They have been especially useful where it is
necessary to get high gain, or high selectivity, in small space, or with a
minimum number of tuned circuits. Some attempt has been made to
use coils with variable iron cores so that in tuning a circuit the inductance
would be varied instead of the capacity.
One such material (Polyiron) has an iron content of 95 per cent. The
remainder of the pressed core is bakelite and insulating varnish. Per-
meability measured with toroidal cores is of the order of 12; its specific
gravity is 4.8 against 7.0 for solid iron; its conductivity is 100 mhos per
cubic centimeter against 10-6 for solid iron. Permeability remains con-
stant from 50 to 2,000,000 cycles. Variation of magnetic force from
0.01 to 10 gauss makes no appreciable change.'
Another iron which has come into use in this country is Ferrocart,
already widely used in Europe. Intermediate -frequency transformers
for 456, 370, 360 and 175 kc have been designed from Ferrocart and
Polyiron as have transformers coupling an i-f stage to a diode detector.
For automobile and other receivers where high initial gain is required, to
reduce the noise to signal ratio, iron coils seem to offer considerable
advantages.
In a typical receiver of the characteristics given below, the table
shows the advantages to be gained by using iron instead of air-core coils.
This receiver was a six -tube a -c export tube, employing 370-kc i -f
transformers. It used a type 57 first detector, type 27 oscillator, a type
58 i-f amplifier, a type 2A6 diode- triode, a type 2A5 output tube and a
type 80 rectifier. The high impedance of the plate -cathode circuit of the
first detector is partially responsible for the excellent selectivity of the
receiver.
LANGLEY, RALPH H., Tuning by Permeability Variation, Electronics, July, 1931;
CROSsLEY, ALFRED, Iron Core Intermediate Frequency Transformers, Electronics,
November, 1933; POLYDOROPF, W. J., Further Nota on Iron -core Coils, Electronics
January, 1934; and Ferro -inductors and Permeability Tuning, Proc. I.R.E., May 1933:
FILL, J. V.. Ferrocart and Its Applications, Electronics, November, 1934.
Care was taken to align the receiver properly at each frequency in

order that each test be made under the best conditions.
WITH AIR -CORE TRANSFORMERS
Band width Band width Band width Sensitivity,

Frequency, 10 times, 100 times, 1.000 times,
kilocycles kilocycles kilocycles kilocycles microvolts
1,400 18 37 62 5
1 .000 13 28 46 4
600 13 26 42 5
WITH IRON-CORE UNITS
1,400 7 16 31 5
1.000 7 15 27 4
600 7 14 26 6
The advantages from the standpoint of gain are as follows.

In a five -tube a-c d-c set of the better type employing 456-kc i -f traits -
formers, the tube complement was as follows: 6C6, 6D6, 75, 43, and
25Z5. The type 6C6 was employed as a composite oscillator -first
detector. In this receiver the two i -f transformers and also the antenna
coupler were replaced with iron -core units. The sensitivity at 1000 kc
increased from 100 to 20 µv.
17. Calculation of Inductance of Air -core Coils. The inductance of
many types of air-core coils may be calculated by means of formulas
involving the dimensions of the coil and the number of turns.' Several
formulas from Circular 74 of the Bureau of Standards are given here.
Few of the available corrections to inductance formulas are included,
since they apply only to the calculation of the 1 -f inductance. The h-f
inductance of a coil cannot be calculated with a high degree of accuracy
because of the skin effect and coil capacity.
In the following formulas all dimensions are expressed in centimeters and
the inductance is in microhenrya.
18. Straight Round Wire. If is the length of the wire, d is the diameter
1
of the cross section, and is the of the material of the wire,

rrpermeability
Lo = 0.002/[logo
1
-
1 +4J (29)
= 0.00211 2.303 logis

-41
- 1 + }] (30)
If A = 1 (for all materials except iron),

Lo = 0.0021[2.303 logto
dl
- 0.75] (31)
The return conductor is assumed to be remote. These formulas give the

low- frequency inductance.
ROSA, E. B., and F. W. GROVER, Bur. Standards Sci. Paper 169; GROVER, F. W.
Bur. Standards Sei. Papers 320, 1917; 455, 1922; 488, 1923. See for coil design and
calculation, especially at low frequencies MORGAN BROOKS and H. M. TURNER, Indue-
tance of Coils, Bull. 53, Univ. Ill. Eng. Érper. Sta., Jan. 8, 1912.
As the frequency increases, the inductance decreases, its value at infinite

frequency being
L,, = 0.002/ logroo
d - 1] (32)
A general expression for the inductance at any frequency is
¡L
L = 0.00211 2.303 logo /
d
- 1 + 1.45] (33)
The quantity 5 is obtained from the table below, as a function of the

argument x, where
x = 0.1405dI (34)
P
and f is the frequency and p is the volume resistivity of the wire in microhm-
centimeters. For copper at 20 °C.,
z, = O.1O71dVj
This quantity 5 will be used in several of the following formulas without
further definition.
VALUE OF 5 IN INDUCTANCE FORMULAS
r
x 4 z á z 8 z 6 I z 6 z d
0 0.2 2.5 0.228 8.0 0.11 12.0 0.059 25.0 0.028 70.0 0.010
0.5 0.2 3.0 0.211 7.0 0.1 14.0 0.050 30.0 0.024 80.0 0.009
1.0 0.249 3.5 0.191 8.0 0. 18.0 0.044 40.0 0.0175 90.0 0.008
1.5 0.24 4.0 0.1715 9.0 0.07 18.0 0.039) 50.0 0.014 100.0 0.007
2.0 0.2 5.0 0.139 10.0 0.07 20.0 0.035 80.0 0.012 ao 0.000
19. Two Parallel Round Wires -Return Circuit. The current is assumed
to flow in opposite directions in two parallel wires of length 1 and diameter d,
the distance between centers of wires being D. Then
L = 0.00411 2.303 login 2D -D + Aid (35)
This neglects the inductance of the wires connecting the two main wires.
If these wires are long, their Inductance may be calculated by Eq. (33) and
added to the result from Eq. (35), or the whole system may be treated as a
rectangle and the inductance calculated by Eq. (37).
20. Square of Round Wire. The length of one side of the square is denoted
by a; other letters have already been defined.
L = 0.O08a[2.303 login -+ Sda

- 0.774 + µô] (36)
21. Rectangle of Round Wire. The sides of the rectangle are a and al
and the diagonal g = a= + a1=. Then
L = 0.00921 I (a +ai) logro 4I -a logio (a + - al logis (ai + p)J g)

r
+0.004[ µ5(a + al) + 2(0 + 2) - 2(a + ar) J (37)
92 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec.
22. Grounded Horizontal Wire. The wire is assumed to be parallel to

the earth which acts as the return circuit. In addition to symbols already
used, h denotes the height of the wire above ground. Then
4h
+ Z= + 4
L = 0.004605/ loglo + login
L Z + /1= + 4h!
1
r :
+0.0021 s/l0 + 4h2 - \fZs +4 + µ1ó - 2h + 2
(38)
23. Circular Ring of Circular SectioVVon. If a is the mean radius of the ring,
L = 0.012573 2.303 logio
r ló3 l
- 2 +µóJ (39)
d
provided that d /2a < 0.2.
L f
75 e C
" 60 7.104
6
40 e 1
IO
I
e
700 0
000001
000000
00000)
00000.
000000
00000e
000000
l' 00001
0007
0001
0001
700
150 0000
7000
MO
.1000
6 000 00
ti J
CHART E CHART I
Conned Ihneknown 00 ves os per key, end road Connect /wD.:nown naves ond.rod Me/
'burr at polo! oeaknmNmn of pole o/mfesedion
E ample' IfL- I70mh, d and n .426 Enmpk :Ifa 350m. ad C 00003nA/.
Men Men L-R0.M.
Fia. 23.- Inductance -design chart.

24. Single -layer Coil or Solenoid.
0.0395(%2K (40)
where n is the number of turns, a is the radius of the coil measured from the
axis to the center of the wire, b is the length of the coil, and K is a function of
2a /b, the value of which may he determined by means of the table below.
VALUE OF K IN FORMULA 40
Diem- Di em- Diam-
K Differ- K Differ- Dißer-
eter to
ente eter to
enea eter to K
length length length ente
0.00 1.0000 -0.0209 2.00 0.5255 -0.0118 7.00 0.2584 -0.0047

.05 .9791 203 2.10 .5137 112', 7.20 .2637 45
.10 .9588 19 2.20 .5025 107 7.40 .2491 43
.15 .9391 1:1 2.30 .4918 102 7.6) .2448 42
.20 .9201 18 2.40 .4816 97 7.80 .2408 40
0.25 0.9018 -0.017: 2.50 0.4719 -0.0093 8.00 0.2388 -0.0094
.30 .8838 173 2.60 .4626 89 8.50 .2272 86
.35 .8665 167 2.70 .4537 9.00 .2185 79
.40 .8499 162 2.80 .4452 8 9.50 .2106 73
.45 .8337 1 2.90 .4370 7: 10.00 .2033
0.50 0.8181 --0.01 I 3.00 0.4292 --0.007 10.0 0.2033 --0.0133
.55 .8031 14. 3.10 .4217 72 11.0 .1903 113
.60 .7885 141 3.20 .4145 71 12.0 .1790 98
.65 .7745 13 3.30 .4075 67 13.0 .1692 87
.70 .7609 131 3.40 .4008 64 14.0 .1605 78
0.75 0.7478 --0.012 3.50 0.3944 --0.0062 15.0 0.1527 --0.0070
.80 .7351 123 3.60 .3882 16.0 .1457
I
63
.85 .7228 11: 3.70 .3822 17.0 .1394 58
.90 .7110 11 3.80 .3764 18.0 .1336 52
.95 .6995 111 3.90 .3708 19.0 .1284 48
1.00 0.8884 --0.010 4.00 0.3654 --0.0052 20.0 0.1236 -0 0085
1.05 .6777 104 4.10 .3602 51 22.0 .1151 73
1.10 .6673 III 4.20 .3551 49 24.0 .1078 83
1.15 .6573 9: 4.30 .3502 4 26.0 .1015 56
1.20 .8475 94 4.40 .3455 4 28.0 .0959 49
1.25 0.6381 --0.009I 4.50 0.3409 --0.004 30.0 0.0910 --0.0102
1.30 .6290 89 4.60 .3384 4 35.0 .0808 80
1.35 .6201 4.70 .3321 4 40.0 .0728 64
1.40 .6115 84 4.80 .3279 41 45.0 .0664 53
1.45 .8031 81 4.90 .3238 I 50.0 .0611 43
1.50 0.5950 --0.0079 5.00 0.3198 --0.007 60.0 0.0528 --0.0061
1.55 .5871 7 5.20 .3122 72 70.0 .0467 48
1.60 .5795 74 5.40 .3050 69 80.0 .0419 38
1.65 .5721 7 5.60 .2981 8 90.0 .0381 31
1.70 .5649 7 5.80 .2916 62 100.0 .0350
1.75 0.5579 --0. 8.00 0.2854 --0.0059
1.80 .5511 6 6.20 .2795
1.85 .5444 65 6.40 .2739 54
1.90 .5379 63 6.60 .2685 52
1.95 .5316 61 6.80 .2833 49.
ll
25. Multilayer Coils: Circular Coils of Rectangular Cross Section. for

long coils of a few layers, the following formula may be used:
0.0128nrac(0.693
L = L. + B.) (41)
b
where L. is the inductance calculated by Eq. (40), n and b are the same as in
Eq. (40), a is the radius of coil measured from axis to center of winding cross
section e is the radial depth of winding, and B. is the correction given on p. 96.
VALUE OF B. IN FORMULA 43
b/c B. b/c B. b/c B. b/c B. b/c B. b/c B.
1 0.0000 6 0.2446 11 0.2844 16 0.3017 21 0.3116 26 0.3180

2 0.1202 7 0.2563 12 0.2888 17 0.3041 22 0.3131 27 0.3190
3 0.1753 8 0.2656 13 0.2927 18 0.3062 23 0.3145 28 0.3200
4 0.2076 9 0.2730 14 0.2961 19 0.3082 24 0.3157 29 0.3209
5 0.2292 10 0.2792 15 0.2991 20 0.3099 25 0.3169 30 0.3218
For short multilayer cols, the dimensions shown in Fig. 24 are used. Two
formulas are required, one for use when b > c, and the other for use when b <
c. In the first case:
bt
L = 0.01257an=[ (1 + 3- 2a2 + 9620!/
loge
8- i
= 0.01257an=[ 2.303(1 + 32a= + 96a!)

8a :
loga - Yi + 18a2Y:
(42)
When b < c:
L = 0.01257an2[ (1 + 3220=
+ 9820=)
loge
8a
- Yi
+
c=
18a=Y+
= 0.01257an=[ 2.303(1 + 32ae + 9ßa!/

FIG. 24.-Mul-
tilayer coil.
logio
Sa
- Y + 18a21/ ' x
(43)
y,, yx, and y, may be obtained from the table shown below. These for-
mulas are quite accurate as long as the diagonal of the cross section (d Fig. 24)
does not exceed the mean radius. The accuracy decreases considerably as b
becomes large in comparison with a.
For very accurate results, a correction must be added if the insulation of
the wire occupies a considerable percentage of the winding space. This
correction is given by
0.155 ]
AL = 0.01257a4 2.303 logo d + (44)
where D is the distance between the centers of adjacent wires, and d is the
diameter of the bare wire.
26. Multilayer Square Coil. If n is the number of turns and a is the side
of the square measured to the center of the rectangular cross section which
has length b and depth c, then
L = 0.008an=[ 2.303 logis b + + 0.223566
á cc
+ 0.726 ] (45)
If the cross section is square (b = e), this becomes
L = 0.008an=[ 2.303 logis 6 + O.447á + 0.033 ] (48)

seo. 6] INDUCTANCE 95
VALUE OF CONSTANTS IN FORMULAS (42) AND (43)
b/c or c/b yi c/b y, b/c y,
0 0.5000 0 0.125 0 0.597

0.025 0.5253
0.05 0.5490 0.05 0.127 0.05 0.599
0.10 0.5924 0.10 0.132 0.10 0.602
0.15 0.8310 0.15 0.142 0.15 0.608
0.20 0.8852 0.20 0.155 0.20 0.615
0.25 0.6953 0.25 0.171 0.25 0.824
0.30 0.7217 0.30 0.192 0.30 0.633
0.35 0.7447 0.35 0.215 0.35 0.843
0.40 0.7845 0.40 0.242 0.40 0.654
0.45 0.7816 0.45 0.273 0.45 0.665
0.50 0.7960 0.50 0.307 0.50 0.877
0.55 0.8081 0.55 0.344 0.55 0.690
0.60 0.8182 0.60 0.384 0.60 0.702
0.65 0.8285 0.85 0.427 0.65 0.715
0.70 0.8331 0.70 0.474 0.70 0.729
0.75 0.8383 0.75 0.523 0.75 0.742
0.80 0.8422 0.80 0.578 0.80 0.758
0.85 0.8451 0.85 0.632 0.85 0.771
0.90 0.8470 0.90 0.690 0.90 0.786
0.95 0.8480 0.95 0.752 0.95 0.801
1.00 0.8483 1.00 0.818 1.00 0.818
Formula (43) may be used to correct for insulation by replacing the factor
0.01257 by 0.008.
For a single -layer square coil,
L = 0.008an{ 2.303 login + O.2231á + 0.726]
h
-
0.008an(A + B) (47)
A and B are given below, where d is the diameter of the bare wire and D is
the distance between turns, measured to the centers of the wires.
VALUE OF A IN FORMULA (47)
d/D A d/D A d/D A
1.00 0.557 0.40 -0.359 0.15 -1.340

0.95 0.506 0.38 -0.411 0.14 -1.409
0.90 0.452 0.38 -0.465 0.13 -1.483
0.85 0.394 0.34 -0.522 0.12 -1.583
0.80 0.334 0.32 --0.583 0.11 -1.650
0.75 0.289 0.30 --0.847 0.10 --1.746
0.70 0.200 0.28 -0.716 0.09 -1.851
0.85 0.128 0.26 --0.790 0.08 --1.989
0.60 0.046 0.24 --0.870 0.07 -2.102
0.55 -0.041 0.22 -0.957 0.06 -2.258
0.50 --0.136 0.20 --1.053 0.05 --2.439
0.48 --0.177 0.19 -1.104 0.04 -2.662
0.48 -0.220 0.18 -.1.158 0.03 --2.950
0.44 --0.264 0.17 -1.215 0.02 -3.355
0.42 -0.311 0.16 -1.276 0.01 -4.048
VALUE OF B IN FORMULA (47)
Number of B Number of B
turne, n turne, n
1 0.000 40 0.315
2 0.114 45 0.317
3 0.166 50 0.319
4 0.197 60 0.322
5 0.218 70 0.324
6 0.233 80 0.326
7 0.244 90 0.327
8 0.253 100 0.328
9 0.260 150 0.331
10 0.266 200 0.333
15 0.286 300 0.334

20 0.297 400 0.335
25 0.304 500 0.336
30 0.308 700 0.336
35 0.312 1,000 0.336
27. Inductance Standards. Like all other standards, inductance

standards must be rugged, permanent, and constant. The simplest
fundamental standard is a single square turn of round wire. The induc-
tance of such a standard can be calculated with great accuracy.
When a standard having a large value of inductance is desired, the
single square turn becomes too large for use, and it is necessary to design
some more compact form. The resistance and internal capacity must
be kept to a minimum. Furthermore the turns must be held rigidly in
place so they cannot change their relative positions. The dielectric
in the field of the coil must have a minimum volume and be of such
material that the losses in it are as small as possible.
These requirements are best met by a single -layer solenoid with a
spaced winding. For a minimum conductor resistance, the ratio of
diameter to length should be 2.46, but a somewhat smaller value of this
ratio is desirable to reduce the internal capacity, this being proportional
to the radius.
One excellent form of standard inductor is made by winding silk -
covered Litz wire in slots in the edges of strips of hard rubber, the ends
of which are supported by hard -rubber rings. With this skeleton type
of winding form, the cross section of the coil is polygonal rather than
circular. In order that the proper ratios of diameter to length may be
maintained, the coils must be of large size, their diameters ranging from
10 to 40 cm. for inductance values that are necessary in the frequency
range from 15 to 1,500 kc. Such a coil must be given relatively careful
handling, however, since jolts might cause some of the wires to change
their positions. A more rugged coil consists of bare wire wound upon a
threaded cylindrical form, the turns being cemented in place with a very
little cement, preferably collodion. The form should be as thin as is
consistent with adequate strength. Glass forms may also be used,
although it is then necessary to cement the turns more thoroughly than
in the case of a threaded form.
With recent advances in the precision of frequency determination and
improvement in standard condensers, the temperature coefficient of s
standard inductance may become an important factor. It is possible,
in this case, to reduce the temperature coefficient by a special design
of the winding form.
28. Mutual Inductance. As the changing magnetic field due to a
varying current in a circuit induces an e.m.f. in the circuit itself, so may
it induce an e.m.f. in any neighboring circuit. The e.m.f. induced in the
first circuit depends upon the self-inductance of that circuit, and, in the
same way, the e.m.f. induced in the second. circuit depends upon
the mutual inductance between the two circuits. Mutual inductance
is defined in three ways exactly analogous to the three ways of defining
self- inductance: (1) as the magnetic flux linking the second circuit when
unit current flows in the first circuit; (2) as the e.m.f. induced in circuit
2 when the current in circuit 1 changes at the rate of one unit per second;
(3) as twice the work done in establishing the magnetic flux, linking
circuit 2, associated with unit current in circuit 1. These three definitions
give constant and equal values for the mutual inductance if there is no
material of variable permeability near the circuits and if the current
does not vary so rapidly that its distribution in the cross section of the
conductors differs greatly from a uniform one. The change in current
distribution at high frequencies, however, has a very slight effect upon the
mutual inductance.
The units of mutual inductance are the same as those of self- inductance:
in the practical system they are the henry and its subdivisions, the milli-
henry (mh) and microhenry (µh).
29. Measurement of Mutual Inductance. When two inductors,
having a mutual inductance, are connected in series so that their mag-
netic fields aid each other, the total inductance of the combination is
. L' = L, + Ls + 2M (48)
where L' is the inductance of the combination, L, and L: are the induc-
tances of the coils, and M is their mutual inductance. If the connections
to one of the coils are reversed, the total inductance becomes
L "= L, +L : -2M (49)
Then, from these two equations,
L' L" -
4
These relations furnish a convenient method
for the measurement of mutual inductance. The
inductance of the two coils connected in series is
measured by any suitable method, the connections
to one coil reversed, and the inductance again
measured. The larger of thetwo measured values
is then denoted by L' and the smaller by L ", and
M is calculated by means of Eq. (50). This
method is applicable at any frequency, provided
the inductance -measurement method is appropri-
ate at that frequency. It is not very accurate F,u. 25.- C'rcuit for meas-
when Mis small in comparison with the inductance uring mutual inductance.
of the larger of the two coils.
A method applicable for all values of M is illustrated in Fig. 25., V
represents a voltage -measuring device of high impedance, preferably a
thermionic voltmeter. A voltage source of frequency w/2T is connected to
MOULL,N, E. B., " Radio Frequency Measurements." p. 383. 1932.
9$ THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Set. 4
VALUER OF F FOR FORMULA 56
r2/ri F Difference 1 r2/r1 F Difference r:/n P Difference
0 b
0.010 0.05016 -0.00120 0.30 0.008844 -0.000341 0.80 0.0007345 -0.0000604
109 8503 328 .81 6741 579
.011 4897 .31
100 .32 8175 314 .82 6162 555
.012 4787
.33 7861 302 .83 5607 531
4687 -0.00093 .34 7559 290 .84 5076 507
0.013
.014 4594 87
.015 4507 81 0.35 0.007269 -0.000280 0.85 0.0004569 -0.0000484
148 6989 270 .86 4085 460
.016 4426 .36
132 6720 260 .87 3625 437
.018 4278 .37
.38 6460 249 .88 31t.8 413
6211 241 .89 2775 389
0.020 0.04146 -0.00119 .39
.022 4027 109
.024 3918 100 0.40 0.005970 -0.000232 0.90 0.0002386 -0.0000365
Al 5738 225 91 2021 341
.026 3818 93
86 5514 217 .92 1680 316
.028 3725 .42
.43 5297 210 .93 1364 290
5087 202 .94 1074 263
0.030 3639 -0.00081 .44
.032 3558 76
.034 3482 71 0.45 0.004885 -0.000195 0.95 0.00008107 -0.00002351
3411 68 .46 4690 189 .96 5756 2046
.036
3343 64 .47 4501 183 .97 3710 1706
.038
.48 4318 178 .98 2004 1301
-0.00061 .49 4140 171 .99 703 703
0.040 0.03279
.042 3218 58 1.00 0
.044 3160 55 0.50 0.003969 -0.000166
.046 3105 53 .51 3803 160 0.950 0.00008170 -0.00000494
51 3643 156 .952 7613 482
.048 3052 .52
.53 3487 150 .954 7131 470
-0.00226 3337 146 .956 6661 458
0.050 0.03001 .54
2775 191 .958 6202 446
.060
070 2584 164 0.55 0.003191 -0.000141
.080 2420 144 .56 3050 137 0.960 0.00005756 -0.00000436
2276 128 .57 2913 133 .962 5320 421
.090
.58 2780 128 .964 4899 409
0.02148 -0.00116 .59 26.52 125 .966 4490 397
0.100
.11 2032 104 .968 4093 383
.12 1928 96 0.60 0.002527 -0.000120
.13 1832 89 .61 2407 117 0.970 0.00003710 --0.00000370
.14 1743 82 .62 2290 113 .972 3340 356
-
.63 2177 109 .974 2984 341

2068 106 .976 2643 327
0.15 0.01661 -0.00075 .64
.978 2316 312
.16 1586 71
.17 1515 66 0.65 0.001962 -0.000103
.18 1449 62 .66 1859 99 0.980 0.00002004 -0 .00000296
59 .67 1760 96 .982 1708 278
.19 1387
.68 1664 93 .984 1430 262
-0.00055 .69 1571 90 .986 1168 242
0.20 0.01328
52 .988 926 223
.21 1273
.22 1221 50 0.70 0.001481 -0.000087
.23 1171 47 .71 1394 84 0.990 0.00000703 --0.00000201
.24 1124 45 .72 1310 81 .992 502 177
.73 1228 78 .994 326 148
0.010792 -0.000425 .74 1150 76 .996 177 115
0.25
.26 10366 408 .998 062 62
.27 0.009958 388 0.75 0.0010741 -0.0000731
.28 9570 371 .76 10010 704
.29 9199 355 .77 9306 680
.78 8626 653
.79 7973 628
the terminals A and B, the current being denoted by i. When the switch
is connected to point 1, the voltage measured is
`l mC (51)
With the switch on point 2, the measured voltage
cz = rv.lfi = ur23ICci (52)
Then
1f =Cz 1
(53)
cI m'C
The capacity C may be replaced by a resistance R. Then
ezR
M (54)
egg
If a variable standard of mutual inductance is available, any other mutual
inductance whose value falls within the range of the standard may be readily
measured. The primaries are connected in series to a voltage source. the
secondaries in opposition to a telephone receiver or other indicating device,
and the standard is varied until a null indication is obtained. The unknown
mutual inductance then has the value indicated by the standard.
30. Calculation of Mutual Inductance., The mutual inductance of two
parallel coaxial circles may be calculated by the following method: first,
calculate
( a\z Dr
z
= 1 A + fl=
(55)
rl (
\1 + A/ +
\l/
z
where a is the radius of the smaller circle, A the radius of the larger circle,
and D the distance between the planes of the two circles. From the table
shown on page 100 the value of F corresponding to the calculated value of rr /r,
is obtained. Then
3f = 4a F'f (56)
The units are the same as in the formulas for self-inductance already given.
For two parallel coaxial multilayer coils of square or nearly square cross
section, a good approximation is given by
3f = ninzMo (57)
where nI and nz are the numbers of turns on the two coils, and Al is the
mutual inductance of two circles located at the centers of the cross sections
of the two coils.
The same formula may be used as a rough approximation for the mutual
inductance of two coaxial single -layer solenoids.
References
BurrEawoRTH, S.: The High- frequency Copper Losses in Inductance Coils. Exp.
Wirdess, 2, 813, 1925.
CouasEy, P. R.: Calculation and Design of Inductances, Electrician, 75, 841, 1915.
GRIFFITHS, W. H. F.: Notes on Standard Inductances for Wave Meters and Other
Radio-frequency Purposes, Exp. (fireless and Wireless Eng., 6, 543, 1929.
MAXWELL: "Electricity and Magnetism," Vol. II.
PERROT, F. E.: Formulae and Tables for Design of Air-Core Inductance Coils, Univ.
Calif. Pub., Eng., 1, 117, 1916.
WnrrrEMoaa, L. E., and G. BREIT: Inductance, Capacity, and Resistance of Coila at
Radio Frequency, Phys. Rec., 14 170, 1919.
Wn.aorrE, R. M.: Parasitic Losses in Inductance Coils at Radio Frequency, Exp.
Wireless, 2, 451 and 477, 1925.
ROBA, E. B., and F. W. GROVER, Bur. Standards Sei. Paper 169; GRovER, F. W.,
Bar. Standards Sei. Papers 320 and 498.
SECTION 5
CAPACITANCE
BY E. L. HALL,' E.E.
1. Capacitance. Capacitance is one of the three electrical quantities
present in all radio circuits. The radio engineer endeavors to concentrate
capacitance in definite well -known forms at definite points in the circuits
but capacitance exists between different conductors in the circuits and
between the various conductors and the ground. Such capacitances,
usually small, are ordinarily of no importance in the case of 1 -f or a-f
currents but may be of great consequence in r-f circuits.
A condenser is an electrical device in which capacitances play the main
role. While some inductance and some resistance are present, these
quantities are usually of such minor importance that they are not
considered.
A condenser has three essential parts, two of which are usually metal
plates separated or insulated by the third part called the dielectric.
The amount of electricity which the condenser will hold depends on
the voltage applied to the condenser. This may be expressed as
Q = C X V. The capacitance of the condenser is the ratio of the quantity
of electricity and the potential difference or voltage, or C = Q/V where
Q is given in coulombs, C in farads, and V in volts. The capacitance of a
condenser is dependent on the size and spacing of the plates and the
kind of dielectric between the plates.
2. Units of Capacitance. The unit of capacitance is the farad. A
condenser has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of electricity
can be added to it by an applied voltage of one volt. This unit is too
large for practical use so that a smaller unit, the microfarad, abbreviated
pf, or one -millionth of a farad, is used. A condenser having.a capacitance
of one microfarad is much larger than is used in radio circuits. Con-
densers for such circuits usually have capacitances between a few thou-
sandths and a few millionths of a microfarad. Another unit, the micro-
microfarad, is often used. It is abbreviated µµf.
Another unit of capacitance sometimes used is the centimeter. The
centimeter is equal to 1.1124 micromicrofarads.
3. Electrical Energy of Charged Condenser. Work is done in charging
a condenser because the dielectric opposes the setting up of the electric
strain or displacement of the electric field in the dielectric. The e- tow
of the charging source is stored up as electrostatic energy in the dielectnc.
The work done in placing a charge in the condenser is
W = ZQ X V = CV! = 2C
1 Radio Engineer, Radio Section, National Bureau of Standards.
100
See. ój CAPACITANCE 101
where W is expressed in joules

Q is expressed in coulombs
V is expressed in volts.
The work done in charging the condenser is independent of the time taken to
charge it.
4. Power Required to Charge Condenser. The average power required to
charge a condenser is given by the equation
1 ('V=
P =2 t
where P is expressed in watts

C is expressed in microfarads
V is expressed in volts
t is expressed in seconds.
If the condenser is charged and discharged N times per second the above
equation becomes
P = S,CV =N
If an alternating e.m.f. of frequency f is used in charging the condenser, the
equation may be written
P = CEo=j
where P = power in watts
C = capacitance in farads
Eo = maximum value of voltage
f = frequency in cycles per second.
5. Dielectric Materials. The dielectric of a condenser is one of the
three essential parts. It may be found in solid, liquid, or gaseous form
or in combinations of these forms in a given condenser.
The simplest form of condenser consists of two electrodes or plates
separated by air. This represents a condenser having a gaseous dielec-
tric. If this imaginary condenser has the air between the plates replaced
by a non-conducting liquid, such as transformer oil, and if the distance
between the plates is the same as in the first case, it would be found
that the capacitance was increased several times because the oil has a
higher value of dielectric constant than air which is usually taken as 1.
If the space between the plates is occupied by a solid insulator, a
condenser would result, which would be practical, as far as the possibility
of constructing it is concerned. It would be found, in this case also,
that the capacitance of the condenser was several times larger than when
air was the dielectric.
The mechanical construction of either air or liquid dielectric condensers
requires the use of a certain amount of solid dielectric for holding the
two sets of plates.
There are a great many dielectric or insulating materials available from
which the engineer may choose. It often is found that a material which is
very good from the electrical standpoint is poor mechanically, or vice
versa. Air is the gas generally used as a dielectric. Compressed air
has been used in some high-voltage condensers, and compressed nitrogen
and carbon dioxide are also in use.
Several kinds of oil have been used in condensers, such as castor oil,
cottonseed oil, and transformer oil. More recently electrolytic con-
densers have come into use in radio equipment for use as filters and
102 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (See.I
by-pass condensers where a large capacitance is required and either a d.c.
or pulsating d.c. is applied.
Among the solids used as the condenser dielectric are mica, ceramic
materials, and paper. Solid insulators used as mechanical supports in
condensers include quartz, glass, Isolantite, porcelain, bakelite, mica,
amber, hard rubber, Victron, Mycalex, etc.
6. Dielectric Properties of Insulating Materials. Such properties
as surface and volume resistivity, dielectric strength or puncture voltage,
dielectric constant, and absorption, are often considered in d -c and
commercial-frequency applications. Such data are of little value if the
insulating material is to he used at radio frequencies. For the latter
application r -f measurements of various properties of the material are
essential. A material which may he a satisfactory insulator for low
frequencies may be worthless as an insulator at radio frequencies.
One of the most important properties of an insulator for radio fre-
quencies is its power loss. This includes several factors which are diffi-
cult to separate but together indicate its suitability for radio purposes.
The general idea of the imperfection of a condenser is brought out in
several names such as "power loss," "power factor," and "phase differ-
ence," but they are not identical terms.
Dielectric constant is another important property of a material which
has a definite bearing upon its use at radio frequencies.
Neither power loss nor dielectric constant alone can be used in selecting
the best insulator for a particular application at radio frequencies. Some
investigators have published results in which a product of the power
loss and dielectric constant appears. This factor has no recognized name
as yet but has certain merits for indicating more completely the suita-
bility of an insulating material for radio uses.
7. Dielectric Constant. The dielectric constant K of an insulating
material is the ratio of the capacitance C. of a condenser using the mate-
rial as the dielectric, to the capacitance C. of the condenser using air as the
dielectric, or K = Cs /C,. This property of the material is sometimes
called induclivity or specific inductive capacity.
The dielectric constant of a material is not a constant in the true sense
of the word, but varies with the frequency, moisture content, tempera-
ture, voltage applied, and manner of applying it.
A table giving the dielectric constants of a large number of electrical
insulating materials will he found in Art. 9.
8. Power Loss, Phase Difference, and Power
* Factor. Electrical insulating materials are not per-
¡ J feet in their insulating qualities, and there is a cer-
tain amount of power absorbed in them when used
in an a -c circuit. A measurement of the power
90.; loss is the best single property that gives an indica-
tion of the suitability of an insulating material for
iE use in radio circuits. Power loss can be expressed
Fla. 1. -Phase in a by a number of quantities, the most commonly
capacitive circuit. used being resistance, power factor, phase difference,
and phase angle.
When a.c. flows in a condenser, the voltage across the condenser lags
somewhat less than 90 deg. behind the current as shown by the angle e
(Fig. 1), called the phase angle. The complement d of the phase angle,
is called the phase difference. The cosine of the phase angle is called the
Sec. Si CAPACITANCE 103
power factor. The power loss in the insulating material is

P = EI cos O
or
P = EI sin '1'
where E = voltage across the condenser
I = current in amperes through the condenser
O plus 4' = 90 deg. as shown in Fig. 1.
From the above, sin = cos B, or the sine of
the phase difference is equal to the power factor.
_
/C R AAA
Mien considering a condenser having dielectric Flu. 2.- Condenser
losses, such as current leakage, brush discharge or with dielectric losses.
corona, dielectric absorption or resistance in the
plates, joints, contacts, leads, etc., it is customary to think of it as a
perfect condenser C with a resistance R in series as shown in Fig. 2.
The voltage vectors may be shown as in Fig. 3, where the resultant voltage
E flowing in the circuit is obtained by completing the vector diagram. The
angle 4' is quite small for materials suitable for r -f insulators. For small
angles the angle 4, = tan I. In Fig. 3
RI
tan =1,1, = RiC = 27rfRC
If the resistance, capacitance, and frequency can

be measured, the phase difference can be calculated
from
1G = 2xfRC
Fia. 3.-Vector rela- where 4' = phase difference in radians
tions in a condenser f = frequency in cycles per second
with dielectric losses. R = resistance in ohms
C = capacitance in farads.
The following equation is sometimes convenient when wave length in
meters is given
= 0.1079RC
where tiG = phase difference in degrees

R = resistance in ohms
C = capacitance in micromicrofarads
X = wave length in meters.
For small angles, phase difference in radians is equal to power factor (nearly).
Power factor in per cent is 1.745 times phase difference in degrees. Power
factor in per cent is given by the following equation:
cos O = 2afRC X 10-7
where cos O= power factor in per cent
f = frequency in kilocycles
C = capacitance in micromicrofarads.
The leakage of electricity by conduction through the dielectric or along its
surface contributes to the phase difference but is generally negligible at high
frequencies. A condenser having leakage may be represented by a perfect
condenser with a resistance in parallel as shown in Fig. 4. The current
divides between the capacitance and the resistance, 1s through the resistance
104 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec.5
being in 'Abase with the applied voltage E, and Ic through the capacitance
leading Eby 90 deg. as shown in Fig. 5. The resultant current I teads E by
(90 deg. -4,), where 4, is the phase difference. In Fig. 5
tan = E/R 1
r rCE = wKC
or
1
wRC
Power factor is a term that involves all the power losses in a condenser.
If the total power loss in a condenser is W watts, the voltage applied to it is
V volts (r.m.$), and the current flowing through it is I amperes (r.m.s.): the
1c =mCts
ja'R W I
R
--0 1
-VvvvVAw-
E
Fla. 4 -Equivalent
of
condenser with leakage.
5.-Vectors in con-
Fco.
denser with leakage.
power factor of the condenser is W /VI. Thr relation between I (amperes)
and V (volts) for a condenser of capacitance C (microfarads) operating at a
frequency f is
2wfCV wCV
106 106
The power factor of a condenser in per cent may be written
W X 106 W X 106
cos B
2crfCV= WC 172
Referring again to Fig. 2 showing the perfect condenser C and resistance R
replacing the actual condenser, the value of R can be calculated from
equation W = I=R. The quantity R is known as the equivalent resistancethe of
the condenser at the given frequency.
The expression W X 106 /wC V2 for power factor can be changed into the
expression involving resistance, capacitance, and nr by substituting I=R for W
and then substituting WCV /106 for I, giving power factor equal to
RCcr X 10 -6
9. The following table gives dielectric constant and power factor at
certain frequencies of a large number of electrical insulating materials, as
obtained from the sources given at the end of the table. While in some
cases data from different sources do not agree, difference in composition,
method of making measurements, and condition of samples may account
for such disagreements.
10. Dielectric Strength. The dielectric strength of an insulating
material is the minimum value of electric field intensity required to
rupture it. Dielectric strength is usually expressed in kilovolts per
centimeter of dielectric thickness. The fall in insulation resistance with
See. SI CAPACITANCE 105
VALUES OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT AND POWER FACTOR FOR ELECTRICAL

INSULATING MATERIALS AT RADIO FREQUENCIES
Material Frequency, Dielectric Power fac- source

kilocycles constant tor, per cent
Alsimag No. 211 80,000 4.4 0.04 1

10.000 4.4 0.05
Alaimag No. 198 0,000 1
1 5.0 0.13
187.5 0.459
300 0.476
Amber 429 0.478 2
600 0.495
1.000 0.513
300 0.036
1,000 0.032
Calan 3,000 0.028 3
10,000 0.026
50.000 0.025
300 0.041
1,000 0.038
Calit 3,000 0.037 3
10,000 0.034 \\
\111
50.000 0.032
Celluloid 1.000 6.2 5 to 10 4
photographic film 6.7 4.2
Cellulose nitrate, laboratory
product A 3.8 2.8 5
Cement, de Khotinski, medium
hard 3.9 3.88
Portland 1.000 0.018-0.029 6.8-8.0 6
300 0.097
1.000 0.08
Condensa 3.000 0,072 3
10,000 0.061
50,000 0.057
300 0.072
1,000 0.06
Condensa C 3,000 0.041 3
10,000 0.032
50,000 0.028
Fiber, black 1 (7.6 4.55
red _ )} A {l 4.8 4.891} 5
oil impregnated 5.8 3.68
hard, dry 1,000 5.0 5.0 6
300 0.047
1,000 0.038
Frequenta 3.000 0.030 3
10,000 0.028
50,000 0.026
1.000 0.038)
Frequenta D 10,000 0.019). 3
50,000 0.0191
Glass 1 30 5.1 -7.9 0.35 -2.98 7
j 600 0.94 -0.656 2
borosilicate No. 707 { 120,000 3.7 0.12} 1
borosilicate 18,000 5.1 0.59 8

cobalt 500 7.3 0.70 9
electrical 100 5.7 0.4 10
heat resisting 5.7 0.61
photographic, with gelatin coat- A 7.5 1.00
ins
without gelatin coating 7.5 0.86
106 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. Lf

INSULATING MATERIALS AT RADIO FREQUENCIES. (Continued) -
Frequency, Dielectric Power fac-
Material kilocycles constant tor, per cent Source
None: No. 772 { 120,000

0 4.2 0.25 } 1
14
100 0.77 11
Mate 500 0.66
1,000 0.62
500 6.8 0.70 9
1,000 8.4 1.0 6
American plate A 7.6 0.93 5
14 0.88
100 0.67( 11
Pyrex 500 0.67
750 0.68
500 4.9 0.42 9
Pyrex No. 774 60.000 4.1 0.54
1.000
2060.000 4.2 0.51 1
soda lime No. 008

60,000 1.06
120.000 6.2 1.03
window A 8.0 0.87 5
210 3.0 0.88
440 0.88 9
710 0.88
1,126 3.0 1.05
600 0.62 I 2
1,000 0,68
1.000 3.0 -5.0 0.015-0.02 6
Hard rubber 18,000 2.9 0.76 8
300 0.65
1.000 0.64
3.000 0.61 3
10.000 0.57
50,000 0.53
60,000 3.1 0.83
120,000 3.1 0.84 1
low -lose 60.000 2.9 0.57
10.000 3.0 0.50
Isolantite 250 -1.500 6.1 0.18 12
1
Italian lavite { 1 0, 000 4.8 0.17 1
Lucite 1,000 2.5 -3.0 13
Marble, white) ( 9.3 0.52
gray )} A {(11.6 4.2 1} 5
blue 9.4 1.22
Mica 300 -50.000 0.017 3
clear, muscovite 1,000 6.5 -8.0 0.01 -0.06 6
U. S. muscovite 100-1 000 8.69 -6.57 0.04-0.01 14
India muscovite } 1 7.90 -7.07 0.02 -0.01
}
India (600 0.017 2

i A 6.4 5
amber 1,000 5.4-6.8 0.04 -7.1 6
built-up, shellac binder A 5.6 1.75 5
100 8.0 0.2 10
Mycalex 300 0.19 3
1,000- 50,000 0.18
1,000 8.0 0.2 6
Mineral oil 1,000 2.7 0.08
See. Ili C'APACITANC'E 107
I VALUES OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT AND POWER FACTOR FOR ELECTRICAL

INSULATING MATERIALS AT RADIO FREQUENCIES (Continued) -
Material Frequency, Dielectric Power fac- Source
kilocycles constant tor, per cent
Phenolic insulation, laminated 1 190 5.4 -5.8 3.85 -7.35 1 9

(bakelite) 11,100 5.1 -5.6 4.20 -6.65 )
black 1
18,000 6.01
natural brown I 4.4 5.61 8
Phenolic resin, laminated com-
pound, highest grade, paper base. 1,000 5.0 3.5
cloth base 1.000 5.0 4.5
molded compound, wood -flour 6
filler 1,000 5.5 3.5
mica filler 1,000 6.0 1.0
Polyindene 1,000 3.0 0.04 4
Polystyrene 60.000 2.6 0.05)
{ 120,000 2.5 0.07 1
Styron 35,000 2.64 0.01
750 2.6 0.02
3,000 0.03 4
Trolitul 6,500 0.058
13,600 0.125
60,000 0.07
100 7.0 0.7 10
300 0.70
Porcelain 1,000 0.55
3,000 0.49 3
10,000 0.63
50.000 0.85
wet process 1,000 6.5 -7.0 0.6-0.8 6
Quartz (300- 10,000 0.0101 3
1 50,000 0.0111
fused 1,000 4.1 0.02 6
clear 60.000 3.8 0.03
120,000 3.8 0.05
milky 60,E 3.5 0.03
120,000 3.5 0.05
Rosin 1,000 3.3-4.7 0.26-0.37 0
Shellac 1,000 6.0 7.0 4
Shellac film 1,000 4.1 2.5 6
Slate 1,000 12.4-19.0 45-03 6
electrical A 30.0 63 5
800 0.201 15
45,000 0.16)
300 0.21
Steatite 1,000 0.20
3.000 0.18 3
10,000 0.17
50,000 0.15
"commercial" -- 1,000 1i.5 0.20
10,000 6.2 0.18 16
"low loss" 1.000 6.5 0.06
10,000 6.0 0.04
Ultra-Calan 1.000- 10,000 0.0101
k 80000 0.011) 3
Ultra- Steatite 0.1 15
1 50,000 0.061
1.000 5.7 3.0
Urea resin, wood-flour filler 10,000 5.5 3.8 4
35,000 5.3 4.2

INSULATING MATERIALS AT RADIO FREQUENCIES. -(Continued)
Material Frequency, Dielectric Power fac-

ac-
kilocycles constant tor, per cent Source
Varnish film, clear, linseed -oil 2.2 1.2

clear gum 1,000 3.2 1.1 6
black asphaltic 2.0 0.8
spar ` A 5.5 3.151 5
insulating 1 4.8 5.25 f
Varnished cloth, yellow l
1,000 2.5 3.0l 6
black J 2.0 2.0
Victron resin, clear 446 -877 2.96 0.03 i 15
Vitrolex 1.100 6.4 0.3 -0.4 )
Vulcanized rubber 18,000 3.9 2.9 8
Wax, beeswax A 3.2 1.63 5
1,000 2.9 2.5
ceresin 1,000 2.5 -2.6 0.12 -0.21 6
paraffin 1,000 2.5 0.97
Wood, basswood, dry 2.0 1.92
bay wood, dry 2.4 2.45
cypress, dry A 2.0 2.1 5
fir, dry 3.1 3.5
maple, dry 2.6 2.45
oak, dry 3.1 2.97
birch 500 5.2 6.48
maple 500 4.4 3.33
300 3.68 9
oak 425 3.3 3.50
635 3.85
1.060 4.20
whitewood, dry 18,000 1.7 2.3 8
Range of nine samples of various chemical composition's reported.

n Range of 27 samples of various chemical compositions reported.
Measurements made between 80 and 1,875 kc.
I MILLER, J. M., and B. SALSBERO, Measurements of Admittances at Ultra-high Fre-
quencies, RCA Rev., 3 480 -504, April, 1939.
I Scaorr, ERICH, kiochfrequensverluste von Gläsern and einigen anderen Dielek-
tries, Jahrb. drahtlosen Tele. Tele., 18, 82 -122, August, 1921.
3 HANDREE, H., Keramische Spezialmassen, Archie. Jar tech. Messen, 44, 28, 29,
February, 1935.
4 BLOOMFIELD, G. F., Insulating Materials for the Higher Frequencies, T & R Bull.,
14, 635-639, May, 1939; Radio Tech. Digest, No. 13,23-32, September-October, 1939.
I PRESTON, J. L. and E. L. HALL, Radio-frequency Properties of Insulating Materials,
QST, 9, 26-28, February, 1925.
General Electric Company.
7 DEcggn, WILLIAM C., Power Losses in Commercial Glasses, Elec. World, 89, 601 -603,
Mar. 19, 1927.
CHAFFEE, J. G., The Determination of Dielectric Properties at Very High Fre-
quencies, Proc. I.R.E., 22, 1020, August, 1934.
HOCH, E. T., Power Losses in Insulating Materials, Bell System Tech. Jour., 1,
November, 1922.
1s BROWN, W. W., Properties and Applications of Mycalex to Radio Apparatus, Proe.
I.R.E. 18, 1307-1315, August, 1930.
,
II MACLEOD, H. J.. Power Losses in Dielectrics, Phys. Rev., 21, 53 -73, 1923.
II Isolantite circular.
II The Neoprene Notebook, No. 23, 95, January- February, 1940.
It LEWIS, A. B., E. L. HALL, and F. R. CALDwELL, Some Electrical Properties of
Foreign and Domestic Micas and the Effect of Elevated Temperatures on Micas, Bur.
Standards Jour. Research, 7, 409, August, 1931.
II Dielectric Products Corp. circular.
Ie THURNAUER, H., Notes on Steatite -type High -frequency Insulation, QST, 21,
33, November, 1937.
See. 6l CAPACITANCE 109
rise in temperature is a factor of great importance in connection with

the breakdown of a dielectric under the applied voltage. Insulating
materials are not strictly homogeneous. The current leak through an
insulating material may perhaps be concentrated in a few small paths
through the material, and the energy loss due to the leakage, while small,
may be large compared with the area through which it is flowing. The
paths of the current flowing through the dielectric become heated with a
resulting lowering of the resistance of the path and an increase in the
current leakage. The heating of the dielectric may lead to rapid deteri-
oration, particularly if moisture is present, and ultimate breakdown.
The length of time of the application of the voltage has a definite heari.ig
upon the breakdown voltage. Most dielectrics will withstand for a
very brief period a much higher voltage than they can when the voltage
is applied for a longer period.
effects have dictated two tests for condensers, a high flash -test
voltage of very brief duration and the application of a much lower
voltage for a longer period.
The dielectric strength of a material is usually found to be lower for
r-f voltages than for a -f or d -c voltages. The rupturing voltage at radio
frequencies depends on the rapidity with which the voltage is raised and
is not nearly so definite a phenomenon as l -f puncture voltage. Dielectric
strength of solid insulators is difficult to measure because of the com-
plexity of the experimental effects. As the r-f currents flow in the
material, heating, corona, flashover, and possible deterioration, blistering,
or charring may result with consequent changing of voltage and current
as the time of application elapses.
If high r -f voltages are applied to an air condenser, a corona discharge may
be set up which appears as a visible glow around high -potential metal parts,
points, and sharp edges and is usually distinctly audible. These corona
effects represent a power loss in the condenser. Hence the construction of
air condensers for high voltages requires the rounding of all edges and corners
and the avoiding of sharp points which encourage the formation of corona
and flashover.
11. Dielectric Absorption. When a condenser is connected to a d -c
source of e.m.f. the instantaneous charge is followed by the flow of a small
and steadily decreasing current into the condenser. The additional
charge is absorbed by the dielectric. Similarly the instantaneous dis-
charge of a condenser is followed by a continuously decreasing current.
The condenser does not become fully charged immediately, nor does it
completely discharge immediately when its terminals are shorted, but
several discharges may be secured when the condenser possesses dielectric
absorption. The maximum charge in a condenser cyclically charged and
discharged varies with the frequency of charge.
If a condenser evidencing dielectric absorption is used at radio fre-
quencies, a power loss occurs which appears as heat in the condenser.
The existence of power loss indicates a component of e.m.f. in phase with
the current as though a resistance were in series with the condenser as
shown in Fig. 2. The effect of dielectric absorption can be measured
along with other losses in the condenser, although dielectric absorption
represents the chief power loss in solid dielectrics.
12. Calculation of Capacitance. Formulas are available for use in
calculating the capacitance for a large number of geometrical shapes of
110 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. S
conducting surfaces such as spheres and cylinders, either separated or

concentric, and flat surfaces of various shapes. The usual type of con-
denser calculations are concerned with two or more flat conductors.
When two conducting platee are parallel, close together, and of large area,
the capacitance of the condenser is given by
KS
C = 0.0885 X
where C = capacitance in micromicrofarads

K = dielectric constant (which is 1 for air)
S = area of one plate in square centimeters
t = distance between plates in centimeters.
When more than two plates are used in the condenser, the formula becomes
C = 0.0885 X
KS(N -1)
where N = number of plates.

The actual capacitance of a parallel plate condenser is slightly larger than
the value as calculated from the above formula, because of the fringing of the
electric lines of force beyond the space between the plates. A correction,
can be made for this fringing by slightly increasing the dimensions of the
plates. A narrow strip of width w can be added to the actual plate dimen-
sions. In the case of circular plates w = 0.44131, and for plates with straight
edges w = 0.1101, where t is the distance between the plates in centimeters.
13. Combinations of Condensers. Combinations of two or more
condensers in a circuit are often arranged in either series or parallel.
Condensers connected in parallel give a total capacitance equal to the sum
of the capacitances of the individual condensers. Condensers connected
in series give a resulting capacitance which may be calculated from the
following:
C+1=+1 +...
1
C=
This formula gives the following expression in the case of two condensers
in series
C, X C2
C CI + C2
The various elements such as tubes, sockets, mountings, wiring, etc.,
in radioapparatus contain many small capacitances by virtue of the dif-
ference of potential existing between the numerous conductors insulated
from one another. These small capacitances are known as stray capaci-
tances. While they are unimportant in some kinds of work, in other
types of work, such as in amplifier design, they must be taken into
account. In the case of resistance-coupled amplifiers, for example, these
capacitances reduce the amplification at the higher audio frequencies and
make a flat -characteristic with high over -all gain impossible.
The effect of stray capacitances is eliminated in the case of condensers
used as capacitance standards by shielding the insulated plates and
COQRBRY, PHILIP R., "Electrical Condensers," Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd.,
London.
Sec. tai CAPACITANCE 111
grounding the shield. In this manner a definite capacitance is always

assured for a given scale setting.
14. Effect of Frequency on Condenser Capacitance. One of the most
important considerations is the effect of frequency upon the capacitance
value of a condenser. In the best condensers this effect is nil. In fact
one of the criterions of a suitable condenser for a capacitance standard is
that its capacitance shall be the same for two different sets of charging and
discharging conditions. A variable air condenser, such as the Bureau
of Standards type described on page 120 of the Bureau's Circ. 74, gives
the same capacitance at 100 and at 1,000 charges and discharges per
second. A condenser having considerable solid dielectric in its make -up
will show a difference in capacitance with frequency. The quantity of
electricity which flows into a condenser during a finite charging period is
greater than would flow in during an infinitely short charging period.
Consequently the measured or apparent capacitance with a.c. of any
finite frequency is greater than the capacitance on infinite frequency, the
latter being called the geometric capacitance. The capacitance of a
condenser decreases as the frequency increases.
The length of the internal leads of a condenser should he kept as short
and direct as possible to minimize the inductance of the leads which
acts to give an apparent change of capacitance with frequency. The
amount of this change can he calculated from C,, = C(1 + w'CL X 10 -12),
where C,, is the apparent or measured capacitance, C is in pf, and L in ph.
15. Types of Condensers. There are many ways in which condensers
might be classified, by their construction, size, voltage rating, use,
dielectric, or fixed or variable capacitance. The condensers used in
various radio applications are found in innumerable sizes, shapes, and
uses. The two simplest divisions into which condensers may be classified
have to do with their capacitance, i.e., whether it is fixed or variable.
16. Types of Fixed Condensers. Fixed condensers are available in all
capacitance ranges from a few micromicrofarads to several microfarads,
for any voltage rating up to 45,000 volts or higher, and in innumerable
shapes and dimensions, all depending upon the use for which the con-
denser is intended.
Paper formerly was used as the dielectric for condensers for use on
lower voltages, while mica was used in condensers for higher voltages.
More recently as the art of condenser manufacture has progressed, an
oil- impregnated paper dielectric is used in condensers for the higher
voltages, the whole condenser being mounted within an oil -filled
container.
For paper dielectric 100 per cent pure linen paper is used, which must
meet severe requirements as to thickness, porosity, uniformity, width,
freedom from conducting particles, alkalinity, and acidity. Two or
more layers of par are used between the metal foil plates, depending
upon the voltage for which the condenser is designed. Paper condensers
are available in hermetically sealed plug-in types to fit standard octal -
type radio-tube sockets, both in wax -impregnated and oil -impregnated
types for d -c working voltages up to 600.
Paper condensers are formed by winding two metal foil electrodes or
ribbons in conjunction with the paper ribbons. There are two types of
winding, inductive and non -inductive. The latter type is recommended for
r -f and for the higher a -f work. The inductive type is satisfactory for l -f
work.
112 TILE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (See. 6
In winding the inductive type of condenser, the foil used is narrower than
the paper, and the contact is made with the foils by tinned copper strips
inserted in the winding. The non -inductive type of winding is made with
the foils about the same width as the paper. The foil is staggered so that the
condenser plates project over the ends of the paper. The terminals are
soldered to the extending foil at the opposite ends and thus make contact
with every turn of the foil. The latter type of construction makes for mini -
mum plate resistance and minimum power loss.
Mica has been used very extensively for condensers for use at radio fre-
quencies. India mica has been used almost exclusively as it has been gener-
ally considered as of superior quality for radio use.
Selected mica is split into sheets of definite thickness, gaged, and tested
for punctures or other defects. A condenser is built up of alternating mica
and metal foil sheets, the sets of plates of opposite polarity being brought
out at opposite ends where they are soldered together, forming the two
terminals. The whole stack of plates is rigidly clamped together in such a
way as to firmly grip the plates in the center and expel all dielectric other than
mica. The condenser may be mounted in a suitable container.
During the last few years attention has been given by the manu-
facturers to the development of small condensers of great stability, or
whose capacitance changes with temperature are a definite amount, posi-
tive or negative, as desired. The advent of push-button tuned receiving
sets has required the use of small condensers which would maintain their
capacitance as the receiver warmed up or would change their capacitance
so as to compensate for changes in the coils. A type of condenser now
available with positive, zero, or negative temperature coefficient employs
a small ceramic tube as the dielectric, with silver plating inside and out
followed by copper plating and solder forming the two electrodes, to
which wire leads are soldered. Wax impregnation and moistureproof
lacquer complete the condenser, which is said to be uneffected by changes
in temperature and humidity. Condensers of this type have a d-c
working voltage of 500 and can be obtained in sizes from 5 to 1000 µµf.
Another type of low- temperature coefficient condenser uses silver
plating on mica and is mounted either in a ceramic or low -loss bakelite
case. These condensers are wax-impregnated and sealed. They have
small positive temperature coefficients.
If a condenser is to be used with higher voltages, the practice is to construct
the condenser with two or more condenser sections in series, rather than to
increase the thickness of the mica. The former method is more flexible than
the latter, permitting the construction of condensers for 45,000 volts or
higher.
It is customary to mount the large high -voltage condensers in steel
tanks which are filled with a high flash -point insulating oil which serves to
prevent access of dirt and moisture, prevents flashover along the con-
denser sections, insulates the condenser from the tank, and conducta
heat away from the condenser elements.
17. Electrolytic Condensers.' Another type of fixed condenser which
has important applications is known as the electrolytic condenser. Its
advantages are low cost and high capacitance as compared with other types
of fixed condensers. A unit of 8 pf, 500 -volt d -c rating may be manu-
factured in a tubular assembly 7% in. in diameter by 13f s in. long.
The electrolytic condenser consists of three essential components: the
anode, the dielectric film, and the electrolyte. The anode is always
I Data supplied by S. If. Walters, Cornell- Dubilier Electric Corp.
See. 51 CAPACITANCE 113
made of aluminum of high purity and forms one plate on the condenser.
The dielectric film is formed electrochemically on the anode and is very
thin. The electrolyte may be either a liquid or a pastelike substance.
It is the second plate of the condenser, insulated from the anode plate by
virtue of the dielectric filin formed on the latter.
Electrolytic condensers may be divided into two general classes:
1. Dry electrolytic condensers in which a pastelike form of electrolyte is
used.
2. Wet electrolytic condensers in which a liquid or
waterlike electrolyte is used. Cathode Film on
The electrolyte in the case of dry electrolytic con- Anode
densers is absorbed in porous paper and held in posi- txrbo/y/e
tion adjacent to the anode foil by this paper. In Anode
addition another aluminum foil, generally called the Foil
cathode foil is incorporated for the purpose of mak-
ing electrical contact to the electrolyte -saturated
paper. -
wet type the electrolyte is a dilute water Fco. 6 -Elec-
solution. The anode member with adhering dielectric trolytic condenser
film is suspended in a can, generally of aluminum. construction.
The can is then filled with the electrolyte. The can acts as the electrical
connection to the electrolyte similar to the cathode foil in the case of the
dry electrolytic condenser.
For a given area of anode surface the capacitance in microfarads the
condenser is inversely proportional to the thickness of the dielectricoffilm.
The film thickness is roportional to the voltage during the electrofor-
mation of the film. Therefore, condensers with very low voltage ratings
may he made with very high capacitances. The ordinary ranges are 500
to 6,000 of in capacitance for voltage ratings of 6 to 60 volts d.c. and 2 to
e0 100 pf with voltage ratings of 100 to
35
150 volts d.c.
á 30 18. Electrolytic Condenser Charac-
teristics. The d-c voltage which an
zs electrolytic condenser can withstand is
gzo governed by the voltage at which the
3 15 original film is applied. It is necessary
io
that the anode always he connected to
5
the positive side of the voltage source
ioo iso too :so 300 350 400 +so s«, An electrolytic condenser connected in
Forming Voltage this manner will operate satisfactorily
FIG. 7.-Electro ytic condenser as long as the applied voltage is of cor-
characteristic. rect polarity and does not exceed rated
voltage for
a time. A reversal of potential will cause themore than a few seconds at
current even at low voltages. A d -c voltage in unit to draw considerable
unit to draw an appreciable leakage current. excess of rated causes t he
Dry electrolytic condensers have a definite breakdown voltage
permanent failure occurs. Momentary surges at which
voltage but higher than operating voltage will ordinarily less than this breakdown
do
If the anode area is such as to give 8 pf when the workingno damage.
500 volts d.c., then the same area at lower working voltage is
a capacitance as indicated on the curve of Fig. 7. voltages will yield
THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 5
114
Electrolytic condensers have a power factor which is inconsiderably

part to the
higher than other types of fixed condensers. This is duewhich has con-
fact that one of the conducting plates is the electrolyte
siderably higher resistance than the conventional metallic the plates of the
condenser
other types. In effect this places a resistance in series withDry electrolytic
and hence causes a high power factor of the entire unit.at 60 to 120 cycles.
condensers have a power factor of about 6 per cent
Power factors increase with frequency, and for this reason the use of
electrolytic condensers is generally confined to the 1-f application.
19. Etched -foil Types. Within recent years methods of treating the
smooth foil surface in such a way as to make it extremely rough have
been applied to electrolytic condensers. The anode then hasThe an increased
total area over and above the original smooth surface. dielectric
film follows the contours of the foil, and the result is a great increase
in
capacitance with no increase in volume for any given working voltage.
} 20
0
CS
c -20 _bed foil

% Vio'
á40
-60 -Q
-80
ñ. -100
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Temperature, deg. C.
Fro. 8.- Comparison of etched- and plain -foil temperature characteristics.
Several methods have been evolved for formation of a roughened sur-
face for the anode foil. Chief among these are as follows: (1) etching,
whereby the smooth foil surface is attacked either chemically or electro-
chemically; (2) mechanical roughening, whereby the surface is roughened
by suitable abrasive; and (3) aluminum spraying, whereby the aluminum
is sprayed in molten state on a suitable carrier medium. con-
20. Characteristics under Adverse Conditions. Electrolytic The
densers operate best under normal condition of temperature.
limitations of the electrolyte and the film properties are the governing
factors in the operation of this type of condenser. out and
Extremely high temperatures cause the electrolyte to dry factor when
increase in resistivity with consequent increase in power in d-c
normal temperature is again reached. Furthermore the increase
leakage current with temperature must be considered since there is a
danger of the start of a destructive cycle due to the generation of internal
heat because of the increased d -c leakage.
Temperatures up to 140 °F. are considered normal although tempera-
tures up to 185 °F. are not dangerous if the condenser is rated at 50 to
100 volts higher than the actual operating voltage.
Sec. 5] CAPACITANCE 115
Low temperature causes a decrease in capacitance and an increase in
power factor. These changes are temporary and are restored to normal
when normal temperatures are again reached.
Where high operating temperatures are to he experienced, the con-
struction should be hermetically sealed in metal cans. This construction
limits the loss of electrolyte to a minimum, and longer life is to he
expected.
21. Applications. The nature of electrolytic condensers makes them
particularly suitable for filter circuits in
power supplies where a relatively high n/sohtiny
Condenser
capacitance is required together with
the ability to withstand a d-c potential 110V lac
and small superposed a-c ripple. Sec- 6°^' ' c
cChoke
and only in importance is the use as C ~ cod
by-pass condensers across screen Condenser
grids and cathode bias resistors. The
Under Test
Ede lac
use of a-c electrolytics wherein the 11111_
cathode foil is replaced with a second Fra. 9.- Production testing cir-
anode is important in capacitor motor cuit for electrolytic condenser.
service. These latter units are divided into two classes, those for inter-
mittent duty and those for continuous duty. The former are rated at from
30 to 500 pf at 110 volts a.c. and the latter at 10 to 50 pf at 25 volts a.c.
The intermittent-duty type functions only during the starting of a
capacitor motor (capacitor start -induction run). The continuous-duty
type functions in the smaller motors rated at about 3ioo hp. and is
continuously on voltage during the operation of the motor.
22. Testing. The circuit of Fig. 9 is generally used to test electro-
lytics in production. Ede supplies a polarizing voltage so that the voltage
a Low Pass filler
1 and
To
Osti/bfor -.,.
---
1Low Pass Filler
r
100 ohms
Condenser '
Under lest '`
1000 ohms.
Standard vanable
Condenser
1n7fdStondardCana'
Isolating/
Condenser /mfd /000 ohms variable-- S/á;1
D.CLeakage 50010 1000
lmfd DC Blocking Cond. -" Circuiting
Switch
Current --/,eones Condenser Under Test -' L41)UI
Pobrizing Voltage'
Fia. 10.- Circuit for measuring Fia. 11.- Capacitance and power factor
electrolytic condenser capacitance. measurement.
across the condenser will be pulsating d.c. The isolating condenser pre-
vents short- circuiting the polarizing voltage. If Ed, is maintained at a
constant value, the a-c milliammeter may be calibrated in terms of the
capacitance of the condenser under test. Id, reads the d -c leakage current
through the condenser.
For the accurate measurement of capacitance and power-factor bridge
systems such as those shown in Fig. 10 or 11 should be used. They are
essentially standard bridge systems rearranged to permit the application
of a polarizing voltage.
23. Types of Variable Condensers. The most common type of

varialde condenser consists of a series of parallel metal plates fastened
to a shaft capable of rotation so that the moving plates intermesh with a
set of fixed plates. Air is the main dielectric in such condensers, although
some solid insulating material is required to ensure that the two sets of
plates are correctly located with respect to each other. Many ways of
insulating the plates from each other have been devised, using one or
more pieces of the insulating material in sheet, rod, or bar form. Bake-
lite, hard rubber, Pyrex, porcelain, fused quartz, and Isolantite are
some of the materials used for such insulators.
The most common use of a variable condenser is in association with a
coil, the combination forming a circuit resonant to a band of radio
frequencies depending upon the coil constants and the capacitance range
of the condenser. For a number of applications it is more convenient
to have the capacitance change in a different way than proportional to
the angle of rotation of the plates. This first resulted in the "decremeter"
plate and the straight -line wave -length plate. As the use of frequency
470
60
s
50
S4°
ri
= 30
120
A10
00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 270 240

Pressure ,lb.persgin6oge- 2000ke.HighP mure Copocifor
Fta. 12.-Flash -over voltage (60 cycles) of 2,000 -kva. capacitor.
rather than wave length became common, the straight -line frequency
plate came into use and later the "mid- line" plate. There are other
possibilities such as straight -line percentage wave length and straight-
line percentage frequency, the latter being of advantage in frequency
measurements. In any of the above shapes or classifications, the
movable plates formerly were so shaped as to give the desired frequency
or wave-length curve. This resulted in an ill-shaped plate difficult to
balance or to hold to a desired setting. In some cases semicircular
rotating plates were used with the fixed plates cut away so as to obtain
the desired curve. In any of the special forms of plates the plate shape
may vary. The minimum and maximum capacitances of the condenser
play a large part in determining the outline of the plate.
Brass or aluminum plates and steel shafts are ordinarily used. If
the condenser is intended for use on high voltages, the spacing between
opposite plates must be sufficient to avoid a flashover or arcing between
plates. It is customary to round off all sharp edges and corners in such
condensers to avoid flashover.
Condensers of the air type are often filled with oil, which increases
the voltage that they can stand and increases the capacitance from two to
five times depending on the dielectric constant of the oil used.
Sec. Il CAPACITANCE 117
Compressed -air condensers were formerly used in some radio trans-

mitting stations. The voltage which such a condenser will stand is
increased without changing the capacitance.
Compressed gas condensers, utilizing nitrogen under pressure up to
2,000 lb. per square inch as the dielectric, are now being extensively used
in broadcast transmitters. The advantages of low loss and permanent
characteristics of this type of condenser have long been recognized, but
it is only of recent date that any attempt has been made to offer a wide
commercial selection of this type of condenser.
One manufacturer offers three lines of condensers with flashover ratings
of 15, 20, and 30 kv r.in.s. at 1,000 kc, and capacitance ranges up to
1,000, 1,500, and 2,000 µµf respectively. These are available in fixed,
adjustable, or continuously variable types. Special units have been
built with flashovers up to 60 kv r.m.s. and capacitances up to 20,000 µµf.
Construction varies somewhat with different manufacturers. One
offers a completely non -magnetic assembly using heat-treated aluminum
tank and end closures. As a typical example, a variable condenser
having 30 kv r.m.s. flashover rating will have a height of 36 in., an over-all
diameter of 12 in., and a weight of 90 1b.
Gases other than nitrogen have been used, some of which show con-
siderable promise in increasing flashover voltage and reducing size and
weight. These condensers are available in either fixed or variable
capacitance types and in sizes from 100 to 2,000 µµf.
24. Gang Condensers. The single -dial control radio receiver brought
problems to the designer in how to tune two to five circuits accurately
using a corresponding number of similar coils and variable condensers
operating on the same shaft. As it is practically impossible conveniently
to manufacture two condensers exactly alike, to say nothing of three or
four alike, so that their capacitances shall be exactly the same throughout
the complete rotation of the condenser plates and accurately tune the
condensers with the same number of similar coils which differ slightly in
value, it has been customary to balance or equalize these tuned circuits
by the addition of small paralleling condensers called trimmer or padder
condensers. Such condensers can be obtained matched to one-half of
1 per cent. It is possible to obtain two to four condensers called gang
condensers for radio receivers arranged with their shafts in line and
operated by one dial, matched to one -half of 1 per cent. The individual
condensers may be separated from one another by metal shields if
desired.
25. Design Equations for Variable Air Condensers. The capacitance
of a condenser wade up of three plates as indicated in Fig. 13 can be
obtained by determining the area of the overlapping plates, the distance
between the adjacent plates, and substitution of these values in the
general equation given in Art. 12. The area of the shaded portion of
Fig. 13 is 3ar(r12 - r22). The distance between the plates is 3. (s -
Substituting these values in the general equation, the capacitance of the
t).
condenser is given by
- 0.0885%ar(r12 - r:') X (3 - 1)
3i - t)
($
The maximum capacitance of a condenser with N plates can be
obtained by using a similar equation which may be written
C-0.278(r1'-r,')(N-1)
(8 - t)
In the above equations C is in micromicrofarads and the dimensions

r,, r2, s, and t in centimeters. These equations neglect the capacitance
through the solid insulation which is used in the condenser and the
fringing effect, the correction for which is in Art. 12. Many condensers
are made to have as small a minimum capacitance as possible, giving a
large ratio of maximum to minimum capacitance, but this is of doubtful
advantage, as slight changes of capacitance due to warping of plates or
wear in bearings will cause a relatively large error at the lower end of the
scale but practically no noticeable effect at the maximum capacitance
end of the scale.
A semicircular plate condenser Fives a capacitance calibration curve
similar to C shown in Fig. 14. With the exception of the portions near
1000
900
C
1.800
'f;.100
600
1 500
= 400
F
500
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 Ito 140 160 160
Condenser Sett,n9.kTets
Fia. 13.- Dimensions useful in de- Flo. 14.- Semicircular plate con -
denser characteristic.
termining condenser capacitance.
In practice, the
the ends of the curve, it is practically a straight line. not
lower 10 and upper 5 or 10 deg. of a 180 -deg. scale are used, so as to
avoid the curvature in the calibration curve in these regions. Zero
setting does not give zero capacitance.
A curve for such a condenser used with a coil is shown at F in Fig. 14.
The frequency changes very, rapidly on the lower part of the scale. There-
A
slight capacitance change would make a large frequency change.
fore, when using frequency meters having semicircular plate condensers
which constitute the main capacitance of the circuit, the coils should be so
designed as to give overlaps without resort to the low- capacitance end of
the scale.
As the wave length X of a wavemeter circuit is proportional to ./LC,
if L is assumed to be constant, X c /C and Nre is proportional to the
square root of the setting 0. For a uniform wave-length condenser it is
necessary to have C vary as the square of the setting 0, or C a 02.
Again, it may he desirable that the percentage change in capacitance
for a given angle of rotation of the plates be the same for all parts of the
See. 5J CAPACITANCE 119
[Sec. 6
120 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
scale as in the Kolster decremeter.I The polar equation for the

boundary
curve is
r = .V2Coae°' + rs2
where C = capacitance when angle 8 = 0 of capacitance per scale

a = constant = percentage change
division
e = 2.71828
rt = radius of cutout portion to clear washers separating variable
plates.
The equations and tables on page 119 have been compiled by Griffiths.'
having a
The four types of plates given are for equivalent condensers
of 500 µµf, with a
capacitance at zero setting of 36 µµf and a maximum
plate area of 20 sq. cm. for the radii at
The paper mentioned above gives the following data table of equations.
different angles for the condensers mentioned in the
Radius, centimeters
B, degrees
R2 R2 R4
0 2.49 8.25 1.93

5 2.58
10 2.80 6.7G 2.02
20 2.76 5.62 2.13
30 2.89 4.80 2.24
40 4.17 2.36
60 3.18 3.32 2.84
80 2.75 2.98
90 3.58
100 2.37 3.38
120 3.88 2.10 3.85
140 1.90 4.40
150 4.12 4.71
160 1.78 5.04
170
5.40
180 4.38 1.65 5.80
in Series or
26. Effect of Putting Odd -shaped Plate Condensers in parallel or in
Parallel. If any of the above condensers are placed
another condenser, the straight -line calibration will be altered.
series with require recalcu-
If paralleling condensers are used, the plate shape would nearly semicircular.
lation, after which the plate would become more the plate shape is more
If a condenser is added in series, the calculation offor a number of series
difficult. Griffiths' gives complete equations
the following table applying to the cases indicated where
combinations, = 500 µµf, minimum capaci-
maximum capacitance of variable condenser
Bur. Standards Sei. Paper 235.
Bur. Standards Circ. 74, p. 117. the Laws of Variable Air Condensers, Exp. Wireless
I
GRIFFITHS, W. H. F.. Notes on
and Wireless Eng., 3 3 -14, January, 1926. Variable Air Condensers Exp.
Wireless and Wireless Eng., 3, 743-755, December, 1926.
Sec. 51 CAPACITANCE 121
tance of variable condenser = 36 µµf, series fixed capacitance = 500µµf,

total plate area = 20 sq. cm., r = radius of inactive semicircular area of
moving plate = 1.2 cm.
liadius, centimeters
B, degrees
Rs Re R7 Rs
0 2.74 2.16 9.25 1.82

10 2.80 6.95
20 2.35 5.57 1.96
30 2.92 4.65
40 2.56 2.15
50 3.06
60 2.78 3.32 2.38
70 3.22
90 3.40 2.42 2.85
100 3.37
110 3.66
120 2.02 3.57
130 3.88
140 4.25
150 4.18 1.78 4.74
160 4.85
170 4.52
180 4.73 5.66 1.62 7.16
Rs, straight -line capacitance with series fixed ca ,acitance.
Rs, corrected square law of capacitance with series fixed capacitance.
R7, inverse square law of capacitance with series fixed capacitance.
Rs, exponential law of capacitance with series fixed capacitance.
27. Important Cpnsiderations in Design. It is not difficult to find a

large number of condensers on the market which will answer the needs
of any condenser application in radio receivers. The manufacture of
condensers for such use has been brought to a high state of development,
both electrically and mechanically. The design problems here are
simpler in that low power and low voltage are to be handled.
When condensers for radio transmitters are designed, provision must
be made for handling high power and high voltage. The use of very
high radio frequencies has added to the problem by requiring better
insulating materials. Insulators which were satisfactory at low radio
frequencies have been found to heat up and be unsuited for frequencies
such as 30 to 100 Mc and higher.
The following classification shows how condensers for transmitting sets
could be divided with respect to the voltages to which they are subjected:
Those subjected to steady d-c voltages only.
Those subjected to l -f voltages only.
Those subjected to damped r -f voltages only (obsolete).
Those subjected to steady ow r-f voltages only.
Those subjected to modulated cw r -f voltages only.
Those subjected to d-c voltages with superimposed r -f voltage.
Those subjected to l -f voltage and superimposed r -f voltage.
The last four of the above divisions could he further subdivided into those
for use on frequencies up to about 3,000 ko. those for use on frequencies from
3,000 to about 25,000 kc, and those for use on frequencies of 30,000 kc and
above. The two latter classes require special construction.
122 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See.5
In specifying the rating of condensers for use in radio transmitters,

the following data should be given: capacitance, current, frequency,
nature of voltage to be applied. A knowledge of the maximum r-f
voltage and maximum current permissible is important. A condenser
should never he operated at more than half the breakdown voltage.
In the case of r-f voltages this fraction should he much smaller.
28. Standards of Capacitance. Fixed condensers using the best
grade of mica or fixed -air condensers are used as capacitance standards
for radio frequencies. For some work a variable air condenser is essential
as a standard.
An important requirement of a standard condenser is that the capacitance
remain constant, the prerequisite of which is rigidity of construction, which
is more difficult to secure in a variable than in a fixed condenser. There
should be no relative motion possible between the movable plates and
the pointer. There should be no stops against which the pointer or movable
plates may strike and thus destroy the calibration. The manner of insu-
lating the two sets of plates is of great importance, not only in fulfilling the
rigidity requirement, but in minimizing the power loss. An insulating mate-
rial having a low temperature coefficient of expansion should be used, so that
the capacitance will not change perceptibly with temperature. As small an
amount of solid insulating material as possible
should be employed, keeping it well out of the
electric field. This field is quite intense near the
G high-potential post. All insulation should be
avoided in the vicinity of that terminal if power
factor is to be kept low.
FIO. 14a.- Equivalent The condenser should be provided with a metal
circuit of air condenser. shield, which may be grounded during measure-
ments if the capacitance is to remain constant. The
leads inside the condenser should be as short and direct as possible. The
resistance of leads, plates, and contacts should be kept to the minimum.
Flexible connection to the moving plates should not be used in a standard.
While it has been customary and is permissible in some measurements to
neglect the small resistance and inductance found in variable air condensers
made for precision laboratory work, yet, as the frequency is increased to
5 Mc and higher, such omissions may result in considerable inaccuracy in
the results. These small residual impedances, when taken into account,
give an equivalent circuit for the variable air condenser, as shown in Fig. 14e,
where C is the static capacitance of the condenser, R the resistance loss in
the metal parts of the condenser, L the inductance of the leads and connections
dielectric
of stacks of plates, and G the conductance or losses in the solid
parts of the condenser. The variations in these parametersforwith frequency
one type of
and their effect upon the effective terminal capacitance
laboratory condenser are treated in the paper.
High -grade mica condensers can be employed as standards after calibration
as to capacitance and power factor over the range of frequencies at which they
are to be used.
29. Methods of Measuring Capacitance. There are two general
methods of capacitance measurement: (1) absolute measurements in terms
of other electrical or physical units; (2) comparison methods, where a
condenser of unknown capacitance is compared with a known calibrated
condenser. The absolute methods are not carried out at radio frequencies.
, FIELD, R. F., and D. B. Sitscwan, A Method for Determining the Residual Induct-
ance and Resistance of a Variable Air Condenser at Radio Frequencies, Proc. I.R.E.,
24, 255 -274, February, 1936.
Sec. bl CAPACITANCE 123
Approximate calibrations of condensers for r-f use can be obtained using

some form of bridge operating at 1,000 cycles. A very convenient instru-
ment for rapid checking work is found in the direct-reading microfarad
meter which operates on 60 -cycle current.
Condenser calibrations at radio frequencies are conveniently made by
a substitution method in a resonance circuit. The standard used must
be one which is constructed for use as a standard at radio frequencies.
It should give the same calibration at two widely different charge and
discharge rates, such as 100 and 1,000 charges and discharges per second.
If it fills this requirement, it may be assumed to give the same calibration
at radio frequencies.
ö OsulloMr
Fin 15.- Measurement of condenser capacitance.

1
A simple tuned circuit consisting of a coil and the condenser under

test is arranged with a double-throw switch so that the standard con-
denser may be readily substituted. Resonance may be indicated by a
sensitive meter coupled to the main coil by a few turns of wire. A
crystal detector and 1 -ma d-c meter make a very convenient indicating
device. Power is supplied electromagnetically by a small vacuum tube
oscillator. The measurement circuit is shown in Fig. 15. The shielded
side of the condenser should be
grounded. It is essential that
the leads connecting the switch Os:,Wa,or
points to each condenser be of CdCz
the same length in each case as
otherwise the circuits will not Fiu. 16.- Simple scheme for measuring
have the same amount of induct- capacitance.
ance when one condenser is substituted for the other, which will result
in an error in the calibration. The coupling between the test circuit and
the oscillators should he kept quite loose, which will be necessary if a
sensitive resonance indicating instrument is used.
If in the circuit shown in Fig. 15 a fixed inductor is used, the calibration
will he made at various frequencies depending upon the capacitance for
the different condenser settings. A variable air condenser of suitable
size could he connected across the coil at XX and used to keep the
resonance frequency the sane for any setting of C.. If such a circuit
is carefully set up, no errors will result if the two circuits connected to Cr
and C, are similar. The frequency at which the measurements are made
can be measured with a frequency meter. The frequency or frequency
range over which a calibration is made should always be stated.
For rougher calibration work, the circuit shown in Fig. 16 may be used
where C. is tuned both with and without Cs in the circuit. It should be
noted that the leads and switch connecting C. to the circuit will introduce
errors in the calibration.
A methods of precision calibration of variable air condensers at a single

condenser and the
frequency has been described in which the unknownoscillator furnishing
standard condenser are alternately made a part of themeans of measuring
the power. The method also offers a very precisemica condenser.
the change in capacitance with frequency of aSmall Capacitances. It is
30. Precautions in Measurement of Very
measure-
difficult to get agreement between different laboratories in thereasons
ment of capacitances of the order of 15 or 20 µµf or less. The for
this are several and include differences in methods of measurement,of leads,
different lengths of leads used, different sizes and spacingfew micro -
stray capacitances to neighboring objects, and differences of alaboratories.
microfarads in the capacitance standards of the various
Hence it is not unusual to find a disagreement as much as 30 per cent or
more in the measurement of a capacitance of the order of 10 µµf.
For measurements of small capacitances it is essential to keep all connecting
leads of minimum length and have them occupy definite positions, so that
corrections for their inductance and capacitance can befrom applied if desired.
Apparatus not actually needed should be kept away is essential the measuring
circuit. A standard having a finely graduated scale for such
measurements. It should be capable of repeating its capacitance value for
any given setting. Its capacitance curve shouldcan preferably be a straight line
without any crooks in it, so that interpolations be accurately made from
calibrated points.
31. Methods of Measuring Condenser Resistance and Power Factor
and Dielectric Constant of Insulating Materials at Radio Frequencies.
Measurements of condenser resistance
Oscillator 0 and power factor of insulating ma-
terials are made in practically the same
manner as the sample of insulating ma-
terial is prepared so as to form a con-
denser. Methods of measuring
condenser resistances and power factor
of insulating materialss have been given
in publications of the Bureau of Stand-
. ards. The American Society for Test -
Csi ' Cx ing Materials has one or more standard
methods of testing electrical insulating
materials for power factor and dielectric
constant.4
FIG. 17.- Circuit for measuring The circuit shown in Fig. 17 may be
properties of insulators. used for measurements of resistance,
power factor, and dielectric constant.
Assuming that the power factor of a sample of insulating material is to
be measured, the sample in sheet form is made into a condenser of capaci-
1 HALL, E. L., and W. D. GEORGE, Precision Condenser Calibration at Radio Fre-
quencies, Electronics. 7, 318 -320, 1934.
1 Radio Instruments and Measurements, Bur. Standards Circ. 74, pp. 190-193.
s Methods of Measurement of Properties of Electrical Insulating Materials,
Bur.
Standards Sei. Paper 471.
4 Tentative Methods of Test for Power Factor and Dielectric
Constant of Electrical
Insulating Materials, designation D1TO-39T; Tentative Method of Test for Power
Factor and Dielectric Constant of Natural Mica, designation D351 -39T; American
Society for Testing Materials, 260 South Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pa.
Sec. 51 CAPACITANCE 124a
tance between 100 and 1,000 µµf, as represented by C. (Fig. 17). The
remainder of the circuit consists of the coil L, thermoelement T, and
double-pole, double-throw switch S, in which resistors R may he inserted.
The galvanometer G gives deflections which are proportional to the square
of the current flowing in the circuit LTCSR, as electromagnetically induced
from the r-f oscillator O.
The deflections of galvanometer G are noted for several values of inserted
resistance R and for the case when R is a link of practically zero resistance.
Using the "zero resistance" deflection and the deflection for a known value r
of resistance inserted in switch S, the resistance Rr of the total circuit LTC,R
is given by
Rr =
do_1
The average of the values of Rr calculated for various values of r should

be taken as the resistance of the complete circuit. The resistance Rs of
the circuit when Cs is substituted for Cx should be obtained in the same man-
ner. The resistance Rx of the condenser C. is then given by R, = Rr
It is essential for this measurement that the two parts of the circuit which Rs.
are
-
interchanged should be as nearly identical as possible.
After the resistance R. of the insulating material condenser is obtained,
the power factor or phase difference can be calculated from the equations
given above. The dielectric constant K can be calculated from the equa-
tion K = Cí/0.08855, where C = capacitance of sample in microlnicro-
farads, t = thickness of sample in centimeters, and S = area of smaller plate
in square centimeters. The capacitance is known, as given by Cs, and the
area of one plate and the thickness of the sample can easily he measured.
The method described above operates satisfactorily at frequencies from 100
to 1,500 kc.
A bridge method is sometimes used for these measurements although the
apparatus is considerably more complicated than that described above.
A comparative method for testing insulating materials at very high
radio frequencies has been used by certain laboratories. In this method
the insulating material sample is placed in an intense electric field pro-
duced by a 30-megacycle transmitter and the temperature rise in the
sample measured for a definite time interval. While such results have
not as yet been definitely tied up with power factor, dielectric constant,
etc., yet they represent in a very practical manner a means for deter-
mining the suitability of different types of materials for use at very high
radio frequencies. An insulator which is entirely satisfactory at lower
radio frequencies such as 1,000 or 2,000 kc may prove to be unusable at
20 or 30 megacycles. Hence data on power factor and dielectric con-
stant are meaningless without a statement of the frequency at which
the data were obtained.
Some of the German technical periodicalst have reported the pro-
duction of improved ceramic insulators in Germany. One type of
material is claimed to have extremely low power loss at very high fre-
quencies. Another type of material having moderate power loss possesses
very high values of dielectric constant which can be made to have values
t Catit and Calan, Zwei neue hochwertige Isolierstoffe der Hochfrequenzteehnik,
Hoch!requenztechnik and Elektroa.kustik, 43, 33, 34, January, 1934; HANDREK, H.. Neue
Hochfrequenz- Isolierstoffe, Hochfrequenztechnik and Elektroakustik, 43, 73 -75, March,
1934.
124b THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 5
as high as 100. The latter material would appear to have advantages in

condenser manufacture for use at ultrahigh frequencies where very small
parts and extremely short connections are required. These materials
have several names and differ in their properties. The names are:
Calit, Ultra-Calit, Calan, Ultra-Calan, Frequentit, Frequenta, Condensa,
con-
and Condensa C. The last two materials have the high dielectric
stants, and the ones with the prefix "Ultra" have very low losses and are
intended for u-h -f work.
SECTION 6
COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R
BY W. F. LANTERMAN,' B.S.
1. Transient and Steady -state Currents. When a voltage is
applied to a circuit, the current assumes a transient state forsuddenly
a brief
interval, then gradually settles down to a steady -state
it maintains until the voltage is interrupted or changed.condition which
Relations for
computing transient and steady-state currents in LCR circuits are given
in the following paragraphs.
TRANSIENT CURRENTS IN LCR CIRCUITS
2. Symbols Used in Transient Expressions. In the transient expres-
sions given in Arts. 3, 4, and 5, the following symbols will be used:
L Inductance in henrys.
C Capacitance in farads.
R Resistance in ohms.
T Time constants in second; time in seconds for current or voltage to reach 1/e
or approximately 33 per cent of its initial value if decreasing; or (1 1),-
or approximately 87 per cent of its final value if increasing.
i Instantaneous current in amperes at time t.
e Instantaneous voltage in volts at time t.
t Time in seconds after starting.
I Steady -state d.c. in amperes.
E Maximum value of a-c voltage in volts.
Steady -state d-c voltage in volts.
Q Condenser charge in coulombs.
Z A-c impedance in ohms.
VR2 + (col, - for LCR circuit.

- v-R' + (sL)e for LR circuit.
VRr + (_C)r for RC circuit.
.1 Frequency of applied a.c. in cycles per second.
a Angular velocity of applied a.c. in radians per second
Ji Natural frequency of oscillatory circuit LCR in cycles per second.
on
WR
Natural angular velocity of oscillatory circuit LCR in radians per sec.
Energy in joules dissipated in R during transient state. - 2sf,.
Wt Energy in foules stored by or lost by L during transient state.
We Energy in joules stored by or lost by C during transient
B Phase angle of a-c voltage at t = 0, i.e., when the switchstate.
is closed.
0 Phase angle of impedance as defined for each case.
e 2.718 (base of natural logarithms).
a and ß (Defined in Art. 5a).
3. RC Circuit Transients.
Nom. The following formulas for i in RC circuits are not true
extremely small values of t. For very small t, the L of the circuit, for
no
National Broadcasting Co., Inc., Chicago. Ill.
125
TILE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec.6
126
Art. 5 for LCR circuits
matter how small, limits i, and the relations of for
must be applied. This is especially important short pulses or high
frequencies, where small values of t are involved.
a. D-c Voltage V Suddenly Applied to Deenergized RC.
t
i = Re RC
S ° T =RC
Q
VT R WR = WC = 5C172 = 2
` 1
Fia. 1. = 2QV
for fully charged C (t = so). Ti me
Fro. 2.
b. C Charged to Voltage V and Suddenly Discharged through R.
= -Re RC
sl`V1C {
T =RC I.
R
WR = 2CVI = 2 C = ZQV
Fra. 3. for complete discharge of C (t = co). I
Time
Fio. 4.
c. A-c Voltage e Suddenly Applied to Deenergized RC.
Applied voltage e = E sin ( .,t -}- e)
i = 2 sin (out + O - 4')

C
-2 coo (B - ¢) wRC
FIG. 5.
¢ = cot-r (owRC)
FIG. 6.
4. LR Circuit Transients. a. D-e Voltage V Suddenly Applied to Deeper-

gized LR.
i = R(1 - e
Rt
T)
w
T=R I U
D
Fro. 7.
WL = 2LIz =
for t = cc.
Bz
Time
Fro. S.
Underscored terms represent steady-state currents; remaining term or terms are the
transients.
Sec. 61 COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 127
h. LR Carrying Steady Direct Current I Suddenly Interrupted.

V
Steady current I =
=R_Rt Rt
e L =lE L
T=
:
Fia. 0.
fort= =
2L1' =
00.
2 R'
Time -y
FIG. l O.
c. A-c Voltage e Suddenly Applied to Decnergized LR.
Applied voltage e = E sin (wt + 0)
i =
Z
sin (wt + O- 4,)
Rt
-Z sin (0 - yb)E L
Fi,;. 1l. $ = t:iñ i ¡mLl

`RJ
Fia. 12.
5. LCR Circuit Transients. a. D-e Voltage V Suddenly Applied to Deener-

gized LCR.
General Solution:
i =
2ßLE
a,(eß' - E 81) = Ve
-2,-0 -ai sinh ßt S1Ç e L
R sl 1 R' 1 11
of = 2L LC -
ß = Va 4L' LC VT R
There are three special cases, depending upon the ratio Fra. 13.
a = R /2L:
R' 1
Case I. Aperiodic current, when a' = 4L' > LC. (ß is real.)
t
v
i = Re RC - Re L
i builds up to a maximum at
t =
\zß loge a± ) sec.
then slowly decays to zero.
Fla. 14.
*Underscored terms represent steady -state currents; remaining terni or terns are
the transients.
Ri
Case H. Critical damping, when a' - - LC' (ß = 0.)
Rt
= Lte L
i builds up to a maximum at t = 1 /a sec., then slowly
decays to zero.
Time
Flo. 15.
('ase III. Oscillatory current, when a' i 4t
Ri
, <
LC.
1
(0 is imaginary.
i = L V
_Rt
2L sin wit
I
col = V LC - a' = 2rji
Fio. 16.
i builds up to a maximum at t = 1 /4fi sec., then oscillates with amplitude
slowly decreasing to zero.
For approximations
_Rt
TIN-Le 2L
1 1
= vLZ` Í` 2AN/LC
b. A -c Voltage e Suddenly Applied to Deenergized LCR.
Applied voltage e = E sin (wt + 8)
There are three special cases, depending upon the ratio
R
C a 2L
R Case I. Aperiodic current, when at - R'/4L= > 1 /LC.
W is real.)
Ftu. 17.
i = Z sin (rot 4- O-)
+ F,
Z
1
L
L(a - 13) sin (tl -)
- w cos - (fi)]e- -ths
(O <a 1 1 1 1 1 1 Timé
-E [L(a+(3) sin 1
(O -) U
- cos - ) 1
(B e to +ßße
Fm. 18.
*Underscored terms represent steady -state currents; remaining terns or terms are
the transients.
Sec. 6] COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 129
Case II. Critical damping, when a2.. R' /4L' = 1 /LC. (ß = 0.)
z = 2 sin (wt -1. 9 - 4') v

L
L
- LC. coa - ) ]f-

3
+
7 (at - 1) sin (9 - (1)) (B
j
, L)
Fro. 19.
('ase III.
nary.)
Oscillatory current, when a' - R' /4L3 < 1 /LC. (ß is imagi-
E. , . . _ E
[ . ._
Time-
+ wiLwC cos (8 - gp) sin wit
Fra. 20.
- sin (8 - 4') sin wit]
STEADY -STATE CURRENTS IN LCR CIRCUITS
6. Impedance Relations. Steady -state currents are calculated by an
expression similar to Ohm's law,
I=Z (1)
where I and E are vectors representing r-m -s values of current in amperes

and voltage in volts. The impedance Z (expressed in ohms) is the vector
sum of the a-c resistance R and the reactance X,
Z =R +jX (2)
The factor j is an operator to indicate that X is 90 deg. out of phase with
R. The magnitude of Z is IZI = VR' + X', and its phase angle with R
is
R= cos-' R (3)
7. Values of the Reactance X of Coils and Condensers. The X or

reactance component of impedance is due to inductance or capacitance.
If the reactance is a coil having an inductance of L henrys,
XL = <AL =2,rfLohms
where w = 27rf and f = frequency in cycles per second; if it is a condenser
of capacitance C farads, Xe`` _ -1 /wC ohms; if it is composed of both
L and C, X = (wL - -)
ohms. Capacitance always has negative
Underscored terms represent steady -state currents; remaining term or terms are
the transients.
130 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. s
reactance, and inductance always has positive reactance. Thus Eq. (2)
may be written
Z = R +j(wL - (4)
Formula: XL27fL ohms whenL ;sin henries

4=
=Rs+R2+RJy jIXe+X?+Xs+....) Xe2TfCmswhenCisinmfds.
Circuit Phase Angle Magnifudeof Zo Alaebraic Formulae
ol
(al
90°
Z. =RjXL
70-' t
40
L /Zo/= R +X¿
Frequency
Resistance and - R
Inductance
in Series
Al 0 '
0 Frequency
4=tañ eR
b)
° 90'
R Za'R Xc
Za- C 40 Frequency
fe ll /Zo/= R fXc
T
Resistance and ---- Xe
Capacitance 90- 0 =toñ e
R
in Series 0 Frequency
(c) .r Zo j(Xc-Xc1
IZo/'IXL-Xcl
=Ow/rnXL'Xc
0 e
'
g)= tan-loo (XL-Xc)
Inductance and
Freq ency ZO ¡
f
'0 when XL=Xc
Capacitance 90 ! 0 =-90°whtnXL>Xc
fi, ZTy-Z. 0 Frequency
in Series =+90°whenXL<Xc
I
(d)
90 l 4.10j-Xc1
Za y C 1 4 f I 1
\ IZoI' RZr(XL Xc1=
RI 0 luency o =R when XL=Xe
Rtsibancç/ndudann XL-Xc
-e
Mn
and Capacitance 90 R
in Series f -2i7aI 1 0
0 Frequency
><
=OwhenXL=Xc
Equivalent impedances of series combinations of L, C, and R
8. Equivalent or Total Impedance. Any network of impedances
can be reduced to an equivalent impedance of the form Z = R + jX
by the following formulas:
1. Impedances Z1 and Z in series:
Zo - Z1 + Z: - (RI + jX l) + (R: + IX :)
(R1 +R:) +j(X1 +Xs) (5)
2. Impedances Z1 and Z2 in parallel:

Z1Zz (R1 +jXI)(Rz +jXz)
Zo = Z1 + Zz (R, + jX 1) + (R2 + jXz)
RI(R22 + X22) + R2(Rt2 + X12) +:71X 1(R22 + X22) + X2(RI2 + X12)I
(R, + R2)2 + (X1 + X2)2
(6)
R, (RZ+XZ j+-RZ(44XÌitla1(RzfXzl+X2(Ri+Xig
(Rf+R2)2+ (Xi+X2) 2
i
ZO
6
XL=2nfL ohms Xc-2 lC ohms (Cinmfds.)
Circuit Phase Angle Magnitude of Z0 Algebraic Formulae

(a)
90° RXL (XL+jR)
Zo
XL RZ+X
Z -- R L 0
0 /Zor RXL
°
Inductance and
Frequency
( /Zo%
R2+XL
Resistance in
Parallel
90 0
0 Frequency = tañ 1+
R
Ar,
(b)
90T RXc(Xc jR1
0-
Z ó 0
+
/Z n
R RZ+Xc
°-----1--C Frequency /4/- 4,1-#-T-cg

RXc
Resistance and -
Capacitance il 90- =tañ I
Parallel 0 Frequency X
(C) 90__ //c
Zo- JC(XLJXc/ 11
C + L
Zo-L
/Zo /ZO//CiXL-Xcl/
0 Fre q uent y =oo when XL Xc
Inductance and - O
¡ p tan-rm (XLXc 1
Capacitance» 90f 0 Frequency XL Xc

Parallel 2rGC =0 when XL-__Xçç
(c RXLXcLrc J(RXLRXc1%
L C 90° Z° (RXL RXc)2+X¿X
Zp 0
i f 1 /ZOi RXLXc
Freg
7
ncy /Zo/' i
{(R.l¡-RXC)Z+XIXC
=R when XL- Xc
Resistance,
Capacitance
ain alu/eenCe
-
90
ft . r
2A LC
¡
I 0 fr
0 Frequency
: 0 =tan-1 L
=0 when XXL=Xc
-RXc
Equivalent impedances of parallel combinations of L, C, and R.

This expression, while somewhat involved, is seen still to he of the form
Z = R +jX. Charts showing impedance relations for some common
L(R circuits are shown on these pages.
3. Impedances in network. By applying the foregoing formulas

in a step -by-step process, any network can be reduced to a single equiva-
lent impedance. Thus, in Fig. 21,
z2
Zu Z,Z,
Zo- Z* Za + Za' Zzas = Z2 + Za4
Fla. 21.-Net- and finally,

work w i t h
Z1(Za + Za,)
branch imped-
ances.
Zo=Z1+Z:+Z» (7)
In a complex network, however, the number of terms will be large, and

the computations will be laborious.
R, (Rz +X71 +R2 (R +X2)+.%(xi (R7+X2)+X2 (Ri +Xtr1
Z°
XL =7nfL ohms
Circuit
(R,+R212+(X,+X2)2
Phase Angle Mogre fudeofZo

X,= 2b, 6
ohms (Ci, mfdsl
Algebrotc Formulae
(e)
Á}*
RXé Ja fXc-Xc1 +R2Xcl
R2+(Xc-Xc12
ZO
RC
-
f R2+XL2
; T
m
7w
I
Freg ency%La/ /z0/-XcR2+2

I
r
A$sislaxemd I Frequency _ L when XL'Xe and R is small
InducA2rn in T .
Senés and in 2.r ' RC
Parallel with Aó2+I o+gAe
Capacitance «curs when 0 Jan
r
( XL (XL-X,.
RXe
/
I+R=,
14QS774 0>l
4d1wlàlifrQl O L'Xe and R is small
XL=
(f) _ (RLA+RcB/+r(XLA-XcB)
?J.' ZO (RL+Rc12+(X¿Xc12 A=(Rg+X7)
¡ B-(R¿+XL2)
1C 0 V(RLA+RCBI2+GYLA-X,812
Ti. °/ /Z°/' (RL.Rcl2+(XL Xcl2
CY
ZaRL ` óF
V-
A}sisAanerand
O
Frequency
OFre L eC when XLXc and RLandRe are small
° ( RLR
lrd:Aamin
'Series and in í- I
XLA-XCB
Paro/k/ with
0>I
27317. 0= lañ I
Capacibnce RLA+RcB
and Nesisknn Abtwläkrag '
inSeries = O when XL, -Xc and RL °ndRc are small
Equivalent impedances of parallel combinations of L, C, and R.

9. Q of LCR Circuits. Every coil or condenser has some energy
losses, which at a given frequency may be represented as an equivalent
R in series with the reactance XL or Xc. The ratios
RLL
QL = = RL and Qc = Rc mCRc
define Q, which is a figure of merit for the coil or condenser. As a general
expression for Q in any circuit, we have
Sec. COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 133
volt -amperes VA
Q 3 watts dissipated -W d
Although Q varies with frequency, it is nearly constant over narrow
ranges of frequency, and its use therefore renders circuit computations
somewhat simpler when losses have to be considered. Table I gives
some representative values of Q which may be expected from ordinary
coils and condensers.
TABLE I.- REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF Q FOR VARIOUS COILS AND
CONDENSERS
Frequency, Coils with Condensers Condensers
cycles powdered Air -cored coils with paper with mica
iron cores dielectric dielectric
100 25 to 50 3 to 10 1,000
1,000 50 to 75 25 to 50 500 3,000
10.000 100 to 150 100 to 300 100 to 200 500
100,000 150 to 200 100 to 300 50 to 100 200 to 300
1,000.000 100 to 200 100 to 300 50 to 200
The following data are quoted from Franks:°

Fre- II Fre-
hein quency, II1
Item quency,
kilo- Q kilo-
cycles cycles
100 uuf molded bakelite Broadcast
I band banx-
fixed condenser 1,000 40 wound lits solenoid ?¿
in. diam. in 13g in
Typical gang condenser; 100 2,000¡ square shield can 1,000 11ií
bakelite stator insulation 1,000 700 Broadcast band universal -
10,000 200 wound lits coil with iron
core in same can 1,000 is:)
Same with ceramic stator 100 8.000 Transmitter coil, 4tS in.
insulation. 1.000 3,000 dines. and 5 in. long, 11
10,000 1,000 turns of % in. copper
Single-section Tits -wound tubing 5,000 950
universal coil; 458-kc in- Transmitter coil 1% in
termediate frequency, in
can 458
diameter and In
in
long, 12 turns of No. 10
Same but with powdered- wire 10,000 400
iron core 458 14 Receiver coil, 1 in. diam-
eter and 9¢ in. long, 5
turns of No. 14 30,000 270
10. Loss Due to Inserting Senes or Shunt Impedance in Audio

Circuits. In audio circuits, attenuation- frequency characteristics are
often purposely modified by the insertion of corrective impedances
such as equalizers, "tone controls," and scratch filters. The following
formulas give the insertion losses in such cases:
1. Shunt Impedance. The loss due to inserting a shunt impedance Z.
(Fig. 22a and 6) is
L = 20 logio + 2i+ db (S)
(1 Z.(Zt + 22) )
The shunting impedance can usually be located at a point in the circuit
where the impedances Z1 and Z2 are matched, and where each is substantially
a pure resistance through the range of frequencies involved. Then, letting
Z1 = Z2 = Ro, the loss is
FRANKS, C. J., Electronics, p. 128, April, 1935.
L = 20 login 2Z.2Z Ro db = 20 logo + -cos + 4K= db (8a)

where K = IZ.I /Ro and i
is the phase angle of Z.. For various values of
K and ck the loss can be read from the curve (Fig. 23).
s z
Zp
y Y y
(a)- Grw'i+wth Opp], ci bl -ShuntImpedance (c)-Series Impedance
Voltage, E, Impedance Inserted
of Source, Z and
Load Impedance,Z2
inserted
Fla. 22. -Shunt and series impedances inserted in audio-frequency circuits.

2. Series Impedance. The loss in decibels due to inserting a series imped-
ance Z. (Fig. 22e and c) is
(Zi + Z1 + Ze) db
L = 20 logo `\ Zi Z: I (9)
+
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Loss, db
Fia. 23.-Transmission loss due to insertion of shunt or series impedance.
The series impedance can usually be inserted at a point in the circuit where
the impedances Zi and Z2 are matched and where each is substantially a pure
See. el COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 135
resistance through the rango of frequencies involved. Then, letting

Z, + Z2 = Ro, the loss is
Z.I
L = 201ogio Ro Ro
+ db
= 20 logo 1'1 + 2K cos 4, + K= db (9a)
where K = IZ.I /Ro and ß is the phase angle of Z,. The loss can be read
from Fig. 23 for various values of K and 0.
SERIES RESONANCE
11. Definition. A series circuit containing LCR, such as that in
Fig. 24, is series resonant when the line current Io is in phase with the
line voltage Eo.
ER=hR
E0
Fia. 24.- Series circuit and vector representing it.

12. Conditions for Series Resonance. The equivalent impedance of
a series circuit is, by Eq. (4), Za = R + (X L
drop in the circuit is Et) = Io[R + (X Lj
j
-X
-
Xc). The total voltage
c) l Resonance occurs when
XL = Xc. At resonance the total reactance is XL
current is Io = Eo /R.
Xc = 0, and the -
There is only one frequency at which +
XL
XL = Xe; this gives the formula for
resonant frequency: e
fr =
1
(10)
E
'S
p^0 fry
I 'v'.;Cc
Frequency
/ i,I
2x LC c
where f, is the resonant frequency in ó I
cycles per second, L is in henrys, C is in it

farads. The manner in which the re-
actances vary with frequency is shown in - i
Fig. 25. FIG. 25.- Series circuit react -
13. Properties of a Series Resonant ance.
Circuit. A series resonant circuit has
the following properties at resonance: (1) the current is maximum;
(2) the impedance is minimum; (3) the current is in phase with the
impressed voltage; (4) the current is limited only by the total resistance,
which is usually equal to the coil resistance; (5) if the coil resistance
is the only resistance in the circuit, the voltage drop across the coil is
greater than the impressed voltage; and (6) the voltage drop across the
condenser exceeds the impressed voltage if Xc is greater than R.
Items 5 and 6 are of importance in practice because such high voltages
may develop across C and L as to endanger their insulation, unless this
is provided for in their design.
136 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. i
14. Impedance of Series Resonant Circuits. At resonance, the
impedance is R, the total series resistance of the circuit. At any other
frequency, f', there is also a reactance component
X1 = 2TLCf'2
f'=l
!1
and the total impedance is
: _
Z,= R +j2xL (f' f .42) (12)
The magnitude of Z, is
R2 +
fps -fzlz
f,.2)2
(13)
4R2L=C
f /
10
0.10
6 -02
4 0.08
3 0 06
'
2
1 0.04
0.6 0.03
Ó3
-
0.2 0.02
l 0.06
0.010
ÓÓ3
0.02
0.008
0.01 0.006
1 -
0.006
0.004 0.004
0.003 IMEITIALTEmo 0 400
0.002 0.003
0001 0.002
01 0.3 04 0 5 0 6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.95 0.98 1.00
n =fi/fr or n =f4orfi./f
26.- Design chart for series resonant circuit.
Circuit Constants Table. A table of LC products and other constants
frequently used in calculations of resonant circuits and coil and condenser
reactances is given in Sec. 1.
16. Series Resonance Curves-Zo and 4.. The following useful rela-
tions for series resonant circuits are derived from Eq. (13):
I L V Q1 + n2 I1 -2 (14)
Sec. 6I COMBINED CIRCUITS ON I., C, AND R 137
and
L =
1 IZ,I' - R' (15)
wr 21
(n' 1=
n J
where IZ,I = the absolute impedance at any frequency f,
w, = 2w X resonance frequency, f,
\\
w, = 2w X any other fre
frequency,
= w, /w, = fair when, < f,; or n = w,/w, = fr/fi whenfi > f,
Q,. = w,L /R = Q at resonance.
The phase angle of Z, is
\ - ñ)`
\
ß = tan -1 K` = tan -' Q,(n (16)
90
85
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Z65
I.
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50
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I
45
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40
35
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MINIMMIMIIIMI
30
20
01,s negat ve whenn</
10 npesdiro n>/
when
0.1 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 085 0.9 095 LO

n=1:14. or rr/r,
Fia. 27. -Phase angles in terms of Q, series circuits.
= tan -,
[Q(n - n/J
Using Eq. (14), the universal resonance curves of Fig. 26 were plotted
in terms of IZ,I /wrL, Q, and n. Similar curves for .0 in terms of Q and
n are given in Fig. 27. In these curves the ratio n is to be taken as
either f, /f, or frill, whichever gives n < 1. From these universal
curves, complete information about impedance and phase angle of u
series resonant circuit can be read directly when the constants co L,

and Q or R are known.
16. Design of Series Resonant Circuit. To design a series resonant
circuit, we have to determine values of L, C, and R to meet a given set
of conditions. The given conditions must include values for three
items: (1) resonance frequency, (2) impedance at resonance, and (3)
impedance at some other frequency; otherwise there is no unique design.
Example. Assume, for example, that a series resonant circuit is to have
an impedance of 100 ohms at a resonance frequency of 1,000 cycles,Atand an
reso-
impedance of 500 ohms at 900 cycles. Then w, = 21rf, = 6,280.
nance, i.e., for n = 1, IZ,'j = R = 100, and at 900 cycles, n = 0.9, IZ,I = 500.
Then, substituting in Eq. (15), we have
L -- 1
6,280
5002
1.235
0.81 + 2
- 100=- -
0.369 henry
By reference to the LC table, Sec. 1, page 9, we find that at f. = 1,000,

LC = 2.533 X 10-2, from' which C = LC /L = 0.0687 X 10-e farad.farad Thus
we have R = 100 ohms, L = 0.369 henry, and C = 0.0687 X 10 -, as
the constants of the circuit. Also,
ar,L 6,280 X 0.369
Q R - - 100
23
and from this information we can select from Figs. 26 and 27 (by interpolation
for Q = 23) the curves giving impedance and phase angles for frequencies
above and below resonance.
17. Use of Series Resonant Circuit for Frequency Regulation. An
application of a series resonant circuit is shown in Fig. 28. At resonance
the excitation voltages applied to the grids are the reactance drops IXc
Cine
Line Frequency
Fia. 28. -Use of Fia. 29.- Series resonant
series resonance circuit equalizer.
for frequency regula-
tion.
and IXL. The tubes are biased to the cutoff point so that rectification
takes place. As long as the frequency of the applied voltage E. is
therefore the plate cur-
f = 1/22.-ViTe, the excitation voltages and frequency
rents of the two tubes will be equal, but if the varies, the volt-
age drop across one reactance will increase and that across the other
will decrease, causing the plate current of one tube to exceed the other.
This difference in plate currents may be read on a meter to indicate the
frequency of applied voltage, or it may be utilized through a differential
relay to operate an automatic frequency controlling device.
17a. Series Resonant Circuits as Equalizers. Series resonant circuits
are often used as equalizers where it is required to eliminate or attenuate
a certain frequency or a small hand of frequencies. The resonant circuit
with a variable resistance in series is connected in shunt across the line
See. 61 COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 139
or terminals of the circuit to be equalized, and more or less readily

by- passes currents of the resonant and adjacent frequencies, depending
upon the adjustment of R (see Fig. 29).
18. Scratch Filters. A series resonant circuit is the simplest form of
scratch -and -hiss filter for electric phonographs or carbon microphones.
The resonance frequency is usually about 4,500 cycles; a typical filter
is shown in Fig. 30 with its loss versus frequency characteristic. A low -
pass filter with 5,000-cycle cutoff is much better for the purpose, however
(see Art. 65).
ti
0
5
-
_
P
I I 1
iL
I
Z
1111 1
óI0
g15
c -- -p cR
p.
L'190mi//ihenries Zp=3000ohms
C.0 0075 mfd. 2L,..1000 ohms
á 20 R=300ohms,induding cal rrsisMnce
2100 l I I 111111
500 1000 3000 6000
Frequency,cyclea
Fia. 30.- Transmission characteristic of scratch Fta. 31.- Parallel res-
filter used with magnetic phonograph pickup. onance.
19. Tone Control. A series circuit resonant at about 1,000 cycles is
sometimes used as tone control in an a-f amplifier. It may have a
variable resistance and be connected in shunt in a grid or plate circuit, or
it may be shunted across part of a volume control. Such a tone control
tends to compensate automatically for the frequency characteristic of
the ear, which varies with sound volume.
PARALLEL RESONANCE
20. Definition. parallel circuit containing L in one branch and C
A
in the other (Fig. 31) is parallel resonant when the line current Io is in
phase with the line voltage Eo. In this case there are two resistances
to be considered. RL is the resistance in the coil branch, and Rc the
resistance in the condenser branch. The latter is usually small and often
negligible as compared to RL.
In some textbooks parallel resonance is defined as the condition of
minimum Io (or maximum Zo, which is the same thing). On this basis
a slightly different resonance frequency is obtained, depending upon
whether L, C, or f is varied. For practical purposes, however, the
difference is small enough to be neglected, and the results may be con-
sidered as being essentially identical, especially in view of the fact that
nearly all tuned circuits require at least one variable reactance by which
final tuning adjustments may he made on actual test.
21. Conditions for Parallel Resonance. The equivalent impedance
of the parallel circuit of Fig. 31 is
Zo =
RL(Rc' +Xc') + Rc(RL' + XL') +jIXL(Rc' +Xc') Xc(RL' +XL')1 -
(RL+Rc)'+(XL-Xc)'
(17)
140 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. a
where XL = 271L
Xc = 2 f;
Io j
will he in phase with E0 when the term equals zero,
X° _ X L(Re2 +
Xc2) -
Xc(RL° + XL') -
(RL + Rc)' + (XL Xc)2
0
- (18)
This condition exists if
VW
1 ,IL
RL'C-
- or f* =
1 RL2C
Rc'C
LL-- (19)
VL Rc'C 2,r LC
22. Approximate Formulas for Resonance Frequency When RL and
Rc Are Small or Equal. If the resistance Rc is negligible, Eq. (19)
becomes
1
RL'C
2x Nfre
1- (20)
If RL = Rc or if RL and Re are both very small,

1
(21)
fr 2x LC
which is the same as the resonant frequency of a series circuit (Art. 12,
Eq. (10)].
23. Special Case Where RL = Rc = 1/L%C. In this case Eq. (17)
reduces to
Zo = R (22)
and the circuit is resonant at all frequencies with constant impedance equal
to R. This special case is not so useful as might be expected, however,
since L/C is usually large (on the order of 10 ") and R must therefore be too
large for any normal application.
24. Properties of Parallel Resonant Circuits. At its resonant fre-
quency a parallel circuit has the following properties: (1) the line current
is essentially a minimum; (2) the impedance presented to the line is
essentially a maximum; (3) the line current is in phase with the line
voltage; and (4) the current circulating in the parallel circuit itself is
usually much larger than the line current (the circulating current is
Q times line current).
25. Absolute Value of Impedance at Resonance in Parallel Resonant
Circuit. Letting w = 1 /N/LC in Eq. (17) gives for the impedance of a
parallel circuit at resonance
(RLRc + XLXc) + j (RcXL - RLXc) (23)
RL + Rc
The absolute value of this impedance is
/(RLRc + wtL2)2 + w2L'(RcRL)' (24)
(RL + Rc)'
26. Absolute Value of Impedance in General Parallel Circuit, with Negli-

gible Resistance in Capacity Branch. In this case Rc '=, 0, and from Eq. (17),
= Xc RL.I - /IRO + XL' - XLXcl

Zo
- Xc)' J1 (
25
)
The absolute magnitude of Zo is
If R,, is small
Zo I
compared with XL,

+-
XcVRL' + XL'
Xc)' (26)
- Xe)' . C VRL' +
XLXc L 1
1201
vRL' + (XL (XL - Xc)' (27)
At resonance XL = Xc (RL and Rc being assumed negligible), and
Vol ' RC (28)
The equivalent impedance of a low- resistance parallel circuit is therefore

vety nearly a pure resistance at the resonant frequency and has the value
L /RC, approximately.
17. Parallel Resonance Curves -Zo and Ø. The following useful relations
for parallel resonant circuits (where Rc is considered negligible) are derived
from Eq. (26):
IZoI . 1 +1.'1 1
Q,s + no
ar,L L nQ.' (29)
J Q ' + (n 1 n Qe )
where IZoI = the absolute impedance at any frequency J,
w, = 2a X resonance frequency
w, = 2r X any frequency
n = m, /m,
Q, = w,L /R = Q at resonance.
For Q = 10 or larger, this is approximately
1
IZoI .
Q,t +
cori,
(30)
'
n +n'+ñ=-2
and at resonance
IZoI . Q (31)
From Eq. (30) it can be shown that IZoI = 1.414 1,/L7-0 when j, = 0.707f,.
Hence the L/C ratio of a parallel resonant circuit may be expressed as a
function of its impedance at 70.7 per cent of resonance frequency, or vice
versa. This fact is useful in some design applications.
The ratio of IZoI at j, = 0.707j, to 1201 at resonance is
Vol at j, 1.414
(32)
IZoI at 1 Q
I I I I
oQ
I I
zoo Reserauaee Cones in TpMJ
AND NrwÌPwwwntrt Lacuna
/
na :n
100
so a.rG Q+ne+i-1
V
fa
Zo.Magiúladr affqaáw/mrImpedance
20 aura Z,iaRewroni firyoaaryafG'rri1
nQ/Abaannor IZ 14QfsiYkcwQ>M
0.2
0.0
.a
G-O
0.001 IA8110111121RIIQIIffitff669ff
02 03 0.4 05 61 01 08
*t09 LO U 14 L5 L6 11 L8 19
n 4/fr
Fia. 32.- Parallel resonance curves.
6+0
85
80
á
= 10
á
65
60
55
50
45
40
u
ro
%J02030405 O6
°O.10.2 01 0.8 0.9 0.95 10 LOS LI LI LS L4 L5 I.6 I] 1819
n f/1r
Fro. 33. -Phase angle of parallel LC circuit in terms of n and Q.
Sec. si COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 143
The phase angle of Zo is
4, = tan-,
[ - nQ.(Q =
+ n2 - 1)] (33)
and for Q = 10 or larger is approximately

= tan-, [ -nQ,(n2 1)] - (34)
Using Eq. (29), the set of resonance curves of Fig. 32 has been plotted in
terms of Zoj /w,L, Q, and n. Similar curves for 4, in terms of n and Q are
given in Fig. 33. From these universal curves a complete resonance curve
and its phase characteristic can be plotted when the constants w , L, and
Q or R are known.
28. Design of Parallel Resonant Circuits. To design a parallel
resonant circuit, we have to determine values of L, C, RL, and Re to
satisfy a given set of conditions. Values of IZoI at resonance, the reso-
nance frequency, and Q will first have to be determined by analysis of the
intended use of the resonant circuit.
In a vacuum -tube oscillator, for example, f, of the tuned circuit is known,
and 1221 at resonance is fixed by the permissible plate voltage swing.
For Q (which includes the effect of the external load coupled to the tuned
circuit, as well as the latter's ohmic resistance) a value of from 12 to 20
represents a good compromise between oscillator efficiency and frequency
stability.
Another example of the factors involved in the choice of Q in an appli-
cation is that of a tuned circuit for an r-f amplifier to pass a modulated
carrier. In this case the LC circuit must have sufficient decrement to
damp out its own natural oscillations between successive peaks of modu-
lation; otherwise there is an effective decrease in modulation percentage
with a corresponding loss of fidelity. If the carrier frequency is fc and
the modulation frequency f,,,, the maximum decrement of the modulated
carrier wave at 100 per cent modulation is approximately
62 = 2.303 logro
f
(,L)
The decrement 62 of the tuned circuit should be 10 to 20 times as large
(35)
as 62 for faithful response. Then Q for the tuned circuit is
Q = 62
(36)
The value of 1Z4 at resonance will depend upon plate -load impedance
requirements of the amplifier tube.
In some cases the ratio of volt- amperes circulating in LC to watts
dissipated is the basis for the design of an LC circuit; m this case
volt- amperes
Q -
watts dissipated (37)
The effect of any load coupled to a tuned circuit must be taken into
account as part of the total effective R of the circuit. If the power taken
by the load is W,, watts and le is the circulating current in LCR, the
total equivalent impedance of the circuit is, approximately,
R' =Ro +W= (38)
where Ro is the ohmic resistance.

Examples of Design of Parallel Resonant Circuit. Assume that a parallel
circuit (Fig. 31) is to be resonant at 5,000 cycles, with an impedance of 4,000
ohms at resonance (n = 1) and an impedance of 100 ohms at 3,000 cycles
(n = 0.6). From Fig. 32, IZoI /w,L = 0.9 for all values of Q when n = 0.6.
-
At resonance ]ZoI /w,L is to be 4100 X 0.9 = 36. From the curves it
is found that Q = 36 gives 1Zol /w,L = 36 at n = 1 where w, = 31,416.
Then for n = 1,
Zo = 36w,L = 4,000, or L = 36
X031,1 416 - 0.00354 henry
LC for 5,000 cycles = 10.136 X 10-10. Then C = LC /L = 0.286 X 10'0
farad, and R = w,L /Q = 3.08 ohms.
(C24Cv)(C2+C3)+C2C.7
Cosy
Cr=C0+Cy Ci# #Cy
C2
Qfci//a*.YSK1Á7n
Cv of lHnabre Condenser
a(rJ7//Ca/with
R-FSert7on)
(o) -R-F Circuit C1 =Osc. Trimmer

Cp =Qsc.Padding
CJ =Dist.CoµofCbGCa%
(b)- Oscillator Circuit
Flo. 34.- Oscillator circuits for superheterodyne.
As a second example suppose there is to be designed a tuned circuit for an

r -f amplifier which requires a plate-load impedance of 10,000 ohms and which
is to amplify a 1,000 -kc carrier with amplitude modulation up to 5,000 cycles.
From Eq. (35)
5, = 2.303 log,o
1 r
b X 10 - 0.0159
100
Let S: =20S, = 0.318
Q =áx=9.85'=z [from Eq. (31)]

10,000
w,L = Z01 - 1,015
Q 9.85
L =w_/._1,015=162
co, 2,rj. µh
Sec. 61 COMBINRD CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 145
LC for 1,000 kc = 2.53 X 10-1a
- LC 2.53
- 10-"
L 162 X 10-e µµ
cud,
Q
- 1,015
9.85
- 103 ohms.
This consists of the ohmic resistance of LCR plus the equivalent R of the
coupled load, as computed by Eq. (38).
1400 1000 600

R.F. Frequency, kc.
Fla. 35.- Closeness of tracking secured by formulas.
29. Design of Oscillator Tracking Circuits. In superheterodyne
receivers with "ganged" condenser tuning, the most common method
-for tracking the oscillator-tuned circuit at a constant frequency differ-
ence from the r-f circuits is by means of a gang condenser with identical
sections and with an adjustable padding condenser in series with the
oscillator section. A typical oscillator circuit of this type is shown in
Fig. 34. The tracking is approximate as no combination of C,, C,, and
C, will give perfect alignment at more than three points on the dial
shown in Fig. 35). These points are usually chosen near the ends
Ind the middle of the frequency range -in a broadcast receiver, for
'xample, at 1,400, 1,000, and 600 ke. Slight tracking errors will exist
It all other frequencies in the band; these will be approximately pro-
,ortional to the i-f frequency used. The maximum errors are at the
'nds of the band and amount to about 2 kc for a good design with an
.f. of 175 kc.
The values of C,, C2, and C, may be determined by calculation or by
experimental methods. Either method involves a considerable amount of
abor. The following design procedure, due to Roder,' is probably the most
1 Rouse, HANS, Oscillator Padding, Radio Rngineering, March, 1935, p. 7.
direct method of solution (six -place logarithms or a calculating machine are

recommended for all calculations) :
Step 1. Known constants:
a. Three frequencies of perfect alignment (= M. (Usually 1,400, 1,000,
and 600 kc for broadcast receivers.)
b. R -f circuit inductance (= L).
c. R -f circuit trimmer capacity (= Co). (Including distributed capacity
of r -f coil.)
d. Intermediate frequency (_
e. Distributed capacity of oscillator coil (= C3).
Solution to yield: Values of C,, Co, and L.,,..
Units: All constants are measured in the following units:
f = frequency in kilocycles.
= inductance in microhenries.
C = capacitance in micromicrofarads.
Step 2. Compute
253.3 X 10,
x, -
Lja
and y. 253.3 X 10°
for each alignment frequency.
Step 3. Compute
y, - yo + x2B - xtA y,B - yaA
X B -A ' Y B -A
where
A y,
XI
- xi
-
YI and B - y=x, -- yaXI
Step 4. Compute
K = (xt -
X) (y, Y) a (z, -X) (y, -
Y) - (x, X) (y3- Y) - -
(The truth of these identities is a check on the accuracy of the calculations
thus far.)
Step 5. Compute
m=K(1-It)
where
v - 0.5u - 0.3125u' + 0.2188ua
and
4C3Y
u
Step 6. Compute
C, = Co -X - 2Y(1 + 0.75v + 0.625ro= + 0.5470)
and
Co = Y N
Step 7. Compute Lc. = mL
Example:
Step 1. Let
= 1,400 kc L = 200µh
= 1,000 kc Co = 30 µµt
= 600 kc C3 = 15 µµf
j; = 175 kc.
Step 2.
I. lo... z y
1 1,400 1,575 64.617 0.0195865

2 1,000 1,175 126.650 0.0109110
3 600 775 351.806 0.0047424
Step 3. A = 140.0126; B = 27.3531.

X = 5.1103; Y = 0.1138 X 10 -2.
Step 4. % = 1.2863.
Step 5. u = 5.3097; a = 2.5700 X 10' =; nt = 0.7574.
Step 6. CI = 20.17 pat; C2 = 1451.5 µµf.
Step 7. L, = 151.50 microhenries.
.
30. Tapped Tank Circuits. In some cases the high impedance of a

parallel LCR circuit at resonance is a disadvantage, e.g., at the end of a
low impedance transmission line where the correct termination is about
500 ohms. However, the low impedance can be obtained by tapping
the LCR circuit in either the L or C branch as shown in Fig. 36. The
result is a coupled circuit, that part of the reactance between B and C
being the mutual impedance.
1. Capacity Tapped. In Fig. 36a, the impedance at B-C is
1 : R:=L:C:
L:=C:=(Ct(Ct
+ C2) ) + (Vet + CO
'Zed = R, (39)
If R: is small, A A
LW: C2 : Lz
'Zed B
R:C,(C, + CO (40) Bo
and its ratio to the impedance ZAC is Low Z
TC, R1 Low Z
C. C
IZsci C:= (41) (a) (b)
Zed (C1 + C:)2 Capacity Tapped IndudoneeTopped
The resonant frequency is Fa.. 36.- Tapped tank circuits.
f 21 LCt
1
C,C:
(42)
+ C:
and the impedances ZAC and Zac are both purely resistive at resonance.
The ratio of CI to C: for a given ratio between ZAC and Zee is
Ct = ZAC
(43)
ZBC )
In terms of the resonant frequency, inductance, and the impedance ratio,
1 ZAc
CI (44)
4w'f,'L ZBC
l4$ 7'IIH RADIO !iN(IINRh'HINR HANDBOOK (Sec. 6
1
C2 = (45)
4T21r =L(1 - V
Zec
ZAC)
2.Inductance Tapped. In Fig. 36b the inductance is tapped, and the
impedance at B-C is (assuming no mutual inductance between Li and Lx)
( R1R: - (L1 L1Lz Lz ' R21.11
-
- L:)C: (V(1,1 + LOC:
+
IZBOI \ R1 + Ra
R1Lz R,A,/(Li + Lz)Czl'
/(L1 + LOCI C+ J
If R, and R2 are small,
= Lz Lz (47)
IZBCI Cz(Ri + Ri) (L1 + Ls)
and its ratio to the total impedance ZAC is
IZecl Lz=
(48)
IZACI (L1 + Ls)'
The resonant frequency is
1
(49)
21rN/(L1 +L2)C,
and the impedances ZAC and Zile are both resistive at resonance.
The ratio of L1 to Lx for a given ratio between id AC and Zec is
7.1 .NI ZAC , (50)
L, V Zsc
In ternis of the frequency, capacity, and the impedance ratio,
- 41r =j=Cz (
1 Zec)
1,1 (51)
1 ZAC
1 Zec (52)
41r2fr2Cz Zec
31. Measurement of Parallel Resonance Impedance. A convenient
method of experimentally determining the resonance impedance LC of a
parallel circuit is shown in Fig. 37. is
the circuit to be measured. This method is
based on the fact that the circuit just com-
mences to oscillate when the "negative resist-
ance " of the tube characteristic is numerically
equal to the impedance of the LC plate circuit.
In practice, a type 22 or 24 tube is satisfac-
tory, in which case B should be about 120
volts and C about 25 volts. The potentiom-
eters G and P control the grid bias and plate
respectively. The latter should be
37.- Circuit for voltages, 80 volts for the B voltage
measuring resonant im- mentioned. and
Fia.
between 60
pedance of parallel circuit. A receiver or other indicating
device is loosely coupled to LC to detect the
point where oscillation starts. G and P are adjusted until the circuitkey
is on
the verge of oscillation. Then LC is short- circuited by closing the R,
Sec. {] COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 149
and Pis varied a few volts above and below the setting at which oscillation
occurred and the values of plate current noted. The values of G and B
are, of course, unchanged during this latter adjustment. The slope of
-
the en ip curve through the value of e1, where oscillation occurred is the
negative resistance and is numerically equal to the impedance IZol.
If L and C are known, R can be computed from Eq. (28):
or
R = éI(
This also suggests the use of the above circuit for measuring r -f resistance,
by inserting an unknown resistance in series in the LC circuit and meas-
uring its impedance before and after the insertion is made. By a similar
process, capacity or inductance may also be measured. The method as
outlined is limited by tube characteristics to impedances of about 10,000
ohms and over.
COUPLED CIRCUITS
32. Coupling. If two circuits have one or more common impedances,
they are said to he electrically coupled. A common impedance is any
impedance so situated that it causes the current in one circuit to influence
the current in the other. The impedance may be resistive, reactive, or
both.
33. Coefficient of Coupling. The coefficient of coupling is
K = X
X,X,
where X. is any one component of the mutual impedance (resistance,
capacitive reactance or inductive reactance) and X, and X, are the total
impedance components of the same kind in the respective circuits.
K varies in value between zero and 1; if it is nearly 1, the coupling is
close or tight; if near zero, the coupling is loose.
34. Direct and Indirect Coupling. If the common impedance is a
resistance, inductance, or capacitance connected directly between the
K--,RRimRi' LI RI - 1 %
Lm
VLI'Le
RI' Ri +Rm r, -LmR
CZ
Li =LI +Lm
R2' =R2 +Rm L2' =L2 +Lm
Fia. 38.- Direct resistive coupling. Fia. 39.- Direct inductive coupling.
two circuits, the coupling is direct. Such circuits are shown in Figs.
38, 39, and 40. If the common impedance is a transformer, the coupling
Coupled Circuits: Indirect Inductive

Equivalent impedance:
r
to = il (Wl.'
\ - -1-_) 'WM)=
W I
\ WL. - .4-,$) J
Equivalent direct-coupled circuit: Indirect

c,
M_ t inductive coupling is equivalent to direct induc-
tive coupling if
LI2 i I Li = Li' -M
-M
ZOO Z L2 =L2'
Ili Ir
0 Frequency
where Li' and L,' are the self -inductances of the
C i r c u i f Resonance Curve coils.
h- I7s+tes-
V
U.e-fen, +4k2/21ós
2(1-k2)
= t Ifa2 + Ibs + %AJ.s
2(1
- Iss)s +
- kt)
4kel.slse
k M
L2'L2
Special cases:
a. Both circuits tuned to sane frequency (J. = Js).
12
V1
- I_
tk 12 - le
-k
b. Loose coupling (J. - Is; M < < L2' and L2'; k = ()
1 1
2r Vrarei 22r re C2
e. Close coupling (J. = fa; M > > Li and L:'; k _ 1).
1
12
1/2 2r 2MC2
d. Both circuits identical.

(la =fs
Li' = Li
C, = Cs
1
h- 221/(L2 + M)C2
1
211/(Li' - M)C2
k
M
E?
is indirect and is usually called merely inductive coupling. This type

of coupling is illustrated in Fig. 41. Indirect capacitive coupling is
illustrated in Fig. 42.
r z
LI R2 L2
Cm
Rz
Flo. 40.- Direct capacitive coupling. Fia. 41.- Indirect inductive

coupling.
From Figs. 38 to 40 it is apparent that direct -coupled circuits may be
considered as networks of impedances in series and parallel, as in Fig. 43.
Sec. Si COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 151
The notion of "equivalent impedance" (Art. 7) is a useful concept

in the treatment of such circuits. In the present treatment of coupled
circuits the equivalent impedance is determined by combining the vanous
impedance elements of the circuits according to the laws of parallel
and series combination as discussed in Eqs. (5), (6), and (7).
L, Ca LZ
Cc1 CCI
JCI "R, " iCb
R jZo= "mS
Fio. 42.-Indirect capacitive Fia. 43. -E q u i v a-

coupling. lent impedance of
direct-coupled circuits.
The equivalent impedance of the network of Fig. 43 is
Zo ° Z1 + Z.Z.Z,
+ Z,
Z,Z., + Z,Z, + Z..Z,
Z. + Z, (54)
Coupled Circuits: Inductive or Transformer with Resistance

Equivalent Impedance:
Z, = Ra + j X, - (R. + ar'M'R'
IZ :,1 ) C, t
j(Xi - "r.tfr.X:) M
4-
J 3
where IZ,'I - R,' + X,' I .I L; L7
R1
Ñ
Xr - nLr' - coat Ri It
C? 0
M-
X: - ruLt rwC: Ci rc u i t Current Curve
Special case:
If M is variable, and both circuits tuned to the same frequency, the current, in the
secondary varies with M as shown in the figure.
The maximum secondary current occurs at
Coupled Circuits: Direct Capacitive

Impedance:
ZO j WC,.
vL. - --
1 \\ ( ruLr - -)
mC:
orLt
(COLO
+
- a,C, `` + C,. - (COLO - -mCt
ton, :
``
roCw mC,
General case: Li, L,, C:, C, and C.. unrestricted.
Zo - Cm \\ \il. + J- (f.'
2
- Je=)1 + 4ktl'/'
r ir
Ct Cl ° Frequency II<' +ls' + 11(J' - Jsnt + 4k,J.,Jc
C i r c u i t Resonance Curve v 2
Coefficient of coupling:
col
when f. -
I
1
LtQ1
2xCIC.
f
C1
C.C.
CIC.
k
a C.)(C. + C..) (CI
Special cases:
a. Both circuits tuned to same frequency (f - fe).
II = f V1 - k fr - fev/1 + k
b. Loose coupling (f. = fe and C. > > CI and C.; k = 0).
1 1
2.s/Li CI 2r L.C.
e. Close coupling (f.
f1=
-fe and
0 and f.
C. < <
= V2 f.
CI and C.; k
1/2
2rv/LIC.
_ 1).
2r
f L.C.
1
- feL .
ci C.
fl _ 1
2r VLICI 2rLI C1C.

2C1+C.
Coupled Circuits: Indirect Capacitive

Equivalent impedance:
L.
\ l 1
¡mL. - 1
7.0 = jlE 1rLt

1 roC\/mC' C
"C. /.L. - + Ce
. Ca J C
L, Ca L? C.C.
where C'
C. + Ce
Z 5W...r. jr C.C. +
C.C.C.
C.C. + C.0
Cb Frequency General case: LI, L., Co. Ce. Co and C4
c i rcu i t Resononce Curve unrestricted.
- 'VW -
I'' V
+ Ie=
2
+ 40f.=fes
mVI42 + .42 + 1(l.' - let)' + 401.1.42

2
where f. - 1
fe
/C. + Cam\ C.C'
2r L1
G +CJ 2.11L.(C. + +C ,)
Coefficient of coupling:
C'
k
V(C. + C')(Ct + C')
Sec. 6) COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 153
Special cases:
a. Both circuite tuned to same frequency (f.
Jt= f.v'1 -k 1f= f.ß/1 +k

ts. Loose coupling (C. + Cs) < < C. and Cs; k 0;f. - fe.
ft.. 1
2r A,/1". 2r T,O;
c. Close coupling (f. - fe); (C. + Ce) > > Co and Cd; k = 1.
ft = o
ff _ 2f.- r1/2L1(C. + 1
Cs) r1hLf(C. + Cs)

1
d. Both circuita identical.

-fe
f
Ct
-- L1Cf
1
ft
2rVLt(C. + 2C')
- 1
2r VL
C,
k
C.
Coupled Circuits: Direct Inductive

impedance:
..L.(roLt - roCf/ll + (e.Lt - ..Ct/ll (orL ll
e.Ct/ + roL.(mLf
` - reC:J
Z. -j `
r.L. + WI,: - rCs
1
General case: L. Lf, L.., Co and C3 unrestricted. Li L?
lt- V + fo' -
- fe')' + 4k'f ffef
1/(f.'
2(1 -k') Zo-
0
.Jf.' +fo' + 1f(1.' - fe')' + 40/0/0
2(1 - k') Circuit Resonance Curve
where f. 1
fe
1
2./(Lt + L.)Ct 2r1/(Lt + L.)Cf

Coefficient of coupling k L'
V(LI +L.)(Lf +L.)
Special cases:
a. Both circuits tuned to the same frequency (f. - fe).
It= f ff- f.
b. Loose coupling (f. - fo; L. < < Lt and Lf; k = 0).
f ff °. I = 2r 1
VTIVi 2r LCf
1
e. Close coupling (f. fe; L. > > Li and L1; k = 1).
f = 1f2
f.
2r L.Ct
1
L = L,
L, - C.
1
JI
` 2,rV(LI + 2Lw)CI
a 1
2r .VT.ICI
Lw
k
L. +L.
85. Use of Resistanceless Circuits in Calculations. Each impedance
in Eq. (54) is in general of the form Ro jXo, so that the expression
becomes somewhat involved if an exact solution is made. In many actual
applications, however, coupled circuits are also sharply tuned, which is
tantamount to saying that their resistances are small compared with their
reactances. For such cases computations are much simplified without
undue sacrifice of accuracy if the circuits are assumed to be resistanceless.
86. Stray Coupling. Because of the apparent increase in resistance
of a circuit when another circuit is coupled to it, spurious and uninten-
tional coupling due to stray fields and the proximity of other apparatus
may appreciably affect the resistance of r-f circuits and introduce unnec-
essary losses unless precautions are taken to avoid it. Stray effects are
due principally to capacity coupling and stray inductive coupling. The
former varies with the areas of conductors and a -c voltages involved
and inversely with the distances between the conductors, while the latter
varies with ampere-turns, the diameter of the heavy current path in the
circuit, and inversely with the distance between the circuit and other
conductors in which induced currents flow.
SOME SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF LCR CIRCUITS
37. Band -pass R -f Circuits. If two identical tuned circuits are
capacitatively or inductively coupled (upper part Fig. 44a and b), the
circuit acts as a band -pass filter with a band width approximately
!_ =.
VX.' - R2 (55)
2TL
The band width varies with the tuning increasirg with the frequency
in the inductive case, and decreasing with the frequency in the capacita-
tive case (lower parts Fig. 44a and b). These opposing effects may be
combined in the manner shown in Fig. 44c, so that the band width is
maintained substantially constant while the circuits are tuned over a
wide range of frequency by adjustment of C1 and C..
Uehlingl has shown that this condition obtains when
X _ ± 1/ r + 41r*L2f? (58)
where R. is the resistance and L the total inductance of each branch and f.
is the hand width. With X,,, computed for the two boundary frequencies
f,, and !s of the tuning range, the values of M and C,,, required are given by
Electronic.. p. 279, September, 1930.
M
Xa,efó - la
21r(fa= - fe') (57)
= Ja= - fe7
Cgs (57e)
27fajs(Xm,fe - Xmefa)
CI=C2=C C,=C2=C
Li=LZ=L Li=L1=L
XcKr,
500 b 500 1500 500 b00

a -CapativeCoupling (b1- Inductive Coupling (cl- Combined Coupling
FIG. 44.Coupled circuits as band -pass filters.
Representative values of M and C,,, for fa = 1,500 kc, fb = 550 kc, Ra = 30
ohms, Re = 10 ohms, L = 200 X 10-6 henry, and f. = 10 kc, which are
typical constants of broadcast cir-
cuits, are
M = 3.2 X 10-6 henry
and
Cm = 0.06 ,t f
The inductive coupling M must
be negative so that its effect will be
additive to that of C,,,. This may
be obtained by winding the coils
M (Fig. 44) of two wires side by
side and by connecting the "start'
ends of the coils to CI and C: and
"finish"
- l/oya
Voltage Divider
the ends to C,,,. ToRectifier and Ripple Fifer
38. D e c o u l i n Filters.
Fia. 45.- Resistance-capacity filter
usage.
When the plate current for sev-
eral tubes of a high -gain amplifier is obtained from a single source, the in-
ternal resistance of the source is common to all the plate circuits and is
likely to act as a coupling between stages. Similar couplings may exist
through' a bleeder circuit when screen voltage for two or more tubes is
taken from a common tap or through a bias resistor common to the con-
trol -grid circuits of several tubes. To reduce such stray couplings to neg-
ligible amounts, decoupling filters are generally inserted in the circuits of
each tube and separate bias resistors are used.
I56 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOT ISec.6
A typical application of decoupling filters is shown in Fig. 45, the filter

elements being indicated by heavy lines. The condensers C furnish
low -impedance paths back to the cathodes for the signal currents flowing
in the grid, screen-grid, and
r_ e,andi plate circuits, while the high -
eA
R é, a -lan-i
'Em"
impedance resistors R and
chokes in the leads to the volt-
t , , / age divider prevent any appre-
TC s -cot
mCR ciable'flow of signal currents in
ez that direction. The choice of
e, /cods a by AO,appmx ash _ 90° values for these resistors and
Fia. 46. -CR circuit for obtaining out -of- chokes depends principally
phase voltages. upon the currents in the leads
and the permissible d -c voltage
drop in each filter. The impedance of each by -pass condenser should be
not more than 10 per cent of that of the associated resistor or choke, at any
frequency for which the amplifier is designed to operate. On the other
hand, the value of C should not be so large in any filter that "blocking"
or motorboating occurs due to too high a time constant.
The impedance of a choke coil (neglecting its resistance) is
X L = 6.28íL ohms,
and that of a condenser is
6
Xc ohms
6.28íC
where f = frequency in cycles per second
= inductance in henrys
C = capacity in microfarads.
The value of each cathode resistor, when separate biasing resistors are
used, is equal to the bias required, divided by the total cathode d.c. of
e,
bp
'90°approx.
E. X 1E
!z
C eP 90 ápprox.
T a Rc
L must have /owR e2
i2 leads i, by approx. 90°
I
e, /casts e2 by /B0 ápprox.
Fia. 47. -LC circuit for obtaining Fm. 48.- Circuit for obtaining cur-
out-of-phase voltages. rents out of phase by 90 deg.
that tube. The screen -grid filter resistors serve as voltage-dropping
resistors as well as filters, and their values are determined by the IR drops
required for correct screen voltages.
39. Circuits for Obtaining Out -of -phase Voltages and Currents. Two
,ircuits producing voltages 90 or 180 deg. out of phase are shown in
Figs. 46 and 47 with their vector diagrams. These are often useful in
circuit designs and oscillograph measurements. To maintain these
phase relations, high impedance circuits only should be connected across
el and e2.
Sec. SI COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L. C. AND R 157
A circuit for obtaining currents 90 deg. out of phase with each other is
shown in Fig. 48.
To utilize these currents, non -reactive loads RL and Re are introduced,
with values such that RLRc = L/C and RL = Re.
Reca'ifiers
Lz C2 Ro
Myk?di " Ro Co
F
= Below-.- -I. Above
resonance resonance
Fla. 49.- Frequency discriminator
circuit and curve.
40. Frequency Discriminator Circuit. The frequency discriminator
circuit shown in Fig. 49 is applied in automatic frequency control, fre-
quency- modulation detection, and frequency-drift indicators, etc. L,C1
and L2C2 are tuned to the same frequency and doubly coupled: (1) directly
at B and (2) inductively by M. After
rectification, a bias E is obtained which, Cc
between limits C and 1), is proportional to
the difference between the frequency of
the input voltage and the resonance fre- +s
quency of LC. The time constant of RoCo
should be much less than the period of one Rf
cycle frequency variation in the in-
put voltage.
f # -ge
41. Compensation in Resistance- Fla. 50.- Compensated re-
coupled Amplifier. In a conventional sistance-coupled amplifier.
resistance-coupled amplifier (Fig. 50) the
amplification falls off at low frequencies because of increasing impedance
of C. and at high frequencies because of the shunting effect of stray
capacitance C.. In wide -band amplifiers, the compensating impedances L
and R,C, are added. For approximately constant gain between frequency
limits fi (low) and fs (high),
(58)
This type of compensation also tends to correct for phase shift near the
limits fi and /2.
RECURRENT NETWORKS
42. General Types. Recurrent networks are iterative combinations
of L, C, and R, such as those shown in Fig. 51.
The transmission characteristics of such structures vary with fre-
quency in a singular manner and introduce both useful and detrimental
effects in r -f and a -f circuits. Examples of recurrent networks are trans-
mission lines (actual and artificial) and wave filters.
158 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. $
43. Terminating Conditions for No Reflection and Maximum Power

Transfer. If a recurrent network is terminated at the nth section in an
impedance equal to its image impedance, there is no reflection at the
termination, and the network behaves as though it had an infinite number
of sections, in so far as its input terminals are concerned.
Lr 2 L, Lr 2C, C, C
z,
tpi- GenerahudRecurrent (b)-$peual Cast of Recurrent Neh.ork (c)-5peval Cote of Recurrent *boa,
Networks . th Negleyblk Resistance w thNeglgible Resistances
Fro. 51. -Types of infinitely long recurrent network structures

A long line so isolates its terminating impedances (the source and load
impedances) that the apparent value of each as measured from the oppo-
site end of the line is very nearly equal to the line impedance and prac-
tically independent of the terminations. Consequently, to obtain a
maximum transfer of power front source to line and from line to load, the
source and load impedances must equal the characteristic impedance of
the line, or be matched to the line by
.8 L L R R L L R R L transformers whose turns ratios are
2 2 2 2 2 2 2222 equal to the square root of the ratio
of termination and line impedances.
--,. reco A line terminated in its characteristic
impedance at both ends also has a
minimum reflection from its termi-
nals, and in general a line thus oper-
ated has the lowest total transmission
Fro. 52.-Line constants. loss.
In a structure having lumped con-
stants and terminated at one of its series elements, the series impedance
in each end section is one -half the value of the series impedance in the
internal sections (Fig. 51). If the termination is at a shunt element,
the shunt impedance at each end is made twice the shunt impedance
in the internal sections.
44. Transmission Lines. Transmission lines are recurrent structures
having continuously distributed impedances. Two wires in space have,
besides their ohmic resistance, shunt capacity and series inductance and
are thus equivalent to the recurrent structure of Fig. 52, where L, C,
and R are the constants of a very short length (ol) of the line and G is the
conductance due to leakage between the wires in the same length.
45. General Properties of a Transmission Line. The characteristic imped-
ance is
Zo R + i.41' ohms (59)
G +;we
or
Zol = (Ra + 4'1'2) ohms (60)
(Ga + wyCa)
or
Zo = %/T Z: ohms (61)
See. 6] COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 159
where Z,. and Z.. are the input impedances with the far end open - and short-
circuited, respectively.
The propagation constant is
P = '/(R + jwL) (G + JwC) = A + jB (82)
R, L, G, and C being the resistance, inductance, leakance, and capacitance per
unit length of the line.
Attenuation Constant. The real part (A) of P is the attenuation constant
and is
A = 6.141V V(R2 + w2L2) (G2 + w2C2) + RG - w2LC db per unit length(63)
Wave-length Constant. The quadrature part (B) of P is the wave -length
constant and is
B = 0.7071/ ß/(R2 + w2L2) (G2 + 02C2) - RG + w2LC radians per unit length
(64)
The velocity of propagation is
VceB - 2ir
Bf unit lengths per second (65)
The wave length is
X = B unit lengths (66)
The retardation time is
t =
B
=
Bf sec. per unit length (67)
Input Impedance of a Line Terminated at I's Far End by an Impedance Z..

Let Z. = input impedance of the line
Zo = characteristic impedance of the line
Z. = terminating impedance at the far end
B = propagation factor.
The input impedance of a line so terminated is
2 . c'eh e + Zo Binh e
Z; = Zo cosh e (68)
+ Z. Binh e
The propagation factor is
0 = lP (69)
where = length
l
P = propagation constant per unit length.
In the communication field, transmission lim s may he classified according
to the frequencies they are used to transmit, as audio- or radio-frequency lines.
Simplified forms of the general transmission lire formulas result from the
introduction of approximations appropriate to er.ch case.
46. Audio- frequency Lines. In open -wire lines and large -gage cables,
G is negligible, so that
and
A 6.141'wC1/R' l- w'L' - w2LC db per unit length (70)
B = 0.70714wCVR° + w =L1 + w2LC radians per unit length (71)

In small-gage cables, both L and G become negligibly small, and

A =. 15.39 db per unit length (72)
and
B = 1.772 fRC radians per unit length (73)
1I11111EMMIIII
111
1111
MINI_1111u11u=u
III1
1111SüII11 III
R/ M11
IIIIIIIIIIIIMPLIMIu
III
11U1i1
III1I
u I 11111
11i1
- 5_-
111111111111-
11111_ ...MA1I
EMI
InnNo./óCoble Hi eua/dYPrram ircui_ =wag
Mad No.10 0, enWiie Non-Lóaded 1.111/11/11(!(!
0 100 200 300 400500 8001000 2000 3000 5000 s0(
I
Frequency, cycles
Fro. 53.-Transmission -loss characteristics of various audio-frequency circuits.
21 NII
,111111 L
or r ohm ne:
f¡ 0.006henry (775 turn
0.1\11
=
10 honeycomb col1
OEMC=O.l7Smld.
\\.
_fà\'~1k
R=0foM00odm
Line
-z
ó
15
T,:\\\
óG\!\\\\
L C
iiiiii..n\\\\\
SLIismii;:n!\\\\\
.910
ú .....-;=0! \ 21111_.
E ualizer
0
OS`\
'
'r
ö1.'.%BiB3m..'r
Mal111101
100 200 400 600 1000 2000 4000 6000

Frequency, cycles
Fra. 54.- Attenuation- frequency characteristic of equalizer shunted across
a 500 -ohm circuit.
In both cases the attention is seen to vary with frequency. The
transmission-loss frequency characteristics of various kinds of a -f circuits
are shown in Fig. 53, and other characteristics of typical audio lines
are shown in Table II.
47. Equalization of Transmission -loss Characteristic. From the
curves in Fig. 53 it is evident that if a band of frequencies is transmitted
over a line, the higher frequencies will suffer more attenuation than the
low frequencies, resulting in distortion. The prevention of this condition
necessitates the use of attenuation equalizers in high quality circuits. A
typical 5,000-cycle equalizer for this purpose and its transmission -loss
curves are illustrated in Fig. 54, and the curves for the bare line, equalizer
alone, and the equalized line are shown in Fig. 55. The equalizer is
Sec. SI COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C. AND R 161
usually connected in shunt across the receiving end of the line, preceding
other apparatus.
8 Loss of Eualized Line A +B
7
A °Loss in e
N6
5- Line
/»r 000 ohm Line.
I / :r, A
c G C G =0.006henry(?75Jum
°4-
R
Equalizer
honeycomb will
C- 0 /75,ufd.
R., 0 io /000 ohms ,
2
o
1111_ B .-Loss in ° ¡.r1mVI
,
100 700 400 600 1000 2000 4000'6000
Frequency, cycles
Fac. 55.- Attenuation equalizer for short cable circuits.
48. Artificial Lines. An artificial line is a compact network of lumped
impedances to simulate the electrical characteristics of an actual line.
Such a network having approximately the characteristics of an unloaded
cable or open-wire circuit may be constructed as
shown in Fig. 56 and is useful in laboratory meas- R, R, R, R,
urements and investigations. 20 20 20 20
The constants R, and C2 are the loop resistance ` ^^4° ^ -
and capacity of the full length of the line to be rep-
c2
resented. For standard cable R, = 88 ohms and --cr
C2 = 0.054µJ per loop mile; values for various -/0
other lines are given in Table II. As the similarity
between the artificial and the actual line increases Flu. 56.- Artificial
1.
with the number of sections in the former, it is non -loaded cable.
preferable to use at least ten sections, and not more
than 1 mile of cable or 10 miles of open wire should be represented by one
section. The end sections should be "mid -series" terminated -i.e., their
series impedances should be one-half that of the internal sections.
49. RC Filter for Small Currents. An economical RC filter for small
currents as suggested by Scott' is shown in Fig. 57. An especial feature
R is the shunting circuit through RA to
A feed voltage 180 deg. out of phase
to the point X. This can be ad-
C C jC TC cap& justed on
very
one c,
toepart
rfrequency
T Tc which it is desired to eliminate. As
agIWuT
FIG. 57. RC filter for small currents.

shown, this filter is low pass; a sim-
ilar high -pass structure can he made by transposing the R's and á's.
50. Resistance Pads. Resistance pads are artificial lines whose
series and shunt elements are pure resistances and arc used principally
Scorr, H. H., Electronics, August, 1939.
162 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. 6 .
as attenuators in a-f circuits. The amount

of loss caused by insertion of a pad in a
53 n° iV
e circuit may be accurately computed and
is independent of frequency if the terminat-
ó ó ó ó ing impedances are resistances.
Either A or T structures may be used as
pads, as shown in Fig. 58a. Both are elec-
M
á trically equivalent, but for identical values
ó ó of loss and impedance one type may require
resistors of more convenient values than the
other. A pad which is to be used in a cir-
8 cuit that is balanced to ground should be of
the balanced A or T type; otherwise the
ti m unbalanced network is satisfactory and
requires several less resistors to build.
b 51. Pad Design. To design a pad, three
tv m constants must be known: the input and
output impedances and the loss in decibels.
The input and output impedances of a pad
are usually made equal to those of the cir-
cuit to be connected to it. The design
procedure depends upon whether these are
equal or are different from each other.
1. Equal Input and Output Impedances.
In this case, the value of each element is
found by multiplying the proper constants,
selected from Table III in connection with
Fig. 58a, by the value of the input or output
impedance Z in ohms.
Example: To design a 10-db, 500 /500-ohm
pad of the balanced T type: From Table III,
for 10-db attenuation, a = 0.5195 (hence
a/2 = 0.2597) and b = 0.7027. Then the
required resistances are 0.2597 X 500 =
129.85 for the series elements and 0.7027 X
500 = 351.35 ohms for the shunt element.
2. Unequal Input and Output Impedances.
In this case, the design involves more compu-
tation. The value of each element is indi-
cated by Fig. 586, the constants of which are
to be found in Table III. The ratio of input
to output impedance (or vice versa) of a
pad of given loss is limited by the fact that
for large values of the impedance ratio cer-
tain of the pad resistors would have to be
z negative in value if the loss of the pad were
to be below a certain minimum value. The
E
maximum impedance ratio which a 10-db
á
pad can have, for example, is 3.018. Stated
in another way, this means that, if the imped-
0 ance ratio of a pad is to be 3.018, its loss
o must be at least 10 db. The maximum
impedance ratios for various values of pad
z
d
losses are also given in Table III. These are
the same for both A and T pads.
See. 6] COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 163
I
2b
I
2b
Balanced TT Pad Unbalanced IT Pad
a
2 2
Balanced T (or H) Pad Unbalanced T Pad
Z =Input Impedance = Output Impedance
Fin. 58a.- Equivalent balanced and unbalanced pads.
Z122A
2
2/22A
2
Balanced T Pad Unbalanced T Pad
22 W22
2[C AZ2 2 C A22] C A C A
Z2
121 2122 22_

2[ A_ 2L? A
2/22
Balanced T (or H)Pad Unbalanced T Pad

Fin. 58b. -Pads to be used between unequal impedances.
164 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sea
TABLE III.-CONSTANTS FOR PADS OF FIG. 58
Maximum
Loss, ratio
deci- A B (' a 6 1 1/6 1/a 1/25
bels
be or îr/Z1
1 0.1154 1.007 0.1150 0.0575 8.684 0.1154 17.39 0.0577 1.014

2 0.2323 1.027 0.2263 0.1146 4.305 0.2323 8.724 0.1161 1.052
3 0.3523 1.060 0.3325 0.1710 2.838 0.3523 5.848 0.1761 1.124
4 0.4770 1.108 0.4305 0.2263 2.097 0.4770 4.419 0.2385 1.22f
5 0.6084 1.170 0.5192 0.2801 1.645 0.6084 3.570 0.3042 1.361
6 0.7472 1.248 0.5988 0.3323 1.339 0.7472 3.009 0.3736 1.557

7 0.8960 1.343 0.6673 0.3825 1.116 0.8960 2.615 0.4480 1.804
8 1.0570 1.455 0.7264 0.4305 0.9462 1.0570 2.323 0.5285 2.111
9 1.2320 1.586 0.7763 0.4762 0.8118 1.2320 2.100 0.6160 2.511
10 1.4218 1.738 0.8181 0.5195 0.7027 1.4218 1.925 0.7109 3.011
11 1.6324 1.914 0.8527 0.5601 0.6127 1.6324 1.785 0.8162 3.861

12 1.8659 2.117 0.8814 0.5986 0.5359 1.8659 1.670 0.9329 4.481
13 2.1223 2.346 0.9046 0.6343 0.4712 2.1223 1.576 1.0611 5.501
14 2.4067 2.605 0.9235 0.6672 0.4155 2.4067 1.498 1.2033 6.784
15 2.7230 2.901 0.9387 0.6981 0.3672 2.7230 1.432 1.3615 8.411
20 4.9522 5.052 0.9802 0.8182 0.2020 4.9522 1.222 2.4761 25.52

25 8.8612 8.918 0.9940 0.8932 0.1128 8.8612 1.119 4.4306 79.52
30 15.800 15.830 0.9980 0.9387 0.06331 15.800 1.065 7.900 250.5
35 28.094 28.112 0.9994 0.9649 0.03560 28.094 1.036 14.047 790.2
40 50.000 50.0094 0.9998 0.9802 0.020000 50.000 1.020 25.000 2,500
45 88.928 88.933 0.9999 0.9888 0.01124 88.928 1.011 44.464 7,909
50 158.1 158.102 1.0000 0.9937 0.006325 158.10 1.006 79.050 24,980
60 500 500 1.0000 0.9980 0.002000 500 1.002 250
70 1.581 1,581 1.0000 0.9994 0.000632 1,581 1.001 790
80 5.000 5,000 1.0000 0.99980 .000200 5,000 1.000 2,500
90 15,810 15,810 1 0000 0.999910 0000632 15,810 1.000 7,905
100 50,000 50,000 1 0000 1 01100 0.0000200 50,000 1.000 25,000
.4 = sinh O a=c 1 1
A
B = cosh O
C =tanhO
loss is decibels
6 A
8.686
\faiimum ratio
Z or
-= Br
Example: To design a 20-db 500 /200 -ohm pad of the unbalanced a type:
Z1 = 500 obms, Z2 = 200 ohms
From Table III, A = 4.9522 and B = 5.0522. Then,

Z1Z:A
Input shunt element = Z2B 1/ZIZ2
713 ohms
- -
Series element = 1/Z1Z2A = 1,567 ohms
Z1Z:A -
Output shunt element =
7.1B VZ1Z2 -
430 ohms
52. Characteristic Impedance of R -f Line. At high frequencies R

and G usually become negligible as compared with mL and o1C, respec-
Sec. 8l COMBINED CIRCUITS OF 1., C, AND R 165
tively. The characteristic impedance of a line at radio frequencies is

then
Zo = VC
ohms (74)
where L and C are in henrys and farads per unit length.

1. Special Case: Line of Two Parallel Wires. In terms of the dimensions
of the ne il
Zo = 277 login d ohms (75)
for parallel wire, where s is the spacing from center to center of the wires and
d the diameter, both being measured in the same units. Equation (74) is
based on the assumption that s is at least ten times d and that the height of
700
I650
600
550
6 10 Il 14 16 16
Spacing,Inchcs
Fta. 59.- Characteristic impedance of open -wire r -f transmission line.
the line above the ground is at least ten times s. The characteristic imped-
ances of open-wire r -f lines of commonly used dimensions are shown in Fig. 59.
2. Special Case: Line of Two Coaxial Conductors. Radio -frequency lines
are often constructed with one conductor in the form of a metal tube and
the other a coaxially placed wire or tube of smaller diameter. The advantage
of such construction lies principally in the effective shielding that can he
obtained by grounding the outer tube.
The characteristic impedance of a line having such coaxial conductors is
r. ohms
Zo = 138.5 logro (76)
where re is the inside radius of the outer tube, and ri is the outside radius of
the inner conductor. For a line whose outer and inner conductors are
respectively 3í and Sá in. in diameter, Zo = 65 ohms.
53. Other Properties of R -F Lines.
Velocity of propagation is
V 1 - =, 1ß6,61H1 miles per second (77)

/LiC:
Wave- length constant is

B - wVL,C: radians per unit length (78)
radians per mile (79)
188,000
Wave length is
2x
X = = unit lengths (80)
wVLIC; l LC=
186,000
_ miles (81)
300,000,000
meters (82)
Retardation time is
t = y LIC2 sec. per unit length (83)
= 5.39 X 10 -6 sec. per mile (84)
Attenuation constant is
A = 4.346R ] db per unit length (85)
For parallel wires this becomes

0.01528
db per unit length (86)
logio
where R = loop resistance per unit length

s = spacing of wires, center to center
d = diameter of each wire, s and d being measured in the same units.
For coaxial conductors, the attenuation is
A - 0.03148
ro
db per unit length (87)
logio r;
where R = loop resistance (sun of the resistance of the two conductors)

r., = radius of outer tube
ri = radius of inner conductor, ro and r; being measured in the same
units.
54. Input Impedance of Line Terminated in Impedance Z,, at Its
Far End. Special Cases for Radio Frequencies. At high frequencies the
attenuation constant A of a line approaches zero, and the propagation
constant is nearly equal to the wavelength constant B,
P = jB jeo (88)
and from Eq. (69)
O - 1P = jlB = jndsrLC (89)
Then Eq. (68) becomes
Z; =
rZ, cos lB + jZo sin 1B ohms (90)
ZoLZo cos lB + jZo sin 1B
See. 6J COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L. C, AND R 167
This input impedance has certain interesting and useful values when the
length of the line is a multiple of a quarter- or half -wave length.
1. Lines Quarter-wavy Length Long. In this case
1 =4,B =-2r and ¿B =2

Then (90) reduces to
Z; =
Z, ohms (91)
Owing to this property quarter -wave lines are made use of as impedance -
matching transformers. If, for example, a line whose characteristic
impedance is Z, is to be connected to an
antenna system whose input impedance is
Z:, a quarter-wave line having character-
istic impedance Zo = 1/Z1Z: is inserted.
Since Z2 = Z the impedance facing the
line is Zi = Z1Z2 /Z2 = Z1 ohms, and the
impedance facing the antenna is Z,
Z1Z2/Z1 = Zs ohms, which results in a per-
fect impedance match at each junction. ¡Transformer
section
Quarter -wave Line Short- circuited at Far
End. In this case, Z. = 0, and Z;
Such a line is thus antiresonant at the radio
frequency corresponding to four times its Fia. 60.-Use of quarter -
length and is often used in antenna systems wave short-circuited line
to
to by-pass low- frequency current around currents by -pass low- frequency
for sleet melting
large r-f impedances, for melting sleet. without disturbing the r-f
Such a use is illustrated in Fig. 60. impedance of the system.
Quarter -wave Line Open -circuited at the
Far End. In this case Z. = o , and Z; = 0. Such a line thus has practi-
cally no impedance at the r.f. which corresponds to four times its length.
Half-wave Line Terminated in Impedance Z at Far End. Here, l = X/2
and lB = 1r. Consequently Eq. (90) becomes
Z; = Z. (92)
Thus the input impedance of a half-wave line is equal to the termination
impedance at its far end and is independent of the characteristic imped-
ance of the line.
Lines Whose Lengths Are Integral Multiples of Quarter- or Half-wave
Lines. Such lines can be shown to have the same properties as quarter -
or half-wave lines, due to the periodicity of the sine and cosine functions
in Eq. (90).
55. Termination Impedances at Radio Frequencies. At r.f. proper
termination of lines is even more important than at a.f., since reflection
resulting from mismatched impedances at the junctions produces stand -
ing waves which in turn cause radiation along the line and a decrease in
efficiency. Impedance irregularities in a line also tend to set up reflec-
tions, and bends in the line should therefore he gradual, with a minimum
radius of about one -fourth wave length. For the same reason the line
should be kept free (at least one -fourth wave length) from large masses
of conducting or dielectric materials.
168 TILE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See.
56. Efficiency of Lines at Radio Frequencies. In a properly con-

structed and terminated line the power losses are practically all due to
the inherent ohmic resistance of the line, and the efficiency may be
fairly high. For ordinary designs, the efficiency is approximately
(100 -
2l) per cent (93)
where l is the length of the line in wave lengths.
67. Tapered Lines as Impedance Transformers. A gradual smooth
change with length in the inductance and capacity of a line causes the
characteristic impedance to vary along the line and can be shown to
introduce no reflections. Consequently a section of line with variable
spacing or diameter of the wires is, like the quarter- wave -length line, a
useful impedance matching transformer, the dimensions being so chosen
that the end impedances of the line equal their respective terminating
impedances.
WAVE FILTERS
58. Wave filters are forms of artificial lines, such as those of Fig. 511)
and c, purposely designed to transmit efficiently current in a desired band
of frequencies and more or less completely to suppress all other fre-
quencies. The boundary frequencies between transmission bands and
attenuation bands are called cutoff frequencies.
The following brief discussion of wave -filter design is intended to serve
as a guide to the design of simple filters for use where the requirements
are not very severe. For complete information concerning the design
of filters to meet more exacting specifications, the references listed in the
bibliography at the end of this section should be consulted.
Filters are divided into four classes, according to the frequency bands
which they are intended to transmit, viz., low pass, high pass, band
pass, and band elimination.
59. Losses in Filters, and Effects of Dissipation. The elements of
ideal wave filters are always pure reactance,; practically, however, some
dissipation must always be tolerated owing to the resistance of coils and
condensers, but this is made as small as possible by employing high -Q
elements.
The terminating impedances of a filter are usually resistances equal in
value to the image impedances of the filter. Then the loss within the
transmitted bands (except near the cutoff frequency) is mainly due to
dissipation in the elements and is usually small. In the vicinity of cutoff
and the point of maximum attenuation, the total insertion loss of a filter
involves the reflection and interaction losses as well as the attenuation.
The loss elsewhere in the attenuated hands is very nearly the sum
of the attenuation constants of the various sections, minus a gain of
approximately 6 db which is due to reflections resulting from impedance
mismatches occurring in these regions. Methods for the exact calcula-
tion of filter losses are beyond the scope of this handbook but are available
in the published works of Zobel, Johnson, and Shea.
60. The Basic Filter Section. The basis of filter design is the full
L section, consisting of a series element Z1 and a shunt element Z2 as
shown at L in Fig. 61. The relation of such a section to an infinite line is
also indicated. In a wave filter, where the number of sections is finite and
small instead of infinite, symmetrical sections are used. These are either
Sec. 61 COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AN!) R 169
T or r networks as shown at b and c in Fig. 61. The T section may be

considered as being cut from the infinite line (Fig. 61a) at the mid-points
(a -a) of two consecutive series elements Z, and is said to he "mid- series
terminated." The w section may he considered as being cut at the mid-
points (b-b) of two consecutive shunt elements and is said to be "mid-
(a) (6) (b)
12 2, ; z, z
To 00
I i
(a) (6) (6)

(a)- L-Section,showing Relation to Infinite Line
la-a) is symmetrical T section
lb-6) is symmetrical 1l section
2,
(b)-Symmetrical T- Section (c)- Symmetrical 1í - Section

cut from infinite line of (a) cut from infinite line of (a)
at (a-a) . This section is at (b-b).This section is
"mid -series terminated "mid -shunt terminated"
(d) - Symmetrical T- Section (e)- Symmetrical IT-Section

divided into two half - sections by divided into two half- sectionsby
replacing Z2 with two parallel replacing Z, with two series
impedances each of value 2Z2 impedances each of value Z,/2
FIG.fit.- Equivalence of T and ,r networks.
shunt terminated." To firm a mid -shunt termination, each full-shunt
element is replaced by an equivalent two impedances in parallel, each of
value 2Z2.) Either a 'I' or a section may be divided into pairs of equiva-
lent half sections as shown at d and e in Fig. 61.
61. Types of Sections. 1. Constant-K Sections. The simplest and
most common type of filter section is that in which the impedances
Zl and Z2 are so related that their product is a constant
Z, X Z2 = K2
at all frequencies. From this it derives its name "constant-K" section.

The configuration and circuit constants of the four classes of constant -K
sections are shown in the filter -design formulas in Art. 65. The image
impedances of mid-series and mid -shunt terminated constant -K sections
within the transmission bands are functions of frequency, but each
approaches the value K at some frequency within the band. The value
K is therefore taken as the nominal resistance of the constant -K section
for design purposes. If a constant -K section is used with one or both
of its terminals connected to a pure resistance of value R = K, the
impedances will be mismatched for all frequencies within the transmitted
band except one, and the actual insertion or transmission loss of the filter
will be increased by reflection losses at the terminations. This causes
an even more gradual cutoff for the constant -K section than its attenua-
tion curve would indicate.
1.0 1. 1.2 I3 1.4 IS. 1.6 1.7
f/fcutoff
Fia. 62. -Effect of m upon sharpness of cutoff in a low -pass filter structure.
2. m- Derived Sections. In many filters, a sharper cutoff than that

given by a constant -K type of structure is required. Such a character-
istic may be realized in the so- called se- derived section, which is due to
Otto J. Zobel.' This type of section is derived from the constant -K
section as a prototype but is made to have sharper cutoff than the
prototype by the addition of impedance elements in either the shunt or
series arms so that infinite attenuation occurs at some frequency beyond
cutoff. Each impedance of the m-type section is related to those of the
constant -K section by a factor which is a function of a constant m. The
latter is in turn a function of the ratio between the frequency of infinite
attenuation and the cutoff frequency and may have any value between
0 and plus 1. The sharpness of cutoff increases as m approaches 0.
This effect is illustrated in Fig. 62 for various values of m. It will be
noted that, when m is equal to 1, the structure is identical with the
constant -K structure. Also, from Fig. 62, it appears that from the view-
point of obtaining a uniform degree of attenuation throughout the
attenuated band the combination of a constant -K section (m = 1)
(having gradual cutoff but large attenuation remote from cutoff) with
one having a small value of m and sharp cutoff (m = 0.3, for example)
1 Belt System Tech. Jour., January, 1023.
sec. 61 COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 171
would be desirable. This principle is valuable in the design of composite

filters.
3. Shunt -derived and Series- derived m Sections. Two forms of m-derived
sections exist; if the extra impedance is added to the shunt arm, the
section is called series derived, while, if it is added to the series arm, the
section is called shunt derived. (See illustrations of derived sections
under Filter -design Formulas, Art. 65.)
62. Assembly of Sections into Filters. A filter may consist of any
number of sections from a single one -half section to five or six full sections,
depending on the amount of attenuation of unwanted frequencies
required. The amount of attenuation in the rejected band depends upon
0.0956R 0.0956R mZ,

fc mZ, 2
2
QpOR ,... 4. 2m 7,
....
4 -1'
0.0956R
..4
p
RI +,
4
c
1T! nO956
0.170
RIc 4,-.. / mz
`22=
2
ti
e fc Te Ric
o m
(a) (b) (C) (d)
H a ! f S e c t i o n s
0.0956R 00956R mZ
0.1905R fc
fc mZ,
-
_
0.170R-y
fc :_
-..
-F.I.
j4 0.170
Wk-
0170
Rfc
00956 T.0.19QS
-. .rRfc T ° o
Rfc
e
(e) (f) (g) th)
F u 1 S n
g e 1 S e c t i o n s
Series - Derived m TypeSection fe. Cut off Frequency Shunt -Derived m -Type Section
and Half -Section,Mid-Shunt R Terminating Resistance and Half -Section,Mid- Series
terminated. m =0.6 in Examples terminated
F(a. 63.- Half -section compared with full -section structures.
the number of filter sections used, while the shape of the transmission
curve depends upon the types of sections employed.
63. One -half - and One- section Filters. If a half section or one full
section is used alone as a filter and the requirements regarding the
cutoff are not too sharp, an m- derived section is usually preferable, with
m -
0.6. This will provide the best impedance match with resistance
terminations. Either of the structures shown in Fig. 63 is suitable for use
with terminations of resistance R.
64. Multi- section Filters. Filters having more than one section are
of two types:
A uniform filter is one in which all sections are identical with the
exception of the end sections. The latter are ordinarily half sections
suitable for connecting the filter to its terminating resistances.
A composite filter is one made up of two or more sections having
different characteristics, each of which is designed to contribute some
especial property to the characteristic of the filter as a whole. For exam-

ple, one section which has sharp cutoff but a diminishing attenuation
beyond cutoff may be combined with another section having a gradual
cutoff and increasing attenuation beyond as shown at I and II in Fig. 64.
The resulting composite structure will then have both sharp cutoff and
high attenuation beyond, as shown at III. In general, constant -K
sections have gradual cutoffs with increasing attenuation beyond, while
m- sections with small values of m have the sharpest cutoff character-
istics. Still other types of sections may be added to match impedances
at the junctions of the filter and its terminating resistances, or to further
alter the transmission characteristics.
o
Curve 1- Section with
10 Sharp Cutoff
20 Curve ll-Section with NO
Allenuo Iron after Cueaff
3 30 Curve Ill-
Resultant of The
Composite fillet; with the
ro 40 Combined Effects of
Both Sections
50
60
Frequency
Fm. 64.- Transmission curves for composite low -pass filter.
In a composite filter it is essential that the image impedances be
matched at each junction of the component sections to avoid reflection
losses which would impair the transmission curve of the filter. Likewise,
the end terminations of the filter should as nearly as possible match the
terminating resistances. One of the principal advantages of the m-type
structure is that its image impedances can be made identical with other
m-type sections or with constant-K sections; or they can be made to
approximate resistances over the transmission band for terminating
purposes. A complete analysis of the impedance conditions within a
wave filter is not possible in the limited space available here but may be
found in the References listed at the end of this section. The following
will suffice as working rules in designing simple filters for ordinary
requirements:
End Terminations. Resistance. A mid-shunt termination of a series -
derived m-type section or half section, or a mid -series termination of a shunt -
derived section or half section, with m = 0.6 in either ease.
For Parallel or Series Connection with Other Filters. An 0.8- series con -
stant-K section or half section (i.e., one terminated in a series arm equal to
0.8 of a full series arm, Z1).
Here, as well as in the two preceding paragraphs, the image impedance
of the internal section next to the end section in either case must match the
image impedance at the inner terminals of the latter, in accordance with the
following.
Internal Junctions. The following terminations of the types of filter
sections for which formulas are given in Art. 65 may he joined together
without impedance mismatches at the junction points:
Mid -series termination of constant-K type to mid -series termination of
series- derived m type.
Sec. 6l COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 178
Mid -shunt termination of constant -K type to mid -shunt termination of

shunt- derived m type.
Mid-series termination of constant-K, series-derived m type or shunt -
derived m type, to mid-series termination of another section of the same type.
Mid-shunt termination of constant -K, series- derived m type or shunt -
derived m type, to mid-shunt termination of another section of the same
type.
(Nova. In the latter two cases, the values of m in the two sections to be
joined, if they are of the m type, may be, and frequently are, different. Both
sections must be of the same type and termination, however.)
86. Filter -design Formulas. Formulas for calculating the capacities
und inductances of constant -K, series-derived m-type and shunt- derived
m-type basic sections are given in the following pages. These are
expressed in terms of R, the terminating resistances, the factor m, and
the values of fe, the cutoff frequency, and other critical frequencies.
These factors must be predetermined on the basis of the filter require-
ments and the considerations outlined above.
LLOW PASS FILTERS
(a)- Constont K Type
S
L,
á ! i
Tc= I
°o fz °o r,
Frequency Frequency
. T
Ser les Shunt
mR mR
Lr L,
Ti fz d f2
0-m2/R (y-mzl 2
C
m= I- fz
- 4m7,fz r 4mLIzR z
fzW
m
c!2 CZ
nfzR ,7tzR
II-HIGH PASS FILTERS
VA-Constant K Type
.
C,
----1 Ì1=
OO f
Frequency
C,. 4R
R
Lz`471
(b) -m- Derived Types
L,
-t.C2 a
5ernes Shunt O f70 f O foo f,
Frequency
Series Shunt Frequency
mR
LI-(1_m1),Tl
C1'4df mR
LT
R
4dl m 4Ll,nR
t- / T
fio°
R
C?
(1-mr)Tif R `2-44m
III- BAND ELIMINATION FILTERS
(a)- Constant K Type
L, á
c, _ L, .N E in=170/i
TC: OO OO
fo f, fa fm 1
(1,-101R Frequency Frequency
L,. ii fol R f, -f70
L2
( T 4,1(4-4) C? -ARfa
C,
4d(f-fo)R
Sec. 6) COMBINED CIRCUITS OF L, C, AND R 175
TO- BAND ELIMINATION FILTERS (continued)

(b)- m- Derived Types
L, L, L;
.6
L2
C/ .Y
Series
cj.i p c C,jL2
C .
TC,
Shun+
$
a
00 fofimfiaf, 0 IC fix iof/
Series Shunt Frequency Frequency
mR(4-10)
L,
(f-f)R
L¡ ht.!, 1;6,0
C, / a
m
/0-g)(4)
4R( cI`47(
i
R !1Ç-!}yC!R 1 f -ro
4ì,(f-fo) LAtpfa
LZ
C,
(f-fo)
Rfo
i
C,
4A(f-fo/R
b a m (/+)
bR
L247(T-fol , R
4R(1-fo)m
/ e
`m,(/fof)
C2
i!f->;faR C2
i7f,fR/ l., f7m
IY. BAND PASS FILTERS
(al- Constant X Type
E
Q
00 f 12 00 f fs
Frequency Frequency
L= L(fi-t)R
! n(f2-f ) 2 4af2f
C*(f2-6). C
n(f? fji,
4rf,f, 2
W. BAND PASS FILTERS (continued)

tei -m- Derived Types
Li Cr L, Li
-nini-
L2 L2
C2Zrm.,C2
0
Series Shunt m 2a 0fmf f:fta
Frequency Frequency
Series Shunt
h
mR , (f2-f,)R
a(f-f,)
L,
favo
C, (6-4) C, - a
4rf f2mR h 1(-)/-fjt
2m 2m
aR
L2. r,(f2 fl L' 4r?ffla
(f2 t,l i b
C,
C240,f6R iT(f2111R
)R
L2 Lz
(-f)
rbfR 4i,tfm
(fzz-JJf1 _ m
Cr29TiffaR C2A(f-fIR
Examples of Filter Design: 1. Single- section Filter. Required: High-pass
single- section filter to he connected between resistance terminations of
R = 1,000 ohms, with a cutoff frequency of 1,000 cycles and maximum
attenuation occurring at 800 cycles.
To secure the attenuation peak at 800 cycles, an m-type filter section is
required. Either the shunt- or series- derived type may be used. Choosing
the latter, we have from the filter formulae II (b), Art. 65, in which fi = 1,000
cycles,fi = 800 cycles, R = 1,000 ohms, and m = 0.6,
CI = 0.1325 X 10- 'farad
L, = 0.1325 henry
C2 = 0.298 X 10-" farad.
From the considerations involving impedance matching at the end terminals,

a mid -shunt termination facing each resistance termination is seen to be desir-
L2= 0./325x/0 6
2L2=
0.265 0.265 /000n
/000^
Source C2 C2
Load
__
a
0./49x1 - 0.149,a
1000° Low Pass Fiter
R =1000 ohms
Fta. 65.- Example of single- section filter.
ablefora series -derived section. Hence the structure of Fig. 63f is indicated.
one full -series element (CI) will be required, with a double-impedance shunt
See. SI COMBINED CIRCUITS OF' L, C, AND R 177
arm (2L2 + C: /2) at each end. The completed filter will then be as shown
in Fig. 65.
2. Multi-section Composite Filter. Required: Low -pass filter to be con-
nected between resistance terminations of R = 600 ohms, with sharp cutoff
at 1,000 cycles and high attenuation beyond.
There is no unique solution or "best" filter design for this problem. A
large number of filters might be designed to meet these requirements, each of
which would serve as well as any of the others. The relative merita of differ-
ent designs will depend upon their economy of coils and condensers in accom-
plishing the required results. One suitable design is shown here:
LI=00382 40.07/5 2x=0.07/S ?

=0.19/ 2 =00572
2L2
0.200
= L2 =.
00279
C2=
Ca=
0.265x10
1 = 0.262x/0-6
0.0159x/0 -6
T o.35öxi10 ì2= T
m =0.4 ,n =0.75 Consk,rrfk at =0.6
Fia. 66.- Low -pass filter for use between 600 ohms with sharp cutoff at
1,000 cycles.
Let the input -end section be a half-section mid -series -derived m type, with
its mid -shunt termination facing the input to match impedances at that point.
Let m = 0.4 for this half section to give a sharp cutoff.
u.0572
0.1097 0.2625 660
111 Il If
0.200 ó 0.0279 0.282x10 -6

To 600 ohm To 600 ohm
Source T Ou/put
+00_6 1..0.398x/0 -6
Flit. 67. -Final filter as designed by Fig. 66.
This will be followed by a symmetrical full section of the series- derived
m type, mid -series terminated, with m = 0.75. Then a half section of the
constant -K type with mid-series termination facing the full section and mid-
shunt termination facing the end -terminating half section, which will be
shunt- derived m type, with m = 0.6. The latter will have a mid -shunt
termination facing the constant -K half section and a mid-series termination
facing the output termination.
References
îreuit Theory:
BAYANT, CORRELL and JOHNSON: "Alternating- current Circuits," McGraw -Hill Book
.otnpany, Inc.
COLEBROOK: "Alternating Currents and Transients," McGraw -Hill Book Company,
Inc.
Evz*ITT: "Communication Engineering," McGraw -Hill Book Company, Inc.
JOHNSON: "Transmission Circuits for Telephonic Communication," D. Van Nostrand
`,ompany, Inc.
KSNNELLY: "Electric Lines and Nets," McGraw -Hill Book Company. Inc.
Momacaorr: "Principles of Radio Communication," John Wiley & Sons, Lie.
SHEA: "Transmission Networks and Wave Filters." D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.
TERMAN: ' Radio Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
Wave Filters.
CAMPBELL: Physical Theory of Electric Wave Filters, Bell System Tech. Jour., 1,
No. 2, 1.
Cisoidal Oscillations, Trans. A.I.E.E., April, 1911.
CARSON and ZOBEL: Transient Oscillations in Electric Wave Filters, Bell System Tech.
Jour., July, 1923.
DELLENBAUGH: Electric Filters, QST, July and August, 1923.
JoHNsoN: "Transmission Circuits for Telephonic Communication," Chaps. XVI and
XVII, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.
JOHNSON and SHEA: Mutual Inductance in Wave Filters, with an Introduction
on
Filter Design, Bell System Tech. Jour., 4 No. 1, 52. -Hill
PIERCE: "Electric Oscillations and Electric Waves," Chap. XVI, McGraw
Book Company, Inc. D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.
Sass:" Transmission Networks and Wave Filters," System Tech.
ZOBEL: Theory and Design of Uniform and Composite Wave Filters, Bell
Jour., 2, No. 1, 1. Wave Filters, Bell System Tech. Jour.,
: Transmission Characteristics of Electric
3, No. 4, 567.
Transmission Linea:
Evziurr: "Communication Engineering," McGraw -Hill Book Company. Inc.
FELDMAN and STERBA: Transmission Lines for Short -Wave Radio
Systems. Bell
System Tech. Jour., 9, No. 3. 411; and Proc. I.R.E., 20, No. 7.
FRANKLIN and TERMAN: ' Transmission Line Theory,' Franklin and Charles.
TERMAN: "Radio Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
SECTION 7
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
BY R. F. FIELD' AND JOHN H. MILLER2
True basic measurements of electrical quantities are rarely made
except in standardizing laboratories, owing to the inherent difficulties
in the procedure. Ordinary measurements are made by comparison
devices of one form or another. Direct- reading instruments, having
an electrical torque -producing means functioning against a spring, are
calibrated against accurate standards which are in turn calibrated
against basic measuring devices. Such torque -producing instruments
are used for measuring current, voltage, power, and resistance. Instru-
ments for measuring phase relations, frequencies, and other factors
may have two torque -producing systems, each torque varying with the
position of the moving element and hearing different functional relations
to the quantity measured. The result is for the moving system carrying
the pointer to take tip a position where the torques balance, this being
different for each different value of the quantity in question, and the
scale may be marked accordingly.
STANDARDS
Current. Current is measured, absolutely, in terms of the force of
1.
attraction or repulsion between two coils connected in series and carrying
that current, and the various dimensions of the coils. This current
is then used to deposit silver in the silver voltammeter to determine the
electrochemical equivalent of silver. The silver voltammeter is thus
the standard of current. One ampere of continuous unvarying current
will deposit 0.001118 g of silver per second when following the standard
procedure. The use of this standard is tedious and time consuming
and it is generally used only for the exact calibration of a standard
cell and a known resistance.
2. Resistance. Resistance is measured absolutely by a number of
methods in terms of a speed of revolution of a disk or coil and its various
dimensions. The resistance is then compared with a mercury column
of uniform cross section by a suitable bridge method. Such a column
of mercury, having a mass of 14.4521 g, a uniform cross section (practi-
cally equivalent to 1 sq mm) of a length of 106.3 cm, and at the tempera-
ture of melting ice, has a resistance of 1 ohm. Practical secondary
standards are coils of manganin wire immersed in oil and sealed in
metal containers. Such sealed standards built by Leeds & Northrup
Company to the specifications of the U. S. Bureau of Standards are
adjusted to an accuracy of 0.01 per cent and may be relied upon to
General Radio Company, Inc.. Cambridge, Mass.
2 Weston Electrical Instrument Company, Newark, N. J.
179
hold their calibration to 1 part in 100,000 for considerable periods of

time. The sealing of the containers is important to prevent the absorp-
tion, by the oil, of moisture from the atmosphere, for such moisture would
deposit upon the shellac or other insulating material on the wire which,
in turn, will cause mechanical strains to distort the values beyond normal
expectancy.
3. Voltage. Voltage measurements cannot be measured absolutely
with an accuracy sufficient to make the measurement desirable, on
account of the smallness of the electrostatic forces involved. The second-
ary standard of voltage is the saturated cadmium or Weston cell.
These cells, as built by Weston and by the Eppley Laboratory, are
correct to 0.01 per cent. They may be depended upon to hold their
voltage to 1 part in 100,000 when proper correction for temperature
is made. The unsaturated cadmium cell must be compared with the
saturated type for its initial calibration. Its temperature coefficient
is negligible. Its voltage is constant to 1 part in 10,000.
As stated above the cell is calibrated basically in terms of the standard
mercury ohm and the standard ampere as obtained by the silver-voil-
a nrmeter method.
4. Reactance. The self and mutual inductance of single-layer air-core
coils and the capacitance of two -plate air condensers having guard
rings may be calculated from their dimensions, with an accuracy of
better than2 parts in 100,000.
5. Frequency. The absolute standard of frequency is the mean
solar day as measured by astronomical observations. The mechanical
vibrations of piezoelectric quartz crystals or of tuning forks made from
carefully stabilized metals provide standards of frequency when perma-
nently connected into suitable vacuum -tube circuits and allowed to
oscillate continuously at constant temperature. Over long periods of
time their frequency is constant to better than 1 part in 1,000,000;
recent advances indicate a stability of 2 parts in 10,000,000 is obtainable.
The frequency of the crystal with which such accuracy may be attained
is restricted to the neighborhood of 100 kc. Tuning-fork standards
usually operate at 1,000 cycles. By means of suitable frequency multi-
pliers and dividers all other frequencies from 1 cycle to 100 Mc may be
obtained with the same accuracy.
Quartz crystals whose frequencies remain constant to 5 parts in 1,000,-
000 may be made for the frequency range 20 kc to 10 Mc. Metals,
such as nickel and certain iron alloys, having the property of magneto-
striction, may be used as oscillators in suitable vacuum -tube circuits.
Their frequency range extends from 5 to 100 kc. Their stability is
about 2 parts in 100,000. For the lower frequencies tuning forks and
metal bars are used. Their frequency range is 25 to 1,000 cycles.
CURRENT -MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
6. Moving -coil permanent -magnet instruments of the pointer type
or reflecting galvanometers, consist of a coil, usually wound on a metal
frame for damping purposes, which can rotate in an intense uniform
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet.
The current 1 flowing through the turns N of the coil reacts with the
magnetic field H in the air gap to produce a force F acting on each conductoi
proportional to the product IHl of the current, magnetic field, and length of
conductor in the field. If the coil is pivoted at its center, a torque will be
Sec. 71 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 181
exerted, tending to rotate the coil about an axis parallel to the sides of the coil
and perpendicular to the magnetic field. Some kind of restoring torque is
provided which is proportional to the angle O through which the coil rotates.
Expressing the sensitivity S of the instrument as the angular deflection per
unit current, it is given by
= _ HNlb (1)
1
where b is the diameter of the coil and r is the restoring torque per unit angular
displacement. For maximum sensitivity as a galvanometer, the permanent
magnet should be very strong and the restoring force very weak. However,
for pointer -type indicating instruments swung on pivots between sapphire
V jewels, there is a minimum torque which
may be used for a given moving element F
weight in order that frictional effects will he
unobservable. For instruments mounted on
j/' /I\
N (1 c
a switchboard and having a horizontal axis, 1\
the ratio of the full-scale torque in milligram- JI
centimeters with the weight in grams should F
not be less than 40 for small insiruments, 60 Fig. 1.- Moving -coil galva-
for larger instruments of 1 per cent accuracy, nometer.
and still greater if greater accuracy is required.
For portable instruments having a vertical axis, it has been found that heavy
elements, over 1 g, show greater friction than given by the above relation,
and lighter elements show less friction. Hence for such vertical axis instru-
ments for portable service the torque /weight32 ratio is used and this ratio
should be over 40 for small instruments and over 60 to 100 for large instru-
ments for unobservable friction. Ratios much lower than this may he
satisfactory for highly sensitive laboratory instruments used with care and
not subject to vibration or handling.
The magnetic field obtained from the permanent magnet must he
constant so that the electrical characteristics of the instrument may
remain unchanged. The constancy of a magnetic system is determined
by the ratio K, which if; equal to the product of the effective length
of the magnet times the effective cross section of one of the air gaps
divided by the product of the cross section of the magnet and the total
air-gap length. This constant should be over 100 for chrome and
tungsten magnet steels and over 30 for high cobalt steels. For the vari-
ous nickel -aluminum or MK steels the constant will vary, but 10 may
he taken as a median value. Tungsten and chrome steels are most
generally used; high cobalt steels will cost two to three times as much
but can be made somewhat smaller and will give increased flux, which
may be very valuable for aircraft instruments and where the utmost in
sensitivity is required. Nickel- aluminum steels require such radical
redesigns for efficient use that at this time their use is rather limited;
the use of these steels in future designs may he expected to increase
materially. Fabrication cost is high and over-all cost is probably
governed more by the method of use than by the material itself.
The flux density in the air gap is between 500 and 2,500 gauss. The
structure of a pole piece and a core is used to decrease the length of
the air gap and to make the magnetic flux uniform and radial. Where
distorted d-c scales are required to balance other factors such as decibel
relations, the pole tips may be cut away to produce a markedly distorted
ifield resulting in a more uniform scale for the quantity measured.
182 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. T
The deflection of any sensitive galvanometer is indicated by the angular

rotation of a beam of light, the so- called optical lever, which is reflected
from a mirror, either plane or convex, mounted above the moving coil.
The older form of telescope and scale is now being replaced by a spot of
light containing cross hairs which moves along a scale. The use of a
spot of light is much less fatiguing than observation through a telescope,
and a wider range of view is obtained. The usual scale length is 50 cm
with zero in the center. The standard distance from mirror to scale is
1 meter. The maximum angular deflection is about 14 deg. Practically
all pivot instruments use pointers. Full -scale deflection corresponds to
approximately 90 deg. This is increased to 120 deg. in some central -
station meters by careful shaping of the pole pieces. It may be increased
to 270 deg. by a radical change in design.
The moving element of every deflection instrument provided with
a restoring torque proportional to the angular deflection is in effect
a torsional pendulum. As such it has a moment of inertia P, a period
T1 and a damping factor. If the damping factor is low, the instrument
will oscillate several times about its position of rest, each oscillation
being less than the preceding one in accordance with the decrement of the
system. For most rapid indication it is desirable that the instrument
be not quite aperiodic or deadbeat but rather that it overawing from
3 to 5 per cent. (For a complete discussion of this see Drysdale and
Jolley, 'Electrical Measuring Instruments," Vol. 1, Chap. 3, Conditions
for Rapid Indication.)
Normal ammeters and voltmeters may be expected to have a period
of the order of 1 to 2 sec. The smaller instruments, if equipped with
magnets for very high gap densities and extremely light moving elements
may have a period as short as 0.2 sec. (Weston high-speed power-level
indicators.) Instruments of ultrahigh sensitivity, where very little
energy is available, may have a period as high as 5 sec. Sensitive
suspension galvanometers may have a period as long as 12 sec.
The period of an instrument is important because the time necessary
for any deflection instrument to attain a new position when its deflecting
force is altered cannot be less than its period. High -speed indication
in indicating instruments is very desirable= particularly when the phe-
nomena being observed are rapidly changing as in the monitoring of
voice-frequency circuits; instruments with a long period will integrate
the energy while high-speed instruments will give indications of peaks.
The friction of the suspension and the surrounding air is not sufficient
to prevent the moving coil oscillating back and forth about its equilibrium
position when a deflecting force is applied. The amount of damping is
measured by the rate at which the amplitude of the oscillations decreases.
The ratio of any two successive swings is constant. The Napierian or
of the
hyperbolic logarithm of this ratio is called the logarithmic decrement coil
instrument. The smallest amount of damping which will cause the to
come to rest with no oscillation whatever is called the critical damping,
and the coil is said to be critically damped. Increasing the damping to rest
beyond this point increases the time necessary for the coil to comecoil
and produces overdamping. The shortest time in which the when can the
come within a given small distance of its position of rest occurs
coil is slightly underdamped. It has a value of about 1.5 times the
period of the coil. The extra damping necessary to critically damp a
coil is usually obtained magnetically from the motion of the coil in the
field of the permanent magnet, which sets up counter electromotive
forces. The amount of damping produced by the current in the coil
depends upon the total resistance of the coil and connected circuit.
That resistance which produces critical damping is called the critical
damping resistance. A galvanometer is usually so designed that its
critical damping resistance is at least five times its coil resistance so that
it may be shunted for critical damping without losing much sensitivity.
All but the most sensitive pivot instruments are critically damped on
open circuit by the current set up in the metal winding form, and resist-
ance of the connected circuit has little effect on the damping.
The current sensitivity of any galvanometer varies directly as the num-
ber of turns on its moving coil and as the square of its period. For
a given winding space on the coil, its resistance varies as the square
of the number of turns, assuming that the portion of the winding space
occupied by insulation remains constant. The deflection is proportional
to the current and to the square root of the resistance, i.e., to the square
root of the power dissipated in the coil.
TABLE I.-
CHARACTERISTICS OF D -c GALVANOMETERS
Make Type E, pv 1, pa T, R co.

!t
il. Re. w. vow
L. & N
L. & N
L. & N
Weston
Values of voltage E, current I, and power 11' are for a scale deflection of 1 mm at a
scale distance of 1 ni for the galvanometers having mirrors: for those having self-
contained scales the values given are for a deflection of the smallest division, usually
1 mm. The voltage drop in the external critical damping resistance is not included in the
voltage given.
In the selection of galvanometers it should be noted that in general
those of high sensitivity will also be slow in action, and in general the
natural period and critical damping resistance for a galvanometer as
listed by the several makers should be considered as carefully as the
sensitivity. Further, galvanometers of highest sensitivity will require
great care in leveling; they will be responsive to minor vibrations and
in many installations may require special supports.
1$4 TIIE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 7
Where vibration in a building is a factor, the Julius suspension may

be used, a somewhat complex system of weights supported by springs
with oil -damping vessels. A simpler method although not so perfect
is to rest a 200-lb. block (of concrete) on an air cushion; this will absorb
all vibration usually encountered in factories, at least for galvanometers
of moderate sensitivity. Galvanometers with a single suspension have
the greatest sensitivity, those with a taut suspension less, and those with
double pivots least. For the most sensitive type of galvanometer,
increasing the period from 5 to 40 sec. allows the power to be decreased
from 11 to 0.005 µµw. The minimum current sensitivity is 10 -" amp.
per millimeter. The smallest current sensitivity for a taut suspension
is 10 -e amp. per millimeter, and for a double-pivot pointer instrument,
5 X 10 -8 amp. per scale division.
Galvanometers of the suspended type are used mainly as null indi-
cators for d -c bridges and potentiometers and as deflection instruments
in comparison methods. In the latter case a differential galvanometer is
sometimes used. This is a galvanometer having two separate insulated
windings on the suspended coil. They have equal numbers of turns
and are so connected that, when equal
currents flow through the two coils, no
oI.9R deflection is produced.
In 09R R
GoA: The sensitivity of a galvanometer is
0098 Q most easily reduced by shunting, and,
oOiR I since it is desirable tq keep the galvanom-
Fia. 2.- Ayrton- Mather uni- eter critically damped, the Ayrton-
versal shunt. Mather universal shunt shown in Fig.
2 is most convenient. This arrangement
is also used in multiple -range ammeters and milliammeters and is
frequently known as a "series shunt." The total resistance of the shunt
is made approximately equal to the critical damping resistance of the
galvanometer or indicating instrument with which it is used.
Pointer -type instruments of the pivot type are used as ammeters
and voltmeters of all ranges and as the indicating portions of thermo-
couple, rectifier, and various vacuum -tube instruments. The minimum
range of the ammeters extends from 5 µa to an upper limit determined
only by the size of shunt desired, commercial shunts having been made to
50,000 amp. Above 15 to 30 ma the movements are shunted, in which
ease the copper or aluminum winding of the moving coil must have
sufficient manganin swamping resistance in series with it to give a good
temperature coefficient when shunted by the manganin resistance.
Voltmeters may be made with a full -scale range from 1 my to as high as
series resistance can be arranged to care for the requirements. Instru-
ments are made with self-contained series resistance up to a few hundred
volts; higher ranges usually require an external resistor with the instru-
ment placed in the grounded or low -potential side of the circuit for the
sake of safety and to reduce electrostatic effects on the moving system.
Voltmeter sensitivity, at the present time, is almost exclusively 1 nia
for full -scale deflection, this decreased current being almost a requisite
to limit power requirements at high voltages. While series resistors
for low -range voltmeters are of conventional spool type, for ranges of
over 1,000 volts tubular -type units are widely used, having resistance
spools of special design, electrostatically shielded in sections contained
in insulation tubes and filled with inert wax. Such units are completely
See. 7] ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 185
moistureproof and mechanically well protected and are almost universally

used for the measurement of plate potentials.
In general pointer -type indicating instruments can he made to give
full -scale deflection on as little as 0.1 µw, although for a rugged instru-
ment from 1 to 5µw is required. Moving -element resistances may be
made from about 1 ohm to 10,000 ohms. Low- resistance elements are
limited by the spring or suspension
resistance which becomes a very appre- 200
ciable part of the total, reducing the
energy available for torque; high- resist-
ance elements are limited by the avail- 150
able wire, and many are now being E
wound of enameled copper wire 0.001 c
in. in diameter. .2100
As in the output circuits of vacuum-
tube amplifiers, the resistance of the
instrument or galvanometer should be 50
matched to the circuit in which it is
placed for maximum energy transfer,
and this is particularly important where 098
99 100 IOI 102
the energy is limited. On the other Frequenty,tpa
hand, this will frequently result in over- Fio. 3.- Resonance curve of
damping galvanometers of ultrahigh vibration galvanometer.
sensitivity, and a compromise must usu-
ally be made between speed of response and sensitivity requirements. It
should be noted, however, that this matching is not of vital importance
since the loss by a very approximate match in error by as much as 20 per
cent is very small.
7. Moving -coil Vibration Galvanometers. When an alternating volt -
age is applied to the coil of a permanent magnet galvanometer, the coil
will follow the alternations of the current if the frequency is of the same
order as that defined by its period. Maximum amplitude of vibration
will occur at the natural frequency of the coil. The relation between
amplitude and frequency is similar to the resonance
r curve of an electrical circuit. The ratio of the maximum
amplitude at its natural frequency to the amplitude for
an equal d -c voltage is between.25 and 150. The
period of the ordinary d-c galvanometer is never less
than 1 sec., while the frequencies at which measure-
ments are made are rarely, less than 30 cycles. The
upper limit for a taut single suspension is around 300
cycles. This limit may be raised to 1,000 by the use of
Fla. 4.- Bifilar a taut bifilar suspension. Electrical characteristics of
suspension. commercial vibration galvanometers are given in Table
II. At 60 cycles their sensitivity is equal to that of a
good d-c galvanometer. A resonance curve when tuned to a frequency of
100 cycles is shown in Fig. 3.
The natural frequency may be raised still further by eliminating
the coil entirely and using the single-turn loop formed by the bifilar
suspension. The mirror is then placed at the center of the taut wires.
The general method of construction is shown in Fig. 4. By this means
a natural frequency of 12 kc may be obtained. The sensitivity decreases
inversely as the first power of the frequency. On this account it is as
sensitive at 10 kc as the bifilar -coil galvanometer was at 1 kc. In com-

parison with other null detectors at these frequencies, its sensitivity is so
low that it is not much used in this form.
8. The Einthoven string galvanometer uses the simplest possible
moving system for a galvanometer. A single conducting string moves in
the narrow air gap of the magnetic system, which may be a permanent
magnet or an electromagnet depending on the sensitivity desired. Its
motion is observed through a microscope or by its shadow thrown on a
screen from a point light source. Electrical characteristics of the
Einthoven string galvanometer built by the Cambridge Instrument
Company are given in Table II, using a silvered glass string and a
magnification of 600 times. The string galvanometer may also be
used as an oseillograph. The shadow of the string is observed on a
translucent screen as reflected from a revolving mirror. The motion
of the string may also be photographed on film or bromide paper. The
usual paper speed is 10 in. per second, but, this may he increased to a
maximum of 100 in. per second. At this latter speed, phenomena lasting
a millisecond appear 0.1 in. long.
TABLE II.-CHARACTERISTICS OF A-c GALVANOMETERS
Make Type J, cycles E, µv I, va R, u ii',
Vibrating -coil type

50 8.5 0.017 500 0.14
100 17.5 0.05 350 0.88
Campbell bifilar 350 53 0.33 160 17
750 104 2.0 52 200
Cambridge 1,000 175 5.0 35 800
30 1.5 0.05 30 0.075
50 1.2 0.04 50 0.080
Campbell unifilar 100 3.0 0.025 120 0.075
c 200 7.0 0.10 70 0.70
L.&N 2350a 60 17.5 0.025 700 0.44
100 5.0 0.02 250 0.10
Cambridge Duddell oscillograph 1.000 50 0.2 250 10
2,000 100 0.4 250 40
Vibrating -string type
100 100 0.025 4.000 2.5
Cambridge Einthoven 300 800 0.2 4.000 160
Suspende -coil type with electromagnet
L. & N 2570 60 0.06 0.0051 12 0.0003
Electromagnet type
L. & N 2440 60 16 0.05 325 800,000
Vibrating -diaphragm type (telephone)
W. E. Co 800 400 0.02 2.4
16.000
Values of voltage E, current I, and power W are for a scale deflection of 1 mm at a
scale distance of 1 m for all galvanometers except the telephone, for which the threshold
of audibility is used. The moving system is tuned to the frequencies given for all
instruments except the suspended-coil galvanometer with electromagnet.
9. Moving -coil A -c Instruments. If a steady deflection is desired

with a.c., the magnetic field must change in direction with the current
in the coil and must have the same phase. This requires that the field
be an electromagnetic one. In the case of galvanometers and particu-
Sec. 7J ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 187
larly hull indicators, a field of laminated iron may be used, excited at
the same frequency as the moving coil. When used as a null indicator
in a bridge network, the field is connected across the same supply as
the bridge, while the moving coil is connected to the detector terminals.
Since the current through the field and the flux produced will be nearly
90 deg. out of phase with the voltage applied to the bridge, the gal-
vanometer will be most sensitive to the reactance balance and will be
little affected by the resistance balance. These conditions may be
equalized or reversed by the introduction of resistance in series with
the field, or reactance in series with the bridge, to make the field current
and bridge current differ in phase by 45 deg. or be in phase. The phase
selectivity of the a -c galvanometer may be of advantage in certain
special cases, but in general it is a considerable disadvantage. The
electrostatic field of the main field winding exerts a considerable force
on the moving coil so that it must be carefully shielded. Its sensitivity
is very high, and it compares favorably with the best d-c galvanometers.
10. Electrodynamometer. When the iron core is omitted from the
field winding, the moving coil and field coil may be connected in series.
The deflection is then proportional to the square of the current flowing
in the windings, and the instrument is called an electrodynamometer.
Instruments of this type read the same on both a.c. and d.c. and are
suitable as transfer instruments, provided certain precautions are taken.
Protection from external magnetic fields is most important. This is
usually accomplished in pivot -type instruments by shielding with soft
iron. It may also be effected by making the instrument astatic. When
a.c. is used, an error is introduced if the distribution of current in the
coils is affected by eddy currents in the conductors themselves-the
so-called skin effect -or by capacitance between the windings. The former
effect is minimized by the use of conductors with insulated strands
so-called litzendraht -the latter by careful spacing and by electrostatic
-
shielding.
Electrodynamometers may be used as galvanometers, ammeters,
voltmeters, and wattmeters. Their sensitivity as galvanometers is so
low compared with vibration galvanometers and other meters that they
are now rarely used. As ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters, they
are the standard instruments for use at commercial frequencies. In
general the sensitivity of a -c instruments is of the order of 1 /1,000
of that of d -c instruments, this being due to the difference in field intensity
of the electromagnetic field as compared with that which can be obtained
from a permanent magnet. Electrodynamometer instruments of the
highest precision will take from 1 to 3 watts full scale, the total energy
varying with the square of the deflection. Suspension -type electro-
dynamometers may have sensitivities 100 times as great.
Electrodynamometer ammeters have their fields and moving coils
in series up to several hundred milliamperes above which the moving
element is shunted across a resistor in series with the fixed coils. Above
50 amp., or so, current transformers are used, and these are now available
with special alloy cores which will give accuracies of the order of 4o of
1 per cent. Electrodynamometer instruments are ordinarily made to
function up to 125 cycles without correction but may be used on fre-
quencies up to several thousand cycles if especially designed or if cor-
rections are made. Note that low -range voltmeters have very low
resistance in order to get the required energy; dynamometer voltmeters
188 7'IIR RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDROOK [Sec. T
0.5 amp. High

with full -scale values of 2 volts may draw as much as transformers.
voltages above 1,000 volts are measured with potential where
Electrodynamometer instruments are also used as wat meters coil is across
the field is excited in series with the load and the moving proportional
the load in series with suitable resistance, the readingsofbeing
similar elements
to El cos 0. For polyphase circuits a multiplicity variety being the
may be arranged on a single shaft, the most usualSuch an instrument
two -element instrument or three -phase circuits.
gives true power wi hout relation to phase angle.
TABLE III. -CHARACTERISTICS OF A -c AMMETERS
Type E, y I, amp. R, n W, w
Make
Electrodynamometer type
326 2.6 1.0 2.6 2.6
341 1.0 0.5 2.0 0.5
Weston 1.400 0.31
370 21 0.015
Moving-iron type
155 31 0.02 1.540 0.62
433 14 0.03 460 0.41
476 30 0.015 2,000 0.45
Weston 2.000 0.45
517 30 0.015
528 30 0.015 2,000 0.45
Thermocouple type
f 0.8 0.008 100 0.0064
G. R. Co 493 1 0.2 0.10 2 0.020
( 0.24 0.008 30 0.0019

{( 0.12 0.12 1 0.014
Cambridge 0.70 0.12 0.059
0.08
412 0.25 0.01 25 0.0025

0.13 0.10 1.35 0.0135
Weston 5.2 0.075
425 {l 0.62 0.12
1 0.59 0.50 1.18 0.295
1.5 0.01 150 0.015

Cambridge Duddell 1.5 0.10 1.5 0.015
Rectifier typ
301 0.001 1,000 0.001
Weston 1
3 0.00075 4,000 0.00225

0.0005 4,000 0.001
G. It. Co 488 2 0.00025 8,000 0.0005
2 0.0001 20,000 0.0002
( PY-4 13.4 0.010 1,270 0.13
NA 13.6 0.010 1,300 0.13
Westinghouse 1,300 0.13
NA 13.6 0.010
Values of voltage E, current I, and power W are for full-scale deflection.

11. Moving -iron Instruments. Galvanometers may be The constructed
with a stationary coil and a moving -iron vane or magnet. moving
system consists of small permanent magnets placed at the center of the
the effect of
coil at right angles to the axis of suspension. To avoid
with the magnets
outside magnetic fields, the system is duplicated
pointing in the opposite direction to make it astatic, and the whole
galvanometer is surrounded by multiple soft-iron shields. Its sensitivity
(see Table I) is nearly equaled by the best moving-coil galvanometers
so that it is very little used.
Soft iron may also be used in the moving element, either alone or
in conjunction with a fixed piece of soft iron, both of which are magnetized
by the fixed coil.
Soft -iron meters are much used as a-c ammeters and voltmeters in a
wide variety of ranges and sizes. They may also be used on d.c. Elec-
trical characteristics are given in Table III. The range of the ammeters
is from 20 ma to 500 amp. The upper limit is ten times that of dyna-
mometer-type meters, because the current coil is fixed. Currents up to
5,000 amp. are measured by the use of current transformers. Frequencies
to 500 cycles may be used. The range of the voltmeters is from 1 to 750
volts. Their resistances are such as to give from 3 to 200 ohms per
volt, the values increasing with the voltage. Higher voltages are
measured by the use of either multipliers or potential transformers.
Frequencies up to 500 cycles may be used, the normal limit being 125.
In general the sensitivity of pointer -type indicating instruments
using the moving-iron principle will be from 0.1 to 1 watt full scale.
Instruments using short vanes, usually of the arcuate type, take about
1 watt full scale. Instruments with long radial vanes are more sensitive
with a minimum of 0.1 watt full scale but in general are more sensitive
to external fields and must be well shielded and kept away from strong
external fields. Moving -iron instruments in genera) are less satis-
factory on badly distorted wave forms as the hysteresis loop of the iron
is represented in the measurement. They are, however, widely used
on power circuits and are generally available in all sizes from the small
2-in. instruments up to the larger switchboard types.
HIGH -FREQUENCY CURRENT METERS
12. For the measurement of currents of high frequency, the only
satisfactory means is through the heat developed in a resistor, which
heat may be measured by the expansion of a wire,
by measuring the thermoelectric voltage developed
by a thermocouple adjacent to the resistor wire, by
bolon.eter methods, and by other heat -measuring
system:. J+
iS. 1he hot -wire expansion type of instrument Copper COnSt°îO^
is today practically obsolete. It defects of varying
in indication with ambient temperature, the lack of
perfect resiliency in the heated expansion wire, and U¿ ;
its low overload capacity together with the advent of Ftc. 5.-Thermo-
the thermocouple instrument have practically made couple meter.
this type obsolete.
14. A thermocouple meter consists of a heater member, a thermo-
couple adjacent to it, and a d-c galvanometer or millivoltmeter. Figure 5
shows the basic diagram of the device. Such a simple assembly, how
ever, does not compensate for variations in temperature of the terminals
or for ambient temperature variations.
The Weston thermal ammeter as developed by W. N. Goodwin, Jr., is
as shown in Fig. 6. The heater is a wire or tube of platinum alloy of very
short length whereby most of the heat is conducted to the terminals, thus
wiping out largely the effect of convection currents of air. The temperature
of the heated member may he represented as a parabola in its gradient
from center to each terminal lug, and it is this temperature difference or
gradient from the center of the heater to end which is measured by the
thermocouple. The couple proper consists of a pair of wires, usually of

conatantan and a platinum alloy, permanently welded to the center of the
heater at the junction end, with the effective cold ends soldered to a pair of
copper strips which are thermally connected to, but electrically insulated
from, the terminal lugs. Their heat capacity is such that the difference in
temperature between the center of the heated member and the center of the
two copper compensating strips is always the same as from the center of the
heated member to the terminal lug, regardless of ambient temperature
changes or general rise in temperature of the surroundings due to heating of
the lugs themselves or temperature rise due
Thermocouple ,Compensating to the total heat generated. The thermo-
ì Strips electric voltage is, therefore, strictly propor-
tional to the temperature difference between
the center and ends of the heated member
which in turn is proportional to the square of
the current causing this temperature rise,
and a d-c instrument connected to the couple
may be calibrated in terme of this current.
Healer Tube
To D.C. Couples may be designed to give suit-
Movement Insulating °a able indication on instruments of commer-
Plates ' cial types from 200 ma up to whatever may
be required. Solid round wires may be
used for the heated member up to about 2
Heá ter
amp., but for higher currents and at the
Tube
higher frequencies skin -effect phenomena
cause the readings to be too high. For
Fm. 6 -Compensated high - higher ranges, therefore, the heated mem-
frequency thermocouple and
heating element. ber should preferably take the form of a
thin -walled tube of such dimensions that
at the frequency being measured the ratio of h -f resistance to 1-f resistance
is not over 1.02. This limits the frequency error, on a square -law scale,
to less than 1 r cent.
While standard instruments have a square -law scale as the result of
the PR production of heat, instruments are available in which the upper
four-fifths of the scale is approximately linear through the use of special
d-c indicating mechanisms having non -linear air gaps whereby the d-c
sensitivity is progressively lower as the pointer moves up the scale. By
a proper combination of such specially shaped pole pieces a nearly linear
scale may be produced. (See Figs. 14e and 14d.)
Instruments having the linear expanded scale are useful in small
broadcast transmitters licensed for a lower power at night than during
the day; sufficiently accurate readings of the high and low values of
antenna current may be had on the same instrument to be satisfactory,
and instruments of this type are listed as complying with FCC rule
No. 143.
For low ranges so-called bridge -type couples are used, as shown in
Fig. 7, whereby a number of couples are arranged in series -parallel to
give a higher thermal e.m.f. The impedance of these couples is higher
than for a single couple, and for the common current -squared galvanom-
eter the effective resistance is 4.5 ohms. The indicating instrument for
the standard single couples has a sensitivity of 12 my and a resistance of
about 5 ohms.
For still higher sensitivities the couple may be placed in vacuo. Such
couples show no increase in sensitivity until the vacuum is better than
Sec. I] ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 191
0.01 mm of mercury; but above this point a great increase in sensitivity

is obtained up to as much as twenty-five times that obtained in air for
certain extremely fine wire couples. The heaters for such couples may
be carbon or graphitized wire. Commercial vacuum couples are intended
to function with a 12-ohm 200-pa d -c instrument and may be obtained
in ranges down to as low as 2 ma in the heater circuit for full-scale deflec-
tion on the instrument with a heater resistance of from 700 to 1,000
ohms. Vacuum couples are rarely used for currents higher than a few
hundred milliamperes, and the air couples are quite satisfactory for these
higher ranges.
To D.C. Movement
rMetalShds
1-- Insulating Base

L.=
Fla. 7. -Gals anometer or bridge-type couple.
Thermocouple instruments in general are calibrated on commercial
frequency a.c., and, if used on d.c., the mean of reversed readings should
be taken to make certain that any d -c drop in the heater picked up by
the couple is canceled out.
Thermocouple instruments may be obtained with separate couples for
use in indicating at a distance as where a couple is placed in the antenna
of a transmitting station and the leads brought back to an instrument in
the transmitting building. The couple should be placed in the h-f circuit
at a point close to ground potential to reduce circulating r-f currents in
the leads to the instrument. If this cannot be done, the thermocouple, of
low range, around 3á amp., is connected to a loop of wire that is induc-
tively coupled to a loop in the main antenna circuit. The thermocouple
circuit may then be grounded. The instrument is scaled to read the
total antenna current, and the final calibration is made by adjusting the
inductive coupling between the two loops until the remote reading instru-
ment indicates the same value as an Instrument placed directly in the
antenna itself. Note that FCC rules require an instrument in the main
antenna circuit which may be used for this purpose but which under
normal operating conditions is kept short- circuited to prevent damage
due to lightning. The switch is opened when the instrument is read for
logging purposes, and the remote indicator, usually located on the trans-
mitter panel, is used for normal operation.
The ratio of the power available to operate the indicating meter to
that put into the heater is about 1 to 2,000 for the most efficient couples;
hence a very sensitive d-c instrument is required for low r-f energies.
192 TILE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. T
Thermocouple voltmeters are constructed by using one of the more

sensitive couples with sufficient series resistance to Five the desired
voltage range. Their range is from 0.3 to 150 volts with resistances of
125 ohms per volt above 1 volt, and 500 ohms per volt above 10 volts,
if desired. Their frequency range is determined by that of the series
resistance. The small resistance spools which must be used in meters
with self-contained resistors change their resistance rapidly with fre-
quency so that their frequency limit is 3 kc. Frequencies of 1 Mc may
he attained with an error of 1 per cent with special h -f resistors.
Since the e.m.f. produced by the thermocouple is proportional to the
power input and hence to the square of the current, this meter will read
correctly on both d.c. and a.c. and may therefore be used as a transfer
instrument. It is necessary, however, to take the average of the readings
for both directions when using d.c.
RECTIFIER METERS
16. An a.c. may be changed to a pulsating current having a steady
component by the process of rectification. If the current- voltage charac-
teristic is as shown in Fig. 8e the effect is called half-wave rectification.
The negative half cycles are eliminated and the positive half cycles repro-
duced undistorted. The value of the steady component is half the
average value of a half sine wave. The ratio of the d.c. to the effective
i.
-e - - - -- 0 +e -e 0
,oi -ttolf Wove t bi- Full Wove
Fta. 8.- Rectifier characteristics.
value of an a-c current having a sine wave form which would flow if the
rectifier were replaced by a pure resistance of the same value as that of
the rectifier is N/2/7r, or 0.450. By a combination of rectifiers it is possi-
ble to obtain the characteristic shown in Fig. 86, which gives full-wave
rectification. The d.c. is then 0.900 of the a.c. Actual rectifiers have a
curved characteristic as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 8a. For nega-
tive voltages the resistance is not infinite. The ratio of the positive and
negative hal'-cycle resistances is sometimes as low as 8. Because of the
curvature of the characteristic, the ratio of d.c. to a.c. is a function both
of the magnitude of the current and of wave form.
with a
The crystal rectifiers used with early radio receivers may be used silicon,
sensitive d -c meter for rectifying an a.c. Carborundum, galena, melting
and many other crystals may be used. The crystal is cast in a low -
point alloy and the top contact made with a fine copper wire. Rectification
occurs at the points of contact of copper and crystal.
16. Commercial rectifier instruments contain a full-wave rectifier
consisting of four copper oxide rectifier disks connected in bridge relation
Sec. Ti ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 193
as shown in Fig. 9. The rectification is by virtue of the oxide film formed
on the copper disk. Current flows readily from the oxide to the copper
and much less readily in the reverse direction. For instrument use the
rectifier consists of four small plates arranged in a stack with suitable
terminals between adjacent disks for connection to the instrument and
the external circuit. The disks may be as
large as 3ís in. square or round, which size
is rated at about 1 volt and 5 ma maximum.
This rating is somewhat less than a maximum
rating for power purposes since in an instru-
ment some overload capacity is required and
stability rather than maximum power is the
main requirement. Somewhat smaller disks
are used in low -range instruments and for
those designed for special characteristics in
order to maintain a relatively high current FI6. 9.-Copper oxide rec-
density at lower currents, thus reducing fre- tifier bridge.
quency errors. Contact with the oxide is
made in a variety of ways through the use of lead washers, graphite, or
various metals applied to the surface. The main requirement here is
permanence of contact over an extended period.
The sensitivityt of the device depends upon the resistance and full-scale
current of the d-c instrument. The d-c instrument measures the average
-O00
fl
v 90
ú
$ agire Co
Oxide Rectifier
80 r airó
'3
IT] 70
6°
350
10 20 30 40 5060 80 100 200 400 600 000 2000 4000 6000 10,000
Current n Microamperes,A.C.
Fla. 10.- Current-efficiency characteristic.
value of a rectified wave, while a.c. is usually measured by methods which
give the r -in-s value of the wave. It is customary to calibrate rectifier
instruments in terms of the r -m-s value, of a stated wave form, usually a sine
wave. If a rectifier instrument is used on a wave form differing widely from
the wave for which it is calibrated, an error proportional to the form factor will
result. Calibration also corrects an error due to imperfect rectification,
which varies with current, temperature, and frequency.
The performance of rectifier instruments can be best expressed
sidering the d -c instrument and the rectifier as a unit according to by con-
Fig. 9.
The current efficiency, F _average d -c current is 80 to 89 per cent for a
r -m -s a-c current
sinusoidal a -c current in the order of 0.001 amp. It is therefore impossible
to use an a -c rectifier instrument for d.c. without first making a suitable
The following several paragraphs and Tables IV and V have been contributed by F. S.
$tiekney of the Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co.
change in circuit or calibration. Figure 10 shows the effect of current on

current efficiency for a sinusoidal wave. This variation is corrected in
calibrating.
The 60-cycle impedance of a 20-ma rectifier instrument is shown in Fig. 11.
Other ranges using different rectifiers will have different values, but in general
the slope of the characteristic as plotted in logarithmic coordinates will be
entirely similar.
5000
4000
É
.1. 3000
5
2000
c
V
1000
5 800
3 60
t^
5000
É 400
300
a
E
p 200
ñv
a
1000.1
0.2 03 0.4 0.50.6 O8 1.0 2 3 4 5678910 IS
Current,mi Iliamperes
Fla. 11.- Impedance characteristic.
Temperature variations have considerable effect on both the impedance
and accuracy of rectiacr instruments. Figure 12 shows temperature -voltage
variations for a specific group of milliammeters from which impedance can
be determined. Figure 13 shows temperature -efficiency relations of this
group at various current values. The point must be stressed, however, that
the curvature of these characteristics varies with the several parameters of
rectifier-disk size, current density, processing time, and the resistance of the
instrument, and it is quite possible to modify these curves materially for
special requirements. Standard instruments, by the same token, can
hardly be represented by any particular group of curves. It might be stated
that rectifier instruments have been materially improved in recent years
as to the flattening of the curves and that design possibilities have broadened
to the point where materially improved instruments can be made for par-
ticular requirements.
Higher temperatures adversely affect the rectifying film, and rectifier
instruments may become erratic at temperatures in excess of 45 °C. High -
temperature locations should be avoided in application; where the instrument
becomes unduly warm, instruments with external rectifiers are sometimes used
with the rectifier placed in a relatively cool location.
Frequency errors are the result of capacity between disks. Since the disk
resistance is lower at higher currents and since capacity is a function of
rectifier size, the smallest rectifier is preferred for good frequency characteris-
See. 71 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 195
tics. This in turn means a high current density with which good accuracy is
obtainable somewhat above audio frequencies. With low -current density,
errors may be as large as 1 per cent per 1,000
cycles. 90
In general, low -range voltmeters are more I b . 4.C1 I
subject to temperature and frequency errors e
than high -range voltmeters. Low -range volt-
meters have scales which are compressed at
80
- fffrKx A.CCurrent
.
Input
3.5
'.
I I
e =Minimum
Drop across
I
*
' rer
I
I
- 90
SM.A A.C.
3.0 Instrument-at *rims -
Temperatures,with
.l nous Currents
6
--
Ill
2.5
t)
2M.A. A.C.
c 2.0
Ç
01) 1.5 80
1.0
ski 70
as
20 -
0 + 20 40 60
60
0 - 0 + 20 40 60
Temperature,deg.0 Temperature,deg.C.
FIa. 12.- Effect of ambient Fto. 13.- Ambient tempera-
temperature on the voltage ture- efficiency relation.
drop across a rectifier instru-
ment at various currents.
the lower end due to variations of impedance with current. High -range volt-
meters and milliammeters have nearly uniform scale distribution.
Tables IV and V give approximate constants of commercial rectifier
instruments.
TABLE IV.- MILLIAMMETERS AND MICROAMMETERS
Full Scale, Approximate 60 -Cycle
Milliamperes Impedance at Full Scale'
15 100
10 130
5 190
2 370
1 600
0.5 1.140
0.2 1,950
0.1 4,200
0.05 6,300
0.02 10,000
1 Individual copper oxide rectifiers vary considerably from the average in charac-
teristics. Impedance values given may vary ± 15 per cent, and efficiency values vary
±3 per cent for the product of one manufacturer. Much greater variations may be
expected between the products of different manufacturers.
17. Power -level instruments used in the monitoring of voice- frequency

circuits are usually voltmeters with scales calibrated to read power on the
basis of a fixed-resistance load. The indications of power are usually in
decibels above or below a specified zero power level. Pnor to 1939

considerable confusion existed in this field of measurement owing to the
fact that zero levels of 0.001, 0.006, and 0.0125 watt were used into loads
of 500 or 600 ohms. The instruments themselves, fundamentally volt-
TABLE V.- VOLTMETERS
Full scale, Approximate 60-cppee
Full scale, approximate ohms Approximate fixed impedance of rectióet
volte per volt resistance, ohms and d -c instrument at
full scale, ohms
150 1,000 149,400 600

50 1,000 49,400 800
10 1,000 9,400 800
4 1,000 3,400 800
3 2,000 4,880 1,140

2 2,000 2,880 1.140
1.5 2,000 1,860 1,140
1. 5,000 3,050 1,950

0.5 5,000 550 1,950
meters of the rectifier type, have been quite satisfactory.. The usual
impedance has been 5,000 ohms and higher to avoid too great a loss due
to the addition of the power -level indicator and also to avoid adding
harmonics to the line due to the non -linear shunt resistance of the instru-
ment-rectifier network.
This situation has been largely cleared due to the work of Messrs. Chinn,
Gannett, and Morris, in the development of the so-called VU meter. This
is fundamentally a rectifier voltmeter having very definitely specified elec-
trical and ballistic characteristics and a new scale. To this standard of
reference the majority of organizations using such instruments have agreed.
Two instrument scales have been standardized, as shown in Fig. 14.
The upper scale, known as the A scale, emphasises the VU markings and has
an inconspicuous voltage scale. The lower, known as the type B scale,
emphasizes the per cent voltage and has a relatively inconspicuous VU scale.
This latter scale is largely used in broadcast monitoring since the voltage scale
indicates in a rather direct fashion the per cent utilization of the facilities.
The scales are printed on huff paper to reduce eyestrain; the narrow arc and
the figures above it are in black with the heavy arc to the right, the markings
above it as well as the markings below the arc in red.
The instrument mechanism, which is identical for both scales, has very
definite ballistic characteristics which may be completely defined by the
fact that, if a voice -frequency voltage of such amplitude as to give a steady
reading of 100 on the voltage scale is suddenly applied, the pointer should
reach 99 on this scale in 0.3 sec. and should then overawing the 100 point
by between 1 and 1.5 per cent.
Zero level was agreed upon as 1 Inw in 600 ohms. Since a voice -frequency
channel may contain many components of different frequencies and since
they may affect different instruments in a different manner, the ballistic
standards above listed are a very necessary part of the new standard. The
instrument is standardized on sine-wave voltage and is adjusted to read to
the 100 mark on the voltage scale with 1.225 volts applied, this representing
ICHINN, GANNET, and MORRIS, Proc. I.R.E., January. 1940; A New Standard Volume
Indicator and Reference Level. Bell System Tech. Jour., January, 1940.
Sec. T] ELE('TRIC'AI. .1fRd S(T RE.VF.NTS 197
4 db above 1 mw in 600 ohms and is applied to the standard instrument as

furnished, plus a 3,600 -ohm external series resistance.
-
Fia. 14a. " A" scale for VU meter. Fia. 14c.-Standard scale
using a conventional d -c
iQ
movement.
60 80 100
-' -° -,
.
LO AO Ñp
t
O .i a ì y
'o
FIG. 146. -"B" scale for VU meter. Fla. 14d.- Linear expanded
scale using the mechanism
with specially shaped pole
pieces.
With such an instrument, the readings obtained from it when voice -
frequency currents are applied may then be stated as so many VU, taking into
account that 4 VU must be added to the
scale reading plus the number of VU lost
in the attenuator placed in the network.
The required network is shown in Fig.
14f. The fundamental total resistance
of the instrument is 7,500 ohms. To this
are added 300 ohms representing a 600 -
ohm source, and load in parallel, making
a total of 7,800 ohms. To simplify the
use of an attenuator, this is split in the 6 RECTIFIER ,.
center to give 3,900 ohms each side, which a,,,, au-mu a,,,,C,TC,,,,Kw"uuaa
will allow for a simple T -pad attenuator
to be inserted at this point. The instru-
Mop; a
ment proper, therefore, has an internal
resistance of 3,900 ohms and must be used
with the separate 3,600 -ohm resistor.
Since the normal instrument level is +4
1
`z
Qom'
no.
s
VU, the attenuator dial is marked 4 VU
at zero attenuation, and for other true at- Fla. 14e.- Scale of db meter.
tenuation values 4 VU are added. Table
VI, shows values for such attenuators.
This instrument is available commercially and because of its deliberate
action is found most readable. The standardization of the instrument by
3600 OHMS A
ó
TYPE 30W
Fla. 14f.- Network for use with VU meter.
the majority of those concerned is of fundamental importance, particularly
where levels along a transmission line are to be read, forwarded over an order
wire to a common point, and compared. While instruments of several sizes

are available, the one in most common use is approximately 4 in. square
and available either with or without internal illumination.
The advent of this new level indicator has very largely superseded the use
of db meters as such, although the previously available high -speed instru-
ments still find some utility, particularly in the cutting of records where
instantaneous indication and control of high level is necessary to prevent
overcutting.
Table VII is a useful tabulation of power levels, ratios, and voltages, all in
terms of the zero level of 1 mw
in 600 ohms, and, when interpreted on an
instrument of the characteristics described, the values of db above and below
this level will also represent VU.
TABLE VI.- ATTENUAToRs FOR VU METER
Attenu- Level, Attenu-

ator lase,
Level, Arm A. Arm B,
ator loes, Level. Ann A, Arm B.
db
VU ohms ohms
db
VU ohms ohms
0 + 4 0 Open 24 +28 3.437 494.1

1 + 5 224.3 33,801 25 +29 3.485 440.0
2 + 6 447.1 16,788 26 +30 3,528 391.9
3 + 7 666.9 11,070 27 +31 3.566 349.1
4 + 8 882.5 8,177 28 +32 3,601 311.0
5 + 9 1.093 6,415 29 +33 3.633 277.1

6 +10 1.296 5.221 30 +34 3,661 246.9
7 +11 1,492 4,352 31 +35 3.686 220.0
8 +12 1,679 3,690 32 +36 3,708 196.1
9 +13 1,857 3,168 33 +37 3.729 174.7
10 +14 2,026 2,741 34 +38 3,747 155.7

11 +15 2,185 2,388 35 +39 3.764 138.7
12 +18 2,334 2,091 36 +40 3,778 123.7
13 +17 2,473 1,838 37 +41 3,791 110.2
14 +18 2,603 1,621 38 +42 3,803 98.21
15 +19 2,722 1.432 39 +43 3.813 87.53
16 +20 2,833 1,268 40 +44 3,823 78.01
17 +21 2,935 1,124 41 +45 3,831 69.52
18 +22 3.028 997.8 42 +46 3.839 61.96
19 +23 3.113 886.3 43 +47 3,845 55.22
20 +24 3,191 787.8 44 +48 3,851 49.21
21 +25 3,262 700.8 45 +49 3,857 43.86
22 +26 3,326 623.5 46 +50 3,861 39.09
23 +27 3,384 555.0
MEASUREMENTS OF PULSATING CURRENTS AND POTENTIALS

In making measurements of current and voltage which are neither
true a.c. nor d.c., care must be taken to make the measurement with the
correct type of instrument in order that a measurement be had of the
actual value required.
18. Rectified current, which may or may not be filtered, should in
general be measured with a moving -coil permanent- magnet type of d-c
instrument. This gives the average value. It is the value of current
or voltage of interest when charging a battery and in general is the value
of interest in vacuum-tube technique. Iron -vane and electrodynamom-
eter instruments indicate the r -m -s value which is used for determining
the heating effect.
Direct-current instruments, particularly voltmeters, have a sufficiently

large heat -overload capacity so that they may ordinarily be used on
pulsating currents without danger.
To measure the a-e component of voltage, a condenser may be placed
in series with an a-c voltmeter of suitable range; the d -c component is
blocked and the a-c value only is measured. The impedance of the
TABLE VII. -USEFUL TECHNICAL DB DATA (WESTON)
Power
Power
ratio to O
db.
Gower,
Also
Voltage
Voltage-
based on 1
Power
ratio to O
Power db. Also Voltage based on I
power,
Voltage -
level,
mllhwatta'
ratio to 0 mw in 600 level, mdliwatte' ratio to 0 mw in 600
db when 0 db ohms = zero db when db ohms = zero
level 0 level
level = 1 level = 1
mw low
--I0 0.1000 0.31623 0.24495

-- 9
8
0.1259
0.1585
0.35481
0.39811
0.27483
0.30839
20
21
22
100.00
125.89
158.49
10.0000
11.220
12.589
7.7461
8.6912
9.7514
- 7 0.1995 0.44668 0.34599 23 199.53 14.125 10.941
- 6 0.2512 0.50119 0.38820 24 251.19 15.849 12.276
- 5 0.3162 0.56234 0.43560 25 316.23 17.783 13.775
- 4 0.3981 0.63096 0.48875 26 398.11 19.953 15.459
- 3 0.5012 0.70795 0.54840 27 501.19 22.387 17.341
- 2 0.6310 0.79433 0.81527 28 630.96 25.119 19.457
- 1 0.7943 0.89125 0.69035 29 794.33 28.184 21.831
0 1.0000 1.00000 0.77461 30 1,000.00 31.623 24.495
+ 1 1.2589 1.1220 0.86912 31 1,258.9 35.481 27.484
+ 2 1.5849 1.2589 0.97514 32 1,584.9 39.811 30.837
+ 3 1.9953 1.4125 1.0941 33 1,995.3 44.668 34.600
+ 4 2.5119 1.5849 1.2276 34 2,511.9 50.119 38.822
+ 5 3.1623 1.7783 1.3775 35 3,162.3 56.234 43.560

-F 6 3.9811 1.9953 1.5459 36 3,981.1 63.096 48.875
+ 7 5.0119 2.2387 1.7341 37 5,011.9 70.795 54.840
+ 8 6.3096 2.5119 1.9457 38 6.309.6 79.433 61.527
+ 9 7.9433 2.8184 2.1831 39 7,943.3 89.125 69.035
+10 10.0000 3.1623 2.4495 40 10,000.0 100.000 77.461

+11 12.589 3.5481 2.7484 41 12,589.2 112.20 86.912
+12 15.849 3.9811 3.0837 42 15,848.9 125.89 96.698
+13 19.953 4.4668 3.4600 43 19,952.6 141.25 109.41
+14 25.119 5.0119 3.8822 44 25,118.9 158.49 122.76
+15 31.623 5.6234 4.3560 45 31,622.8 177.83 137.75
+16 39.811 6.3096 4.8875 ,
46 39,810.7 199.53 154.59
+17 50.119 7.0795 5.4840 47 50.118.7 223.87 173.41
+18 63.096 7.9433 6.1527 48 63,095.7 251.19 194.57
+19 79.433 8.9125 6.9035 49 79,432.7 281.84 218.31
condenser at the frequency used (120 cycles for a full-wave rectifier

system) should not be greater than 10 per cent of the instrument resist-
ance; the impedances being in quadrature, the resulting error will be
under 1 per cent. This is the simplest method of measuring hum in
a rectified plate supply. Because of its high resistance, the rectifier
voltmeter described previously is most satisfactory for this purpose.
Peak voltages and currents are best measured through the use of a
vacuum -tube voltmeter with a large capacity shunted by an extremely
high resistance d -c voltmeter (see Art. 29). A cathode-ray oscillograph

is also useful in such studies.
VOLTAGE -MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
19. Use of Current Meters to Indicate Voltage. All current -measuring
instruments having a sensitivity in milliamperes may, with the addition
of suitable series resistance, be used to indicate potential. The current
drain of the instrument must be sufficiently low to abstract negligible
energy from the circuit, as otherwise corrections must be made. With
modern instruments of high sensitivity this requirement can usually
be met.
20. Direct measurements of voltage are obtainable through electro-
static means, but the instruments are of limited utility because of their
low torque and because the minimum ranges are rarely under several
hundred volts. They are essentially instruments
for the research laboratory.
Electrostatic voltmeters depend on the attractive
force which exists between two conducting plates
between which a difference of potential exists. In
their simplest form, the force of attraction be-
tween a stationary and a movable disk is balanced
by a calibrated spring. The Kelvin absolute elec-
trometer is constructed in this manner. The force
of attraction is proportional to the square of the
difference of potential between the plates. Such
Fio. 15.- Suspended- meters give the same indication on steady and
vane meter. alternating voltages and have neither wave form
nor frequency error.
One type of construction, used in suspended-vane meters, is shown in
Fig. 15. The stationary plates are sections of two concentric cylinders,
into which the cylindrical rotor turns. With the opposite poles of a
magnet placed outside the stator plates, satisfactory damping is obtained
from the currents induced in the loop. This type of construction is that
used in the Ayrton- Mather electrostatic voltmeter built by the Cambridge
Instrument Company.
Electrostatic voltmeters are very useful because of their high resistance and
low power consumption at low frequencies. They cannot he used on high
voltage at frequencies much above a megacycle, because of the rapid increase
of the power loss in the necessary insulation. This loss increases directly
as the first power of the frequency and the square of the voltage. A hard -
rubber insulator with a power factor of 0.004 and capacitance of 10 µµf will
have, at a frequency of 10 megacycles and voltage of 2.5 kv, a charging current
of 1.5 amp. and a power loss of 15 watts, both of which values are excessive.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
21. While bridge measurements of resistance give greatest accuracy
(Art. 36ff.) direct -reading instruments are much used because there is
no requirement forthe manipulation of the controls, and they are widely
used in production testing of resistance units as well as in general labora-
tory practice where the highest accuracy is not essential.
The simplest direct-reading ohmmeter consists of an ammeter and
battery as shown in Fig. 16. Two readings are made, one with the
terminals shorted, -the other with the unknown resistance R connected
The fixed resistance S limits the current to about full -scale reading of
the ammeter. The deflection is made exactly full scale by adjustment
of the ammeter shunt B. The range of this type of meter is usually taken
as that resistance which gives a deflection which is 5 per cent of full
scale. On this basis the usual ranges are 1,000,
10,000, and 100,000 ohms. B
Through the use of more complex networks,
nstruments with still wider ranges of capacity
can be made available. The upper limit of E
resistance measurements by this means de-
pends upon the instrument sensitivity and Fia. 16.-Direct-reading
battery voltage; a 50-µa instrument at 15 volts ohmmeter circuit.
gives an excellent deflection on several meg-
ohms. The lower limit, since a minimum battery voltage of 1.5 volts
must be used, is dependent only on the current capacity of the battery
and the resistance of the leads. In general, for accurate work, the effec-
tive battery resistance must be calculated into the circuit as a part of the
total series resistance.
Note that in all series-type ohmmeters the center- or half-scale resist-
ance value is exactly equal to the total effective ohmmeter resistance at
its terminals.
The readings of an ohmmeter may be made independent of the applied
voltage by dispensing with the controlling springs and obtaining the control-
ling torque from a separate coil connected across the supply voltage. Figure
17 shows the circuit used by Evershed and Vignole in their ohmmeters of this
type.
Fie. 17.- Ohmmeter of Evershed and Vignole.

This construction was first used by Evershed for an ohmmeter designed to
measure high resistances up to 100 megohms. The source of voltage was a
self-contained high -voltage magneto generator, giving voltages up to 500 volts.
It was called a megger. The same principle has now been applied to ohm-
meters of lower range using battery voltages. The resistance range extends
from 1 ohm to 5,000 megohms.
22. Measurement of Impedance. When the voltmeter-ammeter
method is used with a source of alternating voltage, the ratio of voltage to
current gives the impedance of the load
2 = (2)
T
With the usual a -c instruments the corrections for the instruments are
larger and more difficult to make because of their reactance. The
high- resistance rectifier voltmeter and vacuum -tube voltmeter eliminate

this difficulty.
The separation of impedance into its components requires the use of a
wattmeter. The connections of Fig. 18e are usually used when no correction
for instrument errors is to be made, while those of Fig. 186 allow the correction
to be made quite easily. For this distinction the current coil of the wattmeter
is grouped with the ammeter and its potential coil with the voltmeter. As
to ib)
Fta. 18.- Measurement of impedance.
before, the impedance of the load is given by Eq. (2). Its power factor is
the ratio of the wattmeter readings to the product of voltage and current.
P.f. = cos B = Él (3)
where O is the phase angle between voltage and current. The resistance of the
load is
R=w (4)
and the reactance
X = VW_ R= - (5)
With the knowledge as to whether the load is inductive or capacitive, its
inductance or capacitance may be
calculated from
X=taL= - tae (6)
where w = 2iJ.
Measurement of Capacitance.
23.
Since the power factor of the usual
condenser is small, its reactance is
E approximately equal to its imped-
Fie. 19.- High- frequency microfarad ance. This may be measured di-
meter. (Weston.) rectly by the voltmeter-ammeter
method and the capacitance calcu-
lated from Eq. (6). At a given voltage and frequency, a single ammeter
reading is sufficient, and the ammeter may be calibrated to read capaci-
tance directly.
Capacitance may also be measured on a single indicating meter whose
readings are independent of the applied voltage. The moving element
consists of two coils set at right angles to each other. There are no
controlling springs. The connections used in the high-frequency Weston
microfarad meter are shown in Fig. 19.
Coils CI and Ci are connected across the supply voltage, one in series with a
fixed capacitance S, the other in series with the unknown C. The stationary
field coils F are directly connected across the line voltage. With no condenser
Sec. T] ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 203
connected in circuit with coil C2, the coil CI sets itself in the plane of the field
coils F and determines the zero of the scale. The introduction of C allows
current to flow in the coil CI and provides an opposing torque which is pro-
portional to the capacitance added. The resulting deflection is, of course,
just as dependent on frequency as on capacitance, so that any particular
instrument must be used on the exact frequency for which it was calibrated.
The low- frequency Weston microfarad
meter has the moving coils connected in
series instead of in parallel with the field
coils.
The capacitance range of the Weston

microfarad meters extends from 0.05
to 10 pf at 60 cycles, 0.001 to 0.05 µf at
500 cycles, and 0.0005 pf at 1,000
cycles. The applied voltage must be
large enough to provide sufficient 6
torque to give a definite reading. Fui. 20.- Power-factor meter.
24. Measurement of Power Factor. (Weston.)
Instruments for measuring power
factor are very similar to the moving-coil capacitance meters described
above. The connections used in the Weston power-factor meter are
shown in Fig. 20.
25. Measurement of Frequency. Frequency may be measured with
an indicating instrument similar to the capacitance meter shown in Fig.
19, in which the capacitance C is fixed and the capacitance S is replaced
by a resistance. The scale is, of course,
1Sy: calibrated in terms of frequency.
The functions of the moving and fixed
coils may be transposed, the stationary
part now consisting of two coils set at right
angles to each other. The moving part is
simply a vane of soft iron, since its sole
function is to indicate the direction of the
resultant magnetic field set up by the two
stationary coils. The connections of such
a frequency meter are shown in Fig. 21e.
The tendency of the vane toward rotation
(cal tbl is overcome in the Weston frequency meter
Flu. 21.- Frequency meter. by decreasing the phase difference be-
(Weston.) tween the currents in the two coils as
shown in Fig. 21b. The rotation of the
magnetic field is no longer uniform. The vane, being long and narrow, takes up
a definite position, its inertia preventing it from following the irregular rota-
tion of the magnetic field. The frequency range of the instrument is about
30 per cent of the mid -scale reading. These meters are usually built for the
commercial frequencies 25 and 60 cycles. The General Electric Company
has built them for higher frequencies, up to 2,000 cycles.
Frequency meters that make use of vibrating reeds are also constructed.
A series of reeds, whose natural frequencies of vibration differ by regular
intervals, are arranged in a line or in a circular arc in the order of ascend-
ing frequency. They are mounted on a suitably shaped electromagnet,
whose winding is connected across the supply voltage of unknown fre-
quency. That reed, having a natural frequency nearest to the supply
frequency, will vibrate with an easily visible amplitude, and the frequency
intervals between adjacent reeds are sufficiently small, compared to their

damping, so that at least one will always vibrate.
MOVING-DIAPHRAGM METERS
26. The telephone is a very sensitive galvanometer, in which the
indication of motion is acoustic. It is essentially a moving -iron vibra-
tion galvanometer, polarized with a per-
OropArrrymi
í manent magnet. Its construction is
shown in Fig. 22. The amplitude of vi-
bration is proportional to the product of
Magnet the steady flux in the air gap produced by
the permanent magnet and the alternat-
ing flux produced by the coils carrying
Fm. 22.- Construction of the a.c. The latter flux is much increased
telephone. by placing the coils on laminated soft -
iron pole pieces. The reluctance of the hardened steel magnet to the
alternating flux is so great that most of the a-c flux passes across the gap
at the base of the pole pieces. This gap is made the proper length to
make the product of the two fluxes at the diaphragm air gap a maximum.
The diaphragm is a thin steel disk clamped at its outer edge. Its natural
frequency of vibration is determined by its mass and stiffness. For
silicon steel 0.01 in. in thickness, this frequency is about 900 cycles. By
plugging the orifice in the earpiece, the natural frequency may be
increased by as much as 50 per cent. The damping of the diaphragm
is very small, being mainly due to the eddy-current losses in the iron.
The variation of amplitude with frequency is a sharp resonance curve.
Figure 23 shows such a curve for a Western Electric telephone. The
damping is little affected by changes in stiffness and natural frequency.
The impedance of a telephone winding increases with frequency in a
regular way, except around the reso-
nance frequencies. The resistance and
reactance are generally of the same order
of magnitude, so that its lag angle is 6
about 45 deg. At a frequency of 1,000
cycles they are about ten times the d-c
resistance of the winding. Near reso- 4
nance the motion of the diaphragm in-
troduces a counter e.m.f. into the circuit É
which is usually interpreted as additional a
resistance and reactance. These terms 2
are referred to as motional values. In

telephones of low damping, they may be
as much as 70 per cent of the normal val- ó6 05 1.0 17 1.4
ues. The actual numerical value of the Frequency,kc
resistance and reactance depends on the Fla. 23.-Resonance curve of
number of turns with which the magnets Western Electric telephone.
are wound. The d -c resistance varies
from 30 to 1,000 ohms. The sensitivity of telephones is somewhat indefi-
nite because it depends on the acuteness of hearing of the observer. It is
usual to express it as the current necessary to produce a just audible
response. Because of the existence of a threshold of hearing, this mini-
mum current is reasonably definite and reproducible, at least for any one
person. Values of this minimum current, together with the correspond-
ing voltage, resistance, and power are given in Table II for a Western
Electric receiver. It is much more sensitive than any vibration gal-
vanometer and at its resonant frequency is not far behind a good d-c
galvanometer.
27. Other Types of Telephones. It is possible to use non -magnetic
materials for the diaphragm by providing a separate steel armature so
shaped and clamped that its natural frequency is higher than that of the
diaphragm, to which it is attached by a stiff rod. When mica is used for
the diaphragm, both the sensitivity and the selectivity are greater than
for steel. On the other hand, the resonance curve can be broadened by
using a corrugated diaphragm of suitable material.
The steel armature can be replaced by a coil carrying the a.c., which
then may vibrate in the field as a moving -coil galvanometer. A light
paper cone attached to the coil acts as a diaphragm. There is no single
natural frequency, so that over a wide frequency range the sensitivity is
essentially constant.
The piezoelectric effect exhibited in certain crystals is also used as the
basis for a telephone. Rochelle salt crystals are used rather than quartz
because of their greater piezoelectric effect. The construction is the
same as is used in crystal microphones. The frequency characteristic of a
telephone made in this manner is remarkably constant over the whole
a -f range extending from 100 cycles to 5 kc. Its impedance decreases
with frequency because it is essentially a condenser with crystal dielectric.
In this respect it behaves in just the opposite manner from a permanent
magnet telephone.
28. Thermophones. When a fine wire is heated by the passage of a.c.,
sound waves are produced in the surrounding air if the heat capacity of
the wire is so small that the temperature of the surface of the wire follows
the cyclic variations of the current. Instruments of this sort have been
constructed, using gold foil as the heater. They are called thermophones.
Their sensitivity in terms of sound energy is low. But they can be made
small enough to be placed in the ear, so that their over-all sensitivity is
quite satisfactory. Their response decreases slowly as the frequency is
increased. The theory of this instrument has been studied in consider-
able detail because of its use as a standard in the production of sound.
ELECTRON TUBE METERS
29. Vacuum -tube Voltmeters. The simplest type of vacuum-tube
voltmeter makes use of a three-electrode tube and a d-c galvanometer.
Its connections are shown in Fig. 24. The grid bias Ec is so chosen that
maximum plate rectification occurs, the relation between plate current
and grid voltage being as shown in Fig. 25. When an alternating voltage
e is applied between grid and filament, the average plate current Increases
from Ip to Ir'. This change in plate current is the quantity in terms of
which the instrument is calibrated. The upper limit of applied voltage e
is that for which the peak voltage equals the grid bias.
The zero of the plate-current meter may be suppressed mechanically so

that the zero of the voltage scale may coincide with its electrical zero. This
suppression may also be attained electrically as shown in Fig. 26. The single
.
battery Eb supplies both grid and plate voltages through the drop wire
?omposed of the three resistors R,,, Rb, R The voltage drop in R,,, is made
?qual to that in the adjustable resistor Rp caused by the plate current.
206 TILE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 7
The galvanometer resistance should be small compared with Rp so that the

major part of the change in plate current will pass through the galvanometer.
The grid bias for the voltmeters shown in Figs. 24 and 26 may also be
obtained by connecting the grid return to a resistance Rs, in the plate
circuitas shown in Fig. 27. This eP
method of obtaining the grid bias
causes the bias to increase with the
applied voltage. The relation re-
sulting between meter deflection
and signal voltage, while approxi-
mately a square-law relation for
T=111 CM.
Ec Eb
a
Fra. 24.-Vacuum -tube volt- Fia. 25.- Vacuum -tube voltmeter
meter. characteristic.
small voltages, becomes nearly linear for large voltages of from 20 to 100
volts. For a large grid bias, plate current flows only during the positive
peak; hence the error due to wave form may become serious. The volt-
meter then becomes a peak or crest
voltmeter. The voltage range of the
meter can be changed by means of the
p bias resistor Rb. Each range must,
however, have a separate calibration.
The sensitivity obtainable with a
.
la
Rb
Eb
vacuum -tube voltmeter depends main-
ly upon that of the indicating meter.
The detection coefficients of the vari-
ous tubes available are not widely
I'tu. 26.- Single battery for plate different and are not much affected by
and grid voltages. the value of plate voltage. A full -
scale reading of 3 volts is usual with a
(l-c meter showing full -scale deflection on 200 µa. A 20-pa meter would
show a full -scale deflection on 1 volt. Wall galvanometers may be used
to obtain increased sensitivity but the difficulty in
maintaining the zero setting increases greatly.
The input resistance of a vacuum -tube voltmeter e
is high, being either the insulation resistance of the tAi
input terminals or the resistance Ro of Fig. 26 Re
shunted between grid and filament to maintain the Ea
grid bias. This may be high .as megohins.
as 10
hat it Feu. 27. -Grid
of
The plate load the tube is sufficiently low so t bias from plate cir-
does not affect the input resistance. The input cuit.
capacitance is essentially that of the terminals,
socket, and grid -filament capacitance. By careful design this may be
made as low as 5 µµf.
The calibration of a vacuum -tube voltmeter is usually independent
of frequency over a wide range. At low frequencies an error appears
when the reactance of the plate by-pass condenser, connected between
plate and filament to provide a low -impedance path for the alternating
component of the plate current, becomes comparable with the plate load.
If this condenser is omitted, in order that the meter may be calibrated
and used at commercial frequencies, errors may appear at frequencies
below 100 kc due to natural frequencies in the meter and resistances
of the plate circuit. Finally, natural frequen-
cies in the grid circuit, either in the resistance
R, of Fig. 26 or in the combination of R. and
the grid -filament capacitance of the tube, set e
an upper limit around 10 Mc.
The sensitivity of the triode vacuum -tube volt-
meter may be increased by the method suggested
by Turner' in which two voltages are impressed Fla. 28.- Balanced vac-
on two balanced tubes connected as shown in Fig. uum-tube voltmeter.
28. Equal voltages ex are applied to the two grids
in opposite phase across resistances R and a separate voltage e, of the same
frequency and the same phase as either is introduced into the common grid lead
across the resistance With the grid bias adjusted for plato rectification, the
differential current through the meter connected between the two plates is pro-
portional to the product eiex of the two voltages. The voltage ex applied to
- 002,tf
-1
/0Mn
_ IiF.
10011 +
Fta. 29.- Two -electrode vacuum -tube voltmeter.
each grid is usually the small voltage to be measured and voltage e, is a high
voltage which gives increased sensitivity. A special phase shifting network is
generally necessary for the adjustment of voltage el. An effective amplification
of 100 may be obtained.
If the two voltages are not in phase, the current through the ammeter is
proportional to emex cos 8, where O is the phase angle between e, and ex.
This is the form for the expression for power in an a-c circuit. Hence, if
el is proportional to the voltage across any load, and ex is proportional to the
current through that load, obtained as the fall of potential due to the flow of
this current through resistances R, the ammeter deflection is proportional to
the power dissipated in the load. Full -scale deflection may be obtained with
powers as small as 20 µw. The frequency limits are those of the regular
vacuum -tube voltmeter.
The use of a two -electrode tube in a vacuum -tube voltmeter allows the
frequency range to be raised above 50 Mc. Since the rectified current is at
the most only a few microamperes, it must be amplified by means of a triode
in whose plate circuit the indicating meter is placed. The connections for
such a voltmeter are shown in Fig. 29. The current rectified by the diode
charges first the condenser in the input lead to the peak value of the applied
voltage and then the 0.02 -pf condenser which supplies part of the grid bias
of the triode. The use of two condensers is required because the cathodes of
both the diode and triode must be kept at essentially ground potential.
A full-scale reading of 1.5 volts can be obtained with a 200 -pa d-c meter.
Other voltage ranges up to a maximum of 150 volts can be obtained by
shunting the meter. Each range must, however, have a separate scale.
TURNER and MCNAMARA, Prom. I. R. E., 18, No. 10, 1743 -1747, October. 1930.
30. Electron- stream Meters. A stream of moving electrons is used in

the cathode -ray tube to indicate and measure an electric or magnetic field.
Electrons emitted from a hot cathode C are accelerated by a positive
potential applied to the anode A as shown in Fig. 30. Most of the
electrons strike the anode and form the anode or plate current. The
remainder pass through a small hole in the center of the anode and
continue at constant velocity to a fluorescent screen S of willemite or zinc
sulfide, which is usually the enlarged end of the glass tube in which the
various parts are mounted. The beam is naturally divergent because
of the mutual repulsion of the individual electrons comprising it and
must be focused on the screen in some manner in order to obtain a small
sharp spot. In the earlier tubes this was accomplished by leaving
enough residual gas in the tube to give a pressure of about 0.001 mm
of mercury. The positive ions produced by the electron stream exert a
S
r-- iJ-------
+l-0qi4-1 T
Fla. 30.-Electron -stream meter.
repulsive force on the electrons and prevent their divergence. Satis
factory focusing by this means demands a constant gas pressure which
is difficult to maintain throughout the life of a tube. There is also an
upper limit of perhaps 100 kc to the frequency for which sharp focusing
can be obtained because of the relative slowness of the ionization process.
The beam may also be focused by a longitudinal magnetic field or a
radial electric field, the latter being the more convenient. For this
type of focusing, the gas pressure is reduced to the minimum necessary
to prevent an accumulation of negative charge on the screen. Between
the anode A and screen S there is placed a second anode having a positive
potential between four and five times that of the first anode. In some
designs the enlarged conical end of the tube is lined with a conducting
layer and serves as this second anode. In others the second anode is a
short cylinder or ring of larger diameter than the first anode. The
cathode is usually of the oxide-coated type with a separate heater which,
aside from its high efficiency in producing electrons, operates at a tem-
perature sufficiently low so that light from it does not illuminate the
screen. It is surrounded by a focusing cylinder with a partially closed
outer end, which is connected directly to the cathode when the second
anode is used. In tubes with residual gas the exact focusing of the beam
is attained by varying the negative voltage applied to this cylinder.
The electron stream may be deflected by a transverse magnetic or
electric field, applied beyond the first anode in the region where the
electrons have a constant velocity. The losses inherent in the coils
necessary to produce a transverse magnetic field limit their use to special
cases. The transverse electric field is applied through four deflecting
plates symmetrically disposed around the tube axis. When a difference
tlf potential is applied to either pair of opposite plates, the stream of
electrons is deflected toward the positive plate through an angle propor-
tional to the strength of the electnc field. The bright spot on the fluores-
cent screen, which marks where the electrons strike the screen, then
moves proportionally. A voltage applied between the other pair of plates
See. 7J ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 209
oroduces a deflection of the spot in a direction at right angles to the first
deflection. The deflection at the screen is inversely proportional to the
higher anode voltage. It is of the order of 2 in. per 100 volts for an anode
voltage of 1,000 volts.
When an alternating voltage is applied to a pair of plates, the electric
field set up between the plates is continually varying in magnitude and
direction. The stream of electrons is deflected back and forth between the
plates, and the spot of light is drawn out into a line symmetrically disposed
about the undeflected spot, provided the pair of plates is grounded at a point
midway in potential between them. An alternating voltage applied to the
other pair of plates will produce a line at right angles to the first. If the two
voltages are applied to the two pairs of plates simultaneously, the electron
stream follows the instantaneous resultant force exerted by both fields and
traces on the screen a pattern which is closed, and therefore appears sta-
tionary, when the frequencies used bear a simple relation to one another.
These patterns are called Lissajoust figures. For two equal frequencies the
pattern is an ellipse of varying eccentricity which at the extremes becomes a
straight line or a circle. The exact figure is determined by the phase differ-
ence of the two voltages. For other ratios of the two frequencies the patterns
become reentrant. For the general case the ratio of
the number of loops formed on adjacent sides of the
pattern is that of the two frequencies. _E v
31. Timing Axis. Since the electron stream can l
follow accurately all variations in applied voltage, Fla. 31.-Timing
it is only necessary to spread out the line of light circuit for cathode-
which it produces on the screen into a two-ditnen- ray tube.
sional picture to make visible its exact wave form.
The second voltage of the same frequency giving the elliptical pattern
just described does this but in such a manner that the whole pattern must
be redrawn to be easily interpreted. The time axis, which the second
voltage must provide, should be linear, not sinusoidal, and its return to
zero value should be instantaneous.
A very convenient circuit for this purpose employs a neon tube as shown in
Fig. 31. The potential across the condenser C builds up according to an
exponential law determined by the time constant CR of the circuit, which
over the first part of its range is nearly linear. At some potential between
100 and 300 volts, dependent on the shape of the electrodes and the pressure
of the gas, the neon tube breaks down, and the condenser discharges very
rapidly. At some lower voltage the neon tube goes out, and the charging
process is resumed. If the resistance R is replaced by a two -electrode vacuum
tube, the curvature of the exponential law of charging may be partially
compensated for by the changing resistance of the vacuum tube as the voltage
across it is varied. The frequency at which the condenser charges and dis-
charges depends on the time constant CR of the charging circuit and is con-
trolled by varying these quantities. Frequencies covering the range from
l to 20,000 cycles are attainable. The wave form thus spread out on the
screen will drift along the time axis unless the two frequencies are exactly
¡qua' or are simple multiples. It is very convenient to have the pattern
¡tationary. The two frequencies may be synchronized by using a thyratron
r three -electrode gas-filled tube in place of the two -electrode neon tube.
Some voltage from the source of the wave form under observation is applied
.o the grid of the thyratron. When the control circuit is adjusted to produce
ipproximately the correct frequency, this added voltage is sufficient to trigger
¡ff the discharge and maintain exact synchronism.
1 BARTON, "Textbook on Sound," pp. 555-557.
A time axis may also be obtained by viewing the screen on a revolving

mirror. The pattern will be stationary when the speed of revolution of the
mirror is an exact multiple of the frequency of the given wave.
Transient phenomena may be studied by photographing the single
trace of the electron stream as spread out by any of the methods of
obtaining a time axis just described. The time axis may also be obtained
by moving the photographic film itself. In this case, and also for the
revolving-mirror method, the screen must be of the type in which the
fluorescence does not persist, else the trace on the film will be blurred.
Screens with persistence times as short as 25 microsec. and as long as
50 millisec. are available. The latter are useful in viewing very -f 1
phenomena and in television, where it is helpful in reducing flicker.

COMPARISON MEASUREMENTS
32. Comparison of Voltages. A steady voltage may be compared,
with the difference of potential across a resistance -carrying current by
the use of the simple potentiometer
El A . - A shown in Fig. 32e.
A battery Ec causes a current I to
b R c a Rs 0 c flow in a resistance R. The unknown
voltage E is connected to this resist-
ance through a galvanometer, and
the resistance is adjusted to give no
deflection of the galvanometer. The
voltage E is then equal to the potential
(a) (b) drop IR. A second voltage E' may
Fia. 32.- Potentiometer types: then be made equal to a different po-
(a) simple; (b) with standard cell tential drop IR'. The two currents
resistance. in the two cases are the same because
at balance no current flows in the gal-
vanometer circuit. The two voltages are thus proportional to the two resist-
ances. The potentiometer may be made direct -reading in voltage by using a
and connecting it across such a
standard cell for one of the comparison voltages be
portion of the resistance that the current must adjusted to a predetermined
decimal value in order to obtain balance. The unknown voltage is then
connected through the galvanometer and balance is restored by adjustment
of resistance R, which may now be calibrated directly in volts. Connections
for this type of measurement are shown in Fig. 32b.
Two alternating voltages may be compared by the potentiometer phase.

principle only when they have the same frequency and the same
They must at every instant be equal and opposite in order that thepotenti-galva-
nometer in series with them shall show no deflection. Hencevoltage the
ometer current must be taken from the same source as the provided to be
measured, and some form of phase -shifting device must be for
which the output current is independent of its phase.
phase througl
Drysdale used a two-phase induction regulator, feeding one obtain
a resistance and the other through a capacitance in order to the twc
currents in quadrature. Such a device P is shown galvanometer
in Fig. 33 connected to
d-c potentiometer. The galvanometer GA is an a-c having i
sensitivity comparable to that of the d -c isgalvanometer GD. Since there i
no standard of a-c voltage, a standard cell used toonadjust the potentiomete
a transfer ammeter I
current to its proper value. This value is reador insulated
which may be either of the electrodynamometer heater thermo
couple type. Its zero may be suppressed mechanically to give the effect 6f a
longer scale and hence a greater accuracy of reading. Switches K and K1
are then thrown to connect the potentiometer to the a -c voltages and the a -c
current adjusted to produce the same deflection in ammeter I. Vacuum -tube
voltmeters and rectifier voltmeters whose resistances are large compared with
the resistance of the potentiometer may be calibrated directly without using
the phase shifter, by connecting them directly to the terminals E. The
voltage applied to them may be calculated from the settings of the contacts
b and c.
A.C.
(e) T I I
Fm. 33.- Drysdale potentiometer.

88. Comparison of Frequencies. Two nearly equal frequencies may
be compared by measuring in a suitable manner their difference in fre-
quency. When the two frequencies .are in the audible range, this differ-
ence will appear as an audible beat -a waxing and waning in intensity
-which may be counted if it is less than 10 beats per second. If the beats
are faster than this or if the beating frequencies are above audibility, the
beat must be rectified and a beat frequency produced. This beat fre-
quency may then be measured by a suitable frequency meter. The
accuracy of the comparison depends both on the accuracy of measurement
of the beat frequency and on the ratio of this frequency to the original
frequencies. The beat frequency is usually kept in the audible range.
If the two frequencies to be compared are not nearly equal, so that their
frequency difference is large and above audibility, audible beats may usually
be obtained between some of their harmonics. For a beat frequency b
between the mth harmonic of a known frequency f and the nth harmonic of
an unknown frequency f', the expression giving f' is
f,_mf±b
n (7)
'the sign of b being determined by considering which harmonic, mf or nf' is
the larger. Sufficient harmonics are usually present in most frequency
sources for the purpose of this comparison, especially when emphasized and
isolated by the use of tuned circuits. They can always be produced by the
use of a rectifier tube.
In the most precise measurements the known frequency is a multiple or
submultiple of a standard crystal frequency, obtained from the various multi -
vibrators driven by the standard. For less precise work a variable standard
may be used. The beat frequency is then made zero. Such a variable
frequency oscillator, called a heterodyne oscillator, will have a limited fre-
quency range, even though provided with multiple coils. Properly chosen
for' range, it may he used to measure a super -audio beat frequency, such as
might be obtained when comparing two very high frequencies.
Frequency is measured in terms of inductance and capacitance by
means of a tuned -circuit frequency meter consisting of a variable capaci-
tance and a set of fixed inductances. The frequency range allotted
to each coil determines the accuracy of setting, which ranges from 0.1
per cent to 0.001 per cent. Resonance is indicated in a variety of ways:
thermocouple ammeter, heterodyne zero beat, or reaction on an oscillator,
these being arranged in the order of their accuracy. In the third method
the frequency meter is coupled closely enough to the oscillator whose
frequency is being measured so that either the amplitude of its oscillations
is affected or its frequency is altered. The frequency alteration is the
more precise method but demands for greatest accuracy a second oscilla-
tor set at zero beat with the first. When the frequency meter is in exact
resonance, the zero beat note of the two oscillators will be unaffected. In
the second method a vacuum -tube oscillator is connected to the wave-
meter so that it really becomes a heterodyne oscillator. A screen -grid
tube, operating as a dynatron oscillator, may be connected to a frequency
meter without the addition of extra coils or taps and converts it into a
heterodyne-frequency meter.
34. Comparison of Impedances. An unknown resistance may be
compared with a known resistance in a number of different ways. When
the known resistance is variable, a substitution method may he employed.
The unknown resistance X is connected in series with a battery and shunted
galvanometer g, the shunt resistance M having been adjusted to allow a full -
scale deflection. The known variable resistance S is then substituted for
X and the same current allowed to flow. Its value as thus determined is
that of the resistance S. When the known resistance is not continuously
variable, the value of the unknown resistance may be interpolated from
the two readings of the meter. This method is frequently used for the meas-
urement of very high resistances, such as insulation resistances from a megohm
up. The known resistance is rarely larger than 1 megohm; hence under these
conditions different values of the shunt M are used for the two measurements.
The method is not applicable to measurements with a.c. because the phase
angles of the source and load are indeterminate.
Two resistances may be compared by connecting them in series and meas-
uring the voltage drops across them by means of a high -resistance voltmeter.
Since the same current flows in both resistances, the value of the unknown
resistance is
R (8)
=SÉs
where ER and Es are the voltages across the unknown and known resistances,
respectively. Except for the case of equal resistances, the resistance of the
galvanometer must be either very large compared with the resistances being
measured or a correction must be made for the current taken by the gal-
vanometer. This method may be used with a.c. to compare all kinds of
impedances. Either a vacuum-tube voltmeter or a high-resistance rectifier
voltmeter must be used, since correction for the current taken by the volt-
meter is difficult. The polarity of the voltmeter should be maintained as in
d-c measurements in order to eliminate the errors of these voltmeters due to
even harmonics. The upper limit for frequency is that imposed by the
frequency characteristics of the known standard and by the capacitances to
ground of the voltmeter in its two positions.
See.11 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 213
The power factor of an unknown impedance may be determined by the

three -voltmeter method, in which the voltages across the unknown and
known impedances and that applied to the two in series are read. The
same precautions concerning polarity and capacitances to ground apply
as in the two-voltmeter method. The vectorial relations between the
three voltmeter readings together with the voltage components of the
unknown impedance are shown in Fig. 34.
The expressions giving the unknown impedance
Z. its resistance R, reactance X, and power factor
cos 0 are
Z =
SF.a
Ez= h.'.a =
R _SE'i 2Es=
Es ER
X = Z! R=
iu. 3 i. -- Vectorial re-
cos t l
R E
EZ Es' lationsin three-voltmeter
7 (9)
2EzEs circuit.
35. Variation Methods. The total resistance of a circuit may be meas-
ured by the resistance- variation method. Since with a constant applied
voltage the current flowing in the circuit is inversely proportional to the
total resistance, the circuit resistance is given by
I'
R SI I' (10)
where I is the initial current and 1' the current which flows when the resist-
ance S is added. A plot of the reciprocal of the current flowing for different
values of the added resistance against that resistance gives a straight line
whose negative intercept on the resistance axis is the circuit resistance. The
added resistance necessary to halve the current is also the circuit resistance.
This method is sometimes used to measure the resistance of a sensitive
galvanometer.
The resistance-variation method may be used with a.c. provided the
circuit is tuned to resonance. The necessary connections are shown in
Fig. 35. By reducing the reactance of the circuit to zero, the same equa-
tions and procedure may be used as for d.c.
The ammeter used is usually of the thermo-
c couple type. Halving the current on such a
meter quarters the deflection; hence this type
g (I of measurement is sometimes called the quarter-
35.-Added-resist-deflection method. The ammeter may be re-
ance method. placed by a vacuum -tube voltmeter connected
across the condenser. This arrangement is
much more sensitive than the thermocouple ammeter and simplifies the
;rounding of the circuit by eliminating one series element. The upper
imit for frequency is set by the frequency characteristic of the known
-esistance and the capacitances to ground of the different parts of the
ircuit. This method is the one usually adopted for the measurement of
he resistance of inductors at high frequencies.
Two reactances may be compared in a tuned circuit by a substitution
nethod. The circuit is tuned to resonance both when the unknown
'.eactance is connected in circuit and when it is disconnected. The change
214 TI[E RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Moe. T
in reactance of the variable standard, with which the circuit is tuned, is

equal to the unknown reactance. When t he unknown and known react-
ances are both inductive or both ca aeitlye, the value of the unknown
inductance or capacitance is obtained directly, independent of frequency,
the two reactances being connected in series if inductive, and in parallel
if capacitive. For these pairs of nuasiirements it is unnecessary that
the currents he kept of the same value.
Air condensers are much better standards at high frequencies than
inductors, and it is therefore usual to measure an unknown inductance in
terms of a variable condenser. Small inductances are connected in series
and large inductances in parallel.
The resistance of the unknown reactance may be determined by noting
the current at resonance when it is connected in circuit and then by
adjusting the current to this same value by adding sufficient resistance
when it is disconnected. This added resistance, corrected for the change
in resistance of the standard reactance with setting, is the resistance
of the unknown reactance. The resistance of variable reactors must in
general be measured by the added-resistance method described above or
by one of the bridge methods. The resistance of a variable air condenser
follows a definite law, and this fact may be used in this type of resistance
measurements.'
The total resistance of the tuned circuit may also be measured by
detuning the circuit. This method is called the reactance- varialion
method.= The change in reactance necessary to halve the squared cur-
vacuum -tube voltmeter in the ratio of 1 to 0

rent (deflection of a thermocouple meter),or to reduce the reading of a
(0.707) is equal to the
resistance of the circuit. The resistance of an unknown reactance may be
found by again measuring the total resistance of the circuit when the
unknown is added. The difference in circuit resistance with the unknown
in and out is the unknown resistance. The circuit resistance for the
one case can also be found from the other by multiplying the known
circuit resistance by the ratio of the voltmeter read-
111111 ings at resonance.
E D -C BRIDGE MEASUREMENTS
36. Whenever two resistances or impedances are
compared by matching or comparing the deflections
of any deflecting instrument, the accuracy of the
measurement is determined by the accuracy of
reading of the deflections themselves. This accu-
racy may be greatly increased by adopting a nul
method, in which a certain relation of the resist-
ances being compared is indicated by a zero deflec.
tion. As this condition is approached, t h I
ria. 36.- Wheat- sensitivity of the indicating instrument may be in
stone bridge. creased.
37. Four -resistance Network. The simple four
resistance network invented by Christie in 1833 and exploited by Wheat
stone ten years later is shown in Fig. 36.
Two paths are provided for the current, one through the ratio arms A am
B, the other through the unknown and known resistances U and S. Th.
See Art. 44.
SINCLAIR, D. B., Proc. I.R.E., 36, No. 12, 1466 -1497.
galvanometer G is connected between the junctions of these pairs of resist-
ances. The condition for a null deflection of the galvanometer is that these
two junctions are at the saine potential. Equating the voltage drops
AIA = UIr and BIB = SIs (11)
or, since no current flows in the galvanometer,
= U = BS (12)
B S or
The ratio arms are usually only variable in steps of 10 so that the
bridge is balanced by varying the known resistance S.
In commercial bridges the accuracy ranges from 0.1 to 0.02 per cent.
Switching is accomplished by sliding contact-decade switches or taper
plugs, and the ratio arms are reversible. There are four to six decades
in the known resistance, hundredths to hundred thousands, and up to
nine ratios, 0.0001 to 10,000. Comparisons of resistances on the best
bridges using sealed standards, flat mercury contacts, and a temperature -
controlled oil bath may be made to part in 1,000,000, which is beyond
1
the accuracy with which the primary standard of resistance is known.

88. The sensitivity of the null detector necessary to attain a given accuracy
of bridge balance is determined by the relative magnitude of the resistances
of the bridge arms and the voltage applied to the bridge. The ratio of the
output voltage e to the input voltage E is given by
e G/B A/B
d (13)
E
1 +B (1 +B) +(1 +B)
where G is the resistance of the null detector and d the fractional accuracy of
balance demanded. For an equal -arm bridge
e 1 G/B
(14)
E 41
+(
This ratio lies between Nd and 3 ¡d for ratios of detector and bridge-arm
resistances between one and infinity. In general, its value decreases rapidly
when the bridge arms are made unequal and when the detector resistance is
low compared to them. On this account resistances above a megohm cannot
be accurately measured when a d-c galvanometer is used as a null detector.
For a very high resistance detector, Eq. (13) becomes
e A/B
= d (15)
E (1 + B)
which is independent of the ratio S /B. This condition may be realized by the
use of a vacuum -tube voltmeter as described in Art. 29. Thus for greatest
sensitivity the detector should be connected from the junction of the highest
resistances to the junction of the lowest. The battery, on the other hand,
should be connected across the higher and lower resistance pairs, so that the
amount of power drawn by the bridge is a maximum.
39. Slide -wire Bridges. When the known resistance is fixed, the
bridge must be balanced by varying one or both of the ratio arms. In
216 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. I
the slide -wire bridge shown in Fig. 37a the ratio arms A ofand B are parts
of a single uniform resistance along which the contact the lead from
read as a distance
galvanometer may slide. The position of the contact is being
measured from one end, the whole length of the scale L divisions.
The value of the unknown resistance in terms of these distances is
(16)
U =L -ZS
When the known and unknown resistances are nearly equal, the accuracy
of measurement may be increased by placing extension coils in series
with the slide wire as shown in Fig. 376. The slide wire may he calibrated
111111
. L
(a) (b) Cc/
Fro. 37. -(a) Slide -wire bridge; (b) bridge with extension arms; (c) Carey
Foster bridge.
to read directly the percentage error of the unknown resistance U in
terms of the standard resistance S.
Two nearly equal resistances may also be compared by means of the
('arey Foster bridge shown in Fig. 37c. This is a slide-wire bridge in
which the slide wire is placed between the two resistances being com-
pared. Two settings of the slide wire l and l' are made with the resist-
ances U and S as shown in Fig. 38 and transposed.
The value of the unknown resistance is
U = S (l - -
l')p (17)
where p is the resistance per unit length of the slide

wire.
40. Kelvin Bridge. Lr the measurement of 0.1
ohm or less, the variation in contact resistance at
its terminals and the consequent variation in the
M lines of current flow near the terminals may ppro-
appreciable errors. To overcome this din
1ia. 38.- Kelvin duce
culty, low- resistance standards are always built at
double bridge.
four-terminal resistances. All ammeter shunts an
so constructed. The two potential terminals are placed between the cur-
rent terminals and the resistance proper. The value of the resistance if
that between the potential terminals.
Such four-terminal resistances cannot be compared on the ordinary

Wheatstone bridge. They may be measured on the Kelvin double
bridge shown in Fig. 38. The two four -terminal conductors U and
S are connected in series, leaving an unknown resistance M between
their adjacent potential terminals. The bridge is balanced by adjust-
ment of the standard resistance S. The value of the unknown resistance
U is given by
U =BS (18)
when the double ratio arms are proportional, satis-

ying the condition A/B = a /b.
A -C BRIDGE MEASUREMENTS
41. Four -impedance Network. When an alter-
nating voltage is applied to the simple Wheatstone
bridge of Fig. 36, the conditions for balance of the
bridge involve the impedances of the four arms, as
shown in Fig. 39. Fla. 39. -A-c bridge.
For a null deflection of the a -c galvanometer or telephones the two junc-
tions, across which it is connected, must be at the same potential at all
instants of the a-c cycle. Equating the voltage drops along the two parallel
paths offered to the flow of the a.c.
Z4IA = Zulu and Zile = Zsle (19)
where ZA, Ze, etc., replace A, B, etc., in Fig. 37.
The four impedances are vectors of the form
Z = R +.iX (20)
Hence, since no current flows in the galvanometer,
ZA Zr
Ze Zs
(21)
Expanding these vectors into their rectangular components the two condi-
tions of balance are
A U XAXS -XeXu Xv UXe -
SX_A
(22)
(22
B S + BS Xe + BXe
where the resistance components of the four anus are represented by the four
letters A, B, U, S without subscripts. If the ratio arms have no reactance,
A U
B = S -
Xs
I
so that XA = Xe = 0, these conditions reduce to
(23)
The two reactances must have the same ratio as their resistances and as the
ratio arms. Considering the reactances as both inductive or both capacitive,
Eq. (23) becomes
A U Lu A U Cs
B= S-Ls and B -S=Cu (24)
respectively. These equations cover all the types of bridge measurements in

which similar impedances are compared.
218 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec.?
42. Power Supply and Null Detector. The power source at audio
and radio frequencies is usually a vacuum -tube oscillator, capable of
supplying several hundred miltiwatts of power at varying potentials
up to 100 volts. At the low audio frequencies, a -c generators with
rotating parts may be used, as well as the commercial power supplies
at 60 and 25 cycles. The null detector most frequently used in the a -f
range from 400 to 5,000 cycles is the head telephone. Vibration galva-
nometers and a-c moving -coil galvanometers are used at power fre-
quencies. Rectifier voltmeters are used for all frequencies up to 50 kc,
cathode -ray and "magic -eye" tubes up to 1 Mc, and vacuum -tube volt-
meters at all frequencies. At super-audio frequencies a heterodyne
oscillator and detector may he used to produce an a -f heat note, which
can then be observed by any of the methods described. Radio -frequency
oscillators may be modulated at an a.f., usually 1 kc, and the bridge
output observed on n radio receiver. All -wave receivers cover the fre-
quency range from 10 kc to 30 Me.
Vacuum -tube amplifiers are used with all types of null detectors to
give increased sensitivity. The amount of amplification necessary
to give any desired accuracy of balance may be determined by Eq. (15)
when the generator is connected across resistive ratio arms. If the
generator is placed across unlike arms, one resistive and one reactive, this
expression becomes
A/B (25)
(Al
BJ
At the most Eqs. (15) and (25) differ by only a factor of 2. These two
equations hold exactly for the larger component of impedance, provided
that the square of the ratio of the small to the large component is negligi-
ble compared to unity. The value of e/E for the smaller component is
then less than that for the larger component by their ratio. The vibra-
tion and a-c moving -coil galvanometers are about equally sensitive, with
a minimum detectable voltage of 20 Ay, although a moving-coil galva-
nometer can be built with a sensitivity of 0.1 Av. Head telephones come
next with a minimum detectable voltage of 400 µv. Then in turn come
"magic-eye" tubes at 20 mv, vacuum tube and rectifier voltmeters at
100 mv, and cathode-ray tubes at 1 volt.
A considerable amount of selectivity is desirable in a null detector to
eliminate the effect of harmonics in the generator and harmonics pro-
duced by non -linearity of the unknown impedance. This can be provided
by a tuned circuit in the amplifier or by the degenerative feedback ampli-
fier described by Scott.' This latter amplifier is particularly valuable
because it can be made continuously adjustable over the entire a -f range.
The former gives a discrimination of 25 db against the second harmonic,
and the latter 40 db. The vibration galvanometer is extremely selective
and offers about 70 db against the second harmonic. The a-c galvanom-
eter is phase sensitive and responds only to that component of the unbal-
ance voltage which is in phase with its field. It can therefore be made to
respond to only one component of bridge balance at a time by connecting
its field to a suitable phase-shifting network. The cathode-ray tube can
be used in a somewhat similar manner by applying the bridge voltage to
I Scorr, H. H., Proc. I.R.E., 26, No. 2, 226-235.
its horizontal deflecting plates as a sweep circuit through a phase shifting
network.' The general pattern appearing on the screen is a tilted
ellipse, which at balance reduces to a horizontal line. The phase of the
sweep voltage can be so adjusted that one component of bridge balance
opens the ellipse while the other tilts it.
43. Bridge Transformers. Transformers are used to match the
impedance of a bridge to that of the generator or detector and to isolate
the bridge electrostatically. One junction point of the bridge usually
that between the two impedances being compared, is grounded, except
when direct impedances are measured.2 The capacitances to ground of
the transformer, generator, or detector not connected to this grounded
junction are placed across the two bridge arms whose junction point is
grounded. The effect of the ground capacitances of the generator or
detector connected to the transformer may be removed by placing a
grounded shield between the primary and secondary windings. An
impedance bridge with such a transformer connected across its ratio arms
is shown in Fig. 40. The terminal capacitances CTu
and CTS are placed across the bridge arms IT and S.
1 r They are usually of the order of several hundred mi-
rd cromicrofarads and may therefore introduce serious
errors. The direct capacitance between the two
windings may be reduced to a few tenths of 1 µµf.
C
F1 T
iCTS
FIG. 40.- Imped- Fta. 41.- Bridge -transformer capac-

ance bridge with itances.
transformer.
The effect of the terminal capacitances CTu and CTS may be reduced
or either one made zero by the addition of a second shield. The two
shields are symmetrically placed around the two windings, as shown in
Fig. 41. The capacitance C,, between the two shields may be made much
smaller than the terminal capacitances and is in series with them. The
resultant terminal capacitances may he placed across either bridge arm
U or S by connecting the shield around the secondary winding to one
terminal of that winding. The effect of the terminal capacitances may
be removed entirely from the arms U and S and placed across the ratio
arms A and B by introducing a third shield between the two winding
shields and connecting it to the junction of the ratio arms.
44. Bridge Errors. Reactances introduced into the arms of a bridge
by the wiring of the bridge and by the generator and detector cause the
more serious errors in bridge measurements. These residual reactances
may be inductances in series with the bridge arms and capacitances in
parallel with them. The effect of such residuals in the ratio arms may
be seen by rewriting Eq. (22) of Art. 41 in the approximate form
LAmsoN, H., Rao. Sci. Ina., f, No. 9, 272 -275.
'See Art. 48.
= SLI + (QA - QB)DU] XB - (1 (QA - QB)DuI (26)

Ds - Du =QA - QB
where the storage factors QA and Qs and the dissipation factors Du and Ds
are of the form
Q =X and D = (27)
The errors introduced are proportional to the difference of the storage

factors of the ratio arms, multiplied by the dissipation factor of the
impedance arms for the reactance component, and divided by that
dissipation factor for the resistance component. For impedances with
small dissipation factors the error is confined to the resistance component;
for impedances with large dissipation factors to the reactance component.
Residual reactances in the impedance arms produce at low frequencies
errors proportional to their ratio with similar reactances in these arms.
Series inductance introduces large errors in measurements of small
inductances; parallel capacitance in measurements of small capacitances.
The effect of residual reactances increases with frequency, the storage
factor of the ratio arms being of the form Q = wL /R for series inductance
and Q = RwC for parallel capacitance. Hence bridges designed for
operation at frequencies much above 100 kc must have equal ratio arms,
because of the difficulty of equalizing their storage factors. When
residual inductance in the impedance arms is in series with a capacitance,
the effective capacitance of the combination is
(28)
1 -w =LC
which increases indefinitely as the resonant frequency is approached.
For an inductance of 1 µh, the approximate value for a constant- induct-
ance three-dial decade resistor, and a capacitance of 1,000 µµf the resonant
frequency is 5 Mc. Even the lowest inductance which a 1,000 -ppf con-
denser can have, 0.006 µh, gives a resonant frequency of 65 Mc.
The errors introduced into bridge measurements by reactances in
the ratio arms may be minimized by the use of substitution methods.
The effect of capacitances to ground and the effect of the reactance of the
leads to the known and unknown reactances may also he greatly reduced.
Both reactances are connected in the same arm of the bridge, a similar
reactance being placed in the other arm. Two bridge balances are
obtained, one with the unknown reactance in circuit, the second with it
disconnected and its impedance replaced by the known variable reactance
and the added resistance. Inductances are connected in series, placing
them far enough apart to reduce their mutual inductance to a negligible
amount, and the unknown is removed by shorting. Capacitances are its
connected in parallel, and the unknown is removed by disconnecting
high-potential terminal. Both condensers must be completely shielded
and their grounded terminals connected together.
Distinguishing the values for the second balance, when the unknown
reactance has been removed, by primes, the values of the unknown reactances
are given by the change in reactance of the variable standards.
Lu = La'
= ALE
La - Cu = ('a' -Cs
= AC's
(29)
The corresponding expressions for the resistances are

U = S' -S R' -R U = (R' - (Cu J
(30)
= AS + AR
_ A(Cu')
The squared ternis appearing in the expression for the condenser resistance
result from the law by which the series resistance of condensers connected in
parallel is found.
XiR.C.
(Z-)'
- RICO + R:C:' + _
(C1 + Cs + ...
R _ (31)
)2
The terms containing the resistance of the standard condenser have disap-
peared because the quantity RC= for an ail condenser is a constant, independ-
ent of the setting of the condenser. This follows from the more general law
that for an air condenser, in which the losses occurring in the solid dielectric
are independent of the setting of the plates and for which the power factor
of the solid dielectric is independent of frequency, the quantity Rw(" is con-
stant. This law hods with increasing frequency until the losses due to skin
effect in the plates and supports become appreciable.
The series resistance of the plates and supports of a well -designed air
condenser is of the order of 0.02 ohm at a frequency of 1 Mc., This resist-
ance varies as the square root of the frequency because even at 1 Mc the
skin effect is complete. By shortening the leads and by connecting to the
stator and rotor at. several points, this series resistance can he 'educed to
0.005 ohm at 1 Mc.
E
U S
C'e A CS
R z
Fta. 42.-Series-resistance bridge. Flu. 43.- Parallel- resistance bridge.
45. Resistance Balance. When two impedances are compared on
a four-impedance bridge, the conditions of balance [Eq. (24) of Art. 41]
demand that their dissipation factors be equal. Since this will not in
general be the case, means must he provided for attaining the resistance
balance. The simplest method is that of adding a resistance in series
with that impedance having the lower dissipation factor.
tions for a capacitance bridge with the added resistance The connec-
so arranged
' FIELD. R. l ".. and I) R. ÑNCLA7a, Proc. I.R.E.. 24, No. 2, 255 -274.
that it may he placed in either impedance arm is shown in Fig. 42. This
method gives the series resistance and reactance of the unknown imped-
ance and can be used for dissipation factors less than unity. Neither
of the impedances, although essentially at ground
E potential, can be grounded.
Added resistances may be placed in parallel with
the two impedance arms as shown in Fig. 43.
This method gives the parallel resistance and re-
actance of the unknown impedance and is best
V.
Fie. 44.- Thomas' Fio. 45.- Schering bridge.
method.
adapted to the measurement of impedances having dissipation factors
greater than unity. For small dissipation factors the shunting effect of
the parallel resistances is such as to reduce markedly the sensitivity of the
bridge balance. One terminal of each impedance is grounded.
The resistance balance may also be made by adding suitable reactances to
the ratio arms. Rosa in 1907 suggested the use of series inductance, while
Thomas in 1914 used parallel capacitance, as shown in Fig. 44. The balance
equations are
Cu = ÁCe (approz). and U = -A S + A(Ce (32)
Cu/
whence
Du - Da + QA - Qe
Schering in 1920 used a parallel capacitance across one ratio arm in a high -
voltage bridge connected as shown in Fig. 45. The generator was connected
from the junction of the resistance arms to the junction of the capacitance
arms, both to minimize the power losses in the ratio arms and to keep con-
stant the voltage applied to the unknown condenser. The junction of the
resistance arms was grounded in order to keep the ratio arms and the detector
at a low voltage with respect to ground.
Any bridge, in which the resistive balance is made by adding capacitance
across a ratio arm, is now called a Schering bridge regardless of the position of
the ground or the generator connections. If the junction of the capacitance
arms is grounded, it is called an inverted Schering bridge. When the generator
is connected across the ratio arms, it is called a conjugate Schering bridge.
46. Direct Capacitance. Any capacitance having terminal capaci-
tances to a surrounding shield or to ground may be represented as a
three -terminal capacitance, as shown in Fig. 46. The capacitance CD
between the terminals 1 and 2 is called the direct capacitance. The
total capacitance between these terminals is the sum of the direct capaci-
tance CD, and the two terminal capacitances Cri and Cri in series. The
direct capacitance may be measured on a bridge by connecting the shield
to either of the junction points of the bridge, to which the direct capaci-
tance is not connected. These two connections are shown in Fig. 47.
Sec. 7] ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 223
Errors due to placing the terminal capacitances across the bridge arms
greatly limit the usefulness of these connections. When the shield is
connected to the junction of the ratio arms, the terminal capacitance
Cr1 is placed across the arm A and produces an error Auer, in the deter-
mination of the dissipation factor of the direct capacitance CD. The
terminal capacitance C72 and any capacitance of the shield to ground are
placed across the detector T. When the shield is connected to the junc-
tion of the arms B and S, the terminal capacitance C72 is placed across the
impedance arm S and produces an error in the determination of the direct
capacitance Co unless the standard capacitance Cs is very large compared
to C72. Any capacitance of the shield to ground is also placed across Cs.
while the terminal capacitance Cr, is placed
across the generator E. If the direct capaci-
tance CD is not surrounded by a shield, the
terminal capacitances Cr, and Cr: are to
ground, and neither of these methods is
applicable.
J
Fro. 48.- Three- terminal capacitance. 1 io.47.- Measurement of
direct capacitance.
Fia. 48.- Schering bridge with guard circuit.

47. Guard Circuit. The use of a guard circuit enables both direct
capacitance and its dissipation factor to be measured correctly, because
the terminal capacitances are not connected across any of the bridge
arms. A Schering bridge with guard circuit and shielded output trans-
former is shown in Fig. 48. The terminal capacitance Cri is placed
across the guard capacitance CH, while the other terminal capacitance
C72 couples the guard circuit to the junction of the bridge arms A and CD.
The standard condenser Cs is also a three-terminal condenser. The
advantages of this construction are that all losses in the insulating sup-
ports can be carried to the guard circuit and that no capacitance will be
added across ratio arm B. The guard capacitance of this condenser is
thús placed across guard capacitance CH. Frequently this capacitance
and the capacitance Cr1 make up CH entirely, and it becomes unnecessary

to provide an extra high- voltage condenser. The transformer has the
third shield mentioned m Art. 43; consequently no ground capacitances
are placed across the ratio arms. Instead the capacitance between the
third shield and the bridge winding shield couples the guard circuit to the
junction of the bridge arms B and S.
Because of the existence of the capacitances coupling the guard circuit
to the bridge, the conditions of balance of the bridge involve the balancing
of the guard circuit.
ZA ZB Zr
(33)
Zu = Zs = ZB
This is done by disconnecting one terminal of the output transformer from
the bridge by means of switch K and transferring it to the guard circuit.
The new bridge circuit formed by the arms B, S, F, H is then balanced
to satisfy the right half of Eq. (33), by adjusting the guard circuit. Suc-
cessive balances of bridge and guard
circuits must be made until both parts
of Eq. (33) are satisfied. The accuracy
with which the guard circuit must be
balanced in order that no appreciable
error is introduced into the bridge bal-
ance depends both upon the magnitude
of the coupling capacitances between
the guard circuit and the bridge and
also upon the degree with which they
bear the same ratio to each other as
the capacitances Cs and CD. The cir-
cuit formed by these coupling capaci-
tances is called the coupling circuit.
T Its relation to the guard circuit is shown
Fia. 49.-Schering bridge with in Fig. 49. By definition the guard
guard circuit and coupling circuit. circuit is that circuit which is connected
across the generator, while the coupling
circuit is connected across the detector. Either circuit can therefore be
composed of similar or dissimilar elements. The circuit devised by Wag-
ner in 1911 for the saine purpose and called a Wagner ground was always
composed of similar elements and connected across the ratio arms, where
the generator was also connected. By the above definition it was a guard
circuit.
Balsbaugh' has shown that for the network of Fig. 49 the conditions
of balance are either those given in Eq. (33) or those given in Eq. (34).
ZA Zi; Zv
(34)
ZB Zs ZW
If either the guard circuit or the coupling circuit is partially balanced,
the other circuit need he only partially balanced in order to introduce no
appreciable error in the bridge balance. Balance of both circuits may
be conveniently made without disconnecting either generator or detector
by connecting their junction G to those corners of the bridge which place
the guard or coupling circuit in parallel with similar elements of com-
BALSBAUQH and HERZENBERO, Jour. Franklin IBNI., 218, No. 1. 49 -97.
parable impedance. Ground may be placed at any corner of the bridge
or at the junction G of guard and coupling circuits. This latter point is
best in many respects because it simplifies the mechanical construction of
the bridge and avoids the need of any insulated shields. All elements
used in the bridge must, however, he three-terminal impedances.
Grounding the point G also simplifies the construction of the three-
terminal measuring cell by making it unnecessary to provide an insulated
shield inside the outer grounded case.
U
Fie. 50.-Maxwell lridge. Fin. 51. -Owen bridge.
48. Comparison of Inductances and Capacitances. An inductance
and a capacitance may be compared directly by suitably placing them
in the four-impedance network. The connections for the Maxwell
bridge are shown in Fig. 50.
The balance equations are
Lu = ASC5 and U = BS (35)
whence
Qu = Qs
Losses in the condenser CB enter only into the resistance balance and may be
made negligible by suitable choice of resistance A. The resistance and react-
ance balances are not independent unless condenser CB is continuously
variable or resistance is added in series with the unknown inductor.
In the Owen bridge an inductance is compared with a capacitance in the
manner shown in Fig. 51.
Lu = ASCe and U =aS (311)
whence
Qu = QA
The resistance balance is made either by having condenser CA continuously
variable or by adding resistance in series with the unknown inductor.
The Hay bridge may be considered the complement of the Maxwell bridge
with the resistance and capacitance in the B arm connected in series instead
of in parallel. On this account, however, it is not independent of frequency.
The connections are shown in Fig. 52. The conditions of balance are
ASCa ABS,'Ca2
Lu = 1
+ Bt02C,° and U - 1 + B =w=Ce= 37)
whence
1
Qu - Ds
When Qu is greater than 10, the error in the expression for Lu caused by neg-
lecting the frequency term in the denominator is less than 1 per cent. The
two bridge balances are not independent unless the condenser Cs is con-
tinuously variable or resistance is added in series with the unknown conductor.
U
C
C S
Fio. 52. -Hay bridge. Flo. 53.- Resonance Fla. 54. -Wien
bridge. bridge.
49. The resonance bridge shown in Fig. 53 is the simplest bridge
in which inductance, capacitance, and frequency enter. At balance
the arm containing the reactances is resonated to the applied frequency
and becomes a pure resistance. The bridge is then an all -resistance
equal -arm bridge. For this reason it may be used at high frequencies
to measure the resistance and inductance of a reactor.
1 A
and U = BS (38)
LuCcr
This bridge is frequently used to measure frequency, usuallybe invaried the a-f
range. A variable inductor is used, and the condenser may in
steps. A range from 200 cycles to 4 kc may be covered in three ranges. The
frequency scale is irregular, owing to the characteristics of variable inductors,
Owing
and the various ranges cannot be made multiples of one another. is con-
to the large stray field of the variable inductor, its magnetic pickup
siderable. A resistance balance must be provided to allow for the variation
of the resistance of the tuned arm with frequency.
It is equally possible in the resonance bridge to place the unknown inductor
and condenser in parallel. Equation (38) still holds except that U will be the
equivalent series resistance of the parallel circuit.
50. Wien Bridge. Capacitances may be measured in terms of resist-
ance and frequency with the Wien bridge, shown in Fig. 54. The balance
equations expressed in their simplest form are
= I
and
Cu B S
- - (39)
"2 USCuCs Cs Ú
Solving for the two capacitances,
A
C°
=
BAU2Sw2
and Cs' - (BU AS)Sw (40)
See. Tl ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 227
The bridge is valuable because the standards of frequency and resistance

are known to a greater accuracy than the standard of capacitance.
Ferguson and Bartlett' have developed this method to its greatest pre-
cision. Their estimated accuracy for the determination of capacitance
by this method is 0.003 per cent.
The Wien bridge also furnishes a very convenient means for measuring
frequency in the a-f range. The two capacitances are made equal, while
the two ratio arms are made such that B is twice A.
The two resistances U and S are made variable over
a suitable range but are also kept equal. Thus the
resistance balance is always satisfied and the react-
ance balance reduces to
f 1
2,r UCu
(41)
41
In a commercial frequency meter the resistances U

and S are wound on tapered cards so shaped that
the frequency scale is logarithmic. This gives a
constant fractional accuracy of reading. There u
are three frequency ranges, obtained from three Flo. 55.-Anderson
different pairs of condensers, each covering a range bridge.
of 10 to 1 in frequency. The same calibration
serves for all ranges. The frequency limits attained are 20 cycles and 20
kc.
51. Six-impedance Network. The six -impedance network was devel-
oped by Anderson to provide a modification of the Maxwell bridge which
would render the two balance conditions independent even with a fixed
capacitance. The connections are shown in Fig. 55.
The general balance condition for the six- impedance
network is
ZQ(ZaZu - ZAZA) = ZPIZP(ZA 1
T Z8) + ZAZaI (42)
2:S T
Fia. 56.- Felici
For the Anderson bridge this reduces to
Lu = SCQ[P(1 + B> + A] and U = BS (43)
mutual-inductance The effect of losses in the condenser Ce is usually small.

balance.
62. Mutual- inductance Balances. Two mutual
inductances may be compared by means of the Felici mutual- inductance
balance shown in Fig. 56. The known mutual inductance must be variable.
For the usual condition of balance, zero voltage across the null detector,
the two mutual inductances are equal.
Mu = A1s (44)
They must he so connected that their induced secondary voltages are in
opposition. Mutual inductance between them should he avoided.
53. Four -impedance Network with Mutual Inductances. A mutual
inductance may be compared with a self-inductance on a four -impedance
bridge by placing it between one arm and either an input or output lead
of the bridge, as shown in Fig. 57.
FERGUSON and BARTI.ETT, Bell System Tech. Jour., 7. No. 3, 420 -437.
The general balance equation for this network is

ZAZO - -
ZiZu jWAl(ZA + Zs) = 0 (45)
For Campbell's arrangement of this bridge the two conditions of balance
become
Lu = BLs - (1 + 3M) and U = BS (46)
Fla. 57.- Comparison of mutual Fla. 58. -Carey Foster mutual-

with self- inductance. inductance bridge.
A substitution method is usually adopted so that the inductance and resist-
ance of that portion of the mutual inductance connected in the S arm need
not be known. When the ratio arms are equal, the extra balancing induct-
ance represented by Lu of Fig. 57 may be eliminated by providing a center
tap in one branch of the mutual inductance. This connection is usually
referred to as the Heaviside equal -arm
g p Ip bridge.
A mutual inductance may be compared
with a capacitance by means of the Carey
Foster bridge, shown in Fig. 58. The con-
ditions of balance are
Fta. 59.-Parallel T network.

Cu = AS and U = S( 11 - 1) (47)
The impedance of the B arm is made zero in order to make the balance
independent of frequency. The method suffers because the resistance and
self- inductance of the mutual inductance enter into the expressions for the
unknown capacitance and its resistance, respectively. Capacitance between
the two windings of the mutual inductance causes the voltage induced in its
secondary to have a phase angle with reference to the primary current differ-
ent from 90 deg. This reduces the calculated resistance of the condenser
and frequently yields negative values, especially for large mica condensers.
The method is perhaps better suited for the measurement of a mutual induc-
tance in terms of a known condenser.
T NETWORKS
54. 'Two or more T networks connected in parallel provide a method of
null balance which in many respects is equivalent to an a-c bridge circuit.'
The connections for two T networks are shown in Fig. 59. The most
important feature of the network is that generator and detector have a
common terminal, which can he grounded. Hence no shielded trans-
+Torras, W. N., Proc. I.R.E., !a, No. 1, 23 -29.
former is necessary. This is a considerable convenience at low fre-

quencies and makes it possible to use the network at high frequencies
up to at least 30 Mc.
The condition for a null deflection of the detector is that the currents
in the output circuits of the two networks shall be equal and opposite.
IP + IN = 0 (48)
These currents are best evaluated by considering the transfer impedances,
which are defined as the ratios of the input voltage to the output current.
Z =
E = ZA + ZN + ZZPN
AZ
ZTN = /N -r
+ZZNP (49)
Hence
ZA+ZN+ZrJPNZBZP+ P a 0 (50)
ZH
W2L 2
1
R
RT
Ru,2C2
XT-24,L X7' =-- 2
CB Cp Cs Cp
Flo. 60. -T
network having nega-
tive transfer resistance.
Fia. 61. -Par-
allel T network
F a . 6 2 . --
1
Bridged T net -
equivalent to work.
Wien bridge.
Under somewhat restricted conditions this equation can be satisfied
because the impedances are complex quantities. While any of the terms
of Eq. (50) can contain negative reactances, only the product terms can
have a negative resistance. The only two T networks having a negative
resistance component of transfer impedance are shown in Fig. 60. One
of these networks or a modification must be used in every parallel T net-
work which can be balanced.
56. Parallel T Networks. The parallel T network shown in Fig. 61 is
equivalent to the Wien bridge' and has similar balance equations.
CB + Cp CB + CI. 1 AN
cos = and (51)
ANCBCPCF CF = II A + N
When both of the T networks are made symmetrical and when in addition
Cr is made twice CB and A is made twice H, the resistance balance is
always satisfied and the reactance balance reduces to
1
1 (52)
2,rA CB
which is identical in form with Eq. (41).
I See Art. 50.
66. Bridged T Networks. When the shunt arm of one of the T net-
works is made infinite, the circuit is called a bridged T network. The
circuit shown in Fig. 62 is very convenient for measuring an inductance in
terms of capacitance, resistance, and frequency. It is equivalent to the
resonance bridge (Art. 49). The balance equations are
2
LA = and A =
HOC B2 (53)
ao'CB
whence
QA = 2HwCB.
At balance the full generator voltage appears across the inductance.
When the junction of generator and detector is grounded, the terminal
capacitances of the inductor are placed across generator and detector, and
the direct impedance of the inductor is measured.
References
BOLTON, E. P.: "Electrical Measuring Instruments," E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New
York, 1923.
Baowx, H. A.: "Radio-frequency Electrical Measurements," 2d ed., McGraw -Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1938.
Cambridge Instrument Company, Catalogue.
General Radio Company, Catalogue.
HAOIIS, B.: "Alternating-current Bridge Methods," 4th ed., Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons,
Ltd., London.
HOED, A.: "High- frequency Measurements," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1933.
JANSCT, C. M.: "Electrical Meters," McGraw-Hill Book Company. Inc., New York.
KENNELLY, A. E.: "Electrical Vibration Instruments," The Macmillan Company.
New York.
Laws, F. A.: "Electrical Measurements," 2d ed., McGraw -Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1938.
Leeds & Northrup Company, Catalogue.
MOULLIN, E. B.: " Radio Frequency Measurements," 3d ed., Charles Griffin & Company,
Ltd., London.
STARLING, S. G.: "Electricity and Magnetism," Longman!, Green & Company, London,
1924.
TERMAN, F. E.: "Measurements in Radio Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1935.
Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation, Catalogue.
SECTION 8
VACUUM TUBES
BY J. M. STINCHFIELD, B.S.,
1. Electrons. The electron is a negatively charged particle of electric-
ity. In 1897 J. J. Thomson discovered that the cathode rays passing from
the cathode to the anode in a gaseous discharge, were moving, negatively
charged, particles. He measured the ratio of the charge e to the mass m
of these particles and termed them corpuscles. Thomson's corpuscles
are now commonly known as electrons. The cathode rays or streams of
electrons are deflected by either magnetic or electrostatic fields. They
exert mechanical force sufficient to turn a vane in a vacuum or to heat the
object they strike.
2. Electrons in an Electrostatic Field. An electrostatic field exerts a
force upon an electron. If the field intensity is X and the charge on the
electron e, the force f acting on the electron is
f = Xe (1)
If the mass of the electron is m, the acceleration a will be
Xe
a m (2)
The force and acceleration on the electron will change if the field
intensity changes. The force is in the direction of the field at the point
considered, the electron tending to move toward the positive.
In a uniform field the work W done on an electron in moving between
two points distance a apart will be
=fa
W ea (3)
Since X8 is also the potential difference between the two points, calling
this potential difference V, the work done on the electron is
W = Ve
If the field is not uniform the line integral of the force and distance
regardless of the path between the two points will give the work done.
The work done on a unit charge moved between two points defines the
potential difference between the two points. The work done on an
electron moved between two points of potential difference V will be
W = Ve (4)
Engineering Department, RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., Radiotron Division.
231
232 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [see. !
If the velocity of an electron is changed by an amount y in passing
between two points, the change in kinetic energy will be
my'
2 (5)
The change in potential energy or work done in passing between the
two points will be
Ve
The change in kinetic energy is equal to the change in potential
energy, and
Ve =
2 (6)
The velocity acquired by an electron in passing between two points

of potential difference V is
2Vie
v = (7)
tr
The potential V is in absolute e.s.u. in the relations above. The
potential difference in volts divided by 300 is the potential difference in
absolute e.s.u.
The ratio of the charge e to the mass m of the electron is
e 4.774 X 10 -10
5.305 X 1017 e.s.u. per gm
m 8.999 X 10 -se =
The electron velocities corresponding to various potential differences are
shown in the table. When the velocity becomes greater than about
one -tenth the velocity of light, the apparent mass of the electron increases
enough to cause a small error. The error in using Eq. (7) is less than
one -half of 1 per cent for potential differences less than 300 volts.
Velocity, Centimeters
Volts per Second
1 0.00595 X 10,0
5 0.0133
10 0.0188
20 0.0266
30 0.0326
40 0.0376
50 0.0421
60 0.0461
70 0.0498
80 0.0532
90 0.0564
100 0.0595
200 0.0841
300 0.103
400 0.119
500 0.133
1.300 0.188
Sec. 81 VACUUM TUBES 233
Velocity, Centimeters
Volte per Second
10,000 0.586 X 10,,
100,000 1.64
1,000,000 2.82
3. Electrons in an Electromagnetic Field. An electron moving with a
velocity y in an electromagnetic field of intensity H is acted on by a force
f =Hev (8)
The direction of the force is at right angles to both the direction of the
field H and the direction of motion of the electron.
The force f is effective in producing an acceleration:
a = m
Hev
(9)
The acceleration is at right angles to the direction of motion. If the
electron moves unimpeded and the field H uniform, the path will be
circular and of radius
_5_=mv
r a eH (10)
4. Current Due to a Stream of Electrons. A current i is define? by
the quantity of electricity q flowing per unit of time. If there ale n
electrons per unit of volume in a certain space, the quantity of electricity
q in this space is ne per unit of volume. If these electrons are moved with
a velocity y, the quantity flowing per unit of time is the current
i = nev (11)
This is the current per unit of area at right angles to the direction of
flow.
6. Space Charge Due to a Cloud of Electrons. If in a given space
there are n electrons per unit of volume, the volume density of electrifica-
tion is
P = ne (12)
The potential distribution in the given space due to the electrons is
given by
a=V a=V a=V
ex= + áy= + áz= _ -4,rP (13)
For the case of large parallel plates, only the distance
need be considered. Equation (13) simplifies to
r between plates
a =V
ax=
-4,rp (14)
If a current i is flowing and the electrons move with uniform velocity v
the space charge or volume density of electrification is
P =G) (15)
8. Emission of Electrons. Certain internal forces existing at the
surfaces of substances prevent the escape of the free electrons unless a
certain amount of energy is supplied to the surface. In the usual type

of radio tube, the electron -emitting filament material is supplied with
the heat energy of an electrical current sufficient to cause the desired
electron emission. Emission excited by heat energy is known as therm-
ionic emission.
Electron emission may be produced by electrons impinging upon
substances with sufficient velocity. For example the electrons emitted
by the hot filament of a radio tube may be accelerated toward the plate
by a positive voltage. If a great enough velocity is reached each electron
will have sufficient energy to release one or more electrons from the plate.
This is known as secondary emission.
The energy supplied by light is sufficient to cause emission from some
substances. This is the type of emission employed in photoelectric cells
and is known as photoelectric emission.
Strong electric fields acting on gases or vapors may cause the gas
particles to collide with sufficient energy to release electrons from the gas.
This process is known as ionization. In this ease both the electron and
the remaining positively charged gas ion are mobile, so that the electron
moves toward the positive and the gas ion toward the negative electrodes
from which the field originates.
7. Thermionic Emission. The emission of electrons from metals
heated to a certain temperature is a characteristic property of the metal.
From consideration of thermodynamics and the kinetic theory of gases
Richardson obtained an equation for thermionic emission.
b,
T
I. = .1 iT;'e (16)
where I. = emission current in amperes per square centimeter
A, = a constant for the emitting substance
T = absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin
= base of Napierian logarithms
h, = a constant depending upon the nature of the emitting surface
A similar equation giving equivalent results was derived by Dushman:
b2
Intercept IoggA2 - q
I. = .42T2. (171
Jj
where I. = electron emission in amperes per
?
6 square centimeter
T = absolute temperature of the
emitter in degrees Kelvin (C +
273)
2= base of Napierian logarithms
(2.718)
`TI b2- a constant for the material
Flu. 1.- Determination of con- The constants :12 and bs of Eq. (17) can
stants in emission equation. be determined for a given material in the
following manner:
[log, I.
log, [I.] = log.
- 2 log, T] = [log.
A2T2.
A2 -
]
b2
TJ
Sec. sl VACUUM TUBES 235
Readings of the emission current.from the substance at different tempera-
tures are obtained. Values of [log I. -2
loge Tl are plotted against [1 /TI.
The result should be a straight line. The intercept of this line with the ver-
tical axis gives the value of loge A:, the slope gives the value of ( -b :).
Equations (16) and (17) are experimentally indistinguishable within the
usual range of temperatures. When the constants are known for Eq. (16)
the constants for Eq. (17) may be calculated from the following approximate
relations.
b:=rbi -1.5T'+T:l (18)
LL 2 J
A: = [0.223A1T-,1 (19)
For Non-homogeneous Emitters. For thoriated tungsten and oxide -
coated emitters the emission constants depend to a considerable extent
on the processing as well as on the materials. The curves below show
typical data relative to pure metallic emitters.'
1.6 10,000
5000
IMI1II/I11m11 1
2000 1 111Í11 111
E 1500
In
NMI
100
EMU AV
8 50
MI1AMrA1
20 Ef111ZIGU ' 11111?
a ME11111111'11'I
I
',11111111
0.8 E 15
111/I191G dill ' I
2 I/111IIdl, AMIN
M1Vn1r,r11 AIM n
0.6 1
0.5
I111'/11/ eÍ11111 III
Q2 1/I,IIV//11/11111 1111
OA
74. 0.1 '/'Ig1G111 Vd1111111I1111
d doo;o - -- 4'.ae..
0.2 o 2^ ó
-4 -8 °qS
1
-12 -16 -20 -24

loge ( //T2) Watts per Sq.Cm.
Fia. la. Fia. lb.
la.-Emission
(A.I.E.E. reprint.)
that from pure metals.
of coated filament compared to
Fia. lb.- Emission from coated filament vs. power input. A to D repre-
sent different examples from several sources. (" A Science Series for Engi-
neers," A.I.E.E. reprint.)
A filament coated with a mixture of the oxides of barium and strontium
on a core of 95 per cent platinum and 5 per cent nickel has the following
characteristics:
Electrical Resistivity of the Core.
= 0.000022(1 + 0.002081 -
0.000,000,4612) ohm cm
= temperature in degrees centigrade
Thermal Emissivity (Ratio to Black Body).
= [0.4 + 0.0002571
where T = degrees Kelvin lies between 800° and 1200 °K.
DUSHMAN, SAUL, "A Science Series for Engineers," .a.1.E.E., reprint.
The electron emission in zero field is given by the equation

11,600
T
1. = 0.01 Tse
When. T - degrees Kelvin
I. = emission current in amperes per square centimeter
For an anode potential of 150 volts and a current limited by space charge to
0.010 amp. per square centimeter the average life is
2.2,000
T
= 0.000015E hr.
The following values are those most probable when the anode potential equals
150 volts and the electric field is zero:
T Life
900 20 2.3 0.02 730.000

950 45 3.0 0.045 170,000
1,000 90 3.7 0.09 55,000
1,050 170 4.6 0.17 20,000

1,100 310 5.6 0.31 7,400
7' = temperature in degrees Kelvin

1. = emission current in milliamperes per square centimeter
pr = power thermally radiated in watts per square centimeter
p. = power absorbed by electron emission in watts per square centimeter
Life = most probable average life in hours
8. Contact Potential. The rate of emission of electrons from different
substances and the contact differences of potential are closely related.
The contact potential depends only upon the materials of the electrodes
and their temperature, but not upon size, shape, or position of the
electrodes.
For example, an electron in escaping from the inner to the outer sur-
face of substance A will do work equal to WA so that its potential is
changed to VA. Similarly the work for an electron to escape from the
surface B is WB and the potential change VB. Hence in moving an
electron from substance A across a space to substance B the work done
will be
[WA + (VA -
Vale Ws] - (20)
This is the algebraic summation of the work done and would be equal
to zero, except for the work done at the junction of the two substances
in the rrturn connection. This later potential difference is known as
the Peltier effect and is negligible in comparison with the other effects
WA = 4)Ae (21)
WB = One (22)
(VA --
VB)e = WB WA --= (Os 4)A)e - (23)
(VA VB) = (4)8 4)A) (24)
(VA -
VB) is called the contact potential difference between the two
substances, and by Eq. (24) it is equal to the difference in the work
function, or electron affinity of the two substances.
9. Work Function. When a quantity of electricity qq is moved through
a potential difference V the work done equals qV. Work must be done
when an electron is removed from a surface. If the work done per
electron is W,, the electron charge e, and the potential difference is
required to supply an amount of energy equal to W,, then,
W, = 4,e (25)
W, kob
= =
e
= (8.62 X 10 -6b) volts (26)
e
4) is called the electron affinity of the substance and is equal to the work
function (Wile). The smaller the quantity 4, the easier it will be for an
electron to escape from the cathode. A low value of ò indicates a large
electron emission for a given temperature.
The following table gives the electron affinity or work function of
several substances expressed in volts:
Substance
Tungsten 4.52
Platinum 4.4
Tantalum 4.3
Molybdenum 4.3
Carbon 4.1
Silver 4.1
Copper 4.0
Bismuth 3.7
Tin 3.8
Iron 3.7
Zinc 3.4
Thorium 3.4
Aluminum 3.0
Magnesium 2.7
Nickel 2.8
Titanium 2.4
Lithium 2.35
Sodium 1.82
Mercury 4.4
Calcium 3.4
10. Filament Calculations. The dimensions of filaments designed
to operate at a given voltage and temperature, and to furnish a certain
total emission current are related to the physical properties of the
material.
Suppose that the required total emission current is Is ma. From the
power- emission chart for the type of filament material being used, find
I. the emission current in milliamperes per square centimeter for a given
power input p watts per square centimeter corresponding to good life
performance, or to temperature T.
The total surface area of the required filament: A = (Ie /I.).
The total power input to the filament: pA = E ¡I/ = P1 watts.
At a voltage E/ the filament current If _ (pit/ E/).
Filament resistance at the operating temperature: R1 = (E1 /11).
The resistance of n 4-]
circular filament: R = [9 2
where A = area of the filament surface

r = radius of the filament
p = specific resistance of the filament material. p must be known as
a function of the temperature.
The resistance of a rectangular filament is given by
A
R p2S,St(S1 + St)
where A = area of the filament surface
SI = thickness of the filament
S2 = width of the filament
p = specific resistance of the filament material at temperature T
11. Filament -current Filament- radius Relation. For a given type of
filament material operating at a specified temperature and filament voltage.
the radius or filament cross section is uniquely related to the filament current.
For a circular filament: II = ((2p /p)' *r31
For a rectangular filament: II = (2p/p) [S1St(S1 + SO)Is`.
For a square filament: I = (2P/ P) 2 % S,k
12. Filament -voltage Filament- dimensions for a Constant Temperature.
For a given filament material to be operated at a given temperature, the fila-
ment voltage is related to the filament length and sectional dimensions as
follows:
l
Circular filament: El = (2pp);``r34
Rectangular filament: E = (2pp) 3h(1

I.)" l
SI + 7,
13. Lead -loss Correction. The cooling effect of the leads connected
to a filament decreases the emission from the parts near the junction.
The voltage drop in these parts of the filament is also less.
Langmuir and Dushman give the following correction formulas for a
V-shaped filament cooled by large leads. The decrease in voltage due
to the cooling effect of the two end leads is
OV = 0.00026(T -
400) volts
T = degrees Kelvin of the central portion of the filament.
The correction for the effect on the electron emission is given in terms
of the voltage of a length of uncooled filament which would give the same
effect as the decrease caused by the cooling of the leads. The correction
for the two leads is AV II = 2(0.00017TO -
0.05) volts. cp is a number
which depends upon the temperature coefficient of the quantity H,
which may represent any property of the metal, such as candlepower,
electron emissivity, etc. For the case of electron emission the exponent
bo
of the temperature coefficient is N = (2 + -T
Dushman's coefficient for the material bo and the temperature T in
degrees Kelvin being known, N is calculated.
N 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.5 5.0 10. 20. 30. 50.
0.48 0.85 1.23 1.44 1.72 2.10 2.47 2.89 2.95
N is related to ß as shown by the data above which may be plotted as a
curve. Knowing 4 the correction AVM is determined.
See. SI VACUUM TURKS 239
The electron emission per unit area after taking into account the lead -
loss correction is
I =(SI)
where i = observed total emission from any given filament
S = total filament area
The correction factor f is given by
I- + oV
L V +VAV - oVR J
Dushman gives curves of AV and AVH plotted against temperature for
different values of bo.
V F A
corresponds to the corrected voltage drop along the filament.
14. Effect of Space Charge. The equations of Richardson and
Dushman for thermionic emission give the total electron current, with
7
U
0
c
Cathode Temperature, T Anode Voltage, ti

Flo. 2.- Space- charge ef-
feet in limiting emission.
Fia. 3.- Saturation at constant
temperatures.
zero field strength at the surface of the cathode. If the electrons are
allowed to accumulate just outside the surface they form a negative
cloud. If the electrons are drawn to a positive electrode both the nega-
tive cloud and to a less degree the cathode
surface fields are changed.
Langmuir found that if the voltage applied
to the anode was not sufficiently high a
temperature increase of the cathode did not v
increase the current indefinitely. This effect o
is shown in Fig. 2. It is due to the repelling
effect of the negative cloud of electrons e cel
surrounding the cathode and is known as the
space-charge effect, or volume density of
electrification. Figure 3 shows this effect with
constant -cathode temperatures and variable- x
anode voltage. D i s t o nc e
The theory of these effects is as follows: The Fia. 4.- Distribution of

distribution of the potential between two large potential in cathode -plate
parallel plates is directly proportional to the apace.
distance starting from the low and increasing to the high potential plate.
If plate A emits low- velocity electrons (assumed zero) spontaneously,
and if plate B is positive with respect to A, electrons will be drawn over
240 TilK RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. t
to B. Starting with a low temperature T, the distribution of potential
between A and B will be uniform as shown by the straight line l in Fig.
4. Increasing the temperature of A will cause an electron current of I
amp. per square centimeter to flow to B. I.á lace's equation connecting
V aá; -
the potential distribution with the volume density of electrification p is
sx + az
For large parallel planes Eq. (27) may be simplified to
= -4rp (27)
d2V
dx_ = -471.p (28)
If p is constant and negative, the potential distribution will be a parabolic

curve as shown by curve 2 in Fig. 4. A further increase in the tempera-
ture of A will cause the parabola to take the form of curve 3 having a
horizontal tangent at A. In this case the potential gradient at the cath-
ode is zero (dV /dx = 0), and a further increase of temperature will not
increase the electron current to B. This accounts for the effect shown
in Fig. 2.
In the above discussion the electrons were assumed to he emitted with
no initial velocity. Usually small initial velocities exist, so that a
slightly negative gradient is necessary at A in order to prevent an increase
in current. Curve 4 of Fig. 4 shows the effect of the initial velocities
of emission on the potential distribution at the temperature for which a
further increase in temperature will not increase the anode current.
15. Schottky Effect. Richardson's and Dushman's equations for the
thermionic emission from a substance at a given temperature assumes
that the electric field strength is zero at the cathode. In actual practice a
definite potential is used. This effect of the potential gradient at the
cathode on the observed emission current is called the .Schottky effect.
Dushman gives the correction for the Schottky effect as follows:
I. = electron emission in zero field
I. = observed emission at an anode voltage V
Then
I = Ioa
4.39.
T
k
where k = a constant whose value depends upon the relative geometrical
arrangement of anode and cathode
T = temperature in degrees Kelvin
e = base of Napierian logarithms.
16. Electron Current between Parallel Plates. When the cathode

is a large flat surface A and the plate, or anode, B is a parallel surface,
the plate current per square centimeter of surface not too near the edges
of the plates is given by the equation
i = 2.34 X 10-
z
Vii
where i = maximum current density in amperes per square centimeter

(29)
x = distance between plates in centimeters

V = potential difference between A and B in volts
Sec. SI VACUUM TUBES 241
This equation assumes that the initial velocities of the electrons leaving
A are zero. If the potential of B is large relative to one or two volts,
the initial velocities of the electrons can be neglected.
Equation (29) assumes that the anode potential is positive with respect
to A so that some current is flowing but that the anode potential is below
A
Cathode";
s7
Cathode -. B Anodt
1111411 © Ill +
Fio. 5.- Electron Fia. 6.- Cylindrical
current between par- structure.
allel plates.
the value necessary to give the full current emitted at A. When the
anode potential is great enough to draw over all of the electrons emitted
at A, the current (saturation current) I, is given by the Richardson -
Dushman equation.
17. Electron Current between Concentric Cylinders.
centric cylinders A and B (Fig. 6) having radii of a and r cmGiven two con-
and of infinite
length. Langmuir's equation for the electron current to the plate B is
given by the relation
179
i = 14.7 X 10-6----
r
where i = current in amperes per centimer length
V = potential between A and B in volts
r = radius of the anode in centimeters
a = radius of the cathode in centimeters
ß = a factor which varies with the ratio of (r /a)
r/a ß+ r/a p:
1.00 0.000 20 1.072

2.00 0.279 .50 1.094
3.00 0.517 100 1.078
4.00 0.667 200
5.00 1.056
0.767 500 1.031
10.00 0.978 1,000 1.017
1.000
When the inner cylinder is a small wire of less than one -tenth the diamete-
3f the plate, the error is small if ß is neglected, and the
equation is
approximate
i= [14.7X10 -6
L r J
18. Electron Current with Any Shape Electrodes. Langmuir has
iemoustrated that under the assumption on which the above equations
242 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. s
were derived the current will vary as the three-halves power of the poten-
tial difference V regardless of the shape of the electrodes. The deriva-
tion of the equations neglects the initial velocities of the electrons and
the potential gradient at the cathode.
19. Two -electrode Vacuum Tubes. The three-halves power equa-
tion for the plate current of a two-electrode tube is quite accurate when
the voltage between cathode and plate is large with respect to the effects
of (1) initial velocities of emission; (2) voltage drop in the filament or
cathode; (3) contact potential between cathode and plate and the
emission of electrons from the cathode is large and the plate voltage
well below the value for saturation current. The electrodes are assumed
to be in good vacuum, so that the effects of gas are negligible.
In the case of thoriated -tungsten or oxide-coated filaments only a
fraction of the total cathode surface is active so that the saturation
current may be reached at a plate voltage below the theoretical.
The current is calculated from the formula
i = kV"
of tube
where k is the space -charge constant of the tube for a given type without
structure and depends only upon the geometrical configuration
regard to the dimensions of the tube. The value of k for infinite parallel
plates is (2.34 X 10-6A
where A = the area of t e plate in square centimeters
x = the distance from the cathode plate to the anode plate in centi-
meters
For concentric cylinders, k = (14.7 X 10 6 rß1
)
= length of the cylinders
Z
r = radius of the outer cylinder or anode

B = a function of (r /a) (see table on page
241)
20. Effect of Initial Velocities-Parallel Plates. If the effect of the initial
velocity of the electrons is included and they have a Maxwellian distribution,
i = 2.34 A
x.)2 (
V. -V.)1-6(1 + 0.0247 V. 1
where i = total plate current in amperes

A = area of one surface of the anode in square centimeters
T = temperature of the cathode in degrees Kelvin volts
V. = potential of the anode above that of the cathode
V. = minimum potential of the space between cathode and anode with
respect to the cathode
x. = distance from cathode to anode in centimeters
= distance from cathode to Vm in centimeters
xm
21. Effect of Magnetic Field. Initial velocities = 0. For coaxial cylinders,
i = kV.16,if V.> V'
i =0, ifV.<V'
k = same as above
V' = [0.0221H=r a +0.0188I2(l01p.rf)
ri
H = strength of magnetic field externally applied parallel to
axis of
cylindrical electrodes
I = current flowing through the inner cylindrical electrode parallel to it
axis
ro = radius of the outer electrode
= radius of the inner electrode
Sec. 8J VACUUM TUBES 243
22. Characteristics of Typical Commercial Diodes.
Type if E/ E. i., P. k
ThW 1.25 7.5 550 0.065 0.0075 1.2

ThW 3.25 10 1,500 0.20 0.050 1.7
ThW 3.85 11 2,500 0.25 0.250 1.1
PW 14.7 11 16,000 0.166 1.00 0.5
PW 24.5 22 17,500 0.833 5.00 1.0
PW 52 22 18,000 3.0 20.00 1.1
PW 10 10 20,000 0.10 0.10
PW 10 10 85,000 0.10 0.11
PW 32 9 75,000 0.25 0.25
PW 10 10 150,000 0.100 0.11
PW 32 12.5 150,000 0.25 0.11
ir, E1 = filament current, voltage (am ,eres and volts)

E. = maximu n effective u -c input voltage (volts)
i,. = maximum rectified tube current (amperes)
P. = nominal power rating (kilowatts)
Th%',, I'W = thoriated tungsten, and pure tungsten, filament
k = 0.0001 amp. per volt' -b
23. Effect of the Grid. When a wire mesh or similar electrode having
openings through which electrons may pass is placed between the cathode
and the plate, it exerts a large controlling effect on the flow of electrons to
the plate. The meshlike electrode between cathode and plate is termed a
grid.
19
27
Mutual Characteristic
Er75Y 6`Y
Bp= 9,20V.
ION UbUI11N WI
11 8 -4 0
Grid Voltage
Fta. 7.- Circuit
for Fta. 8.-Typical grid-
measuring static char- voltage plate-current char-
acteristics. acteristic.
When the grid is connected to a source of voltage, the electrons are
attracted if the grid is positive with respect to the cathode and repelled
if it is negative. The close proximity of the grid to the space charge
surrounding the cathode increases its effectiveness in controlling the
electron flow.
In most useful applications the tubes are operated with sufficient elec-
tron emission and with plate and grid voltages low enough so that the
space charge surrounding the cathode is ample to permit large momentary
increases in the electron flow to the plate.
The effect of a large positive plate voltage in drawing the electrons to
the plate can be reduced by a relatively small negative voltage applied
to the grid. The electrons being negative will avoid the negative grid
244 THE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDBOOK [See. e
so that no current will flow in the grid circuit. If the negative grid
4,Itil
voltage is not too large with respect to the plate voltage, electrons will
be drawn through the openings in the grid mesh to the positive plate.
The resulting plate current is controlled by the grid, although no cur-
rent flows in the grid circuit. Zero power in the grid circuit can thus
ö.I lE7l
control a considerable amount of power in the plate circuit. produce Voltage
variations of the grid
16 corresponding variations of the
plate current. The extent to
which the plate -current vari-
.g,II
g 12
i{ ations are faithful reproduc-
,IIII ti,/; 0
e I b tions of the grid-voltage
8 variations depends upon the
X
¡IIiII///',
.2 4 /IVA FAIN 'PAN ,
INCOPIí'_: 400 480 560

steady polarizing voltages (A,
B, and C voltages) applied to
the tube and the range of the
voltage variations.
0 80 160 240 320
Plate Vo is CHARACTERISTICS OF
Fie. 9. -Plate characteristics of typical THE THREE -ELEC-
triode tubes. TRODE TUBE
24. Static Characteristics.
The effects of various d -c voltages applied to the electrodes of a tube are
shown by curves called the static characteristics.
The mutual or transfer characteristic of the tube shows the effect of
the grid voltage upon the plate current. The term mutual or transfer
indicates that the voltage in one circuit controls the current in another
circuit.
90 a4
&
80 E
a
Type 27 60
ts
a3
Ef =2.sv i
Ep'90V
so
40
30 r.
f )0.2
0.1
20
ó0á =
-I 0
6 6 9
Grid Voltage 0 2 3 4 S 1
Healer Voltage
Fia. 10. -Grid- current grid - Fia. 11.-Filament characteristic of 6C6.
voltage characteristic.
The plate characteristic represents the relation between plate current

and plate voltage.
The grid characteristic shows the grid current-grid voltage relation.
Electron flow to the grid starts in the region of zero grid voltage. The
exact point at which grid current starts is determined by the initial
velocities of emission and the contact potential of the grid to cathode.
The net effect is equivalent to a small positive or negative bias usually
not greater than one volt.
Sec. 8l
current curve obtained with plate

and grid terminals disconnected is
termed the filament characteristic
11I11
Fia . 1 3 .
Measurement of
teristic.
-so
Illlllltllj
-
.
VACUUM TUBBS
The characteristic refers to the heater

U U UU.U.
tiu
The filament -voltage filament- 1111111M111111111=1111111111111111Mos
..........!iiiimM11111
ERSIIrnI
uuuu
filament when the tube is of the indi- o os w u m is 3a 35 44 45
rectly heated cathode type.
sion Characteristic. The normal
Fkment Vamp
25. Normal Emisson and Emis- Fia. 12.- Filament characteristics
of 106.
current types; or on certain oxide- coated filament

tubes. An emission check on all these types can be
245
In Fig. 10 the inherent bias in the tube is nearly 0.9 volt positive, so
that the grid must be biased negative by 0.9
zero grid voltage.
volt to secure an effective
emission current is ordinarily obtained as a single reading at rated filament

voltage. The circuit arrangement for this test is shown in Fig. 13. A
definite voltage (50 volts is commonly used) is applied between the
cathode and all other electrodes as the anode. A
switch is arranged in the circuit so that the voltage is
applied only long enough to obtain the emission -cur-
rent reading. This test should not be made at rated
filament voltages on large power tubes where the heat-
ing would be excessive; or on certain low-filament-
made by observing the filament voltage required to give

a certain small value of emission current (values of 3 or
5 ma are generally used).
The normal emission test, even though applied only
¡
emission charac- momentarily, usually causes some liberation of gas and
heating of the electrodes. Hence it is desirable to com-
plete other tests before this test is made or to allow
sufficient time after this test, operating with normal voltages,
up gas and to return the temperature to normal.
The emission characteristic shows the true (total)

emission current for a range of cathode heating &moi¡¡
power.
To avoid the effects of space charge, heating of =
e
grids and anode, liberation of gas, and such extrane- F
iii
iii=
¡i¡¡
to clear
When the effect of filament voltage on normal emission current is of
interest, readings, obtained as above but for different filament voltages,
are plotted as a curve.
n,
ous effects, the readings are taken only with low e
cathode -heating power, and the emission for normal 'a
heating power is obtained by extrapolation. A É
usual procedure is to read the cathode-heating w
- i¡ 4i:
.¡ =::V
¡
power for emission currents of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, Power, wo ffs
and 5.0 ma with 50 volts positive on the common
electrode connection with respect to the cathode. FIG. 14.- Emission
The data are plotted on a special coordinate paper curve.
devised by C. J. Davisson. If the emission follows Richardson's tem-
perature equation and the power is radiated according to the Stefan-
Boltzmann law of radiation, the curve appears as a straight line. The
extension of this straight line shows the emission current for normal or
3ther values of cathode- heating power.
If the curve of the experimental data plotted in Davisson coordinates

is
following
not a straight line, this may be caused by one or more of the
conditions: downward).
1. Departure from the Stefan -Boltzmann cooling (bends
2. Anode voltage too low to draw off all the electrons (bends downward).
of cooling of electrons
3. Effect of cooling due to heat of evaporation evaporation
(bends downward). The cooling due to electron amounts to
approximately 01, watts, where I. represents the emission current in amperes
and 4) represents the work function of the cathode in volts. This effect may
be considerable in transmitting tubes where the iscurrents are high, and in
tungsten -filament tubes where the work function large.
4. Poor vacuum (gas ionization effects) (bends upward).
5. Heating of the anode by the emission current (bends upward).
6. Progressive change in activity of the cathode.
A method for reading emission currents which is applicablerecurrently
in general
consists in the use of a commutator for applying the voltage
for only a small time interval. By means of an oscillograph the emission
current is read as the peak current during the interval the voltage is
applied. By this method the heating effects can be kept low.
CALCULATION OF THE SPACE CURRENT OF THE THREE -

ELECTRODE TUBE
26. The space current I of a three-electrode tube is equal to the sum
of the plate current I, and the grid current 1,; I = (I, + I,). The
three -electrode tube is calculated as an equivalent diode I = k(E, +
pE,)". The grid voltage E, is equivalent to a plate voltage µE,. µis
the amplification factor of the tube. -parallel
27. Plane -parallel Elements. For a structure with plane grids and
elements with the filament symmetrically placed between
plates: A
k =2.34X10- °X (a + ß)"[a + ß(Y + 1)13i
2wan
Y 1
loge 2rrn
I = 2.34 X10 ( +ß)5i[a
A E, +
+ß(Y
YE,
+1)]
3i
where I = total space current in amperes

a = distance from plate to grid in centimeters
ß = distance from grid to filament in centimetersof the structure
n = number of grid wires per centimeter length
r = radius of the grid wires
A = effective plate area.
28. Concentric Elements. For a structure with a

cylindrical anodt
and grid and a coaxial strand of filament,
LR,i
=14.7X10-°
k
[(R, - R.) + R.(Y + 1)1
45
2wnR,
_¡ 1 1 )J
R, R,
Y '
log. 2rrn
See. 81 VACUUM TUBES 247
I= 14.7X106LR, (R,- R,)(E,+µEa)

(R, -
RI) + (R, - R,)(.0 + 1)
If R./ is very much smaller than R, and
approximately
R
the equation can be written
I = 14.7 X 10-6LR,i (R, - R9) + R,(µ + 1) J

where L = length of the structure in centimeters
R, = radius of the filament in centimeters
R, = radius of the plate in centimeters
R, = radius of the grid in centimeters.
The above relations are useful in the design of the structures. The k
should be determined for the type of tube structure. The and the
current -voltage characteristics remain the same if all dimensions are
changed proportionately. The plate current equals the space current
when the grid current is zero.
29. Amplification Factor. The amplification factor is a measure of
the effectiveness of the grid voltage relative to that of the plate voltage
upon the plate current. It is the ratio of the change in plate voltage
to a change in grid voltage in the opposite polarity, under the condition
that the plate current remains unchanged. As most precisely used,
the term refers to infinitesimal changes as indi-
cated by the defining equation:
µ -- 0e,
a- ; i, = constant
The amplification factor is indicated by the
horizontal spacing of the plate characteristic
or mutual characteristic curves of the tube.
Since horizontal lines represent constant plate
current, the plate voltage spacing divided by
the grid- voltage spacing of the curve is the Tone
amplification factor. The amplification factor Source
of three-electrode tubes is nearly constant for
a constant plate current. In the region near
Fio.15.- Measure-
zero plate current or near the full emission cur- ment
rent of the filament, the amplification factor factor. of amplification
changes greatly with voltage.
30. Measurement of Amplification Factor. An a-c bridge circuit
shown schematically in Fig. 15 may be used to measure A. The resistance
R, is adjusted for zero sound in the phones. The amplification factor is
given by
R2
Ri
Owing to tube capacities or other reactances in the circuit it is usually
necessary to provide a means for adjusting the phase of the grid and plate
a-c voltages for complete balancing out of the sound in the phones. This
phase balance is secured with condenser C in Fig. 15. The d-c voltage
drop in R2 should be allowed for when setting the plate voltage. The
adjustable ground connection is convenient in eliminating the unbalanc-
248 THE RADIO ENGINEERING IIAND13OO6 [Seca
ing effects of capacity to ground. The a-c tone voltage should be as
small as practical. TIM phones can be preceded by a suitable amplifier.
CALCULATION OF THE AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
31. Plane -parallel Electrodes. When the diameter of the grid wires
is large compared to their spacing the formula derived by Vodges and
Elder is most accurate. Figure 16 shows a cross section of the electrodes.
The amplification factor is
2rns - log, li(,2i. +e-Br".)
-
= [loge (e2rwr + ,-2"r) - loge (,2rwr
where r = radius of the grid wire in centimeters

n = number of grid wires per centimeter length of structure
s = distance from plate to grid in centimeters.
When the diameter of the grid wires is small compared to their spacing, the
equation above simplifies to
2rna
M
loge (2rr r)
Plate RP
?r R9
J4; Cathode
2r
Cathode 6rid Anode

Fio. 16. -Tube F i t. 17 . Tube
with plane -parallel with concentrically
electrodes. arranged electrodes.
32. Concentric Cylindrical Electrodes. The amplification factor of the
cylindrical structure shown in Fig. 17 is given by
2rnR, log, (R, /R,) loge i2(42 rwr--
= log, (WWrwr +, -2rwr) log, (.2rwr
where R, = radius of the anode in centimeters
R, = radius of the grid in centimeters
r = radius of the grid wires in centimeters
n = number of grid wires (turns) per centimeter length of structure.
When the diameter of the grid wires is small compared with their spacing,
the equation simplifies to
2wnR, log, (lip R,) ,
o
log, )
(-2r1-7.1r)
33. Plate Resistance and Plate Conductance. The plate resistance

rp is defined by the equation
1 é)ep
rp =
Sp
_ (ii p
It is the reciprocal 4 the plate conductance tip.

Sec. 8l VACUUM TUBES 249
The plate conductance is the ratio of the change in plate current to
the change in plate voltage producing it, all other electrode voltages
being maintained constant. As most precisely used, the term refers
to infinitesimal changes as indicated by the defining equation
S - ai,
The plate conductance is given by the slope of the plate-characteristic
curves of the tube. When readings are taken on the characteristic
curves, the current and voltage increments should be made as small as
convenient. The plate resistance is the reciprocal slope of the plate -
characteristic curve. The numerical value of the plate resistance changes
with the applied d -c operating voltages.
34. Measurement of the Plate Resistance. The plate resistance or
plate conductance can be measured directly with the aid of a bridge
type of circuit. When the bridge in
Fig. 18 is balanced for minimum sound
in the phones, the plate resistance of the
tube is
rp = R2R, /R,
The alternating voltage (tone) ap-
plied to the bridge should be as small eó;ß«
as practical. The use of an amplifier F o. 18.- Measurement
preceding the phones increases the sen- of plate
resistance.
sitivity and accuracy of these meas-
urements. The effects of small capacities are sometimes troublesome in
circuits of this type. The electrode capacity of the tube causes some
phase shift resulting in a poor balance. The phase balance variometer
balances the small out -of-phase component permitting a closer adjust-
ment to the null point. The capacity to ground can be balanced by suit-
able shielding or by means of a Wagner earth connection.
35. Calculation of the Plate Resistance. The plate resistance of a
tube depends upon the operating voltages as well as the structural param-
eters. Within certain limits it is inversely proportional to the area
of the anode and also to the area of the cathode. Decreasing the dis-
tance between filament and plate decreases the plate resistance. Since
it is desirable to make (p /r,,) large, the grid to plate distance controlling
µ should not be decreased too much. This requires that the grid be
placed near the filament to lower the plate resistance. When the grid
is too near to the filament, it will be heated. Small amounts of grid
emission current resulting from too high grid temperature have an
objectionable effect on the operation of the tube.
The plate resistance of a tube may be calculated from the plate-current
plate -voltage relation. For a structure with plane -parallel elements in
which the filament is symmetrically placed between grida and plates, the plate
resistance is
rp
-(a + 0)1[a + d(µ + 1)116
X 10^
A(E, + ME,) Si
250 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. a
where r, = plate resistance in ohms

a = distance from plate to grid in centimeters
d = distance from grid to filament in centimeters
= amplification factor
E, = plate voltage
E. = grid voltage
A = a constant depending on the cathode area, or anode area, and
type of structure. For typical filament -type tubes A = 1.8L,
where L is the length of the filament in centimeters.
The grid voltage E, is conveniently made zero and the plate voltage
taken equal to the value giving normal plate current.
36. Transconductance. The grid -plate transconductance is defined by
the relation
S- S,P
-ae,
It the ratio of the change in plate current to the change in grid voltage,
is
under the condition that all other voltages remain constant. It is also
equal to the ratio of the amplification factor to the plate resistance
r, of the tube:
R,,, = r,
The transconductance determines the plate-current change per volt

applied to the grid. It is evident that this is the most important charac-
teristic of a tube. It is a fig-
ure of merit of the tube and
enters into the calculations of
the performance of the tube.
It is a direct measure of the
amplifying properties of the
tube operating into a load im-
pedance which is small with
respect to the plate resistance.
ith high impedance loads
Fia. 19.- Measurement of transconduc- the amplification factor and
tance. plate resistance are considered
separately in determining the
tube performance. The transconductance may be determined graphi-
cally from the slope of the mutual characteristic curve of the tube. Di-
rect measurements are usually most convenient when many readings are
required.
37. Measurement of Transconductance. The transconductance can
be measured directly in the circuit shown in Fig. 19. The resistance R,
and the phase balance C are adjusted until the sound in the phones is
/
balanced out. The transconductance is given by
S DR,' (approx.)
ß\ 3 1 + r % t
38. Calculation of the Transconductance. The transconductance
is equal to the ratio of the amplification factor to the plate resistance
rp. Each of these factors can be calculated with a fair degree of accuracy
for certain types of structures. The amplification factor depends almost

entirely upon the structure of the grid and the grid -plate distance. The
plate resistance depends upon the amplification factor, the surface areas
of the cathode and anode, the grid -filament distance, and the applied d -c
operating voltages. The transconductance depends upon all these
factors.
39. Grid -current Coefficients. When the grid is not biased with
sufficient negative voltage and the tube operation extends into the posi-
tive range of grid voltage, an electron current will flow to the grid. Under
these conditions the current in the grid circuit may change the effective
grid voltage. When it is desirable to include these effects in determining
the performance of the tube, the coefficients relative to the grid current
are useful.
The grid conductance Su, or its reciprocal the grid resistance ru, is
defined by the equation
aiv
Suu Su aeu
1 aeu
ru
Su aiu
The grid conductance Su is the ratio of the change in the grid current to
the change in grid voltage producing it, other electrode potentials being
maintained constant. As most precisely used, the term refers to infini-
tesimal changes, as indicated by the defining equation.
The coefficient showing the relative effectiveness of grid and plate
voltages on the grid current has been variously termed reflex factor,
inverse amplification factor, and inverse factor. Recent I.R.E. standards
term this coefficient the plate -grid mu factor. It is the ratio of the change
in grid voltage to the change in plate voltage required to maintain a
constant value of grid current. As most precisely used, the term refers
to infinitesimal changes as indicated by the defining equation
aeu.
/Aim, = µ -=
.
-aee; tu = constant
The coefficient showing the effect of plate voltage on the grid current
has been termed inverse mutual conductance, or the plate -grid transcon-
ductance (note that this is not the grid -plate transconductance. The
difference in these terns can he easily remembered, since the words grid
and plate appear in the saine order as the direction of action in the tube).
It is the ratio of the change in grid current to the change in plate voltage
producing it, all other electrode voltages being maintained constant. As
most precisely used, the term refers to infinitesimal changes, as indicated
by the defining equation
aiu
Sup - Sn =
Grid -current coefficients of the tube may be determined graphically

from the static characteristic curves or measured directly in bridge cir-
cuits similar to those employed for plate -current coefficients.
40. Higher -order Coefficients. Tube coefficients in most common use
are the amplification factor, plate resistance or conductance, and trans-
252 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec.
conductance. These are the first-order plate- current coefficients of u

triode. They determine the amplifying properties of the tube and enter
into nearly all applications of the tube.
When the tube is operated so that detection, modulation, distortion,
cross modulation, frequency conversion, and such effects are of impor-
tance, it is necessary to use second -order, third-order, and higher order
coefficients in addition to the first -order coefficients to determine the
performance of the tube. For example, in the case of plate- circuit
detection the tube coefficient determining this effect is the second deriva-
tive of the plate current with respect to the grid voltage. The first
derivative, or first -order coefficient, is the transconductance which is
S.
ae,
The second derivative, or second -order coefficient, is

02i, = Mg.
0e,= ae,
The d-c plate -current change with signal voltage and second-harmonic
distortion are also determined by the second-order coefficient.
Cross modulation and modulation distortion in the r-f stages of a
receiver are determined by the third -order coefficient
834 _ a =s..
ae,' ae,=
The third -harmonic distortion in a tube is also determined by the third-

order coefficient. The fifth -harmonic distortion would be determined
by the fifth-order coefficient,
abt v
aepb
Higher order coefficients are usually obtained graphically from the

current -voltage characteristics of the tube. When the analytical expres-
sion for the current is known, the coefficients may be obtained by differen-
tiation. The measurement of an effect depending principally on one
coefficient may be used as a measure of the coeffi-
cient.
41. Mechanism of the Three -electrode Amplifier.
Figure 20 represents a triode connected to a suit-
able source of A, B, and C voltage. A meter 1,
is connected in the plate circuit for reading plate
U.A *Ifs current. A potentiometer is connected across the
C olds' - 81Veils + slider is changed on the potentiometer. If the
tChe
Fta. 20.- Triode cir- slide moves toward the positive, the plate current
cuit. increases; if toward the negative, the plate current
decreases. The plate currents corresponding to
different grid voltages are plotted as in curve 1 in Fig. 21. This is a
mutual characteristic curve of the tube.
Suppose that the slide is varied in some definite manner. For example,
start to count time from zero on curve 2 in Fig. 21. With the slider
Sec. el VACUUM TUBES 253
initially at 5 volts the plate current is 3 ma. Move the slider steadily in
the negative direction, until say, in 3 sec. the grid voltage is 9 volts. The
plate current will be 0.5 ma. Now start the slider in the positive direc-
tion, moving at the same steady rate. At the end of 6 sec. the slider has
returned to its original position. If you continue the motion of the slider
in the positive direction, at the end of 9 sec. the grid voltage is -1.0
volt, and the plate current is 6.5 ma. If the slider is started in the nega-
tive direction at the saine rate, the grid voltage will be -5 volts at the end
/
of 12 sec., thus completing the cycle.
Curve 3 shows the plate-current
change corresponding to the grid -volt-
age change with time. If the slider is
currente_
connected to a mechanism arranged to
,Á4,6S
I Curve
. o i e
A Cunt S
continue this motion, the plate
would contain an a.c. of 1 cycle in 12
sec. or 5 cycles
y per min. The wave cu,.elG',
form of the a.c. will be as shown in
'`_`_'i
curve 3. It is superimposed upon the t32'1°
d -c plate current.
The positive and negative peaks of Fia. 21.- Mechanism of atnplifi-
the plate current as measured from the cation.
initial 3-ma point are not equal, although the grid -voltage peaks are equal.
In this case the plate current is not a faithful reproduction of the input
voltage.
If a resistance is connected in the plate circuit, the effective plate
voltage is reduced as the plate current increases. The plate current
at E, equals -5 volts can be brought to the initial 3-ma point by a
suitable increase in the B voltage to compensate for the voltage lost in
the resistance. Starting with the same initial 3-ma point, the resulting
characteristic with a resistance load is shown by the curve 4 in Fig. 21.
The same alternating grid -voltage curve 2 produces the plate -current
curve 5. The positive and negative plate -current peaks of curve 5 as
measured from the initial point are almost identical. The distortion
has been eliminated, and the voltage developed across the resistance
can be used to operate a succeeding stage of amplification or other device.
The potentiometer and slider of Fig. 20 can be replaced with a fixed
grid -bias voltage and an a-c voltage. The tube will operate as described
above except that a-c cycles usually occur so rapidly that the plate -
current (d.c.) meter cannot follow them. A meter showing the effective
value (r -m -s) of the a.c. can be used to measure the current. The
a.c. can be heard when connected to a loud- speaker, if it is within the
audible range of frequencies. The wave form of the a.c. can be seen when
connected to an oscillograph.
42. General- purpose Triodes. General-purpose triodes are used for
detection, for voltage amplification, and in general in circuits where a
low-power triode tube is needed.
Some of the available types of cathodes are as follows: a filament type
with low current suitable for operation with dry -cell batteries; a filament
type with higher current used with storage batteries (filament types of
tubes requiring relatively high current and operated with a-c supply
are used in the power output stage); a heater- cathode type operating
on 2.5 volts a -c supply; a heater-cathode type operating on 6.3 volts
for direct connection to the storage battery of an automobile, for use in
series-connected d -c line or universal a-c, d-c circuits, and for use with
6.3 volts a-e supply.
A medium amplification factor (6 to about 15 or 20) is characteristic
of the general -purpose type. The high -amplification-factor tubes are
especially suitable for use in resistance -coupled a-f circuits. The plate
characteristics are relatively low plate current andismedium or high
plate resistance. The grid-plate transconductance usually not so
high as obtained with power amplifier triodes.
The medium -plate- resistance types are suitable for use in transformer-
coupled a-f amplifier circuits, in grid -leak detector circuits, and in general
in circuits where a medium-plate -resistance, medium- amplification-factor
triode tube is suitable.
The high-amplification-factor type having high plate resistance can for
be used with resistance-coupled (or impedance-coupled) circuits
a-f voltage amplification. This type is suitable for use as a grid- biased
detector with resistance -coupled output. The medium- amplification-
factor types also can be used as grid -biased detectors when a resistance -
coupled or high-impedance output circuit is used. exceptionally
Operating plate voltages below 250 volts are usual unless operating plate
large amplitude output voltages are required. Themaximum output
voltage must be large enough to accommodate this
voltage. The grid -bias voltage and the plate load impedance are usually
chosen to give low distortion and maximum output.
43. Power Amplifier Triodes. Power amplifier triodes are used when
more power is needed than can be obtained from the ordinary amplifier is
triodes or where lower plate resistance or higher transconductance
desired. For the power output stage in radio receivers, for operating voltages
relays, lighting small signal lamps, and in general for delivering plate
and power in low- resistance loads these types are used. The lowover a
resistance is an advantage when a flat amplification characteristic in
wide range of frequencies is desired. In some instances, for example,per
operating a low -resistance relay where a large plate- current change is
volt on the grid is desired, a power triode with high transconductance relay
used. When adequate signal voltage is available and an insensitive
is used or when positive action is of first importance, a tube with maximum
plate current would be more important than a high transconductance.
For operating loud- speakers, the transformer primary carries the d -c
In this
plate current plus the alternating current due to the signal. the
case a low d -c plate current causes less tendency to saturate core
when
when a single tube is used and less loss in the winding resistance where
a push -pull stage is used. For loud-speaker and other applications triode
appreciable power with low distortion is desired, a power amplifier
is used.
An important characteristic of the power amplifier triode is thatonly the
distortion decreases to a low value and the power output decreases
a value equal to
at a slow rate as the load resistance increases beyond(about 5 per cent
the plate resistance of the tube. For low distortion to
second harmonic) it is usual to operate with a load resistance equal
twice the plate resistance of the tube.
Power amplifier triodes are characterized by high plate current, and low
plate resistance, low amplification factor, high transconductance,
plate voltage
moderate to high power output depending on the maximum
and plate current or the power dissipation permissible in the tube.
Sec. el VACUUM TUBES 255
Typical power amplifier triode tubes for radio receivers and similar
low-power usage have a range of plate current for the various types from
12.3 to 60 ma; plate resistances from 800 to 5,000 ohms; amplification
factor from 3.0 to 8.0; transconductance from 1,050 to 5,250 micromhos.
The rated maximum plate voltage ranges from 180 to 450 volts. The
bias voltage, which is a measure of the signal voltage required for full
output, ranges from minus 30 volts to minus 84 volts. The power output
ranges from 0.375 to 4.6 watts.
For higher power output per tube either
pentodes, class B tubes, or the larger high -
voltage power tubes are used.
I
44. Power Amplifier Tetrodes and Pen-
todes. A power amplifier tetrodo is similar
to a power output pentode except that the - I+
tetrode does not have a suppressor grid. The -C 11111111
B
electrodes are cathode, control grid, screen Fia. 22.- Connections
grid, and plate. The construction is such putpttube. for power out -
that the secondary emission from the plate
cannot reach the screen grid. The plate char-
acteristic curves are similar to those for a pentode tube without the
secondary emission dip which is characteristic of amplifier (screen-grid)
tetrodes. The operating conditions are similar to those used for power
output pentodes.
Power amplifier pentodes are high -efficiency power output tubes.
,..1
They are capable of higher power output with less plate voltage, less
power input, and less signal voltage than are triode power amplifier tubes.
W
n___..0
A:
M!..--2I
70 ova
1
aIME=`
,,M',
O
E
xIEM*2- -10
to
o .....
m.
....aiscocci=se
.
- _JO:
0 40 BO 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520 561
Plaie,volis
Fia. 23. -Load characteristic of 47 pentode.
Circuits using pentode power amplifier tubes must be more carefully
designed to obtain low distortion than are circuits using triode power
amplifier tubes.
The electrodes in a power amplifier pentode are cathode, control grid,
screen grid, suppressor grid, and plate. The cathode may be either a
filament or a unipotential heater type. The control grid connects to a
negative bias and the signal voltages. The screen grid connects to the
plus B voltage usually of the same value as used on the plate. The screen
grid is by- passed with a condenser between it and the cathode. The
suppressor grid is usually connected to the cathode inside of the tube.
256 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (See.8
This grid prevents the screen grid from collecting secondary emission
electrons from the plate and thus eliminates the dip in the plate- charac-
teristic curves which appear in the screen -grid types of tubes.
Power amplifier pentodes are used in the power output stage of radio
receivers and for operating relays and other devices where high mutual
conductance and high plate resistance are desired. Owing to its high
plate resistance, it is useful in circuits requiring a constant -current
characteristic. For example, for distortionless magnetic deflection
of a cathode -ray tube at all frequencies, the current through the deflecting
coils should be directly proportional to the signal voltage. When a
pentode power amplifier is used, a distortionless pattern results over a
range of frequencies for which the deflecting coil impedance is low enough
to utilize the pentode constant -current characteristic.
Typical power amplifier pentodes have a plate current from 22 to
34 ma, transconductance from 1,200 to 2,500 micromhos, plate resistance
from 35,000 to 100,000 ohms, amplification factor from 80 to 220, and
power output from 1.4 to 3.4 watts. The maximum plate voltage
ratings range from 135 to 250 volts. The grid -bias voltage which is
approximately equal to the peak signal voltage for full output ranges
from minus 12 to minus 25 volts.
Pentodes for r -f amplification at high frequencies have been made
available. Tubes of this type (6AB7, 6AC7, 1851) have high transcon-
ductance (5,000-9,000 micromhos).
45. Dual -grid and Triple -grid Power Amplifiers. Tubes of this claw,
have a cathode, two grids, and a plate. When the two grids are con-
nected together and used as a single grid, the resulting characteristics are
suitable for use as a class B power output tube. When the inner grid is
used as the control grid and the outer grid is connected to the plate, the
resulting characteristics are suitable for class A power amplification,
suitable for driving the class B stage.
The characteristics of typical tubes have for class B operation a quies-
cent plate current of 2 and 6 ma, plate -voltage ratings of 180 and 40C
volts, and class B a -f power output for two tubes of 3.5 and 20 watts.
For class A operation the maximum plate -voltage ratings are 135 and
250 volts. The corresponding grid-bias voltages are -20 and -33 volts,
the amplification factors 4.7 and 5.6 plate resistance 4,175 and 2,380
ohms, the transconductance 1,125 and 2,350 micromhos, and the class A
power output 0.17 and 1.25 watts.
The triple -grid power amplifier tube is a universal type of power ampli-
fier tube. With various connections of the grids it may he used as a class
A triode, class B triode, or class A pentode power amplifier.
46. Class B Twin Amplifiers. Class B twin-amplifier tubes as the
name implies consist of two triode class B a-f amplifier structures in a
single bulb.
Like other special class B tubes these tubes operate in a push-pull
circuit with zero control -grid bias voltage. The initial plate current of
typical tubes ranges from 10 to 17.5 ma. For maximum plate voltages
ranging from 135 to 300 volts, the power output of these small -sized tubes
ranges from 2.1 to 10 watts. A small power amplifier tube is used to drive
the class B tube.
47. Calculation of Power Output and Distortion. To calculate the
power output and distortion of a power tube, draw a line on the I - Eo
characteristic curves representing the load resistance. The line is
drawn through the operating point with the reciprocal slope (voltage
to current ratio) equal to the resistance of the load.
A pure sine wave (or cosine wave) signal voltage is assumed to be
effective on the grid. At certain values of bias voltage E, corresponding
selected points on the signal voltage wave, the plate current is noted.
With these values of plate current the power output and distortion are
calculated as shown by the following example for the type 47 tube:
E, = 0 = 0 1m.,. = 0.0585
E, = 0.293E = -
4.47 I: = 0.0527
E=E = -15.25 1, = 0.0320
E, = 1.707E = -26.03 I = 0.0107
E, = 2E = -30.50 Iman. = 0.0052
Static operating point is EB = E.2 = 250 volts, E. = -15.25 volts,

E, = 2.5 volts d.c., Ip = 32.0 ma. Load resistance = 7,000 ohms.
The plate current corresponding to values of bias voltage not shown
on the I,, -
Ep curves can be obtained by plotting a curve of the known
values of Ip versus E., from which intermediate points may be read.
e, = E cos cut
ip =Io +Ii
cos Lot +/2 cos 2 cot +/3 cos 3wt
Io = +iá[Im.n. + /min. + 2(1., + Ip + ¡w))
- -Imin.
Ii = + %IIm. =. + V 2(Ir - Ip)1
0.0052 + 1.414(0.0527 - 0.0107)] = 0.0282
34[0.0585
Ix = +)Im. + Imin. - 2Ip]
4[0.0585 + 0.0052 - 2 X 0.0320] = - 0.00007
=.
13= +V4[Im... - /min. - - Iv)1

_ %(0.0585 - 0.0052 - 1.414(0.0527 - 0.0107)] = -0.0015
Power output "x(0.0282)2 X 7,000 = 2.77
watts
Ili 0.00007 X
Percentage second harmonic = X 100 per cent = 100
0.0282
per cent = 0.25 per cent
0.0015
Percentage third harmonic = X 100 per cent = 100
li 0.0282 X
per cent = 5.3 per cent
The power output and distortion with various load impedances are
shown in Fig. 24. The second harmonic distortion is a minimum near
the rated 7,000 -ohm. load. The harmonic distortion increases with the
load. The total distortion is the vector sum of the second and third
harmonics, since the magnitude of the higher frequency components is
small. The power output for minimum distortion is near the maximum
obtainable.
48. Screen -grid Amplifiers. The screen -grid amplifier tube possesses
properties that make it markedly superior to a triode for amplification
of r-f or a -f voltages. It is also a good detector tube.
Owing to the low value of control grid to plate capacitance in a screen -
grid tube (about 0.01 µµf), the feedback is negligible, and stable operation
results without the use of critically balanced circuits. Also the screen
grid has the effect of greatly increasing the plate resistance, and, since the
transconductance i3 not decreased, the effective value of amplification

factor (/a = !S',,.) is very large. In use, the high plate resistance puts
less shunt -load resistance across any
3.2 tuned circuit to which it is connected.
E¡=7.SPo/IstiC 8. The result is a more sharply tuned
A
3.0
Ep=E92-250 . ,s
Eye-4äSVoHs
.0
mg.
circuit with higher over-all 'imped-
ance. The net result is higher volt-
eA
EsisNAL =/5.3 Volts 21 age amplification and greater
+2,8 selectivity. For example, with tri-
Ts
-g'2.6
a aa. xI g
;
7
;
a
ode tubes a voltage amplification of
20 per stage is considered high at
broadcast frequencies, while with
screen -grid tubes a gain in excess of
reall
ó 100 per stage is easily obtained. At
2.4 intermediate frequencies a gain of 200
oo
CL
8 to 400 per stage is readily obtained.
The screen -grid tube has a cath-
2.2
ode, two grids, and a plate. The
inner grid is used as the control grid,
ii
to which signal and bias voltages
1
1?
2.0
Tolol= (°/n2nd)2 = are applied. The outer grid serves
illi PEPS 0 as an electrostatic screen between the
4000
ma,ua
6000 8000 10000 12000
plate and the inner structure. It is
operated at a fixed positive potential
ordinarily not higher than about one-
half to one -third of the plate voltage.
Load Resisiance,ohms
Fia. 24.-Output characteristics of Typical tubes have plate currents
pentode power tube. ranging from 1.7 to 4.0 ma, plate
resistance from 0.3 to 1.2 megohms,
transconductance from 500 to 1,080 micromhos, and grid to plate capaci-
tance from 0.02 to 0.007 opf.
49. Triple -grid Detector Amplifiers. Triple -grid detector amplifier
types have three grids, a cathode, and a plate.
Although the three grids all have external ter-
IIminals to permit various connections in circuits,
these tubes are most frequently operated as
pentode voltage amplifiers. With this connec-
Plate Plate
Gonlrol P
Cored i One ._Buren
Grid i ` oc,d
!i° _- ¡r ; Cathode
1 ,01
!' input I Neater
Screen - \ filament
Grid -
Wad -s-111 +BG.
Cathode "Healer
C III* hhUl -
Fia. 25.-Structure of Fro. 26.- Circuit for screen -
screen-grid tube. grid tube.
tion the inner grid functions as the control grid, the second grid as the
screen grid, and the outer grid as the suppressor grid.
4 The operating characteristics are like those of a screen -grid tube
except that certain improvements in performance result. The plate
resistance is higher and the grid -plate capacitance is lower than for
screen -grid tubes. Owing to the presence of the suppressor grid, the same
8.0
EC2=7SV. Values / left ófvértiCa/%ine I
13 7.0 subject to considerable variation

EE = 2. S l!
á 6.0 I E¡-0 V
5.0
4.0 lb Ecr=-I.SV.
3.0 Eci-3.O !!
A.
NOIlb
kb-
2.0 lb Ecr=-4.5V
° I.0 I, Eci=-60v.
sX 0 Ic2 Ec=-/Sv
a - 1.0
-2.00 I
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Plate Voltage
Pte. 27.- Type-24 screen -grid characteristics.
EE =2. S Volts Suppressor Volts =0 Screen Volts =100
Cóntrol Grid Volts Ecr =-
-4.0_
0 25d-
0 100 200 300 400 500
Plate Volts
2S.-Average plate characteristics, type 57.
voltage can be used on the plate and screen grid. This is possible
because there is no secondary emission kink in t he plate-characteristic
curves. This is an advantage, for example, when operating with a
260 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [see. a
100 -volt supply since the use of 100 volts on the screen grid produces
high transconductance and also permits higher signal voltages on the
control grid. When large amplitude output voltages are required, this
connection permits utilization of nearly the entire range of plate voltage.
In some r -f circuits the suppressor grid is used for modulation. In one
circuit that of an electron- coupled oscillator, the suppressor grid is
grounded so that it functions as an electrostatic screen.
When used as a voltage amplifier for audio frequencies, high gain, large
amplitude output, and low distortion can be obtained with this type of
20 r
1( 11III
c
180
1601 I
-
1_Et=2.SVolts
Suppressor Volts=0
Plate Volts =2S0
Screen Vo/ts=/00
7
Q 14a
E
I I` ,A1
Z 120 I
p
-E
100
80
I
)
1111V
, 65
É
60
40
2'
Fla.
o
)
)
I_
lillA
,' s
I
Mi
Control Grid, volts

29.- Average characteristics,
to
type 57.
2
tube. Operating characteristics of the 57, for example, are as follows:

plate-supply voltage, 250 volts; screen voltage, 50 volts; grid bias,
minus 2.1 volts; self -bias resistor, 3,500 ohms; plate -load resistor, 250,000
ohms; grid resistor of following stage, 0.5 megohm; plate current, 0.48 ma,
peak output, 60 to 70 volts, voltage amplification, 100.
As a detector, owing to the sharp cutoff, the sensitivity is high, and the
distortion low. A high-resistance plate load is used. A suitable con-
dition for operating the type 57 is the same as shown above for a-f
amplification.
Typical tubes of this class operate with 250 volts on the plate, 100
volts on the screen grid, and minus 3 volts on the control grid. Operating
conditions for small r-f voltages are a plate resistance of 1.5 megohms
or more, plate current of 2.0 to 2.3 ma, transconductance of 1,225 to 1,250
micromhos, and grid -plate capacitance of 0.007 to 0.010 pif.
50. Screen -grid Supercontrol Amplifiers. The screen -grid super-
control amplifier tube differs from the ordinary screen -grid tube in that
it has a remote plate -current cutoff characteristic (variable-mu effect)
instead of the usual cutoff characteristic of the detector amplifier type of
tube. The supercontrol type is designed for use in r -f and i -f circuits
where the stage gain is to be controlled by means of grid -bias voltage. It
is effective in reducing cross modulation and modulation distortion over a
large range of signal voltages. A change in grid -bias voltage from minus
3 volts to minus 40 volts changes the transconductance from 1,050 to
15 micromhos. This corresponds to a change in gain of approximately
70 to 1 per stage. At the minus 40 -volt bias point a signal amplitude of
approximately 10 volts can be accommodated without serious distortion.
Supercontrol r-f amplifier pentodes with internally connected sup-
pressor grids are operated the same as screen-grid supercontrol amplifier
tubes. The plate resistance of this type is somewhat higher. The
secondary emission kink in the plate characteristics is eliminated so that
screen grid and plate may be operated on the same voltage when low-
voltage operation is desired.
51. Triple -grid Supercontrol Amplifiers. The triple -grid supercontrol
amplifier types like the triple -grid detector amplifier types have three
grids, a cathode, and a plate. This type is particularly suited for use as
an r-f and i -f amplifier. With the usual connection of the three grids a
pentode type of characteristic results. The operating characteristics
are similar to the triple-grid detector amplifier tube except for somewhat
lower plate resistance, higher transconductance, higher plate current, and
a remote plate -current cutoff characteristic. The remote cutoff charac-
teristic permits a large range of control of amplification of r-f voltages
without cross modulation or modulation distortion. It is useful also as a
first detector in superheterodyne circuits but is not generally satisfactory
for use as the second detector or for use as an a -f amplifier. For these
latter applications the sharp plate- current cutoff detector amplifier type
should be used.
The characteristics of typical tubes of this type show higher plate cur-
rent for low bias voltages than for the detector amplifier triple-grid tubes.
The plate- characteristic curves show a continuously decreasing effect of
grid -bias voltage on plate current as the negative bias voltage is increased
(variable-mu effect). This gradual decrease in plate -current and large
bias voltage required for plate-current cutoff permits the use of large
signal voltages while the tube is biased to reduce amplification without
distortion or cross modulation of the r-f and i-f voltages. The plate
resistance of this type tends to be less than for the sharp cutoff type. The
values of 0.6 to 0.8 megohm are high enough to prevent excessive loading
of the tuned circuits. Voltage amplification greater than 100 at broad-
cast frequencies and from 200 to 400 at intermediate frequencies is readily
obtained.
In operation the grid-bias voltage (Ei,) of the 6D6 can be made vari-
able from minus 3 volts to minus 40 volts for gain control of r-f or i-f
stages. As a mixer tube a grid bias of minus 10 volts is used for an
oscillator voltage of 7 peak volts. Consideration should be given to the
amplitude of the signal voltages to be expected in each stage, and the
bias -voltage range should be limited accordingly. The signal voltage
should never cause the grid to swing far enough in the positive direction
to permit grid current to flow, nor far enough in the negative direction to
exceed the plate-current cutoff point.
52. Duplex -diode Triodes. The duplex -diode triode tubes have an
amplifier triode and two small diodes in a single bulb. Usually the
cathode of all units has a common connection. The diodes are small
units used with high-resistance loads (peak currents less than approxi-
mately 0.5 ma) for detection and gain -regulating circuits. The triode is
of the general type of detector amplifier triodes.
Typical tubes of this type have triodes with amplification factors of
8.3 and 100, plate resistance of 7,500 and 91,000 ohms, and transconduct-
ance of 1,100 micromhos. The
Grid\ .-Cathode 3 medium -amplification-factor
type can be used as a trans-
Plate É fo. rmer -coupled a-f amplifier,
with one diode for detection and
3 the other as an automatic vol-
ve ume control. Various other
& uses in circuits will be evident.
Inner
NegafiveCxidVolts
The high -amplification-factor
30.- Variable -mu or su
30.-Variable-mu type is suitable for use as a resist-
ance-coupled a-f amplifier, with
tube. one diode as a detector and the
other for gain control or various other circuit arrangements.
53. Duplex -diode Pentodes. These types, like the duplex-diode
triode types, have two small diodes for use as detectors or gain control,
and a pentode voltage amplifier unit in a single bulb. The pentode unit
may be used for either r-f or a-f amplification. Thus the pentode may
operate as an i -f amplifier supplying signal to the diode units functioning
as detector and gain- control units, or the pentode may function as a
resistance -coupled a -f amplifier following the diode units.
54. Triode Pentode. This tube exemplified by the type 6F7 has a
pentode voltage amplifier unit and a small triode unit in a single bulb.
The two units operate independently except that a common cathode
connection is used. The principal advantage is economy of space; the
disadvantage is that failure of one unit requires replacement of the entire
tube.
55. Pentagrid Converters. The pentagrid -converter tube has a
cathode, five grids, and an anode. It is designed to perform the com-
bined functions of oscillator and first detector in a superheterodyne cir-
cuit. The electrodes, starting from the cathode and counting outward
(the usual method for designating grids by number), are first (No. 1 grid)
the oscillator control grid; next (No. 2 grid) the oscillator anode; grids
3 and 5, connected together within the tube, are used to accelerate the
electron stream from the cathode (similar to the operation of the screen
grid in screen-grid and pentode tubes); and grid 4 operates as the signal
control grid. The grids 3 and 5 shield grid 4 from the inner and the plate
electrodes and give the tube a high plate resistance. The high plate
resistance permits the use of high -impedance loads resulting in high gain
and selectivity.
In operation the electron stream is initially modulated at oscillator
frequency by the inner electrodes. The incoming r -f signal, applied to
grid 4, further modulates the electron stream, thus producing components
of plate current, the frequencies of which are the various combinations of
the oscillator and signal frequencies. Since the primary circuit of the
first i -f stage is designed for resonance at the i.f. (equal to the difference
See. $1 VACUUM TUBES 263
between the oscillator and signal frequencies), only the desired i.f. will be
present in the secondary of the i-f transformer.
In use, the oscillator coils are designed with a little greater coupling
between grid and oscillator anode coils than is commonly used with triode
oscillators. A ratio of mutual inductance between these coils to the
4-20 Volts D.C.
Screen (Grids No. 3 and Na..f) Vol/s = 62.5
Qtci//a/orl dCridh6.1)Resotr- OhmsJO.QM
Osti /lo/orGrid Currenf -Milliamperes -02
Cuor %/e *NS Aar-GricardNo71Supoy1áe°
135
-1 t
*Old throogh 20,000 -ohm Dropr,n0Ae<iifor
E/.á3 Vohs
2.0 500 Plats Vo//s 250
Screen (Gods No.3aral Ao. 5).b/Is .100
Control Grid (Grid No.4)14,Ns - -3
Anode (Grid No.2) l42/1s - /00
Qtcilbkr arid (0rid No./Meal( Vo/ls -60
Osoi/ /olor Grid Resistance - 5 CV0 ohms
I1
140
EIMIN11111111YÑMINIIII
111111i2111
111121
11111111M1111111111111
11111111E111111
11/11111
511111111111
60
Ii1111
111111
11/I1111111111
II11111111
1111
;10
20
0
-14 -17 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 00 0 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Cont of Grid (Grid NoA),volts Resonant Load lmpedance,megohms
Fia. 31.- Characteristics of pentagrid converters 106, left; 6A7, right.
inductance of the grid coil (tuned coil) of 0.25 to 0.40 is satisfactory.

Higher values of coupling may cause difficulty in tracking the oscillator
frequency to the signal frequency.
The translation gain is given by the relation
- (Za&Zr,r,)
where a = voltage ratio of i-f transformer
Se = conversion transconductance
Z = effective impedance of i -f transformer
rn = plate resistance of the tube.
With transformers ordinarily used, a translation gain of approximately
60 or with special high-impedance transformers a gain of 100 can be
readily obtained.
The characteristics of typical tubes of this type are as shown in the
table on page 264.
264 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. a
TYPICAL PENTAORID CONVERTERS
Ty pe EI I/ Es E.,_, E4 E., E4 I' I1-1 1.1 It Rs &
1A8 2.0 0.06 180 67.5 135 -3 50,000 0 1.3 2.4 2.3 0.2 0.5 300
1C8 2.0 0.12 180 87.5 135 -3 50,000 it 1.5 2.0 3.3 0.2 0.75 325
2M 2.5 0.8 250 100 200 -3 50,000 ß 3.5 2.2 4.0 0.7 0.36 520
6A7 6.3 0.3 250 100 200 -3 3.5 2.2 4.0 0.7 0.36 520
56. Metal Tubes. Metal radio tubes employ a metallic envelope

instead of a glass envelope for maintaining a vacuum in the space sur-
rounding the electrodes of the tube. The structure of the tube electrodes
is similar to that used in glass-bulb tubes. The metallic envelope offers
the following advantages: elimination of additional tube shields; better
shielding of tube electrodes from stray fields than with metal -coated
glass bulbs or shield cans; greater mechanical strength; and a smaller
size.
This construction also permits better dissipation of the heat developed
at the anode.
The metal radio tubes have the octal type of base having a central lug
which aids in locating the tube in the socket. There are eight pin posi-
tions on the base, the same spacings being used on all types except that
pins are omitted or included as needed. This permits the use of one type
-Plate
Metal Conical
Envehpe SkmShield
Goss
Bu //on
34 Seal
ar
I
If GndMx?
jr
1 1
(Screen)
Sibnabrd
II
iloiitrOchal f \\` TT
Bose
r
Cylindrical° " Erheus/ Tube Grid No./
Bau Shield (Centro/ Grid)
Fio. 32. -Metal tube base Fio. 33. -Acorn pentode.
construction (shields used in
single -ended types).
of socket for a greater number of tube types. This is of considerable
advantage, for example, in testing tubes where the large number of sockets
and electrode combinations unduly complicates the equipment.
The characteristics of the metal radio tubes are similar to other tubes
of the same general type.
ULTRA-HIGH -FREQUENCY TUBES
57. Receiving Types. At frequencies above 60 Mc (wave lengths
below 5 meters) conventional tubes and circuits give poor performance.
By means of tubes specially designed for ultra-high frequencies, the
Sec. 111 VACUUM TABES 265
performance can be greatly improved. For low-power circuits and for
receiving circuits, these special tubes of unusually small dimensions are
used. These tubes permit the use of conventional circuits in the fre-
quency range of 60 to 300 Mc and higher.
ACORN RECEIVING TUBES
Capacitance, in
micromicrofarads
Type Ef rl jade
catho de Ea Ea En, 1e la R, o 3.,
GPI G-C I P-C
Triode (Detector, Amplifier, Oscillator)
955 6.3 0.15 icr }

180 - .014.5 ..
5 12,500 25 2,000 1.4 1.0 0.6
957 1.25 0.06
Ú 135 - 5.0 2.0 .. 24,600 16 650
968 1.260.10 Ú 135 - 7.53.0... 10,000 121,200
Pentode (Detector, Amplifier)
954 6.3 0.15

g
O
) 250 100 - 3.0 2.0 0.7 1.5 X 10' 2,000 1,400 0.007
G-P Input Output
3 3
67.5 - 3.0 1.7 0.4
1
959 1.25 0.05 135 0.8 X 10' 480 600
Pentode (Super-control R-f Amplifier, Mixer)
956 8.3 0.15 10a-CJ

250 100 - 3.015.511.8 0.8 X 10' 1,440 1,800 0.007 2.7 3.5
250 100 -45 2
A small glass bulb with the electrode connect'ons sealed directly

through the center and end portions of the bulb is used. There is no base
on these tubes. The electrode terminals appear directly on the bulb and
are made strong enough for in-
sertion in a socket. The elec- Re Cy
trodes are similar to those in
other types of tubes except that,
owing to the unusually small di-
mensions, special design and con-
struction are required.
Some of the advantages of
type of tube are low electrode
capacitance, low electrode con - R9
C9
this
netting lead inductance, small Fla. 34.-Tuned transmission line push -
°
electron transit time, and small pull oscillator.

space requirement.
High-frequency circuits consisting of small coils with condenser tuning
have been used with these tubes for frequencies as high as 300 Mc.
Special care is required to reduce inductance of the connecting leads and
to obtain good by- passing. Better results at these frequencies and
266 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Moo. B
higher can be obtained with the relatively large distributed circuits of the
transmission-line type. An example of this type of circuit is the push-
pull oscillator shown in Fig. 34. In this circuit good stability is obtained
with freedom from "dead spots" often observed with single -tube oscilla-
tors tuned over a wide range of ultra-high frequencies.
Performance comparable with other types of receiving tubes is readily
obtained when these tubes are used as r-f or a-f amplifiers, detectors,
mixers, or oscillators in all of the lower frequency ranges.
TYPICAL BEAM -POWER AMPLIFIER TUBES
Type Ef I I cathocede
Eo Ea Eat IIa la
Plate
load
Sm Po Bulb Base
Receiving Types
6L6 6.3 0.9 -C

Og
350250 - 18 54 2.5 4,200 5,200 10.8 MT-10 Octal 7 pin
6V6 6.3 0.45

1
H-C 315 225 - 13 34 2.2 8,500 3,750 5.5 MT-8 Octal 7 pin
200 135 -
-C
6Y6-G 6.3 1.25 } 14 61 2.2 2,600 7,100, 6 0 ST -14 Octal 7 pin
OH
25W 25.00.3 Ó-C} 110 110 - 7.5 49 4 2,000 8.2íN1 2.2 MT -8 Octal 7 pin
35.x5 -LT 35.00.15 0 CSJ 110 110 - 7.5 40 3 2,500 5,500 1 5 T -9 Octal 8 pin
I
Transmitt ng Types
807 6.3 0.9 Ú-C

60Y275 - 78 100 9 6,000 37 ST-16 Medium
5 pin
1614 6.3 0.9 H-C
o 375 200 - 35 88 9 6,050 17 MT-10 Octal 7 pin
1619 2.5 2.0

F
O
i
400,300 - 55 75 10.5 4,500! 19.5 MT-10 Octal 7 pin
10.0 3.25
814
TT 1,500 300 - 90 150 24 3,3001160 T-18 Medium
5 pin
813 10.0 5.0

F
TT 2,010 400 - 90 180 15 3,750'1260 T-20 Giant 7 pin
F Medium
828 10.0 3.25 TT 1,500,400 -100 1R0 28 4,500200 T-18 5 pin
Push -pu I Type
832 6.3 0.8 {O C} 400 250 - 60 90 18 3,000 22 T-16 Special
58. Beam -power Tubes. Beam-power tubes employ the principle of

directing the electrons into beams to obtain improved tube performance.
These tubes have a cathode, control grid, screen grid, and plate. Beam -
forming plates, located between screen grid and plate, assist in limiting
the spread of the beams.
The wires of the control grid and screen are aligned and so spaced
that the electron current from the cathode is focused into a series of beams
passing between the grid wires. This reduces the screen-grid current. It
also makes it possible to use a close- spaced plate with suppressor action
supplied by space- charge effects produced between the screen and the
plate.
The resulting plate- current versus plate -voltage characteristic curves
are practically of the ideal pentode type. The knee of the curve occurs
at a low voltage permitting increased plate voltage swing. The plate
current is also increased by tlf amount that the screen -grid current is
reduced. Thus the screen dissipation is reduced, the power output is
increased, and efficiency increased. A high value of power sensitivity
is obtained with these tubes.
The characteristics of typical beam -power tubes are as shown in the
table on page 266.
69. Ultra -high -frequency Transmitting Types. Power- amplifier tubes
and oscillator tubes of conventional design show a rapid decrease in power
output and efficiency as the operating frequency is increased in the region
beyond about 50 Mc.
ULTRA -HIGH -FREQUENCY TRANSMITTING TUBES
Maxi- Capacitance,
mum mcro-
7 Type plate ad
Type F.f
cathode dissi-
E, Eei ;I, M Po
mimiero
Bulb Base
pation,
RCA 834 7.5 3.25 JjF

watts
50 1,250 - 225 9010.5 75

- --
G-P G-C P-C
2.6 20.6 S-2I

Medium
1TTI 2 4 pm
WE 304A 7.5 3.25 50 1,250 10011 I.. 2.5 2.00.67 S-21 54 pinco
RCA 1628 3.5 3.25 (F 40 1,000- 65 5023 35 2.0 2.00.4 T -8 Special
TT
WE 316A 2.0 3.5 30 400 75 5.0 ... 1.8 1.0p.75I Special
jTT 1
ITT Special
Experimental
small double
lead (R.E.) tube 1 4 25 300 ..... - . 9 ... 0.9 1.00 .7 Special Special
Water-
RCA 887 11 24 {T} 1,000 ,000- 50040010 800 6.9 2.52 7 cooled Special
anode
Rater -
RCA 888 It 4 {T} 1,000 3,O00- 30040030 800 7 -8 2 82.5 cooled Special
anode
The performance of tubes of this type has been improved and extended
into the u -h -f range by methods of design similar to those used in the
Acorn receiving tubes. The use of short heavy lead wires is effective in
reducing lead inductance. Close spaced electrodes reduce the transit
time of the electrons between the electrodes and permit high mutual
conductance with small cathode area. Small -sized electrodes keep the
electrode capacitance low. Dielectric losses are kept at a minimum by
elimination of the base, by sealing the leads through a good quality of
glass, and by supporting the electrodes with a minimum of dielectric
materials.
Because of the small size and close spacing of the electrodes, these
tubes must be designed to withstand high temperatures or to dissipate a
2onsiderable amount of power on the electrodes in order to obtain a high
Sower rating.
In some types such as the RCA 1628 and the WE 316A this has been
accomplished by the use of special materials, notably tantalum, for the
grid and plate electrodes.
.
Other types such as the RCA 887 and RCA 888 employ a water or
......- -
forced air cooling of a copper anode which forms part of the external
I 'ran:
.... ........
;Z." ' E BU
SeIII
111I1
S
.IIIm
\111111M
M envelope. The grid is made of tan-
talum to withstand high tempera-
ture and is cooled by conduction and
by proximity to the water-cooled
anode.
IIIIIMINIIIIIIIIIIM Employing 60. Ultra- high -frequency Tubes
New Principles of Op-
.:
eration. Various types of u -h -f
3 ....
X100_..
M ::
/ i- IUS
sellinOmMoseglioNmm
iim
tubes have been described in the
literature which employP principles
P
differing in certain respects from
P
ó11111iß 11111 the conventional tubes. Notable

among these are the velocit -modu-
lated tubes, the Klystron, and the
v indulocity mput
Velocity -modulated tubes em-
sa ..... C;;.........
u Not.1
Mpppp p;p
a` xpenmemial
ploy the input signal voltage to
U Y of the elec-
change the velocity
11M
uIII
it1111111 liii...
IlDoub/e4ead
I1 )Tube
B
trons in a constant- current electron
beam. The velocity-modulation is
li lull converted into a current (space
charge) modulation by means of a
drift tube, a retarding field, or de-
50 100 200 300 500 1000 2000 3000
flection. The space-charge modu-
Frequency,megacycles per second
lated current may be utilized with
plate output elec-
F. 35.- Performance capability of a conventional
:aultra or with the newer inductive-
ultra-high-frequency
-high- frequency power tubes. output circuits.
The advantages of velocity modulation are reduced input-loading (no
transit-time loading effect such as occurs at the grid of conventional
tubes) and freedom from critically close -spaced grid electrodes. The
transconductance is, however, much lower than can be obtained with the
conventional control grid.
The inductive -output tubes employ conventional control -grid modula-
tion of the current but direct the beam of electrons through a cavity
resonator in such a manner that the electron beam induces current in
the cavity resonator circuit. The electron beam current is collected at
low voltage, thus keeping (plate) losses at a minimum.
The Klystron tube consists of two cavity resonators, one (input)
arranged to produce a velocity modulation of a constant -current beam
of electrons, the other (output) to absorb energy from the electron beam,
after it has been converted to current modulation.
GAS-FILLED TUBES
There are a variety of useful functions performed by the many types
of gas -filled tubes. These tubes, after evacuation, are filled to a low
pressure with an inert gas such as argon, neon, or krypton or with mercury
vapor.
See. a] VACUUM TUBES 289
There are two principle classes of gas-filled tubes, according to the
type of discharge occurring. In one class a hot cathode emits electrons in
sufficient quantity to carry the current. The gas ions act only to reduce
the space charge, thus allowing a large current to flow with small voltage
drop in the tube. In tubes of the other class is a cold cathode with a self -
sustaining gas discharge, having a high -voltage gradient close to the
cathode and a low-voltage gradient throughout a relatively long positive
column.
Examples of the first class of gas-filled tubes are the hot -cathode mer-
cury- vapor rectifier tubes and the hot-cathode gas-triode tubes known as
thyratrons.
In the second class of gas -filled tubes are the voltage regulator tubes,
the cold-cathode gas rectifier tubes, the cold-cathode gas-triode relay
tubes, and the a-c surge and protector tubes.
For hot -cathode mercury -vapor rectifiers see the section on Rectifiers
and Power-supply Systems.
61. Cold-cathode Gas -filled Rectifiers. Cold- cathode rectifier tubes
for low -power applications are usually filled with an inert gas such as
helium or argon. A starting voltage of a few hundred volts is ordinarily
required to start the discharge. The voltage drop in the tube falls to a
relatively low value when current is flowing, but the voltage drop and
tube losses are higher than for hot -cathode mercury-vapor tubes.
These tubes are used in circuits where the saving in filament power is
important.
It is sometimes necessary to take precautions to avoid radiation of
h -f noise generated by the breakdown surge in the tube. Small chokes in
the plate leads, by-pass condensers from each plate to the transformer
center tap, or a shield around the tube and circuit may be required.
The following are typical cold- cathode rectifiers:
D-c output
Tube Starting Peak Peak

Type Current voltage voltage voltage, plate
Volt- drop per plate current
age average plate to plate Max., nui
Max., Min., max.
ma ma
BR 50 600 200
BH 60 300 1,000 400
BA 180.. 200 1.000 1,000
OZ4G } 75 30 300 i 24 300 1.000 200
82. Negative -grid Gas Triodes. If a grid electrode is introduced

)etween the cathode and anode of a suitably designed gas -filled tube, the
starting of the discharge can be controlled. If the grid is sufficiently
negative completely to cut off all electron flow from the cathode, the gas
n the tube remains in its normally unionized condition.
When the grid voltage is made less negative or the plate voltage more
lositive, a point is reached at which electrons begin to escape. These
mlectrons produce ionization in the gas, which in turn helps more electrons
THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Mee. II
270
to escape so that the process is cumulative. The current builds up

within a few microseconds to a value limited only by the impedance in
the external circuit.
After the gas becomes ionized, the grid ordinarily has no furtherwith
effect
a
on the flow of the plate current. The grid is said to be covered
sheath of positive ions which neutralize the negative field of the grid.
AND
TYPICAL HOT- CATHODE GAS TRIODES (ALSO KNOWN AS THYRATRONS
GRID -GLOW TUBES)
l'late current, ma
Plate volt-
Type E, Ii Type
cathode age maximum
Average I Peak
Negative-grid Gasfilled Tubes
6.3 0.6 2-3 300 300

884 la-CI
2.5 1.4 0 2-3 300 300
885 II-C
2.5 2.25 0 125 500 310
FG-178 F
2.5 6.0 0 400 2,500 170
ELCIA F
2.5 5.0 0 500 2,000 180
FG-81 F
Negative -grid Mercury -vapor Tubes
2.5 6.0 0 100 300 750

KU-636 F
2.5 2.0 0 125 500 1,000
FG-65 F
2.5 5.0 0 500 2,000 2,500
FG-17 F
2.5 6.0 0 640 4,000 2,500
KU-627 F
2.5 6.0 0 640 2,500 10,000
KU-638 F
5.0 7.0 0 2.500 10,000 1,000
FG-27 F
5.0 4.5 1 2,500 15,000 1,000
FG-57 g0 CJ
5.0 11.5 0 4,000 16,000 2,500
KU-628 F
5.0 20. 0 10,000 40,000 2,500
DKU-623 F)
5.0 17.5 12,500 75,000 3,500
FG-29 GH Cl
If the plate current is stopped long enough for exert ionization to subside
(usually about 0.001 sec. or less), the grid will againthe control. Thus,
when a gas triode is used as a (60- cycle) rectifier, output current can
the
be controlled, since the control of the grid is reestablished during
negative half cycle. relating
l'he control characteristic for a gas triode may be a single curveFor large
plate voltage to grid voltage at which the discharge starts.
negative gnd voltages this is usually a straight line, since the ratio of-
Sec. 81
",,
the voltages is nearly constant.
shows appreciable curvature.
,,,,.,
`fo '$o °o
VACUUM TUBES
Near zero grid voltage the characteristic
WO °+Voltage Curves
NEEL
I
FG
Grid Voltage -Anode 3200
-17
Ep= 2.5 Volts A C

3600
2800
2400
2000
1600
1200
rn
v
ó
271
-12 -I1 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -I

Grid Vo tage at Start of Discharge
\\\_ 0 0
800
400
ó
Fla. 36.- Typical mercury -vapor grid -controlled rectifier characteristics.

Mercury -vapor tubes show a different control characteristic curve for
different temperatures of the condensed mercury.
TYPICAL HOT- CATHODE POSITIVE-GRID GAS TRIODES
Plate current, ma
Type E1 j, Type
cathode
Plate volt -
age maximurr
Average l'eak
KU -610 2.5 6.5 F} 400 800 750

FG -33
FG -67
FG -118
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.5
4.5
20.
15,000
H C
H C
H-C}
2,500
2,500
12,500
15,000
75,000
1,000
1,000*
10,000
* Inverter.
COLD-CATHODE GAS- TRIODE TUBES
Plate current, ma A -c starter

A-c plate
Type voltage electrode Remarks
T.M.B. voltage mini -
Average Peak mum peak
0A4-G 25 100 105-130 110 Starts with 55 peak r -f

volts plus 70 peak a-c
volts
F0-157 10 50 220 ... A -c positive control
KÚ-818 15 100 ... Positive control
272 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK 1Sec. S
63. Positive -grid Hot-cathode Gas Triodes. Gas -triode tubes

designed for positive grid control are used in circuits where it is desirable
to eliminate the negative grid voltage. The cathode to grid region is so
Controlled
Circuit
L
L,C High -Q Tuned Circuit fort -f Signal
R! = /5,000 ohms (%z wah9
R2 = 4000 ,.
S =Relay
FIG. 37. -Cold- cathode tube remote-control circuit.
shielded from the anode field in these tubes that a small positive voltage
is required to give the electrons enough velocity to ionize the gas. Owing
to the high grid power required, these tubes are not used so generally as
are the negative -grid tubes.
1000 64. Cold- cathode Gas Triodes.
900 i These tubes are most useful for con-
trolling relays or other applications
where it is desirable to keep the
Ni
800
power consumption low during long
700 stand -by periods.
They are usually designed for
600 , positive -grid control. An electro-
O ,, static impulse picked up on a suit-
> 500
ó443'))
able electrode or a voltage
143)400 developed in a tuned circuit can be
used for control.
2 300 A circuit for remote control by
RiI1UI
200
100
FG-95maim means of h -f impulses over the
power circuit is shown in Fig. 37.
65. Gas Tetrode Tubes. Gas
tetrode tubes have a second grid or
O shield grid. By the use of two
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 grids the current to the control gr'
Control Grid Voltage can be reduced and the sensitivity
of control increased. The start of
Fio. 38.- Characteristics of shield- the discharge in these tubes is de-
grid thyratron. termined by the relative value of
the voltages on the two grids as well as by the plate voltage. The control
characteristics for a tube of this type are shown in Fig. 38.
66. Pool- cathode Tubes. Tubes having a pool of mercury as the
cathode are termed pool- cathode tubes. They are cold- cathode tubes with
a self-sustained discharge. High current densities obtained said in these
tubes produce a low internal voltage drop. The electrons are to be
emitted from the "spot" on the cathode by "field emission" due to the
high voltage gradient occurring close to the cathode surface.
Sec. gl VACUUM TUBES 273
TYPICAL HOT- CATHODE GAS TETRODE TUBES
I'late current, ma Plate voltage peak

Type B/ yy
If cathode
Average I Peak Forward Inverse
Negutive -grid Cas -filled Tubes
2051 6.3 0.6 H e 75 375 350 700

2050 6.3 0.6 H C 100 500 650 1,300
FG-98 2.5 5.0 OF
500 2,000 180 180
FG-154 5.0 7.0 F 2,500 10,000 1,000 1,000
FG-180 5.0 18.0 6,400 25,000 1,000 1,000
F
Negative -grid Mercury-vapor Tubes
FG-97 2.5 .5.0 F} 500 2,000 1,000 1,000

FG-95 5.0 4.5 H-C I 2,500 15,000 1,000 I 1,000
FG-172 5.0 11.0 H-C 6,400 40,000 1,000 1,000
Pool-cathode tubes are used for power installations where high currents
are required. They can be used for spot welders and other apparatus
requiring extremely high peak currents.
With the "immersion starter" (ignitron) type tube the starting of the
discharge can be controlled by means of an electrode of high resistance
material (Carborundum, Glowbar, or Thyrite) immersed in the mercury
pool. Voltage applied to this electrode produces sparking which starts
the main discharge.
POOL-CATHODE IAMitERSION-STARTER TUBES
Current, amperes Voltage peak

Type
Average Peak Forward Inverse
FG-139 15 1,000 1,000 1.000

KU-837 20 1,000 750 750
KU-639 50 2,000 750 750
FG-179 75 5,000 1,000 1,000
67. Surge and Protector Tubes. These tubes are two-electrode gas-
lischarge tubes. They are connected across a line or circuit for protec-
tion against excess voltage. When the voltage exceeds the breakdown
eating of the protector tube, a discharge takes place which limits the
voltage.
The following are typical tubes of this type:

A -c SURGE AND PROTECTOR TUBES
Current, amperes
Type Breakdown
voltage
Average Peak
RI-20 70-160 0.25 200

DKX-642 400 50
68. Ballast Tubes and Voltage Regulator Tubes. A ballast tube or

current regulator tube is used as a resistance connected in series with a
load in which it is desired to maintain constant current. It consists of a
wire filament enclosed in a bulb filled with a gas. The temperature versus
resistance characteristic of the filament is such that ballasting action is
obtained.
Within the limits of its useful operating range a small change in current
is accompanied by a relatively large change in its terminal voltage.
When connected in series with a load, any change in the applied voltage is
absorbed largely by the ballast tube, hence the current and voltage at the
load remain approximately constant. Since it has a limited range of
operation it must be designed for a definite value of current and voltage.
The ballasting action changes slowly and may require several minutes
to reach equilibrium. Consequently it is used for compensating slow
changes, such as line voltage changes occurring during different parts of a
day and not for momentary fluctuations.
Because of the high operating temperature of the bulb, in use the
precaution is usually taken to enclose the ballast tube in a wire gauze
or perforated metal shield (the soft glass bulb may develop a strain,
crack, and explode, especially if it accidentally comes in contact with a
cold metallic object).
TYPICAL BALLAST TUBES
Maximum am- Over -all

voltage range bient temper- dimensions,
Type Current range ature, degrees inches
Fahrenheit
896 0.225-0.275 5 -8 150 Ms X 3 34

7A 0.50 -0.53 3 -10 150 1ÿS6 X 354
B6 0.96 -1.00 15-21 150 1516 X 354
B4 1.24 -1.36 105 -125 150 21N6 X 915
876 1.83 -1.77 40-60 150 25i X 7%
886 1.97 -2.13 40-60 150 25fe X 7%
A voltage regulator tube is a gas -discharge tube. It has in its simplest

form, two electrodes between which a self- maintained gas discharge takes
place. The voltage across the discharge remains approximately constant
for a considerable range of the discharge current.
Sec. 8) VACUUM TUBES 275
When connected in parallel with a load, small variations in the applied
voltage (from a source with sufficient resistance) or changes in the load
current are absorbed by a change in the current in the voltage regulator
tube, its terminal voltage remaining constant.
It is designed for a definite operating voltage. The current must
remain between rated maximum and minimum values. A starting volt-
age somewhat higher than the operating voltage must he exceeded in
order to initiate the discharge.
It is effective in regulating momentary fluctuations as well as for steady
conditions. Because of this rapid response it serves not only to regulate
the voltage but also to by -pass ripple voltage. It is sometimes used in
place of a by -pass condenser at very low frequencies where the size of a
condenser would be prohibitive.
TYPICAL VOLTAGE REGULATOR TUBES
Voltage i Current milliamperes

Over -all
Type dimensions.
Oper- Starting Peak Maxi- Mini- inches
ating minimum mum mum
991
874
48-87
90
87
125
3.0 2.0 0.4 )fi X Ms
50 10 23ie X 59fi
VR 105-30 105 137 30 5 191e X 45fi
VR 150-30 150 180 30 5 1e,1e X 45b
K\-041 110 2 X 8)4
CATHODE -RAY TUBES

A cathode-ray tube is an electron tube in which a beam of electrons
(cathode rays) is focused and deflected so that patterns (wave forms or
pictures) are formed. The patterns may be made visible on a fluorescent
screen such as is employed in an oscillograph or in television viewing
(receiving) tubes, or may be used with mosaics or other means such as are
used in television pickup (transmitting) tubes.
69. Principles of Operation. Early types of cathode-ray tubes
employed gas at a low pressure to assist in focusing the beam and in some
high-voltage types to generate electrons by means of a discharge in the
gas.
In modern high-vacuum tubes the electrons emitted by a thermionic
cathode are focused into a beam by means of either electrostatic or elec-
tromagnetic fields applied at one or more positions along the beam.
Fields applied near the cathode (ordinarily by the electrodes in the
tube) perform the functions of accelerating and controlling the electron
flow, concentrating the electrons into a small area (called the crossover
point), and forming a beam. The beam passes through a final focusing
field which focuses the beam to a spot. By deflection of the beam the
spot is made to move, thus tracing patterns in accordance with the applied
deflecting fields.
The electrode structure from cathode to final focusing field is com-
monly known as the electron gun.
'l'he deflecting fields are usually applied in the region beyond the
electron gun, i.e., between the final focusing field and the screen (or the
surface on which the spot is focused).
For maximum deflection sensitivity the distance from deflecting fields
to screen should be large. Thus the deflecting fields are usually applied
as near to the final focusing field as is permissible without excessive
distortion.
Tubes employing electrostatic fields ordinarily have electrodes for this
purpose within the tube. Voltages applied to the electrode terminals
produce the electrostatic field.
Since electromagnetic fields (low frequency) pass through glass with
negligible distortion, it is most convenient to use external coils for tubes
employing electromagnetic fields. Current through a coil arranged in
the proper position produces the electromagnetic field.
There are available tubes employing electrostatic (final) focusing, elec-
tromagnetic (final) focusing, electrostatic deflection (deflection plates),
electromagnetic deflection (deflection coils), and in some cases a combina-
tion of these.
70. Screen Size. The viewing screen of standard types of cathode-
rav tubes ranges in size from i to 12 in. in diameter. Experimental
tubes ranging up to about 30 in. in diameter have been demon-
strated. Owing to the tremendous atmospheric pressure (14.7 lb. per
square inch) on large bulbs these tubes are sometimes made of metal.
Screen sizes ranging up to 5 in. are commonly used for laboratory
oscillographs or for viewing by two or three persons. For viewing by
larger groups, classroom demonstrations, lectures, etc., a 9-in. or larger
screen is desirable.
71. Screen Material. Screen materials might be classified according to
color of fluorescence, to persistence (which is the time required for the
phosphorescent afterglow to disappear), or to efficiency.
Medium- persistence screens are available in green, yellow, and white
fluorescent colors. The green (willemite) screen is probably most satis-
factory for general use. Its efficiency, including visibility, is high. Sta-
tionary patterns can be readily photographed. The yellow and white
screens are less efficient than the green but are preferred because of color
for television use.
Short -persistence screens of a blue color are used for photographic
recording. The short persistence permits continuous moving -film record-
ing. Ordinary blue -sensitive photographic emulsions can be used with
these screens. Long-persistence screens of a bluish color are useful for
observing the complete trace of a phenomenon that occurs slowly or for
direct comparison of the traces on the screen after the beam deflection
has ceased. Because of the lower intensity of the persistent image it is
viewed best in subdued light.
72. Operating Voltages. The high-voltage supply for (sealed -off high
vacuum) cathode -ray tubes ranges from 250 to 1,000 volts for a few low -
voltage oscillograph tubes and to about 15,000 volts for tubes used for
recording transient phenomena.
For oscillograph tubes, operating voltages of 1,000 to 3,500 volts are
satisfactory for most purposes. Higher voltages are useful when addi-
tional brightness is needed to speed up photographic recording. For
television viewing, voltages of 6,000 to 7,000 volts are commonly used to
increase the brightness and detail of the pictures.
73. Types of Deflection. The electrostatic deflection tubes are used

most for general oscillograph purposes. Since almost negligible power is
required by the deflection plates, they can be connected across almost any
circuit in which it is desired to observe the voltage variations. The
deflection is directly proportional to the voltage.
TYI'IC.AT. CATHODE-RAY TUBES
Deflection
Screen
Grid
Sensitivity cut-
Focus for minimum Anode
Type No. high voltage off
type anode voltage (bias)
(range)
Type volt-
Sise diame- Per- age
ter, inches Color eist- rse
IND,. D,D4.
ence
mm/v mm/v
1803 -P4 12 W M Tel. OS em 6,000- 7.000

1804-P4 9 W M Tel. es em 6.000- 7,000
903 9 G M Os. es em 1,000- 7,000 -120
914 9 G M Os es es-4 0.204 0.260 2,500- 7.000
1800
7AP4
9
7 W
Y M
M
Tel.
Tel.
Ce
ee
em
em
3.001-
3,500
7,000 - 75
904 5 G M Os. es-2-cm 0.40 1,010- 4,600 -140

905 5 G M Os. es es-4 0.38 0.48 1,000- 2,000 -60
907 B S
ri
Photo
oto
ea es-4 0.38 0.48 1,000- 2,000 -60
909 5 B L View es es-4 0.38 0.46 1,000- 2.000 -60
912 5 G M Os. es-4 0.083 0.1025.000-15.000 -125
1801
1802 -P1
5
5
Y
G
M
M
Tel.
Tel.
es
es
es es-4 0.50
2,500- 3,000
0.55 1.200- 2.000
35-
1802 -P4 5 W M Tel. es es-4 0.40 0.44 1,500- 2,000
906/906-P1 3 G M Os. es es-3 0.55 0.58 600- 1.200
906P4 3 W M Tel. es es-3 0.55 0.58 600- 1.200
908 3 B S Os. es es-3 0.55 0.58 600- 1.200
910 3 B L Os. es es-3 0.55 0.58 600- 1.200
911 3 G M Os. es es-3 0.55 0.58 600- 1,200
902
913
2
1 G
G
M
M Os.
Os.
es
es
es-3
es-3
0.28
0.15
0.33
0.21
400 -
250 -
600
500
80
90
--
1849
1850
sin `<434 Iconoscope (fi m)
?is X 434 Iconoscope (d reet)
es
es
em
em
1.200
1,200
-- 30
30
1898
1899
3
5
Monoeeope (Pie.)
Monoecope (500)
es
es
es-3
em
(125) (135) 750- 1,300
1,000- 1.700
-- 70
60
The magnetic deflection tubes are preferred for television work. Good
television pictures can be produced with electrostatic deflection tubes, but
the required deflection voltage is too high when the high -voltage anode
(and screen) is operated above approximately 2,000 volts.
74. Deflection Sensitivity. The deflection sensitivity for the electro-
static types at rated minimum anode voltage ranges from 0.08 to 0.58 mm
per volt. For an anode voltage of 1,000 volts the sensitivities range from
about 38 volts per inch deflection up to 680 volts per inch. Most types
have sensitivities in the range 38 to 80 volts per inch. The sensitivity is
decreased in proportion to the increase in anode voltage.
The deflection sensitivity of magnetic- deflection types depends upon
the ampere turns in the deflecting magnet and upon the length and
arrangement of the coils.
278 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [sec. t
75. Modulation Characteristics. For television applications the

modulation characteristics are important. The beam current should
focus into a spot almost as small as the width of one line in the picture.
The spot size should not change as the beam current is modulated to
change the picture brightness. A value of transconductance which is
high permits small signal voltages from the video amplifier. Electro-
statically focused tubes should have sufficiently good regulation in the
voltage supply for the second (focusing) anode to accommodate the second
anode current modulation without defocusing.
The maximum beam current which can be obtained without the above
effects causing loss of picture detail determines the maximum picture
brightness.
PHOTOELECTRIC TUBES
76. The Photoelectric Effect. Certain metals, notably the alkali
metals, have the property of releasing electrons when irradiated with
light of certain wave lengths, notably the wave lengths corresponding to
the shorter end of the visible spectrum (violet and ultraviolet). This
property is the basis upon which phototubes operate. These are cold -
cathode tubes in which the electron flow is controlled by the intensity of
illumination permitted to fall upon a light-sensitive surface. There are
two types in general use, the high-vacuum tubes and those in which there
is some gas. The latter are more sensitive, but there is not the linear
relation existing between light intensity and current flow that is charac-
teristic of the vacuum types.
Phototubes have found application in sound motion pictures, trans-
lating variations in film density (or a variable area of blackened film) into
sound variations, and in industry where they perform certain control
functions through the medium of a beam of light. In the laboratory
phototubes are often used as a means of measuring intensity of illumina-
tion either for its own sake or as an intermediate method of measuring
some other quantity.
Since phototubes are not used to any extent in radio communication,
they will not be discussed further in this volume. For further data see
Zworykin and Wilson, "Photocells and Their Application," John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.; Henney "Electron Tubes in Industry," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc.; Fink, "Engineering Electronics," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc.
INTERELECTRODE CAPACITANCE
77. Tube -equivalent Network. The capacitances between the grid,
plate, and filament of a triode are illustrated in Fig. 39 and also the
\
G
° r
CgP
F G
il
P
In,Iput
P
Fia. 39.- Interelectrode capacitance network.
equivalent mesh network. These are the direct interelectrode capaci-
tances of the tube. In general, an n- electrode tube has N direct inter-
electrode capacitances, where

N =2(n -1)
The direct interelectrode capacitance is the standard method of specifying
the tube capacitances. It is preferred to the older methods of measure-
ment with one electrode floating or between one electrode and the other
electrodes connected together. Either of these methods leads to results
which are not independent of the particular arrangement of apparatus.
The direct interelectrode capacitance is the same regardless of the type of
measuring circuit. The capacitance of the socket and socket connections
is not included. The tube is usually measured with the cathode cold.
When the cathode is heated and voltages applied, the capacitance may
change a small amount.
F G, 62 P
F
Fia. 40.- Tetrode network.
The three direct capacitances of a triode are grid -plate capacitance
(Con), grid- cathode capacitance (C,1), and plate- cathode capacitance
(Cpl). The grid -plate capacitance allows energy feedback from the
plate to the grid circuit having an important effect on the stability and
Input impedance. The grid -cathode capacitance and the plate- cathode
capacitance shunt the input and output load impedances having some
effect on the tuning or frequency char-
acteristics. G, (Cg,p
The direct interelectrode capacitances 8
of a tetrode are represented in Fig. 40.
Input
The six direct capacitances form a three-
mesh network. When the tetrode is
connected as a screen -grid tube, the F
screen grid G2 is effectively grounded.
The three -mesh network is reduced to Fia. 41.-Equivalent a network
of screen-grid tube.
an equivalent single -mesh triode net-
work. The screen -grid cathode capacitance (C,) is effectively short -
circuited by a large by -pass condenser. The control -grid to screen -grid
capacitance (C,,) ,, is in parallel with the control -grid to cathode capaci-
tance (C1). The screen -grid to plate capacitance (Cp) is in parallel
with the plate-to- cathode capacitance (Co). The equivalent network
is shown in Fig. 41
The capacitances of a screen-grid tube are usually stated as the maxi-
mum grid -plate capacitance (C,,p), the average input capacitance
(Ca,, + CO3o:)
and the average output capacitance (Cpl + u020).

78. Measurement of Interelectrode Capacitance. The direct inter -

electrode capacitance can be measured with the bridge circuit of Fig. 42.
The electrodes to be measured are connected to terminals AB. The
remaining electrodes and any shields are connected to ground terminal G.
When the bridge is balanced, the capacitance is
RRIC
CAB = Cup =
The resistance R corrects the phase and balances the effect of the capaci-
tance across R2.
Any leakage resistance RAB across CAB will cause an error. If the
leakage resistance RAB is known, the capacitance CAB is given by the
relation
RaC 1
CAB
Rs ws(RaC )=RIAB
Rs
For example if (R1C /Rs) = 5.0 µµf, the frequency is 1,000 cycles, and
RAB is 100 megohms; the correction factor is approximately 0.95 and
CAB = 4.75 µµf.
A 79. Radio- frequency M e t h o d. An r -f
method of measuring the direct interelectrode
capacitances is shown schematically in Fig.
43. The r-f oscillator supplies sufficient volt-
a age to cause a current through C2 which
Cp r
) s
V° ¡1 7CG
ó CT:
FIG. 42.- Measurement of Flo. 43.- Method of measuring tube
tube capacitances. capacitances.
can be measured with the thermocouple TC. The capacitance C1 does
not affect the measured current if the voltage E is held constant. The
reactance of capacitance Cs is high with respect to the low -resistance
thermocouple. The indicating microammeter I has one side grounded.
An r-f choke L and by-pass condenser C keep r-f currents out of the
meter I. When the voltage E and current I are known, the capacitance
Cs is given by
C2 = É
If a standard variable capacitance of slightly greater range than Cs is
available, a substitution method can be used. The standard capacitance
is connected across C2. It should be enclosed in a grounded
g shield. The
small capacitance to the shield is in parallel with and Cs. 1
In use, the meter reading I is noted with the tube in place. The tube is
t hen removed, and the standard capacitance is increased until the same
meter reading I is obtained. The difference in the two readings of the
See. el VACUUM TUBES 281
standard capacitance is the value of the tube capacitance C2. The r-f
voltage E should be constant. The absolute value of the voltage and
current need not be known. A thermocouple with a filter and meter
connected in series with a small capacitance across the oscillator terminals
can be used as the voltage indicator.
80. Grid -plate Capacitance of Screen -grid Tubes. The direct grid-
plate capacitance of screen-grid tubes is a small fraction of a micro-
microfarad. Bridge measurements are not generally satisfactory. The
r-f substitution method is convenient for this purpose. Figure 44 is the
schematic circuit. C is a standard capacitance having a range equal to
44.- Measurement of screen -grid plate-grid capacitance.

the range of capacitances to be measured. Coaxial cylinder capacitors
can be constructed accurately covering an extremely small capacitance
range. The thermocouple current indicator should be replaced with a
sensitive indicator such as a tube rectifier or carborundum crystal. The
plate of the tube should be shielded from the grid. A balancing tube T2
of the same type as the tube T1 being measured serves to maintain the
tube input capacitance load on the oscillator. The low- capacity switch S
is first thrown to the tube T1 under test, and the reading of the meter
noted. The switch is then thrown to the balance tube T2 and the stand-
ard condenser C adjusted to give the same reading on the meter. The
grid -plate capacitance is equal to the change in the standard capacitance.
81. Receiving Tube Bases. The bases of all standard types of receiv-
ing tubes fit one of the following types of sockets:
WD 4 -pin.
Small nub 4 -pin.
4-pin.
5-pin.
6-pin.
7-pin small.
7-pin medium.
Octal.
Lock-in types (trade names Loktal and Octalox).
Button-base.
The WD 4 -pin (used on type 11) and the small nub 4 -pin (used on type
V99) types are now practically obsolete.
The 4 -pin socket accommodates the small 4 -pin base, the medium 4 -pin
base, and the tapered small 4 -pin base.
The 5-pin socket is used for both the small 5-pin base and the medium
5-pin base.
The 6-pin socket holds the small 6 -pin base and t he median. 6-pin base.
The 7-pin small-type base requires a 7 -pin small -type socket.
The 7 -pin medium-type base has its pins arranged in a larger diameter
circle than the 7 -pin small base and requires a 7 -pin medium socket.
The Octal base (first used on metal tubes) has eight equally spaced pins
arranged around a central locating lug. On tube types requiring less
than 8 pins, some pins may be omitted, but the positions of the other pins
remain unchanged. Thus all Octal -base tubes fit the same Octal socket.
The small wafer Octal, the intermediate -shell Octal, the dwarf-shell Octal, the
small -wafer Octal with sleeve, the small -shell Octal, and the medium-shell
Octal bases all fit the same type Octal socket.
Lock-in type bases (trade names Loktal and Octalox) have a central
locating lug with provision for locking the tube in the socket. The eight
small pins are equally spaced, with pins omitted when not needed. Spe-
cial constructional features are employed in various types of these tubes,
although they can be used in the same lock-in type socket.
The button base is an especially small base designed for use on miniature
tubes. There are seven small pins which are usually molded directly into
the glass. The pins are not equally spaced, thus assuring correct position
in the button-base type socket.
The cap connection used on some screen -grid tubes may be either the
small cap used on types such as the 24, 57, etc., or the miniature cap such
as is used on metal -type tubes.
The skirted -miniature cap requires the same size connection as the
miniature cap.
References
CARSON, J. R.: A Theoretical Study of the Three-element Vacuum Tube, Proc. I.R.E.,
April, 1919.
DUSHMAN, S.: Gen. Elec. Rev., 10, 156, 1915.
. Thermionic Emission. Rev. Modern Phya., 2, October, 1930.
, and J. W. EWALD: Graphs for Calculation of Electron Emission from
Tungsten,
Thoriated Tungsten, Molybdenum, and Tantalum, Gen. Elec. Rev., 26, No. 3,
March, 1923.
H. N. RowE, J. EWALD, and C. A. KtDNER: Phya. Rev., 25, 343, 1925.
Fey, T. C.: Potential Distribution between Parallel Plane Electrodes, Phys. Rev., 17,
441, 1921; 22, 445, 1923.
GROSZaowsai, J.: "Les lampes it plusieurs électrodes," Etienne Chiron, éditeur, Paris,
1927.
"International Critical Tables." McGraw -Hill Book Company, Inc.
KING, R. W.: Calculation of the Constants of the Three -electrode Vacuum Tube, Phya.
Rev., 15. No. 4, 256, 1920.
KoSUNosE, Y.: Calculation of Characteristics and the Design of Triodes, Proc. I.R.E.,
October. 1929.
LANOMUIR, I.: Emission from Thoriated Tungsten Filaments, Phya. Rev., 22, 357, 1923.
: Phya. Rev., 7, 151, 302, 1916.
Phys. Rev., 34, 401. 1912.
The Effect of Space Charge and Residual Gases on Thermionic Currents in
High Vacuum, Phys. Rev.. 2, No. 6, 1913.
and KARL T. Coau'ros: Electrical Discharges in Gases. Rev. Modern Phys.,
8, April, 1931.
LLEWELLVN, F. B.: Operation of Thermionic Vacuum Tube Circuits, Bell System Tech.
Jour.. 5, July, 1926.
PETERSON, E., and H. P. EVANS: Modulation in Vacuum Tubes Used as Amplifiers,
Bell System Tech. Jour., 6, July, 1927.
RICHARDSON, O. W.: "The Emission of Electricity from Hot Bodies," Longman, Green
& Co.. 1921.
"Smithsonian Physical Tables," 1927, p. 403.
THOMSON, J. J.: "Conduction of Electricity through Gases," 3d ed., Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1928.
VAN DER RIP., H. J.: "The Thermionic Vacuum Tube," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc.. 1920.
VouaES, F. B., and F. R. ELDER: Formulas for the Amplification Constant for Three -
electrode Tubes in Which the Diameter of Grid Wires Is Large Compared to the
Spacing, Phya. Rev., 14, December. 1924.
WARNER, J. C.: Some Characteristics and Applications of Four -electrode Tubes, Prot,
I.R.E., April, 1928,
SECTION 9
VACUUM -TUBE OSCILLATORS
BY ROBERT I. SARBACHER, SCD.1
1. Classification of Oscillators. A vacuum -tube oscillator is usually
defined as a device which converts power obtained from a d -c source into
alternating power. Some of the principal types of vacuum -tube oscilla-
tors are listed below.
1. Feedback oscillators.
2. Negative -resistance oscillators.
3. Beat- frequency oscillators (heterodyne).
4. Magnetostriction oscillators.
5. Relaxation oscillators.
6. Magnetron oscillators.
7. Klystron oscillators.
8. Barkhausen -Kurtz oscillators.
9. Mechanical -electronic oscillators.
It is customary to classify oscillators into two groups. The first group
is characterized by a definite frequency and by nearly sinusoidal voltage.
When such a system is started from rest, it will complete a large number of
oscillations before reaching the steady state in which each cycle is iden-
tical with the preceding one. The members of this group may he called
harmonic oscillators and include all the members of the above list except
the relaxation oscillators.
Characteristics of the second group are rather indefinite frequency and
extremely non sinusoidal operation. When systems of this type are
started from rest, they may reach the steady state in a very few cycles.
Such oscillators are referred to as relaxation oscillators.
The harmonic oscillators which comprise the first group are of greater
importance and find much wider application than do the relaxation oscil-
lators of the second group. The latter are seldom used directly in com-
munication circuits. The frequency is not very definitely fixed by the
circuit. elements and so is relatively easily controlled by an external
influence.
A system will not oscillate unless the various elements are properly
proportioned, even if the configuration is correct. Fundamentally this
means that, unless as much energy is delivered to the oscillatory circuit
through the tube as is dissipated in each cycle, the oscillations cannot be
maintained. For any system to oscillate stably at a definite amplitude, it
is necessary that it involve some non -linearity.' In some cases the nature
of the non -linearity is not obvious, but the effect is always there. The
source of the non -linearity may be in the tube, in the resonant circuit, or
Illinois Institute of Technology,
T Chicago.
+ Ls CORBSiLLER, P., I.E.E., Wireless Sec., 11. 292. 1936.
2S3
284 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec
in a special control circuit. In any system in which the tube itself is

non -linear, the stabilization is necessarily accompanied by the generation
of harmonic currents and voltages, although the effect of these may be
reduced by highly selective resonant circuits.
When extremely accurate frequency control is required, low- powered
oscillators are used because it is then less difficult to meet the conditions
required by a high degree of frequency stabilization. One or more buffer
amplifiers may be used under these circumstances to meet the power
requirements of the particular application. When frequency stability is
not particularly important, high -power oscillators may be used, with
which tube efficiencies approaching 90 per cent may be obtained.
2. Feedback Oscillators. Oscillations may be generated with an
amplifier that is connected so as to supply its own input voltage in the
correct phase and magnitude. This is possible since the power required
to supply the input voltage to the amplifier tube is much less than the
amplifíed output. Oscillators operating in this way may be classed as
feedback oscillators. Circuits which may be used for this purpose are
shown in Fig. 1. It can be shown that, in general, the alternating voltage
fed back to the grid of the oscillator tube should be 180 deg out of phase
with the alternating voltage across the plate terminals of the tube. The
voltage fed back to the grid must further have an amplitude sufficient
to develop the output power necessary to maintain this voltage. In
the tuned-plate, tuned -grid, and Meissner oscillators, Figs. la, lb and
lc, this is achieved through mutual induction between the plate and grid
circuits. In the Hartley and Colpitts oscillator circuits, Figs. ld and le,
the grid voltage is obtained by applying a portion of the voltage developed
in the resonant circuit to the grid. In the tuned-plate tuned -grid circuit,
Fib lf, the energy necessary to develop the grid voltage is fed back to the
grid circuit through the plate-grid capacity of the tube.
The frequency at which oscillation occurs approximates very nearly the
frequency of the resonant circuit associated with the oscillator. In the
case of the Meissner and tuned -plate tuned-grid oscillators it may be
shown that, since these circuits have more than one resonant branch, they
may operate at either of two frequencies when the coupling between the
two circuits exceeds a critical value.
One of the most popular oscillator circuits is the Hartley. This popu-
larity is due partly to the fact that the criterion of oscillation is not at all
critical. The amplitude of oscillation is easily controlled by adjustment
of the tap on the oscillator coil. For the generation of low audio fre-
quencies, with good wave form, the Hartley oscillator is particularly
suitable. This is because the resonant circuit condenser shunts both the
coils Ln and Lp and hence gives a lower frequency of oscillation for a given
total inductance than either the tuned -plate or tuned -grid oscillators.
The Colpitts oscillator is less convenient to operate as a variable fre-
quency oscillator since it is necessary to vary both Co and C, in order to
maintain oscillations. However, with this type of oscillator the imped-
ance of both the plate and grid circuits to harmonics is quite low since
these circuits are shunted by the condensers C,,, and C,,, respectively.
This low- impedance path for the harmonic currents results in a reduction
in the harmonic voltages generated in the system and hence improves
the wave form.
Any of these fundamental oscillator circuits may be modified to employ
two tubes in push -pull or in parallel. With parallel operation, parasitic
Sec. 9) VACUUM-TUBE OSCILLATORS 285
oscillation which may be developed must he suppressed (see Radio-

frequency Amplifier Section). With push -¡all operation the harmonic
content is decreased and the frequency stability increased over that of
f ,1
ZIT LC
Cc = CB Cc Ca f =? LC
(a)-Tuned grid oscillator (b) -Tuned plate oscillator
CB
27C
v-11
TC f 1
VC(Lp+Ly2M)
t
(c)- Meissner oscillafor (d)-Hartley oscillator
Rc B LB
C0---1
Cc
a la l
Cy
0000000000000050000000000
L f-21r LCpC9
1 CP+C9
(e)- Colpitts oscillator (f)-Tuned -plate tuned -grid

FIG. 1. -Types of feedback oscillator circuits.
the single -tube circuits. Push -pull operation of oscillators is particularly
advantageous at high frequencies.
When the plate supply voltage is connected in series with the plate
inductances, t he connection is called series feed (see Figs. la, lb, lc, lf).
When the plate -supply voltage is connected through a choke coil to the
plate of the oscillator tube and the oscillating circuit is connected through
a blocking condenser to the plate, the connection is called parallel feed

(see Figs. ld, le). In practice it is usually desirable to employ parallel
feed since with this type of connection the resonant circuit is isolated
from the d -c supply voltage.
Fixed bias is rarely used in feedback oscillators. Resistance bias, as
shown, is almost always used in order that the oscillator be self- starting
and that stable operation, as is discussed in Art. 14, he ensured.
3. Frequency Stabilization. 1. Causes of Frequency Variation. There
are three major causes which contribute to undesired frequency varia-
tion.' These are a result of changes in (a) tube characteristics, (b) circuit
parameters, and (c) mechanical arrangements of the oscillating system
resonant circuit.
Changes in the tube characteristics result in general from changes in
(a) plate potential, (b) grid potential, (c) filament potential, (d) filament
emission due to causes other than (c) (such as disintegration of the fila-
ment), (e) changes in spacing of tube elements, and (f) interruptions
(keying) of the circuit.
Changes in the values of circuit parameters result from (a) changes in
temperature of inductances, (b) changes in temperature of capacitances,
and (c) changes in power taken from oscillator.
Changes in the mechanical arrangement of the circuit elements may be
caused by (a) vibration, (b) electromagnetic force, (c) electrostatic force,
and (d) temperature.
2. Methods of Preventing Frequency Variation. The plate and grid
polarizing potentials may be stabilized by employing voltage- regulating
devices. Since the oscillator tube is usually operated so that there is an
abundant space charge in the neighborhood of the filament, slight varia-
tions in heater voltage and cathode emission have a small effect. The
spacing of the electrodes, which may vary slightly with tube temperature,
affects the interelectrode capacities. This effect may be minimized by
the choice of a larger capacitance in the resonant circuit and the use of
circuits in which the resonant circuit capacitance shunts the capacity
between the plate and grid. At higher frequencies, where the resonant
circuit capacitance becomes of the same order of magnitude as the plate -
grid capacitance, this effect is increased.
Changes in the values of circuit parameters such as those caused by
temperature variation of inductance and capacitance can be reduced by
(a) temperature- controlled compensating inductances, and (b) tempera-
ture- controlled compensating condensers.'
It can be shown that the frequency of oscillation will be affected by
changes in load unless the power output can be taken from the system
without changing the current in the inductance.' The use of buffer
amplifiers or electron coupling makes it possible to prevent changes in
load from affecting the frequency. Electron coupling is discussed in
Art. 30.
By careful mechanical and electrical design it is possible to reduce the
effects caused by vibration.
Rather than attempt to prevent the variation of the tube character-
istics in oscillators in which a high degree of frequency stability is required,
' Guam, R., Proc.I.R.E., 18, 1560, 1930; LLEWELLYN, Proc. I.R.E., 19, 2063, 1931.
Goxx, R., Proc. I.R.E., 18, 1565, 1930; GRIFFITH &, W. H., Wireless Eng., 11, 234.
1934.
a REICH, H.J. "Theory and Application of Electron Tubes," p. 332, McGraw -Hill
Book Company, Inc., 1939.
Sec. 91 VACUUM -TUBE OSCILLATORS 287
we may design them in such a way that the variation of these factors does
not affect the frequency of oscillation. The principal methods of doing
this are by the use of the following:
1. Piezoelectric crystals.
2. Magnetostriction rods.
3. Selection filters.
4. Resistance stabilization.
5. Reactance stabilization.
6. Bridge stabilization.
4. Piezoelectric Crystal Oscillators. Oscillators which have the high-
est frequency stability are those which are controlled by crystals. This
control is based upon the piezoelectric effect, which is a means by which a
mechanical motion is coupled to an electric circuit. When a piezoelectric
material is compressed or stretched in certain directions, electric charge
appears on the surfaces of the material that are perpendicular to the axis
of strain. Conversely, when such a material is placed between two
metallic surfaces and a potential difference applied to them, mechanical
strains are set up within the crystal. The amplitude of the voltage
produced by mechanical strain may vary from a fractional voltage to
several hundred volts.
There are a number of crystalline substances which exhibit this piezo-
electric effect; among them are quartz, Rochelle salts, and tourmaline.
Of these, quartz is used almost exclusively for controlling the frequency
of oscillators because it is mechanically rigid, inexpensive, and has a low
temperature coefficient. Tourmaline is sometimes used (although it is
more expensive than quartz) because it may he ground to a smaller size
and, therefore, have a higher resonant frequency. When crystals are
used in electric circuits, they are cut into liars, slabs, and other geometric
configurations which hear certain relations to the crystal structure.
The frequency at which the crystals vibrate is determined principally by
their physical dimensions. Articles 5, 6, 7, and 8 of this section describe
the crystals, crystal cuts, methods of temperature control, and methods
of mounting.
There are many circuits in which piezoelectric crystals are employed;
two representative circuits are shown schematically in Fig. 2; these have
been designed by Pierce.' Others are described in more detail in later
sections. Analysis of circuits containing crystals is greatly simplified by
replacing the crystal with its equivalent electric circuit.' This equivalent
circuit represents the crystal as a series resonant circuit, consisting of a
condenser inductance and resistance shunted by the capacitance of the
holder. Care must be taken in the choice of the biasing resistor Rr,
shown in the circuits of Fig. 2, since this resistance, in addition to its
function of controlling the grid polarizing potential, also controls the
a.c. which flows through the crystal. If this current exceeds the safe
operating value for the crystal,3 the crystal may vibrate so violently as
to shatter itself.
1 Credit is due G. W. Pierce on many crystal oscillator circuits which have been
accredited to others. See his patenta U. S. 1789496, filed February, 1924, and U. S.
2133642 through U. S. 2133648 filed between 1926 and 1931.
' VAN DYKE, K. S., Proc. I.R.E., 16, 742, 1928; and MASON, 1W'. I'., Proc. I.R.E., IS,
1252, 1935.
In general, the safe operating valise for the current through the crystal may be set
approximately at 109 ma. for -f crystals and about one-half this value for crystals
1
operating above 1 Mc.

If the plate circuit of Fig. 2a is inductive, the effective input conduct-

ance of the tube is negative, and oscillations may be set up in a resonant
circuit connected between grid and filament. To keep the plate resonant
circuit inductive, it must be tuned to a frequency slightly higher than that
of the crystal. In the circuit of Fig. 2b, the crystal is connected between
the plate and grid of the oscillator tube. This circuit will oscillate only
when the plate circuit is capacitative, and hence the natural frequency
of the plate resonant circuit must be slightly lower than that of the
crystal.
The resonant curve of a crystal is extremely sharp, and it is this char-
acteristic of the crystal that makes it suitable for use in controlling the
frequency of oscillators. The standard measure of the sharpness of
resonance of a crystal or an electrical circuit is usually denoted by Q and
is numerically equal to the ratio of the total inductive reactance to the
total effective resistance of an os-
cillating circuit. The selectivity
Q of the equivalent circuit of a
crystal is of the order of magni-
tude of one hundred times that
which can be attained with or-
(a) (b) dinary inductances and capaci-
Fin. 2. -Types of piezoelectric crystal- tances. In view of this high
controlled oscillators, selectivity, the crystal can oscil-
late over only a very narrow
frequency range. With temperature-controlled crystals, frequency vari-
ations of as little as ±2 parts in 10' are not uncommon. With a special
circuit described in Art. 13, short -time frequency drift may be kept within
±6 parts in 1010.
The output of crystal oscillators may vary from a fraction of a watt to
several hundred watts. In applications where extremely constant fre-
quency is required, the oscillators are usually designed for low power
output, and one or more buffer amplifiers are used. In this way the
crystal current may be kept small and the heating effects due to it mini-
mized. The buffer amplifier also greatly reduces the effect on the oscillator
of variations in load. With modern high -gain pentodes, operating in
crystal -controlled circuits, reasonably good frequency stability at high
power output may be obtained. This stability is usually sufficient for
the requirements of amateur communication.
The frequency of negative resistance oscillators may also be controlled
by the use of crystals.'
5. Piezoelectric Crystals.2 The occurrence of quartz crystals (the
most commonly used of the piezoelectric materials) in the natural state is
quite generally known. These crystals, while rarely symmetrical in
form, have the general shape of a hexagonal prism, sometimes surmounted
on the ends by a hexagonal pyramid. A cross section of a symmetrical
crystal is shown in Fig. 3. In this diagram the electric axes (so called
because the greatest piezoelectric activity is observed in the direction of
these axes) are represented by the lines XX, X'X', and X "X ". The
other axes, YY, Y'Y', and Y"Y ", have been given the name "mechanical
axes." Through the point O, perpendicular to the plane of the page,
MacKINxox. K. A., Proc. I.R.E., 90, 1689. 1932.
1 See References at end of section.
Sec. 81 VACUUM-TUBE OSCILLATORS 189
passes the optic axis (Z-axis) of the crystal. Sections or plates are cut
from the crystal for use as highly selective circuit elements.
Crystals cut perpendicular to the X -axis are called X -cut, and crystals
cut perpendicular to the Y-axis are called Y -cut or 30 -deg. cut (see Fig. 4).
Although both the X -cut and Y -cut have been used extensively, they are
now largely superseded by more modern
cuts which greatly improve the perform- Y
ance of crystals. X' X"
6. Piezoelectric Crystal Cuts. One of
the objections to the X- and Y -cut crys- Yri
tals is their large temperature coefficient,
-
amounting to -10 to 25 parts per mil-
lion per degree centigrade for the X-cut,
and +100 to -20 parts per million per X
degree centigrade for the Y-cut. When
they are used as frequency- control ele-
ments, provision must be made to keep
their temperature constant. Also these
plates often exhibit discontinuous fre-
quency-temperature characteristics. X" X'
This characteristic of the Y-cut plate Y
can be improved by suitable grinding, FIG. 3.- Quarts crystal cross
while the X -cut plate cannot be im- section.
proved, and may often he inoperative at the desired frequency of operation.
From the statement above regarding the range of the temperature
coefficient for the Y-cut plate, it might seem possible to get a plate having
a zero temperature coefficient. Morrison' found this to be the case for
the so- called ring or doughnut plate when operated at a temperature of
approximately 40 °C. (see Fig. 6). This plate is, however, very difficult
Y y
Fia. 4.-X- and l'-cuts.

to grind and therefore expensive. Moreover, it exhibits a number of
spurious resonances near the desired frequency.
More recent work has resulted in the discovery of a number of plates
which overcome most of the difficulties encountered with those plates
MARRIBON, W. A., Proc. I.R.E., 17, 1103, 1929, and Bell System Teel,. Jour.. 8, 493,
1929
290 THE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDBOOK [Sec.
mentioned above. These plates are obtained by cutting the crystal in

such a way that at least two faces of the plate are not perpendicular to the
crystallographic axes. Some of these plates are considered below.
Z Optical
axis
+B-.
07
Y-Cut
_- 'B=0°
Z Cut
9= 90°
_-
67,0=-49°__...
D7',0=-53°
AT,6=+dS°
'CT,6=+JB°
Y
Mechanical
axis
Fro. 5.- Orientation of crystal cuts with respect to the crystallographic axes.
m
30
C
.
2
-
D.
-~
S0
20
IO
Oil-
111
t IRE
LAR\1,rIif
AT
N
.
GT
.E IO
s -20
VA°° hnu
V
c -30
E. 40
-50
MI ,>(
'1st.
bee;
alónqX axis
harmonic
-2nd. harmonic
i I i
'
'
NI NE ii: FT
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 1 100
Temperature, deg. C.
for different crystal cuts.
Fla. 6. -The temperature coefficient of frequency Jour.)
(Courtesy of Bell System Tech.
Two cuts which are suitable for operation above 500 ice are the AT and
BT cuts. These have a zero temperature coefficient when operated at
temperatures of approximately 45 °C. and 25 °C. (see Fig. 6).
See. 91 VACUUM -TUBE OSCILLATORS 291
The AT plate is obtained by cutting the crystal at an angle of rotation

about the X-axis of 35 deg. (see Fig. 5). The BT plate is obtained at an
angle of -49 deg. as indicated.
When the thickness of the AT and BT plates is increased to obtain
lower operating frequencies (below about 500 kc), difficulties arise due to
coupled modes of vibration. Even though elastic coupling between
desired and undesired modes of vibration in these plates is small, it
becomes important when the frequencies approach one another, as is the
case when the thickness dimension becomes comparable with the other
dimensions. To avoid the use of unusually large plates of quartz for
lower frequency operation, two new types of quartz crystal elements have
been developed. These are known as the CT and DT plates and are
directly related to the h -f low- temperature-coefficient AT and BT plates.
The temperature coefficient of frequency of these new plates may be made
zero by operating them at a suitable temperature, as indicated in Fig. 6.
These CT and DT plates are useful as stabilizing elements for oscillators
operating between 50 and 500 kc.
The ET and FT crystal cuts have zero temperature coefficients at
higher temperatures than those discussed above. Their useful range,
which is from 100 to 1,000 kc, extends to higher frequencies than that
of the CT and DT plates. This is because they operate at a harmonic
of the fundamental vibration.
The most recently announced crystal, called the GT cut,' has a constant
frequency over a very wide temperature range. As can be seen in
Fig. 6, die shape of the temperature- frequency curve is different from
that of the other special cuts. The superiority of this cut, particularly
when temperature control is not used, is evident. The GT cut is very
satisfactory at frequencies near 100 ke.
There is no definitely established frequency limit for quartz plates;
the practical limits are being constantly extended. Plates have been
used at 20 Mc, and a 1 -kc quartz bar has been reported. Quartz plates
are rarely called upon to control more than a few watts directly; higher
powers are controlled by amplifying the output of the crystal stage.
Several other materials which assume a more or less well- defined
crystalline form have been investigated as possibilities for piezoelectric
elements. Among these may be mentioned tourmaline and Rochelle
salt. The Rochelle salt crystals have, in general, been discarded,
although they have found applications in loud-speakers, microphones,
and phonograph pickups.
Tourmaline, while it is practically as good as quartz over a great
frequency range -and somewhat better than quartz in the range from
about 3 to 30 Mc -has the disadvantage of being a semiprecious stone;
its cost is, in consequence, out of proportion to its usefulness.
Beyond the range where crystals exert satisfactory control, i.e., about
30 Mc at the present time, special resonant circuits of extremely high
selectivity may be used as frequency- control elements (see Art. 23).
7. Temperature Control of Piezoelectric Crystals. Since the resonant
frequency of all crystals, particularly of the X- and Y -cuts, changes with
temperature, it is necessary, if a high degree of frequency stability is
required, to make some provision to keep the temperature of the crystal
constant. In some cases, where every possible precaution is taken to
MASON, W. P., Bell System Teel, Jour., 19, 74, 1940.
prevent frequency variation, the associated electrical circuit as well as

the crystal is maintained at a constant temperature.
Electric ovens suitable for temperature control of crystals are usually
designed after the principles given by Marrison., These principles involve
the thermal conductivity of the material of which the oven is made, the
ambient -temperature range, and the temperature coefficient of the quartz
plate.
Briefly stated, the problem is one of accurately determining the tem-
perature at which it is desired to maintain the plate and of causing any slight
deviation from this temperature to actuate suitable thermostatic devices,
which in turn cause more or less current to flow through the heater asso-
ciated with the oven.
An example of such a control chamber is given by Marrison as follows:
"It consists of a cylindrical aluminum shell with a wall about one inch
thick, with a heater, and with a temperature -responsive element in the wall
to control the rate of heating. The aluminum shell has a metal plug that
screws into the open end forming a chamber for the crystal which is then
completely closed except for a small hole for electrical connections.
"Since aluminum is a good thermal conductor the shell equalizes the tem-
perature throughout the chamber and thus avoids the use of a fluid bath.
The main heating coil is wound in a single layer over the whole curved
surface of the aluminum cylinder, being separated from it only by the neces-
sary electrical insulation. Auxiliary heating coils are wound also on the
ends so as to distribute the heating as uniformly as possible. This, in effect,
makes the short cylinder behave like a section from an infinite cylinder. To
protect the thermostat from the effect of ambient temperature gradients the
heating coil has an outside covering consisting of four layers each of thin
felt and sheet copper spirally wound so that alternate layers are of copper
and felt, the innermost layer being of felt and the outer one of copper. . . .
This covering is very effective in reducing surface gradients since the con-
ductivity in directions parallel to, and perpendicular to, the surface differ
by a large ratio."
The thermostat used with these constant- temperature chambers is gen-
erally the mercury- column type. This is essentially a thermometer in which
contact wires have been fused. At the point on the scale where the operating
temperature is located, the glass stem has been drawn out; i.e., if the device
is to function at, say 35 °C., the stem of the thermometer is constricted and
elongated between about 34.5° and 35.5 °. One of the contact wires is fused
through the glass at the 35° point; the other wire making contact with the
mercury at the bulb. This elongation of the stem over a range of 1° or so
causes the mercury column to move an appreciably greater distance per frac-
tion of a degree change in temperature.
This type of regulator is very sensitive to minute temperature changes but
is expensive, fragile, and cannot carry any appreciable current. For this
latter reason, it is customary to utilize the regulator simply to change the
grid bias on a vacuum tube; the tube plate circuit includes the winding of a
relay which operates with small changes of plate current. This relay, which
is generally too small to handle the heater current, actuates still another
relay to open or close the heater circuit.
With the advent of the new crystal cuts, the temperature coefficient of
frequency is so low that temperature control is normally not required. Some
types of service, notably aircraft radio, where ambient temperatures may
range from -40°C. to +40 °C., still require some kind of temperature regu-
lation, but the requirements are satisfactorily met with a more or less con-
ventional heating chamber and an ordinary bimetallic thermostat.
8. Mountings for Piezoelectric Crystals. There are, in general, two
types of crystal holders: those in which the crystal plate is firmly clamped,
TIARRIBON, W. A., Proc. I.R.E., 18, 971. 1928. Also see ('LAPP. J. K., Proc. I.R.A..,
8. 2003. 1930.
Sec. !I VACUUM -TUBE OSCILLATORS 293
and those employing an air gap between the plate and one of the elec-
trodes. In recent high -precision work, crystals with the electrodes
directly plated on them have been used. The holders for plated crystals
are relatively simple contacting devices.
The use of a holder with an adjustable air gap permits slight adjust-
ments in frequency to be made. It is preferable, however, in applications
requiring the oscillator frequency to be definitely fixed, that the holder
clamp the crystal securely. For laboratory use in frequency standards,
an air gap may be of considerable value. In some circuits the frequency
may be more advantageously varied by connecting a suitable reactance
element in series or shunt with the crystal.
While the actual construction of crystal holders is beyond the scope of
this discussion, it may be pertinent to point out some of the requirements
which must be met by the holder.
These may be enumerated briefly as follows:
1. The electrode surfaces must be lapped perfectly flat and must be entirely
free of oil and dirt.
2. The electrodes must be made from metal which will not corrode.
3. Where an air gap is employed, means should be provided for clamping
the movable electrode after the final adjustment has been made.
4. Some type of construction is generally necessary which will prevent
lateral motion of the plate: this may be accomplished by enclosing the plate
and electrodes in close -fitting cases of suitable insulating material.
5. The entire assembly should be made dustproof and evacuated if possible.
The methods by means of which the electrodes are plated directly on
the quartz are known as the sputtering and evaporation processes. Mr.
H. W. Weinhart of the Bell Telephone Laboratories has prepared the
following description of the technique used in these processes. He states:
" Films of metal can be deposited on quartz by sputtering or evaporating
on the material. Some metals sputter much more readily than others, for
example, gold, silver and platinum films can be deposited at a greater rate
than aluminum. Metals that sputter slowly, are therefore, usually plated
on by the evaporation process.
"Sputtering is a process involving the releasing of atomic particles of metal
by electron and ion bombardment in a gas. The usual method, when plating
with air as the gas, is to place the material on which the metal film is to be
deposited in a bell jar with a vacuum pump attached. A cathode of the metal
to be plated,is mounted about 1'z in. above the recipient, and a small leak
valve that can be regulated, is attached to the apparatus, together with an
aluminum anode located in the tube connection for vacuum pumping.
"The system is pumped out., with the leak adjusted to maintain a pressure
of 0.06 nun of mercury. If a potential of about 1,900 volts is applied between
the anode and cathode, through a suitable resistance, the gas in the chamber
is ionized and the cathode is bombarded. The atomic particles of metal
released from the cathode surface diffuses as a gas and a metallic film is
deposited on the quartz.
"Evaporation of metal for the deposition of metal films on quartz is a
process in which a vacuum chamber is used that can be pumped out to main-
tain a pressure of 10 -4 to 10 -4 mm of mercury. The evaporation unit can
be in the form of a wavy wire, and made from tungsten 1/20,000 in. in diam-
eter wound in a close spiral, one eighth inch in diameter, and then stretched
to form wide pitch spiral turns.
" Wire, 1 /10,000 in. in diameter, of the metal to he plated, is cut into short
lengths and formed into hairpin shape. One piece is placed in each depression
in the tungsten wire.
" When the proper pressure is attained in the vacuum system, the tungsten
wire is slowly heated, until the metal to be plated is melted and flows over the
wire or forma globules in the depressions. Slow heating is necessary
maintain a low pressure by pumping out the liberated gases during this part
t'
of the process. By increasing the temperature of the tungsten wire the
attached metal is evaporated, and deposits by condensation on the quartz
surfaces, thus forming a metal plating.
"For some metals such as chromium and beryllium, the preparation of the
evaporator unit differs. For plating chromium the usual procedure is to
plate the wavy tungsten wire with chromium electrolytically, and then to
evaporate it off. Beryllium can be attached to the tungsten wire by spot
welding on small pieces along the length of the wire."
9. Magnetostriction Oscillators. Oscillators having their frequency
controlled by magnetostriction rods were first described by G. W. Pierce.'
Magnetostriction in metals is somewhat analogous to the piezoelectric
Neon lamp,
Magnetostriction - Mag. key -÷

rod Shield
Fia. 7.- Magnetostriction oscillator.
effect in crystals. There is an expansion or contraction of magnetic
materials as a result of magnetization and, conversely, a change of
magnetic permeability as a result of mechanical stress.
If a rod of magnetostrictive material is placed in an alternating mag-
netic field, the rod will vibrate longitudinally at a frequency which is
twice that of the a.c. producing the field. If, however, the rod is mag-
netically polarized, the frequency of vibration will be that of the applied
a.c. Under this condition the rod may be clamped or pivoted at its
exact center this being a nodal point. For this condition the resonant
frequency ofthe rod (usually in the range from 1,000 cycles to several
hundred thousand cycles) is given by
f 21
where y = the velocity of sound in the rod

1 = the length of the rod.
t Putties, G. W., Proc. Amer. Acad. Arta Sci., 63, April, 1928; reprinted in Proc. I.R.E.,
17, 42, 1929.
The circuit of Fig. 7 shows an improved magnetostriction oscillator.'

It consists essentiallyof a two -tube impedance- coupled amplifier having
input and output coils shielded from each other except for electromechan-
ical coupling through the vibration of a magnetostrictive rod placed
axially in both of them. A neon -glow lamp serves as an indicator of
oscillation when connected across the plate coil. Operation of this
circuit is dependent upon the correct choice of coupling impedance with
regard to the direction of connection of the rod coils and upon the
existence of good electromagnetic shielding between the two rod coils.
The proper value of the coupling impedance is not at all critical since it
requires practically no adjustment over a wide range of frequencies.
Magnetostrictive rods for use with this type oscillator have been cut
accurately to length to give fundamental frequencies ranging from 5
to 60 kc.
Pierce has given extensive data on oscillators of this type, including
such matters as temperature coefficients and values of the function e
in the above equation for various magnetostrictive materials.
I,IsIIUIIII
Fia. 8.-Oscillator stabilised by selective filtere.
In making magnetostriction rods, nickel, Monel metal, Invar, Nichrome,
Stoic metal, and other nickel alloys may be used. Because it is difficult
to design magnetostriction rods which have a high natural frequency of
oscillation, their use is restricted as cited above. Rods may be designed
for very low frequencies by loading them at the ends or by using a tube
made of magnetostrictive material which is filled with lead or other
material which has a low velocity of propagation of compressional waves.
Short -time frequency stabilities of 3 parts in 10" have been obtained
with oscillators of this type without temperature control. If the tem-
perature of the rod is kept constant, this stability may be increased. By
making the rods of special alloys having a low temperature coefficient or
making them of a shell of two magnetostrictive materials of opposite tem-
perature coefficient, the change in frequency with temperature may be
reduced.
10. Tuned -filter Oscillators. The tuned-filter oscillator is essentially
a multistage- feedback oscillator. By feeding back the output of a
highly selective multistage amplifier to the input, very good frequency
stability may be obtained. Such an oscillator was described by Gunn,2
and is shown in Fig. 8. Except that the amplification takes place in
more than one tube, the principle of operation of this oscillator is the
same as that described under Feedback Oscillators. The frequency
PIERCE, G. W.. and A. Novas, JR., Jour. Acoustic. Sci. Am., 9, 185, 1938.
2 Curia, Rose, Proc. I.R.E., 18, 1560, 1930.
stability is improved by the use of more stages and by the use of more
complex filter sections which have a more selective filter action. When
oscillators of this type are used at radio frequencies, it is necessary to
take particular care that feedback in the individual stages does not occur.
Use of tetrodes and pentodes and careful shielding are necessary.
Gunn gives the following data as evidence of the excellent stabilizing
action. At an a.f. of 1,000 cycles, a 50 per cent change in plate potential
of a two-stage system resulted in a frequency shift of less than 1 cycle.
At radio frequencies a change in plate potential of 10 per cent results
in a frequency shift of 0.0003 per cent of the fundamental frequency.
Changing the filament potential 8 per cent changes the frequency less
than 0.0003 per cent. The above data was taken with battery-operated
filaments. If alternating filament voltage is used, the filament must be
of the non-inductive type. The use of a buffer amplifier between oscilla-
tor and load will improve the frequency stability.
11. Resistance Stabilization.' One of the easiest methods for improv-
ing the frequency stability of standard oscillators is by resistance stabili-
zation (see Fig. 9). It was pointed out previously that one of the factors
R
R
Flo. 9.- Resistance stabilized oscillator.
contributing to frequency drift is change in the plate resistance of the
tube. The method of resistance stabilization consists of inserting a
high resistance between the plate and resonant circuit of an oscillator
so as to make the total effective resistance of the plate circuit so high
that variations in the plate resistance of the tube are relatively unim-
portant. This resistance also performs a second useful function. It
makes a convenient means of controlling the amplitude of oscillation by
controlling the feedback voltage. Obviously the power consumed by
the resistance reduces the efficiency of the system.
Terman has given useful design information for this type of stabilized
oscillator.2 He recommends the following:
1. Amplification factor of tubes should lie between 4.5 and 8.
2. Turns ratio of grid and plate coils should be unity, and coupling should
be as close as possible.
3. Feedback resistance should be of the order of from two to five times the
plate resistance.
4. Grid bias battery must be used and not grid leak resistance.
5. For audio-frequency oscillators, feedback resistance should not be
greater than 500,000 ohms.
12. Impedance Stabilization. A more general type of stabilization
than those previously presented has been worked out by Llewellyn.'
He has shown that the frequency of oscillation may he made invariant
1 HORTON, J. W., Bell System Tech. Jour., 3, 508, 1924.
= TERMAN, F. E., Electronics. July, 1933, p. 190.
3 LLEWELLYN, F. B.. Proc. I.R.È.. 19, 2063, 1931; also See STEVENSON, G. H., Bell
System Tech. Jour., 17, 458, 1938.
to tube characteristics and hence to polarizing potential by the insertion
of capacitance or inductance in series with the grid or plate of the oscil-
lator tube, or both. In his analysis, Llewellyn makes the following
assumptions:
1.The resonant circuits of the oscillator have negligible losses.
2.The oscillator tube operates in a linear region of its characteristic.
He then sets up the equivalent circuits for each type of feedback
oscillator and the circuit equations applied thereto. From the genera'
solution of these circuit equations he obtains the conditions which make
the frequency of oscillation invariant to the tube paremeters. Repre-
sentative results obtained in this way are shown in Fig. 10. In order
for the assumption of negligible losses in the resonant circuits to hold
reasonably well, it is necessary that a buffer amplifier be interposed
between the oscillator and the load. This buffer stage must be very
Cs C4
M-.
C3 C3
(a) (b)
FIG. 1.0(a).- Hartley oscillator, plate Fro. 10(b).- Hartley oscillator, grid
stabilization. stabilization.
Lo L
=
+Ls As - 2MA)
Cs Ca
Lc t 4 = C3A 2 (!, +L:A2 - 2M A)
where Lo = Lc + Ls + 2M, where Lo = L, + Ls + 2M
4
=L +h! =Lc +h!
Ls + .1/ L2 + .tif
loosely coupled to the oscillator so as to draw but a very small fraction

of the available power. To hurt t he second assumption, some farm of
amplitude control such as described in Art. 14 must be used. Llewellyn
further states that with unity coupling between the plate and grid cir-
cuits, the frequency of an oscillator depends only upon the inductances
and capacitances in the circuit and is independent of plate resistance, grid
resistance, and amplification factor, provided (1) that the losses in the
external circuit are small and (2) that the harmonic voltages across the
tube are small enough to allow the plate and grid impedance to be purely
resistive.
The examples of circuit proportions in Fig. 10 will provide impedance
stabilization of a Hartley oscillator, provided the assumptions made in text
are met. For many more examples see F. E. Terman. " Measurements in
Radio Engineering," p. 295, (1936).
When the stabilized circuits that are shown in Fig. 10 are constructed, the
stabilizing inductances and capacitances may serve other functions in the
circuit. For example, plate stabilizing condensers may serve also as blocking
condensers for the plate polarizing potential. Also the grid stabilizing con-
denser may serve to furnish grid bias when shunted by a high resistance.
When the stabilizing condenser is thus shunted, its required value is altered
and its effectiveness reduced. The higher the resistance, consistent with the
limitation discussed in Art. 14. the smaller its effect on the required value of
stabilizing capacity. The correct stabilizing capacity is best determined

experimentally. The interelectrode capacitances of the tube are of small im por-
tance in those circuits where these capacitances form a portion of the resonant
circuit. In cases where the interelectrode capacitance cannot be combined
in this way, variation from predicted performance may be partly explained.
Another factor which may produce variation from the theory is the exis-
tence of harmonics as previously mentioned. An effort to provide a low
reactance path for the harmonics will reduce their effect (see discussion
on Colpitts circuit, Art. 2).
If a variable- frequency oscillator is stabilized in this way, it is necessary to
adjust the stabilizing condenser when the frequency is varied. For this
type of stabilized oscillator, at 1 -Mc operation the frequency varied less than
10 cycles when the plate potential was reduced 50 per cent and practically no
change when the filament current was reduced 50 per cent.
Frequency -adjusting
Reactances
To Buffer
Amplifier
i
C1/
44
Temperature- control
Oven
Phase - compensating
Network
Fla. 11.- Bridge -stabilized oscillator.
13. Bridge Stabilization. The bridge -stabilized oscillator was devel-
oped by L. A. Meacham' and is a constant -frequency oscillator of
extremely high selectivity. Short-time frequency variations no greater
than ±6 parts in 101° have been obtained with a single -tube circuit.
This type of oscillator, which consists of an amplifier and a Wheatstone
bridge, is shown in Fig. 11.
A crystal Z4 of high selectivity forms one of the arms of the Wheatstone
bridge. Two other arms are made up of the fixed resistances R2 and R2.
The fourth arm RI is a thermally controlled resistance. The output of the
amplifier is impressed across one of the diagonals of the bridge, and any
unbalanced potential appearing across the conjugate diagonal is supplied to
the input terminals of the amplifier. The thermally controlled resistance R,
is a lamp and is so designed as to keep the bridge out of balance sufficiently
to sustain oscillation. Since the temperature of the lamp filament is depend-
ent upon the amplitude of oscillation, any slight variation in this amplitude
or in the gain of the amplifier is immediately corrected by a small readjust-
ment of the bridge balance. The frequency of oscillation is stabilized at that
value for which the crystal impedance is purely resistive, because only at this
frequency can the Wheatstone bridge approach balance. It can be shown by
MEACHAM, L. A.. Proc. I.R.E., 26, 1278 -1294, October, 1938; Bell System Tech. Jour..
17, 574 -591, October, 1938; Bell Lab. Rec., 18, January, 1940.
means of a vector diagram that a large phase shift introduced in the amplifier
results in a very small frequency shift and phase shift in the crystal, owing to
the phase magnifying property of a nearly balanced bridge.
When the polarizing potentials are supplied to the amplifier, oscillations
build up rapidly since the lamp RI is cold and its resistance correspondingly
low, resulting in low attenuation of the bridge. When the lamp filament
heats up, its resistance increases and approaches the value for which the loss
in the bridge equals the gain of the amplifier. If the lamp resistance exceeds
its balance value, the unbalance potential becomes too small or even inverted
in phase, causing the amplitude to dee ease to the equilibrium value. Hence
the amplitude of oscillation is also stahil' zed since the power required to give
the lamp a resistance closely approaching that of its balance value is always
very nearly the same. Variation in the amplifier gain would cause a read-
justment of the tube balance, but resulting variations in the amplifier output
or in the value of RI would be extremely small.
In place of the crystal in the Z4 arm of the bridge a roil and condenser
connected in series could be substituted. Also a parallel resonance coil and
condenser could be used by exchanging its position in the bridge with R: or
R,. In Meacham's bridge, Z4 represents a crystal suitable for operation at
its low -impedance or series resonance. This mode of operation minimizes the
effects of stray capacitance. He has also found that a small tungsten- filament
lamp of low wattage rating is quite suitable. The operating temperature of
the lamp is made sufficiently high so that variations in ambient temperature
do not appreciably affect balance adjustments. This temperature is found
to be low enough to ensure extremely long filament life.
The use of a two -stage amplifier, as shown in Fig. 11, provides high gain
and correspondingly high stability. This circuit was designed by Meacham
for the Bell System Frequency Standard. Small manual adjustment of
frequency is provided by the variable reactances in series with the crystal.
Because of the possibility of any tendency of the circuit to break into unde-
sired oscillation as a result of its high gain, the phase -compensating network
indicated in the cathode circuit of the first tube is used.
14. Amplitude Control. Control of the amplitude of oscillation is
necessary to ensure stable operation. Also amplitude control aids in the
reduction of harmonic distortion and in the stabilization of frequency.
In the feedback oscillators of Fig. 1, the amplitude of oscillation is
usually controlled by the use of the grid -bias resistor and condenser as
shown. This aids in making the oscillator self-starting, for initially
the bias is zero and the plate current and amplification are large. When
any voltage of the frequency of the resonant circuit is set up in the system,
caused by thermal agitation or transient conditions, the building up of
oscillations will start. This building-up process is accompanied by the
flow of grid current, which develops a direct voltage across the grid -
resistor- condenser combination, biasing the grid negatively. As the
amplitude of oscillation continues to increase, the grid current increases,
increasing the grid bias and decreasing the amplification of the tube.
This process continues until the amplification is reduced to the point
where equilibrium is established. Conversely, any decrease in the
amplitude of oscillation causes an increase in the amplification and a
reduction in grid bias, tending to produce stable oscillations.
If a fixed bias is used with class C operation of the oscillator, the system
will not be self -starting when the plate voltage is applied since the grid
bias is greater than the cutoff value.
When the time constant of the grid- resistor-condenser circuit is too
large, the bias voltage adjusts itself too slowly with rapid changes in the
amplitude of oscillation, This may result in a dying out of oscillations
300 THE RADIO ENGINEERING !HANDBOOK [Sec.9
before the bias can change appreciably. When the oscillations have
ceased or are about to cease, the condenser charge leaks off through the
grid resistance, and oscillations build up again to the equilibrium value.
This process may repeat itself, resulting in what are called intermittent
oscillations.
Another method which may he used to control the amplitude of oscilla-
tion employs a diode rectifier as the limiting device.' This type of control
is particularly suitable for oscillators operating in class A, in which no
grid current flows. Figure 12 shows a Hartley circuit equipped with
automatic amplitude control. The action is essentially that of a simple
volume-control system employing a diode. By employing a triode,
tetrode, or variable -A pentode, the control system can also be arranged
so that it does not start to operate until the amplitude has reached some
predetermined level, and in addition the amplification introduced will
Increase its sensitivity. Equilibrium conditions may he obtained with
small amplitudes of oscillation, where the operating conditions are
Bias diode
-cathode positively
for de/ay actio,
FIG. 12.- Oscillator employing a diode to control the amplitude of oscillation.

substantially those corresponding to class A operation of the oscillator
tube. Under these conditions very good frequency stability may be
obtained, with good wave form and practically constant amplitude of
oscillation as the frequency of oscillation is changed.
Another method for controlling the amplitude of oscillation is described
in Art. 13 on the Meacham bridge -stabilized oscillator.
15. Negative-resistance Oscillators. In feedback oscillators it can
he shown that a necessary condition for the production of sustained
oscillation is that the tube together with the resonant circuit produce
an equivalent negative resistance.' As distinguished from feedback
oscillators, negative- resistance oscillators are those in which the negative
resistance of the system does not require the presence of a tuned circuit.
Oscillators of this type are as follows:
1. Dynatron oscillators.
2. Tranaitron oscillators (negative t.ransconductance).
3. Negative resistance push -pull oscillators.
4. Negative grid -resistance oscillators.
16. The Dynatron Oscillator. The dynatron oscillator of Hu113 (see
Fig. 13a) depends for its operation on the phenomenon of secondary
' AROIIIMBAU, L. B., Proc. I.R.E., 21, 14, 1933; GROBZHOwsBI, J., Proc. I.R.E., 22,
145, 1934.
a The a -c resistance of a
device may he defined as the reciprocal of the slope of its
current -voltage characteristic. If this slope is negative for a certain range in voltage.
the device is said to have a negative resistance throughout this range. Under this con-
dition a positive increment in current through the device results in a negative increment
of voltage across its terminals. when the direction of flow of d.c. is opposite to the
applied direct voltage, as may be observed in certain devices, such devices are said to
have a negative d -c resistance.
3 Holm., A. W., Prot. I.R.E., 6, 535, 1918.
Sec. fl VACUUM-TUBE OSCILLATORS 301
emission. He showed that it was possible to use the negative resistance

produced by secondary emission for the generation of oscillations.
Usually the dynatron oscillator employs a screen grid tube which oper-
ates with a plate voltage less than the voltage applied to the screen grid.
Under these conditions the characteristic shown in Fig. 136 results.
It can be seen that there is an appreciable range in which a positive
increment in plate voltage causes a negative increment in plate current,
i.e., negative resistance. Secondary emission of electrons at the plate
causes this negative resistance characteristic and may be explained as
follows: The potentials of the control and screen grids determine largely
the number of primary' electrons which arrive at the plate. The plate
potential, however, controls the velocity at which the primary electrons
strike the plate. Therefore, the number of secondary electrons= pro-
duced at the plate increases as the plate voltage is increased. All the
secondary electrons produced are drawn to the more positive screen
grid, and the effective plate current is t he difference between the primary
ire- i Ee=cons/ant
24 d Operati
L. poiñt
L. 0
Plate voltáge
cs
d
111111 III 1
Flu. 13a. -The dyna- FIG. 136. -Typicalplate current -

tron oscillator. plate voltage characteristic for dyna-
tron operation, showing region of
negative resistance.
electrons received at the plate from the cathode and the secondary
electrons lost by the plate.
If, as the plate voltage is increased, more electrons leave the plate
owing to secondary emission than arrive from the filament, the effective
plate current may decrease. This condition results in a negative dynamic
resistance, and the characteristic shown in Fig. 136 is obtained. Oscilla-
tion will be developed if an oscillatory circuit is connected across this
negative resistance as shown in Fig. 13a, provided the absolute value
of the negative resistance is less than, or equal to, the equivalent resist-
ance of the tuned circuit. The amplitude of oscillation may be varied
by means of the control-grid voltage, which varies the slope of the current -
voltage characteristic in the negative-resistance range.
When designing a dynatron oscillator, the point of operation should be
chosen to he in the center of the most linear region of the negative-resist-
ance characteristic,' and the amplitude of oscillation should be kept
' Primary electrons are those which are emitted from the cathode.
2 Secondary electrons are those which are obtained from materials as a result of impact
of quickly moving electrons which knock electrons out of a solid body when striking with
sufficient velocity. One primary electron striking a material at high velocity may pro-
duce many secondary electrons.
r See F. E. TERsAN, "Measurements in Radio Engineering," p. 289, McGraw -Hill
Book Company. Inc.. 1935.
small. Under these conditions the curvature in the operating range

can be kept small and the harmonic content low.
In addition to excellent wave form the dynatron oscillator possesses
good frequency stability and simplicity. The chief disadvantage to
this type of oscillator arises from its dependence upon secondary emis-
sion, a property which is extremely vari-
able with age and which varies widely in
tubes of the same type. With tubes of
ordinary size the power output is extremely
limited.
17. The Transitron Oscillator (Negative
L TransconductanceOscillator).1 Thename
transitron has been proposed by Brunetti
for the retarding -field negative-trans-
conductance oscillator. This oscillator
possesses essentially the same type of mega-
ll !lull
i tive- resistance characteristic as the dyna-
Fia. 14a. -The transitron os- tron oscillator and has all its advantages
cillator. without its disadvantages. Its character-
istic is independent of secondary emission
and remains practically constant throughout the life of the tube. The
action of this oscillator, shown in Fig. 14a, is as follows:
The suppressor voltage is chosen so as to make the suppressor grid
negative with respect to the cathode. Electrons that have passed
through the screen grid are repelled by the suppressor grid and return
to the screen because of its high positive voltage. Hence the suppressor
grid with its retarding field acts as a virtual cathode. A small negative
increment in voltage across the tuned circuit is transmitted to both the
screen and suppressor grids, causing the suppressor grid to repel more
electrons and the current to the screen grid to increase. Hence the
I I
= constant
V_
U = Operating
c point
u
iu
`Negative
V) resistance
Screen voltage
Fio. 14b. FIG 14c.
Fia. 146. -Typical screen current, screen voltage characteristic for transi-
tron operation, showing region of negative resistance.
Fia. 14c. -Push -pull negative -resistance oscillator.
transconductance between the screen and suppressor grids is negative.
The characteristic current -voltage curve for this type of oscillator is as
shown in Fig. 146.
This negative transconductance can he employed to produce a negative
resistance by the use of the circuit in Fig. 14a. If the equivalent resist -
HEROLD, E. w.. Prot. I.R.E., 23, 1201. 1935. For an excellent
treatment on
the practical design of the transitron oscillator see C. BRUNETTI, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 88
1
-94,
1939.
Sec. el VACUUM-TUBE OSCILLATORS 303
ance of the tuned circuit (which is approximately equal to L /RC) is
just equal to the negative reciprocal of the slope of the current-voltage
characteristic (Fig. 14b) at the operating point 0, oscillation in the
resonant circuit will begin. If L /RC is increased, the amplitude of
oscillation increases. As with the dynatron oscillator, it is desirable
to keep the amplitude of oscillation small so as to keep the wave form
and frequency stability good.
When a small negative bias is applied to the control grid, the total
current flowing to the screen grid may he controlled, and the negative
slope of the current-voltage characteristic may be varied. Hence a
flexible means is available for varying the magnitude of the negative
resistance and thus the amplitude of oscillation. By having the oscilla-
tion voltage regulate the bias on the control grid, additional amplitude
control may he obtained.
Like the dynatron oscillator, this is essentially a low -power oscillator.
It will generate sinusoidal oscillations of any frequency from the lower
audio to approximately 60 Mc by simply changing the tuned circuit
constants. Suitable pentodes for the transitron oscillator are the types
57, 58, 59, 89, 6C6, 6J7, and 6Ií7. In a properly designed oscillator,
Brunetti reports that changes resulting from a 33 per cent change in
direct screen -grid voltage may be kept within 10 parts in 106 and that, in
general, the transition oscillator frequency stability may be compared
with that of a crystal oscillator without temperature control.
18. Push -pull Negative- resistance Oscillator. A negative-resistance
oscillator of low harmonic content and excellent frequency stability
can be designed employing two tubes in push-pull as shown in Fig. 14c.1
The action of this circuit is as follows. If the two tubes have identical
characteristics and if the voltage between A and B is zero, the two plate
currents are equal, and there is no current flowing between A and B.
When an increment of voltage is applied between A and B, an increment
of current will flow which will raise the plate voltage and lower the grid
voltage of one of the tubes and lower the plate voltage and increase the
grid voltage of the other tube. When this voltage is sufficiently small,
the plate resistance and transconductance are substantially constant.
If the amplification is large enough, the change in plate current exceeds
the current flowing between A and B and is opposite in direction to the
applied voltage. This results in a current flowing through the network
between A and B which is opposite in direction to the applied voltage,
and a negative resistance is obtained. When a parallel resonant circuit
of high selectivity is connected between these terminals, sustained
oscillations are developed.
The amplitude of oscillation may be readily controlled by means of the
grid bias. When the reactance of the coupling condenser Cc is small in
comparison with the grid resistance R,, at the lowest frequency of oscilla-
tion desired, which condition it is necessary and desirable to meet, the
resonant circuit can be connected between either the two plates or the two
grids.
A low- frequency oscillator having excellent frequency stability and low
harmonic content with approximately uniform output over its a-f range has
been designed by Reich.' This circuit employs a diode to give automatic
ReTCH, H. J., Proc. I.R.E., 25, 1387, 1939; also Toaxna, L. B., Radio Rev., 1, 317,
1920.
Ibid.
amplitude control. The use of low amplitude of oscillation and push -pull
amplification result in minimized harmonic content. Reich gives the power
output of this oscillator as 0.06 watt.
19. Low- frequency Oscillators. At very low frequencies standard
circuits become impractical. The condensers, and particularly induct-
ances, required become very bulky and expensive. Accordingly certain
rather special methods of obtaining low frequencies have been resorted
to. The heterodyne oscillator is one of the best known. Circuits
depending upon resistance and capacity in combination to determine
the frequency are becoming increasingly important.
20. Beat -frequency Oscillators.' By beating together (heterodyning)
two r-f voltages of slightly different frequencies, a -f energy may be
generated. Oscillators operating on this principle are called beat -
frequency or heterodyne oscillators. A block diagram of such an oscil-
lator is shown in Fig. 15. The outputs of two r-f oscillators of slightly
different frequencies are applied at the same time to a detector. lt1
Variab/e , Main Tuning
Olsci//afor .. Condenser
Buffer Dekrbr f..- Amplifier
Amplifier
Output
Cycles Zero Set AVC

increment
Fla. 15. -Block diagram of beat- frequency oscillator.

addition to the impressed frequencies, the output of the detector con-
tains their sum and difference frequency. The filter, shown connected
to the output of the detector, removes the fundamental radio frequencies
and their sum and leaves only the difference frequency which may be
amplified as desired.
Among the advantages of this type of a -f oscillator is the fact that the
whole range of audio frequencies may he obtained by tuning a single
dial. Another advantage is that the use of large coils and condensers,
such as are employed in other types of a -f oscillators, is avoided. This
results in lightness and compactness.
There are a number of special problems that arise in the design and con-
struction of beat- frequency oscillators. One of these problems is to eliminate
the tendency of the two oscillators to pull into synchronism when their
frequency difference is small, i.e., when low audio frequencies are being
produced.
This tendency to interact may be avoided by proper shielding, careful
arrangement of the component parts, proper use of decoupling resistors,
choke coils, and by-pass condensers and by the use of special methods of
An excellent discussion of heat- frecluency oscillators is given by F. E. Terman,
" Measurements in Radio Engineering, p. 298, McGraw -Hill Book Company, Inc.,
1935.
Sec. in VACUUM -TUBE OSCILLATORS 305
coupling the oscillators to the detector. The most frequently used methods
of coupling are (1) the use of a buffer amplifier between each oscillator and the
detector, (2) the use of a balanced modulator circuit, or (3) the use of electron -
coupled oscillators.
To avoid beats between harmonics generated by the r -f oscillators,
filter is placed between the r -f oscillators and the detector. The fixed an r -f
oscil-
lator should have a smaller voltage output than that required by the variable -
frequency oscillator in order that distortion of the output be reduced.
Higher order curvature of the detector characteristic produces additional
distortion of the output, which may be prevented by the use of the balanced
modulator. When square -law detectors are used, this type of distortion
may be reduced by correct adjustment of bias and input voltage. Distor-
tion produced by linear detectors may be reduced by making the output
amplitude of one of the r -f oscillators small in comparison to that of the other.
The frequency stability of the output of beat- frequency oscillators is
generally poor. This is because a very small percentage variation in fre-
quency in the output of one of the r -f oscillators will result in a comparatively
large percentage variation in the a-f output.
By making the two r-f oscillators as nearly identical as possible,
be made to react similarly to variations in temperature, polarizing they may
potential,
etc., and thereby the effects of these quantities may be minimized. The
h -f oscillators employed are usually stabilized by one of the methods discussed
in Art. 3 or by the use of negative -resistance oscillators. To compensate for
frequency drift in beat- frequency oscillators, a small trimming condenser is
always provided which can be adjusted so that a particular point on the
frequency calibration is correct. This point is obtained either by compari-
son of the output frequency with a standard frequency source or by using the
zero-frequency point.
In the output circuit of the detector it is desirable to install low -pass
filter. This filter prevents the overloading of the a-f amplifier adue to r -f
voltages that may exist in the detector, and hence improves the output
wave form.
The frequency at which the r -f oscillators operate is usually between 100
and 500 kc. At these higher frequencies the differences between the design
constants of the fixed- and variable -frequency oscillators are less. This
allows more nearly identical design, which, as pointed out above, leads to
better frequency stability for the a -f output. Also the filter requirements
are simplified by the use of the higher frequencies. On the other hand, the
a-f stability is decreased as the r.f. is increased, and commercial design usually
fixes 500 kc as the upper limit. The General Radio Company has produced
an excellent heterodyne oscillator extending to 5 Mc. The fixed frequency
in this range is 20 Mc.,
21. Special Audio Oscillator. A new type of oscillator particularly
suitable for the generation of frequencies in the audio range has been
suggested by Scott' and is shown in Fig. 16. He has described the use
of the inverse feedback principle to obtain sharply selective circuits in
which inductances are not necessary and "tuning" may he changed by
varying resistances. These circuits may he varied over a wide range
of frequencies while maintaining a selectivity curve which is a constant
percentage function of the "tuned" frequency.
A low -power oscillator operating on the inverse feedback principle has
been designed which has exceptionally pure wave form. By the use of a
resistance-capacitance network, all frequencies except the frequency of
oscillation are fed from the output of an amplifying system back into the
input in such a way as to cancel the gain. Regeneration is introduced
'Gen. Radio Experimenter, January, 1939.
=Scow, H. H.. Pros. I.R.E., 26, 226, 1938; Gen. Radio Experimenter, Vol. 13, No. 11,
1939.
into the circuit in sufficient amount to cause self -oscillation. This is

controlled by the resistance- capacitance network, and hence no induct-
ances or transformers are required in the oscillating circuit.
Figure 17 shows a block diagram which may be helpful in clarifying The the
action of the system. The circuit includes three separate sections.frequency
section designated A is an amplifier and has substantially flat
response and negligible phase shift over the a -f range. The degeneration
network, section B, balances to a sharp null at the frequency of oscillation.
- - --Ï1 Degeneration
L
I
V Network
Amp/iîierj
Output
Pkr/e Supp /y Circuit
re~1PSI
Harmonic
Contra/
E-
v
-
Output
Fta. 16.- Resistance-capacity audio oscillator.

gain at all other
This provides full amplifier gain at this frequency, andfeedback
frequencies is substantially canceled. The regenerative network,
section C, is fed through a phuse-reversing tube D to provide the proper
regenerative action. Section C' also has a flat frequency self response and is
adjusted to provide just sufficient regeneration to 20
produce -oscillation.
This oscillator covers the frequency range from cycles to 15 kc. Oper-
ating under normal conditions approximately 0.25 watt of power may be
obtained with less than 1 per cent distortion. With higher outputs the dis-
tortion is increased somewhat. This type of oscillator makes possible certain
measurements which were previ-
WideRange ously impractical.
Amp/ifïer Experimental models of this type
of oscillator have been constructed
which generate sinusoidal frequen-
cies from 1 cycle per second to 200
kc. By the use of class B operation
of the oscillator tubes in push-pull
circuits, the power output can be
Output extended appreciably.
Rees
RegenrmmJion E
y 22. Relaxation Oscillators.'
Newark t Relaxation oscillators are used
I. for the generation of distinctly
non-sinusoidal waves. In certain
applications this type of oscillator
Fla. 17. Block diagram of resistance- has many advantages over the
-
capacity audio oscillator. resonant circuit oscillators. Its

output is extremely rich in harmonics, and its frequency, which is not very
definitely fixed by the circuit elements, may be easily stabilized by the
introduction of small voltages of harmonic or subharmonic frequency into
the oscillating system. Relaxation oscillators are also comparatively
to
inexpensive, simple, and compact and can conveniently be designed
cover a wide range of frequency.
I See Rx,ca, H. J., "Theory and
Application of Electron Tubes," McGraw-Hill Book
oscillators.
Company, Inc., for a complete treatment of relaxation
The process by which relaxation oscillations are produced involves the
building up and breaking down of the energy stored in the electric field
of a condenser or the magnetic field of an inductance. Various devices
may be used to control this building -up and breaking -down action, such
as glow or arc -discharge tubes or high-vacuum tubes.
gl +i2
Grid Voltage,
Tube No.1
Plate Current,
Tube No.I
Grid Voltage,
Tube No.2
Plate Current,
Tube No.2
Eb
Fla. 18.- Fundamental circuit of the multivibrator and the voltage and
current relations of the various branches.
Among the relaxation oscillators employing high-vacuum tubes is the
multivibrator.' The multivibrator, which is most satisfactory for
frequency conversion, was the first relaxation oscillator to be developed.
Figure 18 shows the basic circuit with connections for introducing the
control voltage. The voltage drop across any of the circuit elements
In Out
0005pf..y11-
0.003
000/
", y -O.OSmeg., --N
0.00/
0.5_y r1J
neg.meg °
0./
/s
meg.-
External 6V1+ External

Capacity Capacity
Fla. 19.- Generator of submultiple frequencies.
may be taken as the output voltage, and the frequency of oscillation
may be controlled by vanation of the resistances and capacitances and
is approximately equal to f = 1 /(r,C, r2C2). When the circuit is
symmetrical, the wave form of the grid and plate voltages of the condenser
current is as shown in Fig. 18.
ABRAHAM, H., and E. Btoct. Ann. Physik, 12, 237. 1919.
as
For the generation of submultiple frequencies, a circuit connected
is con-
shown in Fig. 19 may be used. The output of a h -f oscillator frequencies
nected to the input terminals. At the output terminals, are obtained.
which are exact submultiples of the input frequencyinput frequency
the
Submultiple frequencies as low as one -fourteenth of terminals
can easily be had. When the input and output are short -
circuited and a small coil connected between the low-potential ends of the
grid resistances for coupling to an external circuit frequencies as low as
1 cycle per 10 sec. and as high as 50,000 cps may f e obtained.
O
U
Time
(a) (b)
Fie. 20. -(a) Relaxation oscillator of Van der Pol. (b) Typical wave form of
condenser voltage.
Another form of relaxation oscillator employing a high-vacuum tube
oscillator
was originally described by Van der Pol.' The circuit for thisvoltage is
is shown in Fig. 20a, and the wave form of the condenser
shown in Fig. 20b. This type of wave form, which is known as a saw -
toothed voltage wave, is used in connection with cathode -ray oscillographs
and cathode-ray television tubes. are
Relaxation oscillators for generating saw -toothed wave forms
often designed using grid-con-
, R trolled gas-filled triodes. = A
Gas - Glow
Tube
property of these tubes that
=
makes them suitable for this
Triode
yoc
ahbge
C
h
Voltage
-
purpose is their so- called trigger
=
action. If their grid potential is
momentarily less than the cutoff
value, positive ions are produced
(a) (b) in the tube which neutralize the
ace
Pia. 21.- Relaxation oscillators
gas filled tubes.
using negative x charge of the
ling action of the grid. This
results in a very rapid change in the plate resistance of the tube from
a high value to a very low value. The time required to ionize and deionize
the gas in the tube limits the frequency for which oscillators of this
type can be built.' tube is
A basic circuit for a relaxation oscillator using a gas-filled direct
shown in Fig. 21a. The action of this circuit is as follows. The
plate voltage charges the condenser C through the resistance R until
Vex DER Pot., B., Phil. Mag., 2 978, 1926. gas -filled
2 For an excellent discussion and
design data for relaxation oscillators using
to 322, McGraw -
tubes see "Measurements in Radio Engineering" by Terman, pp. 315
Hill, Book Company, Inc., 1935. high as 20,000 cps.
r Oscillators of this type have been built to operate successfully as
See. 91 VACUUM-TUBE OSCILLATORS 309
the critical starting potential of the tube is reached. At this potential
the positive ions are produced, and the resistance of the tube falls to a
very low value, discharging the condenser. When the plate voltage
drops to a certain value, the plate resistance returns to its original high
value, and the cycle is repeated. The value of the grid polarizing poten-
tial controls the critical plate potential at which ionization takes place.
Small alternating voltages may be introduced into the grid circuit for
synchronizing purposes as shown in Fig. 21a. If a glow tube, i.e., neon
tube, relaxation oscillator is used, the synchronizing voltage may be
introduced as shown in Fig. 216.
A complete circuit diagram of a system suitable for producing saw
toothed wave forms for a cathode -ray oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 22-
In this circuit a pentode is used to maintain a constant charging current.
By varying its grid bias, the magnitude of the charging current may he
controlled.
23. High- frequency Triode Oscillators. Almost all the commercial
triodes now available may he depended upon to generate frequencies as
high as 30 Mc without a serious
loss of power or efficiency. A Limifing
large number of them may be used ResisMncr
at 50 Mc with full ratings and Condenser Synch .
extended to 70 Mc at reduced rat- Selector Voltage

ings. Special triodes extend the
frequency limit well into the micro-
wave' region. When the familiar OC
triode oscillator circuits are used Supply
_ ° 1 L-1 m .- Oulpuf
for the generation of ultra -short

waves, however, certain inherent 'Gas Tube
limitations are brought out. -Pentode
These limitations arise from the
interelectrode capacities, the in- Bias Contro/!6i-
ductance and capacitance of the Varying Charging Curren/
FIG. 22.- Relaxation oscillator em-
lead-in wires, and the finite transit
time of the electrons which con- ploying a pentode to maintain a
stitute the current in the tube. constant charging current.
Also special problems arise in the construction of the component parts of
the circuit other than the tube.
In an effort to extend the range of the triode, a number of tubes have
been designed to reduce the Inherent limitations mentioned above.
These new tubes have relatively low interelectrode capacitances, and
the inductance and capacitance of the leads have been made very, low.
At the same time the interelectrode distances have been reduced, extend-
ing the range of operation appreciably, before the effect of the transit
time enters. Tubes are now commercially available which will operaer
at frequencies above 1,500 Mc. The power output at these frequencies is
necessarily small due to close spacing and small size of the tube
elements.
The resonant circuits employed in oscillators which operate in the
u -h -f range' usually consist of resonant lines or special metal enclosures
instead of the lumped inductance and capacitance used at the lower
The ultra -short wave (u -h -f) range may he taken lying between 10 meters and
1 cm. The region of the range below meter is oftenas referred
1
to as the micro-wave
range.
310 THE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDBOOIi [Sec. 9
frequencies. When carefully designed, these resonant circuits may have

selectivities ranging from 1,000 to 50,000 when radiation resistance is
included.
Because of their high selectivity, resonant circuits of this type may be
employed as frequency control elements. The stability of oscillators
controlled in this way is comparable to that of crystal-controlled oscil-
lators when the frequency is
a1 Outp lit above 10 Mc and temperature
Line ,ontrol for the resonant circuit
is provided. These oscillators
may be used to drive power am-
plifiers for applications requiring
large amounts of power.
illiriiii n. An oscillator circuit which em-
a concentric line as a fre-
.... $ CI
Radio
%. v quency- control element is shown
in Fig. 23. This circuit is that
frequency of a standard tuned -plate tuned-
choke grid feedback oscillator in which
the grid resonant circuit is re-
Grid leek
placed by the concentric line.
For best ability , the line should
Fia. 23.-Oscillator employing a resonant be loosely
seh coupled to the grid
line as its frequency -control element. circuit. This is accomplished by
making the grid connection at u point comparatively close to the shorted
end of the line. By proper adjustment of the regeneration control CI,
the phase of the grid excitation may be advanced so as to compensate
for the phase lag of the electron current in the tube. The length of
the connections between the tube
and the resonant circuits must be lb
=,
Grid /eak..
small compared with the wave
length at which the system is oper- P /ate
sting. This condition may be very supply condenser
difficult to meet at extremely high
frequencies, andspecial circuits have
been designed
difficulty.
g help avoid this
which hel
+
Load 1
Sechóna/:_
7.1113.11,-i p/p,e
connection
'blank
circuit
One of these circuits has been
designed by Peterson. i His system tank crcu,/ shell
employs a resonant circuit consist-
ing of an outer containing cylinder
with a cylindrical piston -shaped in-
sert. The of this oscillating sir- Mica
1._copper Inner
Q
cuit, in the frequency range of 60 to
rid blocking cylinder
condenser
140 Mc in which they have been Fla. 24. -Ultra -high-frequency os-
built, is approximately 2,000. Fre- cillator of Peterson.
quency stabilities of the order of 5
parts in 106 for a 50 per cent change in plate voltage have been obtained.
One of the chief advantages in addition to its excellent stability, is that
difficulties arising from tube connections are greatly minimized (see
Fig. 24). Also the size of the resonant circuit is only a fraction of its
equivalent concentric line. When a continuously variable oscillator is
I Psrsasox, Gen. Radio Experimenter 12, October, 1937; Communications, 17, 26-28,
1937.
required, however, other arrangements must be used, for only slight
variations in frequency can be obtained with this design.
A continuously adjustable stabilized oscillator has been designed by
Barrowl for the frequency
range from 70 to 700 Mc. The Vent/la/ion
oscillator circuit consists of a v'
screen
coaxial line that is easily and
rapidly adjustable over the en- Bypass E.J/6A
tire frequency range. Among
other things, it affords excellent
flange,.
W.
rShield
'shielding, mechanical rugged-
ness, and a coaxial line output
connection. Several watts
output are obtained over the Adjustable
entire frequency range. Both
filament leads are tuned in ad-
plugs
ór ó ' Coaxial
output
dition to the tank. The con- Grid connection
nections are shown in Fig. 25.
At frequencies below 300 Mc
the stability is roughly 100 Ii III
parts in 108 and decreases with filament Plate +
Increased frequency, becoming
very poor near tale limit of FIG. supply supply
oscillation of the tube. 25.- Ultra- high -frequency oscillator
of Barrow.
Special triodes in which the
plate and grid leads provide support for the electrodes and extend through
the bulb are especially useful for u-h-f work. A tube of this type having
a rated output of 1.5 watts at 1,500 Mc is available commercially. A
A pair of such tubes has been built into
a special oscillator, having a continuous
range. This oscillator, designed by
King,2 is particularly suitable for parallel
line measurements at ultra -high frequen-
cies (see Fig. 26). It consists essentially
of a rectangle of parallel conductors
which may he bridged by blocking con-
densers. The frequency depends on
the dimensions of the circuit BAB' in the
figure. For the highest frequencies the
condenser A must be used, and con-
densers B and B' must be moved up as
B close to the triodes as possible. For
B lower frequencies A need not be used.
The oscillator is coupled to parallel lines
(ono) by placing it below the lines.
//Ov Circuits employing parallel lines are
A.C. often used for the generation of u -h-f
Fao. 26.- Ultra- high -frequency waves. Representative circuits are
oscillator of King. shown in Fig. 27. Although these cir-
cuits are comparatively simple to con-
struct, the tube is cynnected at a high impedance point and the frequency
stability is poor.
I BARROW, W. L., Rey. Sei. Inst.. 9, 170, 1938.
e KING, R., Rev. Sei. hint. (submitted), February, 1940.
The chokes that appear in the filament leads of the circuits of Fig. 27
are made necessary for u -h -f operation because the filament with its
leads may often be a considerable portion of a wave length and thereby
prevent normal operation of the oscillator. A method which is preferred
to the use of choke coils is the provision for tuning of the filament to
Output
1 ;.;Lines
r
Afpproximäïe /y_á/g __ -,{
K
Gril!
resistor
Plate supply Filament
Output supply
c. T.
Filament supply
Fia. 27.-Ultra -high -frequency oscillators employing parallel lines as circuit
elements.
ground circuit. The use of adjustable concentric lines of approximately
one -fourth wave length for each filament lead is probably the most
satisfactory method (see Fig. 28). It is desirable at u -h-f operation to
avoid the use of dielectric material as much as possible and to confine
that which is necessary for mounting the circuit elements to points of
low r -f potential.
Metal plug Outer copper tube. Inner copper
soldered to tube or rod;
To filament
both conductors-
01-
Adjusting Insulating
rod To filament Sliding meta/plug bushing
close sliding fit
supply
on both conductors
Ratio of conductor diameters between
land 4 Length, 343 wavelength
Flo. 28. -Cross section of an adjustable concentric line suitable for use as a
filament choke.
24. The Magnetron Oscillator., This type of oscillator is used for the
generation of u -h -f waves. The magnetron is essentially a diode with
coaxial cylindrical electrodes which is placed in a magnetic field so that
lines of electromagnetic force are approximately parallel to the axes
HULL. A. W., Jour. A.I.E.E.. 40, 715, 1921 Trans. A.I.E.E., 42, 915, 1933; ELDER,
F. R., Noe. I.R.E., 13, 159, 1935; Msoew, E. 1`'. S., Jour. I.E.E. (British). April, 1933;
K[Laoae. G. R.. Proc. I.R.E., 24, 1140, 1936.
Sec. fl VACUUM-TUBB OSCILLATORS 313
of the diode electrodes. When the intensity of the magnetic field
exceeds some critical value, the electrons will travel in orbits within the
anode, and very few of them will reach the plate. When the intensity
of the field is less than the critical value, all the electrons will reach the
plate. Hence the magnetic field can be used to control the anode current
in a way similar to the grid in a triode. Originally the magnetron
oscillator was employed this way, but its action was restricted to long
wave lengths because of the inductance of the coils carrying the alternat-
ing field current, and it did not compete successfully with the triode
oscillator. As a generator of u -h -f waves, however, the magnetron is
superior to the triode. In its simplest form the modern magnetron has
Glass bulb Direction of
filament magnetic field
leads
-Anode
segments
Flo. 29.- Magnetron oscillator.
its cylindrical plate divided into two or more equal segments separated
by narrow gaps, as shown in Fig. 29.
There are two distinct methods of producing oscillation with the
magnetron tube. These are (1) the negative -resistance method and (2)
the electron- resonance method. With either of these a constant mag-
netic field is used to control the direction rather than the magnitude
of the electron current.
With the negative -resistance method, often referred to as the dynatron
method of operation, a negative resistance is developed which arises from
the deflection of the electrons by the magnetic
field. This is used to develop oscillations whose
frequency is substantially equal to the resonant
frequency of the tuned circuit which is connected
to the magnetron as shown in Fig. 29. With
the electron- resonance method the frequency
developed is approximately equal to the rotation
frequency of the electrons about the lines of _11111111111110
magnetic force, and the oscillations are main-
tained by the transformation of part of the segment Flu. 30.-The four-
kinetic energy of the moving electron into poten- cillator. magnetron os-
tial energy stored in the oscillating circuit. The
wave length of oscillations is given approximately by
12,000
H
where H a the field strength in gauss.
The highest frequencies are produced by the electronic oscillations of
the magnetron oscillator, and wave lengths as low as a fraction of a centi-
meter have been generated. The efficiency of this method of roducing
oscillations is quite low, however, being of the order of several per cent.
Higher efficiencies and power output are obtained with the negative
314 THE RADIO ENGINEERING !HANDBOOK [Sec. 9
resistance or dynatron oscillations of the magnetron. With the two -

segment anode the efficiency is of the order of 40 to 60 per cent and
the wave length between approximately 75 cm and 10 meters. With the
four-segment anode, connected as shown in Fig. 30, the wave length is
reduced to between 25 cm and 3 meters and the efficiency is also reduced
to between 30 to 50 per cent approximately.
25. Barkhausen-Kurtz Oscillator.' This oscillator is used for the
generation of u-h -f oscillations. Wave lengths as low as a few centimeters
have been obtained. The power output is, in general, low, reaching a
maximum of approximately 10 watts; the efficiency rarely exceeds n few
per cent.
The Barkhausen -Kurtz oscillator operates with the grid at a high
positive potential while the plate is usually at a small negative potential.
The connections are shown in Fig. 31. The action taking place in this
type of oscillator may he explained in terms of a variation in the electric
field about the grid due to a periodic motion of electron clouds. The
natural frequency of oscillation of the electron clouds is extremely high
and is determined by the potential of the grid. The
Chokes frequency observed at the electrodes of the tube
depends upon this natural frequency of the electron
clouds and upon the natural frequency of a coupled
circuit (which may consist of the tube electrodes
only). If the external circuit is in resonance or
nearly in resonance, it may greatly affect the ob-
Flo. 31. -Bark- served frequency, as is usual with closely coupled
hausen -Kurtz oscil- circuits. The electronic oscillation may be con-
lator. sidered as constituting the primary circuit. In
this case the oscillations ar sometimes called Gill -Morell. According
:
to the theory of coupled circuits, as applied by Wundt' to the Bark -

hausen oscillator, several coupling frequencies should he simultaneously
possible, depending upon the damping of the coupled circuits. This
has recently been verified by Kings who observed as many as three
coupling frequencies maintained simultaneously.
It has been found that tubes, in which Barkhausen -Kurtz oscillations may
be produced, usually have cylindrical electrodes, and Hollman' has found
that the ratio of plate to grid radii must be greater than 2 and less than 5.
Optimum values for this ratio are between 2.5 and 3. The wave length of
the oscillating electron clouds is given approximately by the relation
X2E, = K
where X = the wave length
E. = the grid potential
K = a constant depending upon the geometry of the tube.
26. Klystron Oscillator.* The klystron oscillator is at this time of
writing still largely in the experimental stage. It has many promising
WUSOT, R., Hochfrequenrtechn. 36, 133, 1930.
s KING. R., paper submitted for publication, February, 1940.
J HOLLMAN, H. E., "Physic und Technik der Ultrahurzen Wellen," Julius Springer,
Berlin, 1936.
4 References on klystron: HANSEN, W. W., and R. D. RECHTMEYER. J. Applied Phys.,
10, 189, 1939; HANSEN, W. W., J. Applied Phys., 9, 654, 1938; VARIAN, R. II., and S. F.
VARIAN, J. Applied Phys., 10, 321, 1939; WEBSTER, L L., J. Applied Phys., 10, 501, 1939;
HEIL, A. ARSENJEWA, and O. HEIL, Zeit. Physik, 96, 752 -762, 1935; BRUCHS. E., and
A. RECENAGEL, Zeit. Physik, 109, 459 -482, 1938; HAHN, W. C., and G. F. METCALF,
Sec. 6J VACUUM -TUBE OSCILLATORS 315
features and is being developed in an effort to obtain considerable
amounts of power at wave lengths of 5 to 20 cm. It employs a new type
of tube known as the velocity-modulated tube. In the conventional
triode tubes, where the electron stream is controlled by a grid, the time
taken for the electrons to go from the cathode through the grid to the
plate limits their use at these ultra-high frequencies. The velocity-
modulated tube, on the other hand, utilizes this transit time phenomenon
in such a way as to obtain the h -f waves by means of new types of struc-
ture and modes of operation.
The action of the velocity -modulated tubes is substantially
electron beam of constant current and speed is passed through as follows: An
a pair of grids
which may be in the form of hollow cylinders. Between these grids is
applied an oscillating field, parallel to the electron stream and of sufficient
strength to change the velocities of the cathode rays by an appreciable frac-
tion of their initial speed. After the electrons in the beam have passed
through these grids, the electrons with increased speeds begin to overtake
those with decreased speeds that were ahead of them. This produces what
has been termed velocity modulation of the electron beam and groups the elec-
trons into bunches separated by relatively empty space. These bunches of
charge density pass into another structure where they induce the output
current. After leaving the output structure, the electrons are collected upon
an anode held at a fixed positive potential.
By utilizing and properly adjusting the electron transit time, tubes have
been produced which will give efficiencies of approximately 30 per cent.
When a certain amount of the output power is fed hack into the
tube acts as as oscillator. Engineers predict that hundreds ofinput, this
watts of
u -h -f energy in the 5- to 20-cm region may be produced in this way.
In this type of oscillator, special resonators are used which
high selectivity. These resonators, called rhurnbatrons, arehave extremely
metal vessels
practically closed.
27. Mechanical -electronic Oscillators. Mechanical-electronic oscil-
lators are those which employ in combination both vacuum -tube circuits
and mechanical -rotating members. The electrostatic audio generator
developed by Kurtz and Larsen' falls into this class. It consists of a
number of variable condensers of the rotary type which are driven at a
constant speed. When a direct voltage is connected through resistors
to each of these condensers, the charging current of the different
densers is varied. If the plates of the condensers are designed so con- that
the charging currents are sinusoidal, a sinusoidal voltage will be devel-
oped across each of the series resistors. These voltages may be applied
at the same time to the input of an amplifier. This generator was
designed to produce a fundamental and 15 harmonic voltages simul-
taneously. The phase of any sinusoidal voltage with respect to the others
is easily adjusted by shifting the position of any one of the stationary
plates. To vary the amplitude of any of the voltages, it is necessary
only to vary the particular applied direct voltage. A system such as
this one is very useful in the study of the effects of changes in amplitude
and phase of a complex sound on the ear.
The photo-audio generator developed by Schaffer and Lubszynskys
falls also into this class of oscillators. It consists of a system in which
Proc. I.R.E., 27 106 -116, 1939; HAHN, W. C., Gen. Ela. Rev., 42, 258, 1939; RAMO,
SIMON, Proc. I.R.E., 27,_757, 1939.
' KURTZ, E. B., and M. J. LARSEN, Elec. Eng., 64, 950, 1935.
= SceArrER, W., and G. LIIBSZYNSKY,
Proc. I.R.E., 19, 1242, 1931; 20, 363 1932.
316
a beam of light falling on a photoelectric cell is interrupted by a perforated

rotating disk. When a light aperture and the size developed and shape of the
holes in the disk are correctly designed, the voltage of the cell can be
by the
photocell will be very nearly sinusoidal. The output read by a tachom-
suitably amplified and the frequency of the oscillator
eter applied to the driving motor.
Many other oscillators of this type have been developed. fre-
28. Tuning -fork Oscillators. For oscillators of low to medium
The range
quency the tuning fork provides an excellent resonator.
from 100 to 10,000 cps is readily covered. Simplest and least precise
considerable
are the contact -driven forks which are capable of supplyingsingle- button
power output of approximately square wave form. The frequency
microphone drive gives a much purer wave and more constant
at the expense of power output. The double- button microphone drive
gives a still purer wave, better stability, and greater output.
for various types of tuning -fork oscillators (bummers).

32.-Circuits
The free tuning fork which is driven by one magnetica coil and excites
another, is capable of high frequency stability. With suitable circuit
and a fork of special material a stability of a few parts per million is
obtained for relatively long times without benefit of voltage or tempera-
ture control. desirable in
29. Oscillator Automatic -frequency Control. It may be with a small
practice to control the frequency generated by an oscillator this
change in voltage. Special circuits which have been designed oftoandooscil-
are shown in Figs. 33a and b.' In Fig. 33a the tuned circuit Since the plate
lator is shunted by a condenser C and vacuum tubeofV,. the control voltage,
resistance of this tube depends upon the magnitude by variations in the
the effective reactance of the combination is varied it is numeri-
control voltage. If the plate resistance is adjusted so that change
cally equal to the reactance of C, the effective resistance does not to
with a change in effective reactance. In this way a voltage applied
the control grid will control the frequency of oscillation without affecting
the amplitude.
TRAVIS, C., Proc.I.R.E., 23, 1125, 1935.
For variants of the basic circuit see: S. W.
FREEMAN, R. L.. Eleclroniea, p. 20. November, 1936; FOSTER, D. E.. and
SEELEY, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 289, 1937.
See. 91 VACUUM -TUBE OSCILLATORS 317
Figure 33b shows another type of control circuit for varying the fre-
quency of an oscillator. Here the plate circuit of the control tube V,
shunts the resonant circuit of the oscillator. The voltage drop in the
resistance R is applied to the grid of the control tube. This voltage is
approximately 90 deg. out of phase with the resonant circuit voltage, and
hence the plate circuit of the control tube affects the tank circuit in the
same way as a reactance. Variations in this effective reactance are
obtained by changing the bias on the control tube.
30. Electron -coupled Oscillators. It has been pointed out, that the
frequency of oscillation will be affected by changes in load unless the
il
- + +
Contro/
vo/tage
(a) (b)
Fla. 33.- Oscillators
having automatic- frequency control.
current in the resonant circuit inductance is not changed when the load
is varied. The use of buffer amplifiers between the oscillator and the
load aids in shielding the former from load variations.
Dowl has developed another method making the frequency of oscilla-
tion independent of load variations. The method employs electron
coupling between the oscillator and the load. This consists of a Hartley
oscillator in which the screen grid serves as anode while the plate serves
only as an output electrode (see Fig. 34). The screen grid is effectively
grounded to alternating currents while the cathode is at an alternating
potential above ground. This pre-
vents the load impedance in the plate
circuit from reacting back on the os- Output
cillator. At the same time the elec-
trons that pass through the screen are +
attracted by the more positive plate. R
This results in the plate current hav-
ing an alternating component which is Flo. 34.- Electron -coupled oscil-
of the same frequency as the oscillator lator circuit.
frequency. Hence energy is delivered to the load through the electron
stream, and at the same time the oscillator is effectively shielded from the
load.
The frequency of oscillation with this type of oscillator can be made
independent of supply voltage variations by properly choosing the ratio
of screen grid to plate potential. This is possible because there is always
some value of this ratio for which the frequency is independent of the
applied voltage. By adjusting the position of the tap on R until thi.
frequency becomes independent of applied voltage, a high degree of
Dow. J. B., Prom. I.R.E., 19, 2095, 1931.
318 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK ISee. S
frequency stability may be obtained. It may he necessary to change the

position of this tap if the oscillator frequency is varied over wide limits.
When the oscillator is operated normally, the tube is biased beyond
cutoff, and the plate current flows in pulses that are very rich in harmonic
content. Since the frequency stability is very high and the output
extremely rich in harmonics, this oscillator is very satisfactory for use
in heterodyne frequency meters. There are many possible ways in which
the principle of electron coupling may be used to great advantage.
31. Power -oscillator Design. In applications which require appreci-
able power output and for which a high degree of frequency stability is
not necessary, feedback oscillators may be used. In these oscillators the
tube operates as in a class C amplifier, and oscillators adjusted in this
way are referred to as class C oscillators.
The design of a class C oscillator may be conducted along the same
lines as for a class C amplifier. There are two principal points of differ-
ence: (1) the power required to supply the energy for the grid circuit
must be obtained from the plate-circuit power supply since this, with
the exception of the filament supply, is the only source of power in the
circuit; and (2) the oscillating circuit must contain sufficient stored
energy to meet the grid- circuit requirements. The first step in design
is to determine the correct operating conditions for the tube. These
may be determined by various methods, some of which consist of graph-
ical integrations of the current waves that are obtained from the static
characteristic curves of the tube.' These methods require that the
complete static characteristic curves be available far out in the region
of positive grid potential. To obtain these curves special experimental
techniques have been devised.' Other methods consist of analytical
integration of (1) simple expressions which are assumed to approximate
the wave form of the current pulses or (2) approximate analytical expres-
sions for the static characteristic curves.3 Among these methods of
precalculation, some are extremely laborious but accurate, while others
are rapid but inaccurate. The methods due to Chaffee' and to Terman
and Roakeb are recommended as sufficiently accurate for engineering
purposes, and at the same time they are reasonably rapid. In addition
to these methods of precalculation, the operating conditions for the tube
may be determined by direct test.
The results obtained by any one of these various methods will be
subject to certain limitations which are always imposed on the operation
of the tube. These limitations are designed to preserve reasonable life
and to prevent sudden failure of the tube. Electrode dissipations are
' PRINCE. D. C., Proc. I.R.E.. 11, 275, 405. 527, 1923; Kltaous, C. E., Proc. I.R.E.,
19, 42, 1931; MougowrsEFF, I. E., Proc. I.R.E., 20, 783, 1932; MOUROMTBEFF, I. E., and
KozANOwasl, H. N., Proc. I.R.E., 22, 1090, 1934; Prue. I.R.E.. 36, 752, 1935; WAGERER,
W. G., Proc. 1.R.E., 26, 47, 1937.
2 KozANowaEI, H. N., and I. E. MOUROMTBEFF, Proc. I.R.E.,
21, 1082, 1933; CHAFFEE,
E. L., Electronics, June, 1938.
s FAT, C. E., Proc. I.R.E., 20, 548. 1932; EVERITT, W. L.. Proc. I.R.E., 22, 152, 1934;
TERMAN, F. E., and J. H. FERNS, Proc. I.R.E., 22, 359, 1934; MILLER, B. F.. Proc. I.R.E.,
23, 496, 1935; BARITE, V. A., L'Onde dectrique, 14, 668, 1935; EVERITT, W. L., Proc.
I.R.E., 24, 305, 1936; TERMAN, F. E., and W. C. ROARS, Proc. I.R.E., 24, 620, 1936;
WAGENER, W. G., Proc. I.R.E., 26, 47, 1937.
CHAFFEE, E. L., Jour. Applied Phya. 9, 471, 1938.
6 TERMAN, F. E., and W. C. ROARS, Proc. I.R.E., 24, 620, 1936. A method for
obtaining the optimum conditions of operation for various applications has been devel-
oped which is extremely accurate but not too involved. This method will appear in the
revision of E. L. Chaffeé s "Thermionic Vacuum Tubes," in preparation.
limited to prevent liberation of as or injury to the tube structure due to
melting or warping. The maximum polarizing potential is limited to
prevent flashover due to gas or cold emission, breakdown of insulation, or
puncture of the tube due to stray beams of electrons. Also the grid
dissipation must be kept small enough to avoid appreciable primary
emission from the grid, and the maximum instantaneous current flowing
in the tube must be limited to preserve reasonable filament life. When
the operating conditions are selected with due regard to these limitations
and to the conditions of power output and efficiency desired, they may
he used for the design of any one of the oscillator circuits shown in Fig. 1.
These operating conditions are as follows:
Ea The direct plate voltage.
E, The direct grid voltage.
Ea, The r -m -s value of the fundamental component of the plate alternating voltage.
E,, The r -m-v value of the ` undamental component of the grid alternating voltage
la The average value of the direct plate current.
h The average value of the direct grid current.
/,n The r-ut -s value of the fundamental component of the plate a.c.
Ic, The r -m -e value of the fundamental component of the grid a.c.
32. Power Relations in Class C Oscillators. The d -c power supplied to
the oscillator circuit from the source Ea is
Pinput = //Xs
The power output to the tank circuit at fundamental frequency is
Punk = E,I,
This power must supply the driving power, the load, and the losses in the tank
îrcuit. This power may also be expressed as
Pt.nk = IL'RL
Where RL represents, in addition to the inherent resistance the total tank
inductance, the resistance reflected into the tank circuit by of
the load require-
ment of the grid circuit and by the load itself. It is the circulating current
in the oscillating circuit.
The power lost at the plate is
Ppl.te = IeEa Eplp-
The driving power required by the tube is
Pdriving = E,I,
This power supplies the power delivered to the grid resister to maintain the
bias voltage
Pgrid resister = lrEe
and the power lost at the grid. Therefore the grid loss is
Avid = EI, -
/rEr
The power available for output is then given approximately by
Poutput = Enl, -Ed.
Actually the useful power which may be obtained from the oscillator will
be less than is given by this expression, by the inherent losses in the circuit
elements. However, in a well -designed oscillator these may be kept small,
and the power output will be very nearly that given above; hence the effi-
ciency of the oscillator may be expressed as
E,I, - Ea.
IeEa
This is not the over-all efficiency. An expression for the over-all efficiency
of an oscillator may include the power required for the filament and the
losses incurred in obtaining the high- voltage plate supply.
33. Design of a Hartley Oscillator. The methods illustrated here are
applicable to any of the other feedback oscillators. The problem is to
determine the values of the circuit elements in such a way that the proper
voltages (which have been obtained by any one of the various methods
discussed above) will be applied to the tube. It has been found that in
general the alternating plate and grid voltages should be 180 deg. out of
phase for correct operation. Most of the methods for obtaining the
operating conditions assume that this phase condition will he met.
Slight variations in phase of a few degrees have only a small effect on
the performance of the oscillator.
In the Hartley circuit the voltages developed across the tapped inductances
are used as the alternating components of the plate and grid voltage. The
total alternating voltage across the tank circuit is the sum of E, and E,.
The filament tap is adjusted so that the ratio of the plate and grid voltage is
E, /E,. It has been found experimentally that the effective selectivity Q of
the tank should be greater than 12.5, approximately. Higher values of Q
increase the stability and lower the harmonic content. The tank -circuit
inductance for any frequency may be found by use of the relation
(E,I + E,1)!
2rfQPunk
and the tank-circuit capacity by
QP QPtank
C - 2rf(E, + E,)' C 2rf(E,I + E,,)'
where f is the required frequency of oscillation.
The grid -bias voltage required is given by E., and with an average grid
current of I. the grid resistance is
R. _
E
The value of the grid condenser capacity C. should be large enough to act
as an effective short circuit for the grid resistance R. at the frequency of
operation. It should not, however, be so large as to cause intermittent
oscillations, as discussed in Art. 14 of this section.
The plate blocking condenser Ce should be large enough so that the reactive
voltage developed across it will be small in comparison to E,. The induct-
ance of the shunt feed choke should be large in comparison with the induct-
ance of the portion of the tank circuit which it effectively shunts. In the
Hartley oscillator this blocking condenser and choke can be designed in such
a way as to help correct for variations in phase of the alternating plate and
grid voltages from the 180 -deg. position.
References
Oscillators, General:
AROIOMBAU, L. B.: Proc. I.R.E., 21, January, 1933.
BENIOFF, H.: Proc. I.R.E., 19, July, 1931.
BanNETTi, C.: Proc. I.R.E., 25, 1595, 1937.
Dow. J. B.: Proc. I.R.E., 15, May, 1927; 19, December, 1931.
Ei LER. K. B.: Proc. I.R.E., 16, December, 1928.
GROez=Owaex. JANUSZ: Proc. I.R.E., Ill, 958. 1933; 22, February, 1934.
HAMBURGER, F., JR.: Proc. I.R.E., 22, January. 1934.
HEROLD, E. W.: Proc. L.R.E., 23, 1201, 1935. (Contains large bibliography on negative.
resistance oscillators.)
HORTON, J. W.: Bell System Tech. Jour., 8, 508, July, 1924.
JIMBO, S.: Prot. LR.E., 17, November, 1929.
KING, R. W.: Bell System Tech. Jour.. 2, October, 1923.
La CORBEILLER, P.: I.E.E., Wireless Sec., 11, 292. 1936.
MODEL, S. J.: Proc. I.R.E., 21, December, 1933.
ROOSENSTEIN, H. O.: Proc. I.R.E., 19, October, 1931.
STONE, J. S.: Proc. I.R.E., 19, August, 1931.
VAN DER POL, BALTH: Proc. LR.E., 22, September, 1934.
VECCHIACCHI, F.: Proc. I.R.E., 19, May, 1931.
Frequency -control Crystals:

BOELLA, M.: Proc. I.R.E., 19, July, 1931.
CADY, W. G.: Proc. I.R.E., 10, April, 1922.
CLAYTON, J. M.: QST, September, 1926.
CoLwELL, R. C.: Proc. I.R.E., 20, May, 1932.
DYE, D. W.: Proc. Phya. Soc. (London), 88, August, 1926.
HARRISON, J. R.: Proc. I.R.F.., December, 1927; 16, November, 1928.
HEATON, V. E., and E. G. LAPHAM: Proc. I.R.E., 20 February, 1932.
Hum, S. C., and G. W. WILLARD: Proc. I.R.E., 26, May. 1937.
HORTON, J. W., and W. A. MARRISON: Proc. I.R.E., 16, February, 1928.
KOOA, I.: Proc. I.R.E., 19, June, 1931.
LAPHAM, E. G.: Proc. I.R.E., 12, January, 1934.
MACKINNON, K. A.: Proc. I.R.E., 20, November, 1932.
MASON, W. P.: Bell System Tech. Jour., 19, January, 1940.
MEAHL, H. R.: Proc. I.R.E., 22, June, 1934.
MUELLER. E. L.: QST, May, 1927.
PIERCE, G. W.: Proc. Amer. Acad. Arta Sci., 69, October, 1923.
TERRY. E. M.: Proc. I.R.E., 16, November, 1928.
VON DYKE, K. S.: Prot. I.R.E., 16, June, 1928.
VIGOUREUX. P.: Ph17. Map., December, 1928.
WATTS, W. A.: QST, January. 1928.
WHEELER, L. P.: Proc. I.R.È., 19, April. 1931.
WILLIAMS, N. H.: Proc. I.R.E., 21, July, 1933.
WORRALL, R. H., and R. B. OWENS: Proc. I.R.E., 16, June, 1928.
WRIGHT, J. W.: Proc. I.R.E., 17, January, 1929.
High- frequency Oscillators (including magnetrons, electron coupling, etc.):
BAREHAIISES and KURZ: Physik. Zeita., 21, 1920.
DYTRT, L. F.: Proc. I.R.E.. 28, March, 1935.
GILL and MoaELL: Phil. Mag., 44, 1922.
HOAG, J. B.: Proc. I.R.E., 21, August, 1933.
HOLLMANN, H. E.: Proc. I.R.E., 17, February, 1929.
KARPLUS: Gen. Radio Experimenter, 5, May, 1931.
KILGORE. G. R.: Proc. I.R.E., 20, November, 1932.
KOZANOwSEI, H. N.: Proc. I.R.E., 20, June, 1932.
LOEBER, C. W.: Electronics, November. 1930.
McNAMARA, F. T.: Proc. I.R.E., 22, August. 1934.
MEGAw, E. C. S.: Proc. I.R.E.. 21, December, 1933.
MooRE, W. H.: Proc. I.R.E., 22, August, 1934.
MOUROMTBEFr, I. E., and H. V. NOBLE: Proc. I.R.E., 20, August, 1932.
OKABE, KINJIRO: Proc. I.R.E.. 21, November, 1933.
THOMPSON, B. J., and P. D. Zorro: Proc. I.R.E., 22, December, 1934.
WENSTROM, W. H.: Proc. I.R.E.. 20, January, 1932.
WHITE, W. C.: Electronics, April, 1930.
SECTION 1(1
MODULATION AND DETECTION

By L. F. CURTI81
TYPES OF MODULATION
1. Modulated Waves. A modulated wave is a periodic wave of which
the amplitude, frequency, or phase is varied in accordance with a signal.
Modulation is the process by which this variation is accomplished.
Demodulation or detection is the process by which the original signal is
recovered from the modulated wave.
The unmodulated component of the original wave is a carrier wave or,
more broadly, a carrier. The frequency of the carrier usually is much
greater than the highest frequency component in the original signal.
The modulating wave or signal wave applied to the carrier may be a
direct representation of the original signal, or it may he a wave of a
different carrier frequency previously modulated by the original signal.
In this case the process is called double modulation, and the modulation
appears in new frequency groups associated with carrier frequencies
equal to the sum and difference of the signal -carrier and fixed- carrier
frequencies. Double modulation accompanied by the selection of one
of the new carrier frequencies (intermediate frequency -i.f.) to which
the signal modulation has been transferred is often called frequency
conversion.
In tubes and circuits the waves are of current in, or of voltage across,
circuit elements. A modulated wave of current is expressed by
i = I cos (gut + 4) (1)
where I = amplitude
co 12T = frequency of the carrier
t = time
= relative phase.
The signal may be imparted to the carrier either by a variation of the
amplitude or by a variation of the phase as a function of time. Varia-
tions in phase are accompanied by simultaneous variations in frequency,
since the frequency is 1 /2,r times the derivative of the phase with respect
to time. Simultaneous variations of phase and amplitude during modu-
lation usually lead to distortion.
Velocity modulation is a process in which the velocity of electrons in
transit in a special tube is controlled by a signal. The wave at the
output terminals of the tube is modulated in amplitude. With presently
available commercial devices and circuits, this process is usable only
at extremely high carrier frequencies.
Hazeltine Service Corporation.
322
See. 101 MODULATION AND DETECTION 323
2. Amplitude Modulation (A.M.). A current wave amplitude modu-
lated by a single signal component of frequency a/2r may be expressed
by rewriting Eq. (1) as
i = !0(1 + m cos at) cos (wt + e) (2)
where !0 = amplitude of the carrier
m = relative variation in amplitude at the signal frequency
e = constant phase of the carrier.
The value of m is called the degree of modulation or modulation factor.
When multiplied by 100, it is the percentage of modulation.
(a) Time
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
- -
kMAPANWVAAF-
(f)
Fla. 1.- Components in a-m waves.
The phase of the carrier may be neglected unless the current is to be
combined with other currents of the same frequency. Neglecting B
and making I,, unity for convenience, Eq. (2) may be expanded to
i = cos cot + 2 cos (to + a)t + 2 cos (w - 0)1 (3)
The modulated wave contains, in addition to the carrier, two independ-

ent periodic waves spaced therefrom in frequency by the modulating
frequency. These are modulation side frequencies.
These waves are illustrated in Fig. 1, in which a is the signal, b the
unmodulated carrier, c the complete modulated wave, d the lower side
frequency, e the upper side frequency, and f the two side frequencies
without the carrier. The choice of a sine or cosine function for represent-
ing steady -state conditions is a matter of convenience. The envelope
of the composite wave (shown dotted) has the same shape as the original
signal wave. The intercepts of the composite wave with the zero axis
are not changed by a.m.
3. Amplitude Modulation with Several Signal Frequencies. The
modulation may be expressed as a Fourier series when the original signal
wave contains components at several frequencies. The composite
signal is
i = Jo[l + mo + Ems cos (nat + a+,)] cos cal (4)
When Eq. (4) is expanded, independent pairs of side frequencies appear
for each signal frequency (na/2T). The bands of frequencies above and
below the carrier frequency occupied by the side frequencies are upper
side bands and lower side bands, respectively. The band width is the
frequency spectrum occupied by both. side bands and carrier. In a.m.
it is two times the highest modulating frequency in the original signal.
The relative phase (as) of each of the signal components must be
preserved in order to maintain the original form of the signal. This is
relatively unimportant in signals for music and speech but is sometimes
exceedingly critical, as in video signals in television systems.
The d-c component (mo) of the modulating signal has the effect of
changing the magnitude of the
n n carrier wave and represents a
o signal variation which is so slow
relative to the remaining com-
Time -+
E
:
ponents that it may be con-
sidered constant over the
steady-state interval under ex-
amination. This is illustrated
in Fig. 2, which is representative
Fia. 2.- Envelopes of a-m waves. of the envelope of a modulated
television signal wave for two
different time intervals. Changes in the d -c component from time to
time must be regarded as variations in the original signal.
Inward modulation and outward modulation are the respective decreases
or increases in the envelope of the composite signal wave relative to the
carrier. As illustrated in Fig. 2, inward and outward modulation are
not necessarily alike. Inward modulation must not reduce the carrier
to zero, or the character of the original signal will he lost. The maximum
outward modulation determines the maximum power in the modulated
wave.
In many cases it is sufficient to express the complete wave as
i - /0(1 + 111) cos wt (5)
when the instantaneous modulation M varies slowly with respect to the
frequency of the carrier.
Carrier suppression is the process of balancing out the carrier com-
ponent in an a -m wave leaving only the frequency components in the
side bands (see Fig. lf). The transmitted power is then zero in the
absence of modulation, resulting in an increase in transmitting efficiency.
A carrier must then be suplied locally at the receiver for detection.
Single-side band and vestigial -side band signal waves are a -m waves
in which all or a portion of the side -frequency components above or
Sec. 101 MODULATION AND DETECTION 325
below the carrier frequency have been removed by suitable filters. The
portion of the frequency spectrum from which the components were
removed is then available for other services.
4. Phase Modulation (P.M.) and Frequency Modulation (F.M.).
The peak amplitude of the composite signal is constant in p-m and f -m
waves. The signal is imparted to the carrier by a variation of the phase
as a function of time.
A single signal component of frequency a /2r produces a current
i = Io cos (wet + O + m sin at) (6)
where Io = constant amplitude
w. /2a = constant carrier frequency
O = constant relative carrier phase
m = relative maximum variation in phase or modulation index due
to the signal.
B may be neglected unless the current is to be combined with other currents
of the same frequency.
1.0
1.0 -
0.5
0.5
0 +2 +4
+dw 0
- 0 +1
-0.5 i -dar +dw
(a) Phase -or Frequency- Modulated Waves (b) Amplitude -Modulated Waves
Fru. 3.- Component side frequencies.
Neglecting O and making Io unity for convenience, Eq. (6) may be expanded
to
i = Jo(m) cos w.t
+ Ji(m)Icos (we + a)t -
cos (w. a)1
+ J:(m)lcos (w. + 2a)t + cos (w. 2a)t]
--
+
+ J.(m)(cos(w. + na)t + ( -1)
cos (w. na)ll - (7)
where J. (m)
is the Bessel function of the first kind and nth order for the
argument m. The components in Eq. (7) are the carrier and side frequencies
in a p-m or f-m wave at a single signal frequency.
An infinite number of side frequencies spaced a /2a in frequency is indicated
for complete identity, but the Bessel functions J(m) are negligible for values
of n some 20 to 40 per cent greater than the value of m. The number of
necessary side frequencies is somewhat greater than 2m. The carrier com-
ponent is less than the unmodulated carrier and may be negative. The inter-
cepts of the composite wave with the zero axis are not equally spaced.
Figure 3a illustrates the carrier and side -frequency components for
p.m. or f.m. for m = 2 for a single modulating frequency. In com-
parison, Fig. 3b illustrates the carrier- and side-frequency components
for 100 per cent a.m. for a single modulating frequency.
The instantaneous angular frequency w of the composite wave is the
derivative of the instantaneous phase with respect to time and is
w w, ma cos at (8)
The maximum frequency deviation Af is a /tar times the maximum phase

departure or modulation index m, and is
ma
- Zar
(9)
5. Differences in P.M. and F.M. The original signal usually contains

components at several frequencies. The maximum phase departure
and the maximum frequency deviation for several unrelated modulating
frequencies are then
¿4 - mr +ms + ins + ... .{_mk (10)
and
W = 2-(maal + msas + + mkak) ...
(11)
When the component maximum phase departures m, to mk are made

proportional to the amplitudes of the signal components at frequencies
ai /2x to ak /2or, the composite wave is said to be phase -modulated.
Phase Modulation Frequency Modulation
(a) 0 71_1r
Time - Time
+d0
(b) 0 --
-d0
< c)
+df-fl--f
0 J_J
L
4_
¡ Toco
A
_
t t
Toco
Fia. 4. Comparison of phase and frequency modulation.
When the component maximum frequency deviations are made propor-
tional to the amplitudes of the signal components, the composite wave is
said to be frequency- modulaled.
These relations for p-m or f -an waves, as indicated by the subscripts p or Jr
are summarized in the following equations:
(Ai), = + (AfP)a (6,402 + ... + (44'4 (12)
(A),
(u)/ _ as + () + ...
a:
+ (Aw)k
ak
(13)
(Af). = 7--1l(Ao),aa + (04)2ai + ... + (A4)kasl (14)
(AD/ = 2xl(Aw)1 + (Aw)a + . . . + (Aw) *l (15)
The expansion of the expression for current when several signal frequencies
are present contains side -frequency terms which are spaced from the carrier
1
t
frequency by f2w(mat ± n2a2 nak) where the n's are all positive integers
to approximately 1.3 times the respective values of m for the corresponding
component signal frequencies. This ratio approaches unity as the value of
m is increased. The maximum hand width required is therefore approxi-
mately 2.6 times the maximum frequency deviation for either p-m or f -m
waves.
There is no upper limit to the degree of modulation which may be
applied without distortion by p.m. or by f.m. except as determined by the
capability of the equipment to operate over the required frequency band.
In wide -band f-in systems the maximum allowable frequency deviation
is specified by assignment to prevent interference with other services.
Figure 4 illustrates the limiting case for the transmission of a rec-
tangular signal wave by means of p.m. or by f.m. The curves a are the
original signal, b the phase departures, and c the frequency deviations,
all plotted against time. The required side bands for p.m. with rec-
tangular signals extend to plus or minus infinite frequency for perfect
transmission. When the maximum frequency deviation is limited by
the equipment as at the dashed lines in c, the best possible operation is
as shown by the full lines, whereas ideal operation would be according
to the dotted lines.
AMPLITUDE -MODULATED WAVES IN NON -LINEAR CIRCUITS
6. Modulation, Frequency Conversion, and Detection. Essentially
the same classes of non - linear devices are used for the modulation,
frequency conversion, or detection of a-m waves. In each process the
waves to be combined or resolved are applied to circuit elements which
have asymmetrical E -I characteristics. These may be series character-
istics, as in dry rectifiers or diodes, or may be mutual characteristics, as
in multielectrode vacuum tubes.
The output circuit of a modulator is arranged to transmit the carrier
and its side bands; that of a frequency converter, the i -f carrier and its
side bands; and that of a detector, the components at the frequency
of the original signal. The components in the voltage developed by the
output current at other frequencies are eliminated by proper filtering.
Intermodulation is the production of new components having fre-
quencies corresponding to undesired sums and differences of the funda-
mental and harmonic frequencies of the components of the applied
waves.
Cross modulation is a type of intermodulation in which the carrier
of the desired output signal is modulated by an undesired signal.
Modulation distortion is a change in the character of modulation either
in an increase in the percentage of modulation or in the production of
harmonics of the modulating signal due to intermodulation.
Spurious modulation components may be predicted by substituting
the desired and interfering input signals in the power-series expressicns,
Eq. (16) or (18), for plate current, expanding, and collecting the terms
at the frequencies in question.
7. Input to a Single Grid. The grid -plate characteristic of a vacuum
tube in which the plate current is substantially independent of the load
may be represented by the power series
i = A. + A ie A,e' + A,e' -}- (16)
where the A's are coefficients determined by test and e is the instanta-
neous input voltage. Specifically, the coefficients are
= aî
A (17)
at the steady value of e which is maintained by bias voltage.

The power series Eq. (16) is useful quantitatively as well as qualita-
tively in class A tubes which do not draw grid current and which are
not worked to plate- current cutoff. In class B and class C services
the power -series equation may require too many terms for the extended
range and may converge too slowly to be of use quantitatively, but it is
always of value in determining the frequency range of the possible
output components. The term Ase2 provides the largest part of the
useful modulation output, whereas the term Aie provides the useful
output in amplification. When the higher order terms are absent,
as at low input levels in class A tubes, the useful output may be calculated
accurately. The tube is then said to be operating as a square -law device.
In triodes (or when the output impedance is appreciable with respect
to the plate impedance), the plate current depends on the plate voltage
as well as on the grid voltage. The voltages developed by the plate
current in the plate load are reimpressed on the plate, thereby reducing
the useful output. To a first approximation, neglecting the higher
order terms, the output current from Eq. (16) is reduced by the factor
rf /(r, + Z) where r,, is the plate resistance of the tube and ,L is the load
impedance at the frequency of the desired output. If the load impedance
is non -uniform over the band, the correction may be applied separately
to each of the output- frequency components.
8. Input to Two Electrodes. The plate current of a vacuum tube, in
which the plate current is substantially independent of the load and
which is controlled by the potentials on more than one electrode, may be
expressed by the double-power series
i - Ao + A,e, + Age,2 + Ase,a
.) +
... + es(Bo + Biel
+ Bxe,° + .
+ e22(Co + Cie, + Ceti + ) (18)
in which the applied voltages are e, and e2 and in which the coefficients
are determined by test.
A,
ai
ae, = gi
= 1 agi l agi
As
2 des' 2 ae,
Bo =
ass
Co =
l agi
2 8e22
B, - seises
a=z
= agi,
ses
etc. (19)
at the steady values of e, and es, which are maintained by bias voltages.
The double-power series Eq. (18) may be used qualitatively for an

estimate of the possible frequency components present in the output,
even if it converges too slowly for quantitative results.
The term B1e1e2 provides useful modulation output. When the higher
order terms are small, as at low input levels in class A operation, the
useful output may be calculated accurately.
9. Linearity of Output. While the power -series equations are extremely
useful in class A calculations and in showing what distortion components
may be present under less favorable circumstances, a direct indication
of the linearity of the desired output in terms of the variable input is
more often used. Tests of vacuum -tube modulators and detectors
may be conducted at any convenient frequency, e.g., 60 cycles, if the
circuit impedances at the desired operating frequency are duplicated
at the test frequency. The linearity of the dynamic characteristic
of the controlled current is a direct indication of the linearity of the
desired output.
For modulators the output R
current (or the voltage devel-
oped in the load by it) at the
test frequency is plotted against
steps in the input voltage cor-
responding to its variation by (a)
the modulating voltage. For
detectors, the d -c output is (b)
plotted against steps in the Fia. 5.- Method of absol ption modulators.
r -m -s or peak value of the test
input voltage, corresponding to the modulated input voltage for different
parts of the modulating cycle.
The output curves which are the most nearly linear over a wide range
of the independent variable, taken for different load resistances, bias
voltages, etc., indicate the operating condition which will accommodate
high percentages of modulation with the least distortion.
AMPLITUDE M ODULATORS
10. Absorption Modulators. Absorption modulation is obtained by
varying a resistance either in series with or in parallel with the load in
accordance with some function of the modulating voltage. In Fig. 5a
suppose that R, is a resistance which includes the load and which is
varied linearly with the modulation or
R, = Ro(1 + M) (20)
where M = the instantaneous value of the modulation.
The output voltage e2 is
e,Rr
es=R+R> (21)
when e, = applied voltage

R = resistance of the source.
The ratio of e:/e, is plotted against R,/R in Fig. 6, which indicates
that reasonably linear operation is obtained over a small portion of the
curve when Rr is small compared to R. The dotted curve is the output
330 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [see. 1.0
voltage across R as a load when Rd is used as a variable series resistor.

Physical resistances can be varied over a limited range, say three to one.
The usable portion of the curve of Fig. 6 is then limited to the section
marked ab in Fig. 6. The efficiency and the effective degree of linear
r
modulation in the output are low in any case.
The plate resistance of a vacuum tube as controlled by the modulating
voltage applied to its grid may be used as the variable resistor for absorp-
1.0
0.8 RENE
0.6 MIME
e2 e
0.4
0.2 NEW
0
0 0 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 LO 1.2 14 1.6 1.8 2.0
R /R
Fla. 6.- Linearity in absorption modulation.
tion modulation in parallel with the output load as shown in Fig. 5b.
Since the plate resistance is not a linear function of the grid voltage, the
over-all linearity may then be improved somewhat by working on a
portion of the tube characteristic which tends to cancel the required
curvature indicated in Fig. 6. Tests are then made for linearity of load
voltage versus grid voltage.
The plate resistance required of the tube is the inverse of the resistance
R, when a quarter-wave transmission line or its filter equivalent are
(al (b)
Flo. 7. -Types of grid modulators.
interposed between the tube and the load. The required plate resistance
R, is then
s
Ra =R (22)
where Z0 = image impedance of the line.

Absorption modulation has been used to supplement other modulating
methods over portions of the modulating cycle.
11. Grid Modulators. Grid modulators operate with carrier and sig-
nal voltages applied to the same or separate grids as illustrated in Fig. 7a
or 7b. The plate current may be calculated by Eq. (16) or (18) for
low levels when the plate current is not swung to cutoff. The action
is illustrated in Fig. 8 for the connections of Fig. 7a and for a square -law
tube. Curve a shows the input signal and carrier voltages superimposed,
curve b the instantaneous plate current, and curve c the modulated out-
put voltage with the 1-f components filtered out.
In this case, when the applied voltage about the operating point EZ is
e = E cos wl + S, cos all + S2 cos asl + (23)
where Si and Sy are the signal amplitudes at frequencies a, /27r and
(a )
Fla. 8.- Low-level grid modulation.
ai/2,r, etc., the useful output current is
i = E(A, + 2A,S, cos alt + 2,4282 cos a=t + ) cos wt (24)
This may be written simply
i = E(A, + 2A2M) cos at (25)
where M indicates the instantaneous applied modulating signal. The
product M cos al, when expanded, produces all the pairs of side frequen-
cies required for the modulated wave. There are no spurious modulation
components. However, this mode of operation does not realize fully
the power capability of the tube, and the modulation cannot approach
unity.
332 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK 1sec. lo
A grid modulator is operated as a class C carrier- frequency amplifier

for higher plate efficiency. A tube with a linear grid -plate characteristic
is suitable. The bias is adjusted to about twice the value required for
plate- current cutoff, and the carrier input voltage is adjusted until the
peaks reach halfway between saturation and plate- current cutoff. The
superimposed modulating voltage at signal frequency causes the positive
peaks to vary widely in value as shown by curve a in Fig. 9. Curve b
shows the instantaneous plate current and curve c the useful modulated
(b)
^'- -,
TT
(c)
L,
-\ a
-'T .E
a
-1
F-
(a)
Fia. 9. -Class C grid modulation.
output voltage with the l -f and carrier -harmonic components filtered

out.
Linearity may be tested by the method of Art. 9 and observing the
output at the test frequency for a range of bias voltages. The exact
bias setting is then at the center of the linear portion of the test curve.
Grid modulators have the advantage of requiring small signal input
power, particularly when the tubes are not driven to grid current, but
have limited ranges of linear modulation and plate efficiencies of only
20 to 30 per cent. They are used ordinarily at low power levels.
Grid modulators are used for television signals since it is difficult to
obtain reasonable operation with high-level plate modulation over the
required wide band of television modulation frequencies. Triodes
may be used in grid modulators if neutralized to prevent h -f feedback.
The output is then reduced as explained in Art. 7. The voltage, current,
and power in the plate circuit have the following approximate relations:
E,,,... = E,(1 + M)
]l'.,... = W,(1 + M)'
ip(max.) = I,(1 M)
W... = We (1 + 2) (26)
(for sine -wave modulation)
where the subscript c indicates the conditions for the carrier alone.
12. Balanced Modulators. When carrier voltage is applied in phase
and modulating voltage is applied in push -pull to the grids of two modu-
lator tubes, the carrier is balanced out in a push-pull output load. The
circuit shown in Fig. 10 with two neutralized triodes is typical.
R.F.
Load
Fra. 10.- Circuit for balanced modulator.

For exact balance of tubes and transformers, and over the range of signals
for which the modulation characteristic is linear, the useful modulated output
current from the two plates is
ü = E,(A, + 2A,e.) cos wt (27)
and
ix = E,(A1 - 2A :e.) cos wt (28)
where E, = maximum carrier voltage
and e,,, = instantaneous modulating voltage.
The effective input current to the tank circuit is
i = 4A2E,e. cos wt (29)
which contains only the aide bands. For a single modulating frequency
a /2w, this reduces to
i = 2A:E.e,.[cos (w + a)t + cos (w a)t] - (30)
The voltage developed in the output circuit is
e = 2A,E,.e,,,Z(cos (w + a)t + cos (w a)t] - (31)
where Z = load transfer impedance. This arrangement is used in sup-
' pressed- carrier transmission systems. It has the advantage of balancing out
I any even-harmonic distortion due to departure of the modulation character -
istic from linearity, not considered in the above equations.
When the modulating input voltages to the two grids, the tube coefficients,
and the effective load transfer impedances for the two tubes are unequal,
the net tank circuit voltage is
e = E,[A,'Z' - Ai "Z" + 2(A,'e.'Z' + Az "e,. "Z ") cos at) cos wt (32)
where the ' and " values are for the first and second tubes respectively.
Some of the carrier remains when the balance is not perfect.
13. Plate Modulators. The constant -current plate modulator utilizes
an a -f choke coil in the circuit which supplies plate power to r -f and
a-f amplifier tubes, as shown in Fig. 11. The total plate current remains
constant by virtue of the inductance of the choke. The instantaneous
audio-plate voltage is added to the plate supply voltage and over the
audio cycle changes the latter to b(1 M). The r-f inductance L
prevents the loss of h-f power in the audio tube, and the condenser C
prevents the short circuit of the audio-plate voltage.
The a-f tube, frequently called the modulator, supplies modulating
power, but the actual modulation occurs in the plate circuit of the
r-f tube.
The plate current of the a-f
"r l.. a0000

j tube cannot be reduced to zero
during the modulation cycle
',
J v . _.
R FF á . au g
c.
Mod without introducing audio dis-
tortion. It is necessary, there -
3` fore, to operate the audio tube
Fia. 11.- Circuit for plate modulation. with a higher zero-signal plate
current than the radio tube in
order to reach unity modulation without audio distortion. This is
done by applying a higher plate voltage to the audio tube, either
by using a by- passed resistance in the plate circuit of the r -f tube
or by supplying the audio tube (or tubes) through transformer coupling
as illustrated in Fig. 12. A further improvement is indicated in Fig. 12,
since saturation of the transformer core is prevented by eliminating the
d-c magnetizing component and since even -order audio harmonics are
canceled by the push -pull arrangement. The efficiency of the system is
increased by operating the audio tubes in push -pull class B. In trans-
4+
Fia. 12.- Transformer-coupled plate modulator.
former coupling the total d -c is no longer constant but varies with the
modulation.
The voltage, current, and power in the plate circuit have the following
relations for sine-wave modulation:
Tube and circuit voltage,
E.,.:. = (1 + m) E6
R -f input power,
Average r -f input power,
Average output power,

Average audio input power,
We = 2 Eale
z
R -f plate loss,
WP (1 - n)( 1 +
s
2 )Eele (33)
where E6 and le = the d -c supply voltage and current, respectively

m = the degree of modulation
= the plate efficiency of the radio tube.
The plate efficiency is high (often 0.7 to 0.8), and the chief disadvantage of
plate modulation is the large amount of audio power which must be supplied.
The radio tube is operated as a class C amplifier with bias at approximately
two times cutoff. Since the plate losses are 50 per cent higher with full
modulation than for unmodulated output, the tube must be used at two -
thirds its rated power. Low-mu triodes are suitable and ensure low plate and
grid voltages.
Grid -leak bias helps in obtaining linearity up to complete modulation.
Linearity may be checked by direct adjustment or by test at 60 cycles with
a proper plate load for a range of plate voltage from 0 to 2E6.
14. Modulated Oscillator. Plate modulation was originally applied

directly to the oscillator tube and circuit. Practically full modulation
may be obtained with excellent linearity, but the arrangement has the
disadvantage of introducing f.m. The frequency of the oscillator varies
with the plate voltage, and, since in plate modulation this varies between
2E6 and 0 during full modulation, the oscillator frequency deviates from
its mean value with the modulating signal.
The same circuits are used between the two tubes, and the same
voltage, current, and power relations hold as with a plate-modulated
amplifier. Linearity is obtained by adjusting the value of the grid leak.
Modulated oscillators are now considered suitable only for test equip-
ment in which the f.m. is not objectionable.
15. Copper Oxide Modulators. Copper oxide rectifiers are applicable
in bridge modulators and are used widely in carrier-current telephony.
They function as carrier-operated switches for opening, shorting, or
reversing the elements carrying the modulating currents.
Copper oxide rectifiers are not suitable for use at frequencies much
above 1 Mc, except at low impedance levels on account of inherently
large shunt capacitance. They are compact in size and eliminate the
heater connections necessary in similar circuits using vacuum tubes.
They maintain a satisfactory balance in carrier-suppression circuits using
balanced modulators.
The power- series current equation for a copper oxide unit converges
slowly, and its characteristics are expressed more easily quantitatively
in terms of resistance for different applied voltages. For voltages in
the reverse direction and for less than 0.02 volt in the forward direction,
the resistance is high and substantially constant. For forward voltages
between 0.02 and 0.6 volt the resistance is approximately
r m roe 4i (34)
where k is a constant which may be as great as 18. For forward voltages
larger than 0.6 volt the resistance is low and nearly constant.
Representative circuits using copper oxide units are shown in Figs. 13

and 14. In these figures, f, and f. indicate voltage sources at the carrier
and signal frequencies, respectively. The impedances of the carrier
source, signal source, and load are Z., Z., and ZL, respectively. The
forward conducting direction of the units is shown by the arrows.
Since the carrier and signal voltages are applied to conjugate terminals
of the rectifier bridges, the resistance effects are balanced. In Fig. 13
the output signal is short- circuited for one polarity of the carrier cycle.
In Fig. 14 the effective connections between the signal source and the
me ±not;
nfc fnofa
of 3nefs
Fla. 13. -Type of bridge modulator using non -tube rectifiers.
load are reversed as the polarity of the carrier changes. This arrange-
ment is called a double- balanced or ring modulator.
The frequencies of the current components produced in the individual
rectifier units are determined qualitatively by an expansion of each
of the terms of a power-series equation for the current. Current com-
ponents of frequencies equal to the sums and differences of the integral
multiples of the carrier and signal frequencies appear in each unit in the
forward direction. These combine additively or differentially in the
connected circuits depending on the polarity. In flowing through
the circuit impedance these current components produce voltages of the
same frequency which are reimpressed upon the rectifier units. The
final result may be obtained quantitatively only by a series of approxima-
nefe ±nofs
fs rZlnfci no4
nofc'nefs
Fio. 14.- Double- balanced or ring modulator.
tions. The frequencies of the components appearing in the circuit
impedances are indicated in Figs. 13 and 14, where n is any whole number
or zero, n. is any odd number, and n, is an even number or zero.
The output impedances are designed as flters to eliminate voltages at
frequencies involving undesired multiples of f,. The useful output is at
a frequency ff ± f., and, when double modulation is used the carrier
frequency f. is eliminated. The ring or double-balanced modulator
differs from the simple -bridge modulator in having no term of frequency
f. in its output.
By making the carrier voltage large in comparison with the signal
voltage, the terms involving multiples of f, may be reduced satisfactorily
in magnitude. The units are operated with about 0.5 volt carrier across
each disk in the forward direction. The optimum impedance in the
signal and output circuits is
Z = /-VT/T?, (35)
where RI and R. are the resistances in the forward and reverse direc-
tions, respectively. The loss in conversion is then only 6 to 8 db.
Copper oxide bridge modulators differ from van der Bijl vacuum -tube
balanced modulators in that they transmit in either direction. They
function equally well as modulators or demodulators.
MODULATORS FOR P -M AND F -M WAVES
16. Phase Modulators. The usual method of producing p-m waves
is to combine the output of a suppressed- carrier balanced amplitude
modulator with an unmodulated carrier which
differs in phase by 90 deg from the original car-
rier. A vector diagram of the carrier and the 5 -_
net side- frequency components plotted relative
to the carrier is shown in Fig. 15 for a single \
â
47
#0 /
modulating frequency. The net side-fre-
quency voltage E. is in the direction shown but
varies in magnitude according to cos at. f
The resultant phase -modulated voltage e1, varies
in phase from the new carrier E.' by the angle,
't
Ec(Suppressed/
->
Fra. 15.- Vector rela-
= tan- i E. E,'
cos at
(36)
tions in phase modula -
tion.
which, for angles less than about 25 deg., is approximately
E. cos at
E, , - m, cos at (37)
The resultant voltage varies only slightly in magnitude and is
e,, = E,' cos (w,t + m, cos at) (38)
When modulating signals at more than one frequency are present, the
coefficients mi, m2, etc., are proportional to the original a.m., and p-m waves
are produced.
The small phase departure of less than 25 deg. may be increased by fre-
quency multiplication of the instantaneous frequency. (See Art. 37.) The
new voltage is then
e,,' = E.' cos (nw.t + nm cos at) (39)
17. Frequency Modulators. Frequency- modulated waves are obtained
by the method described in the section above when the modulatiing signal
s passed through a filter whose response is inversely proportional to
the signal frequency. The instantaneous frequency is multiplied
several hundred times before the output is applied to the antenna.
A more direct method consists in controlling the reactance of the
)scillator tuned circuit by a reactance control tube in accordance with
he signal. A typical circuit is shown in Fig. 16 as one of many possible
arrangements. Radio-frequency voltage, shifted in phase 90 deg. from

that appearing across the tank circuit, by means of the resistance R
in series with the capacitance C, is applied to the grid 1 of the control
tube. The plate current of the control tube is 90 deg. out of phase
with the tank voltage and provides an effective reactance which is
controlled in magnitude by the modulating voltage on grid 3.
The change in oscillator frequency is proportional to the instantaneous
modulating voltage when the control tube operates on a linear part of its
characteristic and when the total change in effective reactance is small
compared to the net average reactance.
Any component of control-tube plate current not at 90 deg. with the
tank voltage will introduce a.m. This is eliminated by adjusting the
phase shift to grid 1 of the control tube.
The curve of frequency deviation from the carrier frequency should be
linear with respect to the modulating voltage. It may be checked by
Control
Food
EcI
Mod.
-EC3
Fra. 16.-Circuit of frequency modulator.
applying direct voltages, over the operating range, to the modulating
grid and observing the oscillator frequency.
The circuit illustrated in Fig. 16 provides f -m waves when the modulat-
ing voltages are proportional to the amplitude of the signal. If the
signal is passed through a filter whose output is proportional to the
signal frequency before application to the control tube, p-m waves are
produced.
FREQUENCY CONVERTERS AND MIXERS
18. Class A Frequency Converters. A power -series expression for
plate current accurately determines the output of a tube used in double -
modulation service when the plate current is not swung to cutoff.
The signal and local oscillator voltages e. and eo may be applied to the
same or separate grids. The third term of the series Ales of Eq. (16)
when expanded yields the i -f plate current,
zrr. - A:EoE,rn(1 + mrncos+ at)

Z
cos (wo ± ru,)t
(40)
when the signal and oscillator voltages are

e, E,(1 + m cos at) cos wet
and
eo ° Eo cos rot
and r9 and Z are the plate and output impedances, respectively.
The impedance of the output circuit at the i -f frequency is usually
too large in comparison with the plate resistance to be neglected. It is
desirable to use a low-impedance primary winding in the output circuit
of triodes in order to obtain the best conversion gain.
The output of a class A frequency converter is low since the capability
of the tube is not realized fully. It is a van der Bijl modulator with a
change in frequency between the input and output carriers. When
terms of higher order than Ases are negligible, the operation is according
to a square -law characteristic, and there are no spurious intermodulation
responses. The output voltage may then be expressed as
Zr A 2E 0E,
eu. _ (1 + M) cos w;ct (41)
ra + Z
ZrP
ZSE,(1 M) cos ;r.t (42)
ra +
where M represents the instantaneous modulation. S, is the conversion
transconductance which is the i -f plate current per volt of applied signal
for the selected oscillator and bias adjustments.
Conversion gain is the ratio of the voltage developed in the i-f circuit
(usually measured at the grid of the following tube) to the signal voltage
applied to the converter tube.
19. Superheterodyne Frequency Converters. Frequency converters
sometimes called first detectors, in superheterodyne receivers are operated
with as large a local oscillator voltage as possible without endangering
non -linear i -f response. This ensures the highest conversion trans-
conductance and conversion gain.
When the signal and oscillator voltages are applied to the same grid
the tube is biased nearly to cutoff in the absence of oscillator volage, and
the oscillator voltage is made a volt or so less than that which would
cause grid current. Plate current then flows for the positive peaks of
oscillator voltage and is cut off for a large part of the cycle. The plate
current is modulated by a relatively small signal voltage, and the sum
or difference frequency components (usually the latter) are selected and
tuned in the plate circuit as the i-f output.
The conversion transconductance under the most favorable conditions
does not exceed about 0.3 of the transconductance of the same tube as an
amplifier. Limited a-v-c bias may be applied to the signal grid for control
of the conversion gain of variable-mu tubes.
20. Special Converter and Mixer Tubes. Interaction between the
signal and oscillator circuits of frequency converters produces undesirable
oscillator detuning. This may be reduced somewhat by coupling the
oscillator voltage to the suppressor grid or to the cathode of a pentode
converter tube, but even these expedients are ineffective when the
percentage difference between the signal and oscillator frequencies is
small, as in the h -f bands of so-called all-wave broadcast receivers.
Special pentagrid mjxer tubes, such as the 6L7 tube, have been designed
for frequency-converter service which give superior performance due to
better shielding between the signal and oscillator grids, high plate
resistance, high conversion transconductance, and suitability for a.v.c.
Specially designed multigrid converter tubes of several types are also
available in which two of the electrodes serve as the grid and plate
of the oscillator circuit. The electron stream as initially controlled by

the oscillator is modulated by the signal applied to a screened control
grid.
The best stability and conversion gain for u -h -f signals are obtained
with a high i.f., with a separate oscillator tube and with the signal and
oscillator voltages applied to the same grid of the converter tube.
21. Spurious Responses. The desired signal input applied to con-
verter tubes must not be sufficient to draw signal grid current or to drive
the plate current to complete cutoff for the positive peaks of oscillator
voltage during maximum modulation. Too large a signal produces
harmonic distortion of the envelope of the i-f carrier.
The linearity may be checked by measuring the i-f output for a range
of unmodulated signal voltages for the oscillator and bias conditions
selected. For full modulation the linearity is satisfactory to half the
signal level indicated by the test. Such a test is analogous to that
described in Art. 9 for modulator tubes, but in this case it is difficult to
develop a sufficiently high plate- circuit impedance at a low test frequency
to simulate the value at i.f.
Strong interfering signals of a number of definite frequencies produce
spurious responses in the output. A signal at the converter input,
either higher or lower in frequency than the oscillator by the i.f., produces
equal response in the tuned output circuit. One of these having been
selected as the desired signal, the other is known as the image response
and must be attenuated in preselector circuits ahead of the converter
tube.
Other spurious responses are due to the terms Aie °, A4e4, etc., in the
expression for plate current. These terms are absent in a tube with a
square -law characteristic but are present in a normally operated converter
tube for which the series converges slowly.
With insufficient preselection at high levels of interfering signal an
interfering program response may be heard, e.g., when the second har-
monic of the interfering signal carrier frequency differs from the funda-
mental of the oscillator frequency by the i.f. When a desired signal is
also present, a beat between the intermediate frequencies from the two
signals is rectified in the second detector.
This spurious response is predicted from the expansion of the term A.e4
where
e = E. cos w.t + E; cos wit + E. cos wot (43)
where E. and E; are the amplitude coefficients at the signal and interfering
frequencies. The desired output is
-
A2E.E0 cos (coo w.)t (44)
and the particular interfering output is
3¢A3E,2E0 cos (2w; - wo)t (45)
Other interferences may be predicted from the other terms of the expansion
of A4e4, A4e4, etc.
DETECTORS
22. Two -terminal Rectifiers. Units having asymmetrical I -E char-
acteristics, and therefore having inherent rectifying properties, are
suitable as detectors or demodulators. Many crystals possess these
Sea 101 MODULATION AND DETECTION 341
properties but are rather unstable and will carry only small currents.
Copper oxide rectifiers are satisfactory at low carrier frequencies but
have high self- capacitances which prevent their efficient use at high
carrier frequencies. Diodes have low capacitances and are suitable
at high carrier frequencies at any level of impedance which can be
developed in their input circuits. Diodes have high voltage-handling
capability and give substantially linear demodulation when used with
proper load circuits.
The current-voltage characteristic of a diode changes from an exponential
curve for negative voltages to a ?i -power curve for positive voltages. For
negative voltages
e
i = ioee-; (4ß)
For positive voltages
i = h(e + ep)32 (47)
where io, ea, h, and eo are constants. ie and eo increase with cathode
temperature; ea is nearly independent of operating conditions; and h increases
with cathode area.
A power-series static characteristic converges too slowly for practical
analysis, and actual experimental curves are used in circuit design.
23. Diode Peak Detectors. A diode used with a load impedance that
is high at zero and modulation frequencies in comparison with its forward
resistance is an excellent peak or envelope detector. Satisfactory
performance without audio distortion at high signal levels depends on
the design of the associated circuits. Rectified load voltage, either
positive or negative with respect to ground, is developed in the load
resistance which is by- passed at carrier frequency, as shown in Fig. 17.
/npuf 2
Input
(o)
Input d-c
(c)
C
17.-Typical diode detectors.
Diode current flows only for an instant at the peak of the carrier
voltage in the forward direction. The pulses of current charge the load
by-pass condenser to nearly the same voltage as the carrier envelope
and bias the diode beyond cutoff except during the short pulses. Neglect-
ing the slight h-f variation between pulses, the voltage across the load
resistance 18 proportional to the carrier envelope.
The charge, which is replenished at each pulse, must leak off sufficiently
before the following pulse for the bias voltage to follow the carrier enve-
lope at its maximum slope. The critical relation is
m
(48)
aRC /1 - m:
where a /2,r = modulation frequency
R = load resistance
C = by -pass capacitance
m = degree of modulation.
The capacitance C is made large enough to by-pass the carrier but small
enough to reproduce the modulation. Since full modulation is seldom
used at high frequencies and since the harmonics of the higher frequencies
cannot be heard, it is sufficient to follow to about 0.8 modulation at
5 000 cycles in detection for sound reproduction.
.
ó
U
L lull
PN
`^°
á1
700
600
300
250
i
' E1 500
o1
I
200
'-_
400
I111 I ú É
i
111
NEI ,rb
16 IIII
Ii\11\Ilá211 200
011C1 d
I`.1' 100
300 -a
,rZS
b 150
E
100 i /
r,,,,":,
, ',71\"5II1
_.
50 .'
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 0 00 5 10 15 20 25 30
D-C Vois Developed by Diode Peak Volts
Fra. 18.- Rectification charac- Fia. 19. -Load rectification diagram of
teristic of diode. diode.
Figure 18 shows the rectification characteristic of a typical diode. Rec-

tified current is given for several steps of r -m -s input voltage in terms of d -c
load voltage. These characteristics may be determined by test at 60 cycles
according to the method of Art. 9.
The ratio of the d -c voltage Ed to the peak value of the applied voltage E.
is the voltage efficiency of the diode.
Ed
(49)
^ -É.
Curves for constant efficiency plotted on Fig. 18 would have the same general
characteristic slope as the load -resistance liges shown.
Figure 19 shows a load rectification diagram for a 100,000-ohm load
resistance as taken from Fig. 18 or plotted directly from test data. The
linearity of Fig. 19 indicates that a diode is suitable for signals as large as
can be supplied by the previous amplifier without overloading. The slight
departure from linearity at the origin shows a small amount of inherent
distortion for small input signals.
The difference between the peak a -c and the d -c voltages is almost propor-
tional to the rectified current la and, except with small input signals, is equiva-
lent to a resistance drop in series with the output. This effective internal
diode resistance Ra is
E. -Ea
Ra (50)
Id
A Fourier series expansion of the pulses of current shows that the peak value
of its fundamental component at carrier frequency is twice the d.c. in the
load with less than 1 per cent error. Thus the effective input resistance of the
diode is
E. Ea R
R' = lla 2,rla = 2,, (51)
The impedance of the source Zo
produces a drop in voltage
Zol. = 2Zola (52)
and the equivalent generator peak
voltage E. is
E. = Ia(R + Ra + 2Zo) (53) A -V-C
Bias C.4 Mod.Output
The above equations apply to an
unmodulated carrier. In a practical Fro. 20.- Typical diode circuit.
circuit the d-c load may be shunted
by other impedances at the modulation frequency. Figue 20 shows a circuit
in which Ra is a decoupling resistor for a-v-e supply and R. is an output resistor
blocked for d.c. The resistor RI, with the by -pass capacitors Cc and Cs, filters
the h -f components from the output. The d-c load resistance R is
R = RI + Rs (54)
GO Z (iáebands and the impedance R' at low
i --
Eó LZ0(carrer) modulation frequencies is
ZD (side bands) I
_II R' = RI +o n n
Rd?, + R2R4 + R,R4 (55)
Zs(Mod.) I I
R'(Mod) - --f--
R(DC) ----- 4 I The ratio R' /R is called the
a -c /d-c ratio and is the most im-
portant single circuit relation in
Loadj the operation of the diode.
Fco. 21.- Equivalent diode
circuit. The modulation -frequency
voltage E., developed in the load
by the modulation- frequency component of the load current I., is
(56)
The corresponding generator side -band voltage E. relative to the carrier
voltage is
E. = I.(R' + Ra + 2Z0') (57)
where Z.' is the impedance of the source at the side -band frequency.
The equivalent output impedance Zs of the diode is
Zs = 2Zo., (58)
for the d-c component and

Z? = 2Zo',i (59)
for the modulation frequencies.
The diode acta like a motor generator with input and output impedances
which depend on the connected output and source impedances. An equiva-
lent diagram is shown in Fig. 21.
24. Diode Performance. The relations between the rectified current
and the peak voltages with resistive load during modulation are shown in
Fig. 22. The impedance of the source to the side -band frequencies
Zo' is here assumed to be the same
N1ik' as for the carrier Zo. The ordi-
nates of the upper part of the
modulating-
5% frequency load curent Thea-
scissas are for d -c or a-c peak volt-
T- 4 \\\ \b
cri ages. The load voltages are the
current multiplied by R for d -c
.'
-j-.t-
/Ì
\\\ \\\
\2
\ON
A.
values and by R' for modulating -
frequency values. The drop in
the diode and in the source is the
\
I
current multiplied by (2Z0 + Rd).

tib The envelopes of the input, source,
r
1\
\\ \ \ and voltage are shown for one
cycle of full modulation and for
one cycle of modulation which
i
peak just reaches diode cutoff during

inward modulation. Specific di-
I
mensions are indicated for one

point in the envelope in Fig. 22.
The figure is exaggerated for pur-
poses of illustration. The output
voltage across resistor R4 in Fig.
20 is reduced further by the volt-
age drop in resistor R, (not shown).
The peak of output voltage is
clipped and the envelope of the
input voltage rises when the degree
FIG.
-'
1
..) >
22. -Diode detection with resis-

tive load.
of instantaneous inward modula-
tion of the source exceeds the value
M =
2Zú + Rd + R'
2Z0 + Rd + R (60)
as shown by the shaded area in Fig. 22. This the reciprocal of the
is
factor by which the degree of modulation of the source is increased in
terms of the current.
The degree of modulation which is subject to linear detection may be
increased by making R' nearly equal to R or by increasing Zo.
A Fourier analysis of a sine wave of which one peak per cycle is clipped by
a fraction V indicates that the r -in-s distortion d is approximately
d = 0.70 (61)
The equivalent degree of modulation which can he produced without clipping
for a permissible distortion D is
i
m = 1 - 1.33D/5 (62)
The unidirectional output voltage Ed at the terminals of the diode in
terms of the carrier voltage En is
Ea - 2Z5 +Eat
Ra +R (63)
and the demodulated output voltage E. in ternis of the envelope of the
source voltage E. is
E.R'
E. (64)
2Z0' + Ra + R'
Further reductions in output volt-
age not included in the above analysis
are present under certain conditions.
The output voltage is reduced by
the ratio
C
(65)
C + Ca
when the diode capacitance Ca is ap-
preciable in comparison with the capa-
citance C.
When the capacitances Co and L'
have appreciable reactance at the car-
rier frequency, the charge leaks off E(peálr)
rapidly between current pulses, and
the voltage is reduced by an amount
which is equivalent to a voltage drop
in series with the output load due to
an equivalent resistance R., which is
x T
R° - COCO + (OC
(66)
where (w /2a) is the carrier frequency. 'En.Eia

I
The capacitances Co and C or CI 1
should be approximately equal for best Fia. 23.

performance with respect to peak -Diode detection with renc-
clipping. On account of the effect tive load.
indicated by Eq. (66), it is undesirable to feed a diode from an untuned winding
of a transformer.
The portion of the voltage appearing across resistors R3 and /or R4 is cal-
culated readily in terms of the total output voltage.
When the susceptance of condenser C (or CI and C2) is appreciable in com-
parison with the conductance 1/R', the dynamic load line follows an ellipse
such as is shown in Fig. 23 instead of the slope 1 /R' as illustrated in Fig. 22.
The modulation output voltage is then
E. Edit'
12Zó + Ra + R' +7R'Ca(2Zó + Ra)I (67)
instead of that indicated by Eq. (64).
This departure from a resistive load slightly increases the tendency to peak
clipping at high modulation frequencies as shown by the shaded portion in
Fig. 23.
The highest d -c output is required when the circuits supply a -v -c bias,

and it may then be desirable to use an input transformer with an untuned
primary designed for optimum energy transfer. by Eq. (67) is
The reduction of modulation -frequency voltages indicated
the side-hand frequencies is the
the least when the impedance of the source to This
conjugate of the diode input impedance. is most nearly realized in
and second-
practice by the use of an input transformer with tuned primaryvoltage.
ary, which is recommended when it delivers a sufficient output to the
In general, the input impedance R. is matched approximately
source impedance Zo for maximum power transfer.
Zo = R. = (6$)
The over-all voltage efficiency of the diode and its associated circuits is
ordinarily of the order of 0.2 for the modulation components and 0.3 for the
direct voltage.
25. Biased Diodes. Fixed negative bias applied to a diode to pre-
vent its operation with very weak signals shifts the load line of Fig. 22
parallel to its original position along the voltage axis. This results in
peak clipping at lower degrees of modulation of the source. A separate
biased diode for delayed a.v.c. should not be fed from the same circuits
as a signal diode, since during peak clipping the voltage of the source
rises as shown by the shaded areas in Fig. 22 or 23 and distorts the
envelope delivered to the signal diode.
Peak clipping in a biased diode used for a.v.c purposes develops a lower
rectified output during prolonged periods of deep modulation and may
cause fluctuation of the receiver gam.
26. Push -pull Diodes. Diodes in push -pull require a minimum of
load by-pass capacitance since only carrier harmonics are by- passed to
ground. Such circuits are useful where high modulation frequencies
must be reproduced, as in video detection in television receivers.
The input transformer for push-pull diodes must be carefully balanced
since the bias developed across the load resistance is applied to both
tubes. If the voltage peaks for one diode are less than the bias developed
by the other, only one will function.
This condition is most critical when the diode efficiency is high, as
with high d-c load resistances. Lack of balance is not so serious at the
low-impedance levels used in detection for television.
27. Grid Detectors. The circuit elements connected between the
grid and the cathode of a grid detector act substantially the same and
are determined by the same considerations as are the corresponding
elements in a diode. As with a diode the load on the previous circuit
is equivalent to a shunt load of approximately half the resistance of the
grid leak.
Figures 24a and b show typical triode and pentode power-grid detector
circuits. The tube must be operated with low plate (or screen) voltage
since in the absence of signal there is no bias voltage. This limits
the useful plate swing. The range may be extended by operating the
tube from a high-voltage B supply with resistance coupling, or with a
resistor in series with the load, by-passed for audio, with transformer
coupling.
The carrier-frequency components are filtered from the load circuit
by LC or RC networks.
Sec. 10] MODULATION AND DETECTION 347
The operation is illustrated in Fig. 25 which shows the dynamic

characteristic including the plate load selected. This may be obtained
at any convenient frequency by the method of Art. 9.
(b)
Fia. 24. -Power grid detectors.
(b)
(a)
Fia. 25. -Power grid detection.
A pulse of grid current charges the grid condenser at each positive
peak of grid voltage and establishes a negative grid bias with the same
losses relative to the envelope as in a diode. The net applied-grid
voltage, after the loss (not shown) in the source impedance is deducted,
is indicated by curve a in Fig. 25. The instantaneous grid voltage due

to the modulated wave is superimposed on the bias and produces instan-
taneous values of plate current as shown in curve b of Fig. 25. The
amplified useful output is proportional to the average of the plate current
upon which the individual cycles are shown superimposed.
If the negative peaks of instantaneous grid voltage swing over the
curved lower portion of the characteristic, the audio is reduced and
distorted by partial plate detection. This effect is exaggerated in Fig. 25,
which shows more than normal curvature of the grid -plate character-
istic to illustrate even -harmonic distortion of the modulation frequency
in the output.
The audio output voltage which may be obtained satisfactorily is
about 0.3 to 0.4 of the corresponding value for the same tube when used
as an amplifier.
Power-grid detectors operate over a limited range of voltages which is
insufficient for a.v.c.
28. Square -law Detectors. The sensitivity of a grid -leak detector
for very weak signals may be increased by using a high-resistance grid
leak. The grid then operates on a portion of the grid- cathode character-
istic which is substantially square law and over which the grid current
is never cut off. This method introduces harmonic distortion with high
degrees of modulation and produces an output proportional to the square
of the carrier voltage.
When the applied voltage is
e = E0(1 + m cos at) cos wt (69)
the power-series expression for grid current i, yields from the term A2e2
for square -law detection
= A 2 ,2
(1 + 2m cos at +2 +2 cos 2 at) (70)
The audio component i`, of the grid current is
i, = AmE,.Y(m cos at + ; cos 2 at)

The same audio components appear in the output. For full modula-
(71)
tion the second harmonic distortion is then 25 per cent.

A tube biased to a curved portion of its grid -plate characteristic oper-
ates approximately as a square-law detector for low input voltages.
The output and distortion vary in the same way as with the grid -leak
detector for weak signals. However, the weak -signal plate detector
does not load the previous circuit and is therefore suitable for use as a
vacuum -tube voltmeter. It is seldom used for demodulation.
29. High -level Plate Detectors. A plate- circuit detector for large
signals is biased nearly to cutoff in the absence of a signal, and a high
plate voltage is used to extend the range of operation. A typical circuit
is shown in Fig. 26.
The operation is illustrated in Fig. 27 in which plate current is plotted
against bias voltage for the load impedance selected. The positive
excursions of the instantaneous grid voltage produce substantially half
waves of plate current, the average values of each pulse producing the
audio voltage in the load, while the h -f components are by- passed to
ground. Curve a of Fig. 27 shows the instantaneous values of input
signal applied to the grid which is biased by the voltage -E/. Curve 6
shows the instantaneous values of plate current superimposed on the
demodulated output. The effect
of the curvature of the grid -plate R2
characteristic is exaggerated in
this figure to illustrate the even
harmonic distortion from this
cause in the output.
The power -series expression for
plate current converges too slowly _ Eco
for analytical purposes, and the Fia. 26.- Circuit for plate detection.
performance is determined by test.
The linearity of the output versus the input is shown in Fig. 28 which is a
load-rectification diagram for a pentode plate detector. This diagram
may be obtained by test at 60 cycles when the impedances are made the
same as in actual use. Load current is plotted against r -m-s values of
input voltage for the selected load and bias conditions.
(b)
(o)
Fta. 27.- Analysis of plate detection.
The intercept of the extension of the linear portion of the grid -plate
characteristic with the Ea -axis indicates the approximate value of bias
voltage for maximum output and minimum distortion, as shown by the
dotted line in Fig. 27.
350 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [see. lo
When the tube is driven hard enough to draw grid current, the source
impedance must be low or grid rectification will reduce and distort the
output. Pentodes may be biased to draw no grid current over the work-
ing range.
The degree of modulation which may be handled without distortion
is limited and may be calculated from the linear portion of the selected
curve of Fig. 28. A slight improvement in the performance over a
range of input voltages may be obtained by increasing the bias for large
signals.
While the performance of a plate detector is indicated by the curves of
Fig. 28, the following detector quantities are often used:
The detection plate resistance Rd is
Rd =
sEp (72)
alp J F. = E.
evaluated under operating conditions with a carrier E. (or its equivalent at
60 cycles) applied to the grid. It replaces Ry in detector equations.
3
_..
Eu--4 v
;,-. E,
Ect=.-61
ü/Ec1
/00000o
A34 104
,Ia
MI 01
E61S0v
Es=90v
hm s
I 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9 10 II 12
R-M-S Input Volts
Fm. 28. -Load-rectification diagram of pentode.
The conversion transconductance S, is
al, (73)
aE E-E.
JJl
The efficiency of detection D is
D = `g` a (74)
where la is the amplification factor and is also evaluated under operating

conditions.
The change in plate current due to modulation is
¿DmE. S.mE.Rd
(75)
alp ZL +Ra +Rd
where m = the degree of modulation
ZL - the load impedance.
30. Infinite-impedance Detector. A triode self- biased nearly to plate -
current cutoff by a large cathode resistance (by- passed for the carrier
frequency) passes pulses of plate current at the positive peaks of grid

voltage. These pulses act in the RC circuit of Fig. 29 much like the
pulses in the RC circuit of a diode with the exception that the energy is
obtained from the plate circuit.
The grid does not draw current and therefore does not load the pre -
ceding circuit. The bias increases with carrier voltage and follows the
modulation up to the limit where the degree of modulation is
lo + I.
m = (76)
I. s/R2a2C2 + 1
where lo - plate current for zero signal

1. _ increase in plate current with signal.
A proper choice of R and C therefore permits full modulation without
peak clipping.
The shunting effect of any impedance in the grid circuit of the follow-
ing tube can be made negligible, since R is smaller than in diode circuits.
Input
Output
Fta. 29.- Infinite -impedance detector.

The operation is linear up to an output level limited only by the plate -
supply voltage. A disadvantage of this circuit is its inability to supply
voltage for conventional a-v-c circuits.
DETECTORS FOR P -M AND F -M WAVES
31. Conversion to A.M. Phase- modulated or frequency-modulated
waves are detected after being converted to a-m waves. In general,
a.m. is produced when an f -m wave is applied to a circuit of which the
amplitude characteristic or the phase characteristic is non-uniform over
the range of applied component side frequencies. In particular, when
the amplitude and phase characteristics are linearly variable with
frequency, a.m. proportional to the original f.m. is obtained.
A current of the form indicated in Eq. (5) applied to such a circuit
produces a voltage
e = Z010[1 -
Sma cos (at Pa)] cos [to,/ m sin (at -
Pa)] (77)
where S = slope of the impedance characteristic AZ /Ow
P = slope of the phase characteristic Ao /Acr
Zo = impedance at the carrier frequency.
Such an impedance is obtained approximately, over a limited fre-
quency range, on the side of the resonance curve of a parallel-tuned
circuit or near the resonant frequency of a series-tuned circuit. The
resultant voltage is amplitude-modulated at the modulation frequency
a /2tr to a degree Sma. The phase shift of the modulation envelope
and of the remaining f.m. or p.m. by the angle Pa is usually of no interest.
The actual demodulation is made ordinarily in a conventional linear
amplitude detector.
For f -m waves the modulation index ml is inversely proportional to the

modulating frequency a/2r and directly proportional to the depth of
modulation Aco.
ml = -a
(78)
'l'he depth of amplitude modulation en,, obtained is

tn. = Smla = S(.1w) (79)
For p-m waves the modulation index (mp) is independent of the
modulating frequency. The output is then distorted unless the demodu-
lated signal is passed subsequently through a circuit whose response is
inversely proportional to the modulation frequency.
The linear slope filter is a true frequency -amplitude converter. It
may be used as a phase -amplitude converter when followed by a correc-
tive network.
32. Frequency Detectors. A single frequency -amplitude converter
of any type responds to spurious a.m. present in the original signal.
Input
Output
Eb
Fla. 30.- Discriminator or frequency detector.
The differentially combined outputs of two detectors, operated from
converters with opposite slopes, produce a net output which is linear
with respect to frequency but zero at the carrier frequency. This
arrangement gives no output from a pure a -m wave when the circuit is
carefully tuned to the carrier. During the reception of desired f-m
waves, spurious a.m. is also detected, but with a lower output than with
a single detector.
The response to spurious a.m. may he further reduced by an amplitude
limiter ahead of the frequency- amplitude converter.
Figure 30 shows a typical discriminator for the detection of wide -hand
f.m., similar to the type used for a.f.c., but designed to be linear over the
required frequency-deviation range. It combines two opposite slope
converters in one device and may be operated from a single i -f amplifier
or limiter. The primary voltage plus half the secondary voltage is
applied to one diode, and the primary voltage plus half the secondary
voltage, in reversed polarity, to the other diode. The difference between
the two rectified outputs is obtained by the series connection shown.
Typical response curves for discriminators are shown in Fig. 31.
These curves may be obtained by observing the d-c output voltage
over the required range of frequency deviation at a definite level of
unmodulated carrier voltage applied to the grid of the previous tube
under selected operating conditions. The separation of the peaks in
the characteristic is determined by the mutual inductive reactance X,,.
The linearity is controlled by loading the tuned circuits with a resistor
R, or by adjusting the diode resistors R-R. Curve a shows the output
with too little loading, and curve b, the output with excessive loading.
33. Phase Detectors. It is necessary to use a frequency detector for
p-m waves, followed by a corrective network, when the modulation
index is greater than about 0.5 radian, in order to avoid distortion
of the demodulated output.
When the modulation index is small,
a p-m wave may be combined with an + a%
/
auxiliary carrier synchronized 90 deg.
out of phase with the modulated car- F
rier. The composite wave is then am-
plitude-modulated by the reverse of the
process indicated in Fig. 15.
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
34. Grid -bias Amplitude Limiters.
An overloaded class C amplifier with
grid -leak bias may be'used as an am-
-4f <-- -->+ if
plitude limiter at low and intermediate
frequencies. The connections and re-
presentative input -output curves are -
shown in Figs. 32 and 33, respectively.
The tube is operated at low screen and
plate voltages to prevent excessive cur-
rent in the absence of a signal and to
//
provide a low overload point.
The resistance R is selected to Fa. 31.-Discr'tninator.
teristic.
charac-
provide bias, due to pulses of grid
current, at a rate which forces the tube to plate-current cutoff over
greater portions of the i-f cycle as the input voltage is increased. The
exact value of resistance required to give a uniform output over a range
of input depends on the impedance of the plate load and on the supply
voltages. Curves a and b (Fig. 33) illustrate the output with too small
and too large resistances, respectively.
Eir/pu-/
C Es +Eb
Fla. 32. -Grid -bias limiter.
The grid current loads the input circuit, and the curves are obtained
by applying the input voltage to the grid of the preceding tube. The
capacitor C is made as small as is consistent with over -all gain so that the
grid bias may follow rapid changes in the amplitude of the input.
35. Diode Limiters. Diodes may he used as limiters either in series
or in parallel with the load. Figures 34e and b show two typical exam-
ples of many possible arrangements.
In Fig. 34a, when the resistances of the source and load are equal, the
first diode passes current when the input voltage is more positive than
-E /2,and the second diode when the input voltage is less than +E.
No current reaches the load outside of these limits except through
capacity coupling between the diode elements. It is desirable that the
/
resistances be large compared to the forward resistances of the diodes.
The circuit is suitable at low
a zu
-S. 15
i ass
quencies of input signal where the
time constant of the circuit ca-
.- ,.. pacitances with the resistances is
3
od 10 .....
b
small ° to the period of
the waver
LA S In Fig. 34b each diode is non-
conducting as long as the output
C5
-10 -5 0 +5 +10 +I5 +20 +25 +30

voltage is less than ± E. For
Inputdb larger values of voltage ( ±), one
diode or the other shunta the load
Fro. 33.- Grid -bias limiter charac- o- with its low forward resistance.
teriatic. For effective limiting, the resist-
ances of the source and load must be considerably larger than the diode
resistance
Limiting stages may be used in cascade, alternated with amplifying
stages, to obtain nearly rectangular l -f wave forms.
In both arrangements shown
in Fig. 34 a small bias voltage
may be needed for symmetrical ..° Ou/puf
limiting on both half waves to input eo Rf
-F Rz
neutralize the zero -current diode 2
voltage. When limiting in one
polanty only is needed, one diode
may be omitted.
36. Threshold Limiters. A R Output
typical example of a threshold Input ° E' E 2
e2
limiter for quiet automatic volume I
-T T' .
control is illustrated in Fig. 35. (b)
In the absence of a signal the Fra. 34. -Types of diode limiters.
first diode is biased beyond cut-
off by the d-c drawn through the second diode. When the signal is
sufficient to develop a voltage drop in R equal to -E, the second diode is
biased beyond cutoff while the first functions as a normal detector without
bias. At signal levels at which each diode carries some current, there is
peak clipping when the signal is fully
--I. _ modulated.
Input 1 37. Frequency Multipliers. Any
E tube with a non -linear grid -plate char-
acteristic contains harmonics of the
A- V-CB/os input frequency in its plate circuit.
The output circuit may he tuned to the
Fla. 35.-
35.-Threshold
Th limiter for desired multiple of the original fre-
@res .
quency and the other components
by- passed to ground. Frequency multipliers are used only for constant -
amplitude or telegraph waves.
When an a-m voltage wave
e = E(1 + m cos at) cos wt
is applied to a square -law tube, the third term of Eq. (16) yields a modu-
i = 2
lated current wave at twice the original carrier frequency
AA (1 + 2m cos at + +2 cos tat 1 cos 2wt (SO)
The new degree of modulation m' for the fundamental is

m' -2 +mx (81)
In addition there is a second harmonic modulation

ml
m" _ (82)
2 + mx
When a p-m or an f -m voltage wave
e = E cos (w,t + m sin at)
is applied to a square-law tube, the third term in Eq. (10) yields a modu-
lated current wave at twice the original carrier frequency
A xEx
i 2
cos (2(0,t + 2m sin at) (83)
An expansion of the power-series expression for plate current shows

that the degree of modulation of an a-m wave is increased by each
multiplication and intolerable distortion results. The modulation
index m and the carrier frequency are multiplied by the same figure
in the successive frequency multiplications of p-m or f-m waves.
Class A multipliers, in which the plate current is never cut off arc
inefficient. More economical use of the power capability of the tube is
realized in class C service where the grid-bias and input voltage are
adjusted for maximum output. The expansion of the power series
Eq. (16) then contains many frequency terms of more than twice the
original carrier frequency.
The proper operating conditions are best determined by test. The
bias is approximately that for plate -current cutoff in the absence of
signal in doublers and somewhat greater than this for triplera. A slight
amount of feedback at the harmonic frequency increases the output and
the plate efficiency.
Higher harmonics than the third may he selected for laboratory work
although the available power is limited.
Two tubes may be used in push-pull with increased efficiency. The
outputs are connected in parallel for doublers and in push -pull for triplera.
References
Detection:
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Frequency, Proc. I.R.E., 19, 120-137, January, 1931.
. Further Notes on the Detection of Two Modulated Waves Which Differ
Slightly in Carrier Frequency, Proc. I.R.E., 20, 569-.578, March, 1932.
Theory of the Detection of Two Modulated Waves by a Linear Rectifier, Proc.
:
I.R.E., 21, 601 -629, April, 1933.

BALLANTINE, S.: Detection by Grid Rectification with the High- vacuum Triode, Proc.
- ---:
I.R.E., 18, 593-613. May. 1928.
Detection at High Signal Voltages -Plate Rectification with the High -vacuum
Triode. Proc. I.R.E., 17, 1153-1177. July, 1929.
BENNON, S.: Notes on Large Signal Diode Detection, Proc. I.R.E., 25, 1565 -1573,
December, 1937.
CHAFFEE, J. G.: The Detection of Frequency Modulated Waves, Prot. I.R.E., 23, 517-
540, May, 1935.
, and G. H. BROWNING: A Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Detec-
tion for Small Signals, Proc. I.R.E., 15, 113-153, February, 1927.
DAY, J. R.: A Receiver for Frequency Modulation, Electronics, 12, No. 6, 32 -35, June,
1939.
FYLER, G. W., and J. A. WORCESTER, JR.: A Noise -free Radio Receiver, Gen. Elec. Rev.,
42, 307 -310, July, 1939.
GRONDAHL, L. O., and W. P. Pt.AcE: Copper -oxide Rectifier Used for Radio Detection
and Automatic Volume Control Proc. 1.R.E., 20, 1599-1614, October 1932.
JARVIS, K. W.: Linear Detector Distortion, Electronics, 7, 386 -387, December, 1934.
Mumps, C. E., and J. M. GLEeeNER: Diode Detection Analysis, Proc., I.R.E., 21, 930-
943, July, 1933.
NELSON, J. R.: Grid Circuit Power Rectification, Proc. I.R.E., 19, 489 -500, March,
1931.
: Some Notes on Grid Circuit and Diode Rectification, Proc. I.R.E., 20, 989 -1003,
June, 1932.
ROBINSON, G. D.: Test Procedure for Detectors with Resistance Coupled Output,
Proc. I.R.E., 19, 806-811, May, 1931.
RODER, H.: Some Notes on Demodulation, Proc. I.R.E., 20, 1946 -1961, December, 1932.
. Effects of Tuned Circuits upon a Frequency Modulated Signal, Proc. I.R.E., 25,
1617 -1647, December, 1937.
: Theory of the Discriminator Circuit for Automatic Frequency Control, Proc.
I.R.E.. 25, 590 -611, May. 1938.
STaUTT, M. J. O.: Anode Bend Detection, Proc. I.R.E., 23, 945 -957, August, 1935.
TERMAN, F. E., and N. R. MORGAN: Some Properties of Grid Leak Power Detection.
Proc. I.R.E., 18, 2160-2175, December, 1930.
WEEDEN, W. N.: New Detector Circuit, Wirdeas 1World, 40, 6-8, January, 1937.
WHEELER, H. A.: Design Formulas for Diode Detectors, Proc. I.R.E., 28, 745 -780, June.
1938.
WOODYARD, J. R.: Application of the Autosvnchronized Oscillator to Frequency De-
modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 25, 612 -619, May, 1937.
General Modulation Topics:
BARROW, W. L.: Contribution to the Theory of Nonlinear Circuits with Large Applied
Voltages, Proc. I.R.E., 22, 964 -980, August, 1934.
ESPLEY, D. C.: Harmonic Production and Cross Modulation in Thermionic Valves
with Resistive Loads, Proc. I.R.E., 22, 781 -790, June, 1934.
FERRIS, W. R.: Graphical Harmonic Analysis for Determining Modulation Distortion
in Amplifier Tubes, Proc. I.R.E., 23, 510 -516, May, 1935.
HARRIS, W. A.: The Application of Superheterodyne Frequency Conversion Systems
to Multirange Receivers, Proc. I.R.E., 23, 279 -294, April, 1935.
KLIPSCR, P. W.: Suppression of Interlocking in First Detector Circuits, Proc. I.R.E., 22,
699 -708, June. 1934.
M 'ILwAIN and BRAINERD: "High Frequency Alternating Currents." John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 1931.
MORECROrr, J. H.: "Principles of Radio Communication," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1933.
NESSLAAGE, C. F., E. W. HEROLD, and W. A. HARRIS: A New Tube for Use in Super-
heterodyne Frequency Conversion Systems, Proc. I.R.E., 24, 207-218, February,
1936.
SHEAFFER, C. F.: A Volume Limiter, Electronics, 10, No. 12, 20-21, December, 1937.
SMITH, C. E.: Frequency Doubling in a Triode Vacuum Tube Circuit, Prot. I.R.E.,
21, 37-50, January, 1933.
STEREY, H.: Frequency Multiplication and Division, Proc. I.R.E., 25, 1153 -1173,
September, 1932.
STRUTT, M. J. O.: On Conversion Detectors, Proc. T.R.E., 22, 981 -1008, August, 1934.
TERMAN, F. E.: "Radio Engineering." McGraw -Hill Book Company, Inc., 1937.
, and J. H. FERNS: The Calculation of Class C Amplifier and Harmonic Generator
Performance of Screen -grid and Similar Tubes, Proc. I.R.E., 22, 359 -373, March,
1934.
TITTLE, H. C.: Internal Cross Modulation in Radio Receivers, R.M.A. Enp., 9-14, May,
1938
Sec. 10) MODULATION AND DETECTION 357
VAN DER BIJL, H. J.: "The Thermionic Vacuum Tube and Its Applications," McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1920.
WAGERER, W. G.: Simplified Methods for Computing Performance of Transmitting
Tubes, Proc. I.R.E., 85, 47-77, January, 1937.
WHEELER, H. A.: The Emission Valve Modulator for Superheterodynes, Electronics, 6,
76-77, March, 1933.
Modulation:
ARMSTRONG, E. H.: A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a Sys-
tem of Frequency Modulation, Proc. I.R.E.. 24, 689-740, May, 1936.
BERANEK, L. L.: Applications of Copper -oxide Rectifiers, Electronics, 12, No. 7, 15-18,
68-71, July, 1939.
BYRNES, I. F.: Recent Developments in Low Power and Broadcasting Transmitters,
Proc. I.R.E., 16, 614 -651, May, 1928.
CARtTTHERS, R. S.: Copper-oxide Modulators in Carrier Telephone Systems, Trans.
A.I.E.E., 68, 253-260, June, 1939.
CHAFFEE, J. G.: The Application of Negative Feedback to Frequency-modulation
Systems, Proe. I.R.E., 27, 317 -331. May, 1939.
CHAMBERS, J. A., et al.: The R'LW 500 Kilowatt Broadcast Transmitter, Proc. I.R.E.,
22, 1151 -1180, October, 1934.
CHIREIx, H.: High Power Outphasing Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 28, 1370 -1392. Novem-
ber, 1935.
CROSBY, M. G.: Frequency Modulation Noise Characteristics, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 472-514,
April, 1937.
. Communication by Phase Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 126-136, February,
1939.
CULVER, C. A.: Series Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 28, 481 -495, May, 1935.
DINOLEY, E. N., JR.: An Analysis of Efficient Modulation, Electronics, 7, 78-81, March,
1934.
DOME, R. B.: High- efficiency Modulation System, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 963 -982, August,
1938.
EASTMAN, A. V., and E. D. SCOTT: Transmission Lines as Frequency Modulators, Proc.
I.R.E., 22, 878 -885, July, 1934.
FAY, C. E.: The Operation of Vacuum Tubes as Class B and Class C Amplifiers, Proc.
I.R.E., 20 548 -568, March, 1932.
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: A l'hase Opposition System of Amplitude Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 983-
1008, August, 1938.
HAHN, W. C.: Small Signal Theory of Velocity- modulated Electron Beams, Gen. Else.
Rev., 42, 258 -270, June, 1939.
: Wave Energy and Transconductance of Velocity-modulated Electron Beams.
Gen. Elec. Rev., 42, 497 -502, November, 1939.
, and G. F. METCALF: Velocity- modulated Tubes, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 106 -l16,
February, 1939.
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I.R.E., 11, 34 -55, February, 1923.
: Transmission of Information, Bell System Tech. Jour.. 7, 535-563, July, 1928.
HELLMANN, R. K.: The Modulator Bridge, Electronics, 11 No. 3, 28-30, March, 1938.
HUTCHESON, J. A.: Application of Transformer Coupled Modulators, Prot. I.R.E., 21,
944-957, July, 1933.
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1938.
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of Harmonic Distortion in Wave Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 22, 1090 -1101, Septem-
ber, 1934.
PARKER, W. N.: A Unique Method of Modulation for High -fidelity Television Trans-
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PETERSON, E., and H. P. EVANS: Modulation in Vacuum Tubes, Bell System Tech. Jour.,
6, 442-460, July. 1927.
and L. W. HussEY: Equivalent Modulator Circuits, Bell System Tech. Jour.,
18, 32-48, January, 1939.
and C. R. KEITH: Grid Current Modulation, Bell System Tech. Jour., 7, 106 -139,
January. 1928.
, and F. B. LLEWELLYN: The Operation of Modulators from a Physical Viewpoint.
Proc. I.R.E., 18, 38-48, January, 1930.
RAM°, S. The Electron -wave Theory of Velocity -modulation Tubes, Proc. I.R.E., 27,
757-763, December, 1939.
RODER, H.: Amplitude, Phase and Frequency Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 19, 2145-2176,
December, 1931.
Superposition of Two Modulated Radio Frequencies, Proc. I.R.E., 20, 1962-

1970. December, 1932.
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Television Transmitters, Electronics, 12, No. 3, 26-29, March, 1939.
TsaMAN, F. E., and J. R. WOODYARD: A High -efficiency Grid -modulated Amplifier,
Proc. I.R.E., 26, 929 -945, August, 1938.
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1939.
VAN DER Pot B.: Frequency Modulation. Proc. I.R.E., 18, 1194-1205, July, 1930.
Wars, I. R.: Field Tests of Frequency- and Amplitude -modulation with Ultrahigh -
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273, June, 1939.
SECTION 11
AUDIO -FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS

BY GLENN KOEHLERI
1. Classification of A -f Amplifiers. An a-f amplifier is usually defined
as one which is to work in the range of frequencies from 20 to 20,000 cps.
Amplifiers for this purpose may be either selective or non -selective; i.e.,
they may be made to amplify substantially a single frequency or a range
of frequencies. Ordinarily the terminology implies that the amplifier
will work over a range of frequencies.
There are four general classifications of vacuum -tube amplifiers. These
classifications relate to the manner in which the tube is operated with
respect to its Ir -E, characteristics. They are class A, class AB, class B,
and class C.
A class A amplifier operates in such a manner that the output wave
form for a single tube and any kind of output impedance is substantially
the same as the input wave form. In a class A amplifier, operation must
take place such that the dynamic characteristic is nearly a straight line
over the complete cycle of the input e.m.f. Ordinarily the grid in a class
A amplifier is not driven positive.
A class AB amplifier is operated with more grid bias than a class A,
and the grid is driven positive with respect to the cathode. In this
class of amplifiers the a-c plate current for each tube flows for less than the
full 360 electrical degrees of the input cycle. This type usually requires
some driving power. It requires two tubes in push -pull to give an output
wave form that is nearly like the input wave form.
A class B amplifier is operated with sufficient grid bias to reduce the
plate current almost to zero when no input voltage is applied. For a
single tube the a-c plate current flows for only 180 electrical degrees of the
input cycle. It requires two tubes in push -pull to produce an output
wave form that is nearly like the input wave form.
A class C amplifier is operated with more than sufficient grid bias to
reduce the plate current to zero when no input voltage is applied. Plate
current flows for less than 180 electrical degrees of the input cycle. It
requires the use of a selective circuit in the plate circuit in order to give
an output wave form that is comparatively free from distortion.
2. General Requirements of an A -f Amptiner. An a-f amplifier must
satisfy the following general requirements:
1. The gain of the amplifier must conform to a certain amplification-
frequency characteristic.
2. The output wave form must not contain more than a certain amount of
distortion that is generated in the amplifier itself.
I Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Wisconsin.
359
360 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [see. 11
3. The gain of the amplifier must be such that a certain output power is
obtained from a given input voltage.
4. The noise and "hum" level of the amplifier should be within a pre-
assigned limit.
5. The gain should not vary much with the usual variations in d -c oper-
ating voltage, temperature of filaments, etc.
6. The input and output conditions should be such as to work the amplifier
out of a certain source impedance into a certain load impedance.
3. Elements of an A -f Amplifier. The a -f amplifier tube acts as a
power converter taking continuous power from the battery or d-c source
in the plate circuit and converting this power into a-c power. The
converted power is used to set up a voltage across an impedance in the
plate circuit for the case of a voltage amplifier, or to supply power to a
load for the case of a power amplifier. For carrying out this function,
each stage of an amplifier must be furnished with an input coupling
device, an output coupling device, and the necessary sources of power to
actuate the tube. For the case of a multistage amplifier the input
coupling device of one tube may be the output coupling device of the
tube ahead of it.
CLASS A AMPLIFIERS
4. Voltage Amplification per Stage. a. Simple Theory. A single
triode amplifier is shown in Fig. 1. The volt -
age- amplification theory given below applies
to a tube of three elements or more when oper-
ated as a class A amplifier without external
impedances in any of the elements other than
eo the anode or plate circuit. In the simple
theory the interelectrode capacitances of the
tube and socket are neglected.
The two important constants of the amplifier
tube are the amplification constant /A and the
III III plate resistance r9. The tube acts as a source
of alternating e.m.f. which is controlled by the
Fi G. 1. -Triode ampli- input voltage e,. This equivalent source which
fier.
has a voltage -µe, and an internal impedance
r, sets up a.c. in the external impedance Z,. The a.c. through Z, produces
an alternating voltage across Z. which is the output voltage e,. The
voltage amplification, or voltage gain of the amplifier is
rp +ZZ, (1)
In this expression Z, = R,, + jX, and É, and to are the vector values of
e, and e9. Voltage amplification is also a vector quantity. The voltage
E,, is used as the reference vector. Figure 2 shows the voltage amplifica-
tion in per cent of µ plotted, against ratios of output impedance to plate
resistance: for cases where, Z. is a resistance R,,, or a reactance X,.
Because of the approximate way in which the ear responds to sound,
i.e., logarithmically, it is convenient to express the gain of an amplifier
logarithmically. The unit is the decibel, which is equal to 20 times the
common logarithm of the absolute value of the voltage ratio. Hence the
Sec. 111 AUDIO -FREQUENCY AMPLIbIEN.S 3h
gain in decibels is 20 log io IA,I. The power gain in decibels can be deter-
mined from the voltage in decibels, only when the input and output
impedances are known. Strictly speaking the power gain in decibels is
the more fundamental quantity.
b. Effects of the Interelectrode Capacitance. The location of the inter -
electrode capacitances for a triode are shown in Fig. 3. These capacitances
should include the tube itself and the socket. The capacitances given in
the tube handbooks and manuals are usually for the tube alone. In
many cases the socket interelectrode capacitances are as large as for the
tube alone. When the socket capacitances are not known it is good
practice to add about 4 µµf for adjacent electrodes and 3 if for all
others except in the case where the grid comes out the top which requires
100
A.
`s 80
.2 60
u
u
áu 40
a+
d 20
o
0 2 3 4 5 6
Z%p
Flu. 2.-Voltage amplification of a Fio. 3.- Triode amp ifier
triode. showing interelectrode ca-
pacitances.
no change from that given in the handbook. Multigrid tubes used as
class A triode amplifiers are treated similar to the triode when there are no
impedances in any of the other grid circuits.
The voltage amplification A. for the circuit of Fig. 3 is
A. _
É. jwCcn - Cino
(2)
A. Cp + i'. + jw(Cop + CA)
in which F. = 1 /2., Cpo = µ /r., and Cp = 1 /rp.

Usually the interelectrode capacitances are not very effective upon A. over
the a -f range and the susceptances jw('pp and jwCpk are negligible. Under
these conditions Eqs. (2) and (1) are identical.
5. The Input Impedance. The input impedance of the tube shown in
Fig. 3 is the voltage E. divided by the current Io that would flow in the
external grid circuit. For a high vacuum tube, when operated so that
the grid never goes positive, the current Io would be the vector sum of the
currents through the capacitances C.p and Co. Since these two branches
are effectively in parallel, it is better to consider input admittances.
The expression for the input admittance is
= iwCak +7wCpp(1 - A.) (3)
362 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. Il
The impedance Z; is the reciprocal of )';. The voltage amplification A,
is a vector quantity and is obtained from Eq. (2) or (1) when the inter-
electrode capacitances are negligible in their effects upon A,. When the
output impedance is a resistance, the value of A, is usually a negative
real quantity, and the capacitance is multiplied by (1 + A.D. Under I
certain conditions when the impedance Z. has an inductive reactance,

the input impedance Z. is made up of a capacitive reactance and negative
resistance. This is an important consideration in an a-f amplifier because
it may cause sustained oscillations which in turn may cause very bad
distortion.
-- 1max.
70
, `
fio
VIE
- IrA,
50
a.
1111111'
asi,
E
.
i
u40
30
20
,rira,irD..:.. .
10
o MEG/'NVa
50 l00
la
150
20001t
300 35
Flu. 4. -Load characteristics of a triode.

The input impedance of an amplifier tube is an important consideration
when designing multistage amplifiers. As a general rule this impedance
plays a part in the performance of a voltage amplifier for all frequencies
above about 3,000 cps.
6. The Power Amplifier. The tube that is used to deliver power to a
utilization device such as a loud -speaker is generally called a power
amplifier. For this tube the voltage amplification is not a consideration,
but the power sensitivity and the amount of power that can be converted
without appreciable distortion are important. The power sensitivity is
the power output in watts for a unit volt impressed on the grid.
The power sensitivity is given by the expression,
- (Ra
Power sensitivity + (4)
when the output impedance is a pure resistance R,. The power sensitivity
is a maximum and equal to u2/4r,, when R. = rp. However, this is not the
best value of R. for maximum Undistorted power output. From theoretical
considerations maximum undistorted power output is obtained when R. When = 2rp
and when the peak a-e input voltage is equal to the grid -bias voltage.
R. = 2rp.
o3E.,
P. _ E
See. Ill AUDIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 363
where E, is the r -m -s value of the a-c input voltage. For maximum undis-
torted power output E,ß'2 is equal to the grid -bias voltage. Because the
current -voltage characteristics of a tube are not straight lines, the output
resistance R, should usually be greater than 2r,, to limit the second-harmonic
current to 5 per cent of the fundamental.
The maximum power output and second-harmonic distortion' can be cal-
culated approximately for assumed values of load resistance by applying the
following relations and referring to Fig. 4:
Power output Umm` - /min.) X (Ewa. - Emin.) (5)

8
Im.,. + Imia.
I,
Per cent second- harmonic distortion = 2
Iman - Imm. X ]Of) (fil
CLASS A MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER THEORY AND DESIGN

7. Methods of Coupling. Multistage class A voltage amplifiers are
usually divided into three classes as follows:
1. Resistance- capacitance coupled amplifier, illustrated in Fig. 6.
Fra. 5.-Resistance-capacitance coupled amplifier.

2. Impedance -capacitance coupled amplifier, illustrated in Fig. 6.
Fro. 6.-Impedance -capacitance coupled amplifier.

3. Transformer-coupled amplifier, illustrated in Fig. 7.
F o. 7.-Transformer- coupled amplifier.

There are several variations of the class 2 type. The resistances in
the grid circuits may be replaced by inductive impedances. In general
I See also Art. 52, Sec. 8.
the elements in both the plate and grid may be any type of impedances
as long as they pass d-c. The more common types are the one shown and
the one with simple inductive impedances in both the plate and grid. A
single multistage amplifier may be a combination of these different
fundamental types.
8. The Resistance -capacitance Coupled Amplifier. This class of
multistage amplifiers is illustrated in Fig. 8, with the interelectrode
capacitances of the tubes shown in dotted line. Consider the voltage
amplification of stage 1, i.e., Eox /E°I. Over a middle range of frequencies
the voltage amplification is substantially independent of the frequency;
neither the coupling condenser nor the interelectrode capacitances have
Flo. 8.- Resistance- capacitance coupled amplifier showing tube capacitances.

any effect. At the low frequencies the coupling condenser C causes the
amplification to decrease with decrease in frequency, because there is a
voltage drop, in C, from the plate of tube 1 to the grid of tube 2 which
increases with decrease in frequency. At the high frequencies the
interelectrode capacitances cause the amplification to decrease with
increase in frequency because these capacitances lower the impedance
in the external plate circuit of tube 1.
Frequency Characteristic. The medium-frequency gain Au of stage 1 is
E,z Gp°i
E =
AN =
G°: + G, + Gpi (7)
in which
GD.,i Tp-, G °= R°x' G., R,-' and Gpt = rD,
20 logo Au will be used as the reference level, or zero level, to show what
happens at low and high frequencies. The low -frequency gain, AL, in terms
of medium- frequency gain is
Ar (8)
AL =
1/1 + (G./(,C):
G °:(C, + Go)
and C is the capacitance of the coupling con-
in which G. - C, Y pl + Ggm
denser between stages 1 and 2. The loss at low frequencies, due to C, is equal
to 20 logiol/1 -F- (G, /rrC). The curves of Fig. 9 show the relation between
C and G. for particular decibel losses at a frequency of 50 cps. The curves
may be used to predict the decibel loss due to C at any other frequency f. by
multiplying the ordinates by 50 /f, and locating the known value of C on the
new scale. Both scales may be changed simultaneously by multiplying by a
---
Sec. 111 AUDIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 365
factor x in order to provide a more convenient range for G,. To illustrate the
use of the curves, suppose r9i = 100,000, R
= 200,000, and Ro, = 500,000,
s_
0.
0 Fr o
o ossi,
MAIM i ,dbd
a\a,
OMP
,,,o'
4._
R
MEMO/-
0.01 II/I/I, f=SOcps
0
i
0 2 4 6 8 10
6, in Micromhos
Ftc. 9. -Loss in low -frequency amplification due to coupling condenser.
then G, = 1.76 X 10 -6. For 0.5 db loss at 50 cps. it requires a coupling con-
denser C equal to 0.0125 pf.
The high -frequency gain. Ae. is
Ar
As = (9)
1/1 + (wC,/G,')s
in which C. Cup]. + Cpki + CO2 + C,px(1 + 1A,21) (see Fig. 8), and
G,' = Gni + G. + xp:.
250
225
200
175
w 150
Z 125
V100
,5
50
25
0
10 IS 20 25
Ge' in Micromhos
Flu. 10. -Loss high-frequency amplification due to interelectrode
in
capacitances.
The loss due to the shunting action of the effective capacitance C, at the
high frequencies is 20 loge:A/1 + (wC, /G,') =. The curves of Fig. 10 show the
relation between C. and G: for various decibel losses at a frequency of 10,000

cps. For a frequency f:, multiply the present ordinates by 10,000 /f. and
locate the capacitance C. on the new scale. Suppose C. is equal to 84 µµf,
then for the values given in the example above G.' = 17 X 10 -' and the loss at
10,000 cps is about 0.5 db.
In an amplifier of this type there is some phase distortion at both the
highest and the lowest frequencies which the amplifier will pass without
appreciable loss. The change in the phase angle of the voltage amplifica-
tion with the frequency is, at low frequencies OL = tan -1 G. /wC, and at
high frequencies it is OH = tan -1 wC. /Gé . The phase shift in the
amplifier, i.e., the angle of departure of A, from 180 °, is illustrated by
Fig. 10a. This figure also shows how the decibel loss below the gain
at the medium frequencies depends upon wC,/G: at the high frequencies
50
and G, /wC at the low frequencies.
9. Design of a Resistance -capacitance
4 I p 4Ò È, Coupled Amplifier. When considering
the proposition of using a certain tube
13 3
¿-I ,
30 in stage 1 (Fig. 8), to drive tube 2 and
also give a preassigned amount of gain
J2 {d 20t for stage 1, the first question is what will
1
0
-f v i4
IO a.
0
be the response at the highest frequency
to be amplified. This question is settled
by determining the effective capacitance
0 0.2 04 0.6 0.6 1.0 1.2 . C'. (it is assumed that A,, is known) and
wC G using the curves of Fig. 10 to find the
G °r rC value of G,' for the allowable loss at the
Fla. 10a.-° Decibel loss and highest frequency. This value of G.' will
phase shift for resistance- capac- determine the medium-frequency gain of
itance coupled amplifier. stage 1 [see Eq. (7)]. In calculating C.
the interelectrode capacitances given in
the tube handbooks and manuals must be increased by 3 to 5 µµf to
include the interelectrode socket and other stray capacitances except for
the electrode that comes out the top of the tube.
To determine the size of the coupling condenser C for a preassigned
response at the lowest frequency, it is necessary at this point in the design
to fix the size of G.2, or R,2, and G or R,. The following considerations
are pertinent to fixing the sizes of these resistors. It is always well to
use as small a coupling condenser as possible. Hence, because of the way
that C depends upon G,,, R,, should be as large as possible but should not
exceed the maximum recommended value given in the tube tables. In
any event the product of R,:C should not exceed approximately 0.05
because of the tendency of C to become charged from a very small grid
current and thereby cause the grid bias to become shifted. For a given
value of G. + G, :, and this is fixed when G.' is fixed for a given tube, it is
well to make R. somewhat higher than the plate resistance r,1 to reduce
distortion if the tube is worked very hard. On the other hand, R. con-
sumes d -c voltage which must be supplied by the plate-voltage source.
10. Impedance-capacitance Coupled Amplifier. Under this classifica-
tion of multistage amplifiers would fall almost any type of coupling
except transformer coupling. Resistance- capacitance coupling has
special characteristics and is therefore treated under Art. 8. The usual
accepted types of the classification herein discussed are the two shown
in Figs. 1 la and b. The type shown in Fig. 1 lb is sometimes called
Sec. 111 AUDIO- FREQUENCY AMPLIF /ERS 367
double- impedance coupled. These types have frequency cnaracteris-
tics inferior to the resistance-capacitance coupled amplifier but possess
sottie other advantages. For example, it requires less B supply voltage
to give the same plate voltage because of the much lower d -c voltage
drop in the plate circuit. By a double- impedance scheme the gain at
the low frequencies can be made higher than the gain at intermediate
frequencies. This is sometimes useful in frequency-response equalization.
(a)- mpedance -Resistance (b)- Double Impedance

Capacitance Coupling Capacitance Coupling
Fto. 11.- Impedance- capacitance coupled amplifier.
For the type shown in Fig. lla the voltage amplification for otage 1 at
medium frequencies is
Au - E,,
in which G,., = µ, 'r,, and G,., = I
= G,t
/r
+G,t r +R,t
for the tube of stage 1 and Go: = 1/Ro.
(10)
In some cases it may be necessary to add the core -loss conductance

G.,. The voltage amplification at low frequencies in terms of Ax for L., to
is rather
involved. It is
AL =
Ax
(/ rR,: '_ 1
R,c) [w'L.,' (1 +
1 2 1
1 + r,, + R,:'w'C') R,x'w'L.,C + r'R,t'w'C']
(11)
When C 5 0.05 µf and R,,
reduces to
5 0.5 megohm and f5 50 cps, this equation
Au
AL (12)
1
+ w'L.,'(r
r R ,e '
R,2)
From Eq. (12) it is seen that there is a loss in amplification at the low fre-
quencies. The loss in amplification in decibels due to insufficient reactance
in cboke L., is equal to
20 logo Nil b rR,: '

L.,(r,, +R,:)
w21
The curves in Fig. 21 in Art. 16 may be used to get the relation between
L., and r R,,
/(r,1 + R,) for a given decibel loss at 50 cps by substituting
L.1 for L., and rpiRos/(rpi + R,s.) for R. This holds true as long as the loss
is not less than 0.5 db.
At the high frequencies the voltage amplification, AH, is
Ar
As - _
(13)
G.)
1+CwC..
'In which C. is the effective capacitance due to the tubes (see Art. 8), plus the
distributed capacitance of the choke, and G. equals Gp1 + G,2 plus a con-
ductance 1/R. due to the core loss of the choke. The relation between C.
and G. at 10,000 cps is the same as that given by the curves of Fig. 10. (See
explanation in Art. 8 for extending the range of the curves.)
The type of amplifier illustrated in Fig. 1 lb has some interesting charac-
teristics. The medium -frequency amplification is AM = pi, neglectingtimes the
core losses of the two coils. For the case in which 0.4,01 is several
RL,I and is at least three times cp.,
7 the amplification per stage at low
l frequencies in terms of that at me-
1
dium frequency is
Q
lrp/+R(g2 Ar
c 4 AL -
(!Q)s +(1 -tPJs
3
2
(14)
o -
where f. 1
2a '/L,:C
1
w.Los
1?-; 2 =
S3 7.91 + RL,s
Using the medium-frequency gain
05 2.5 3.0 3.5
1.0 1.5
f2.0/Ir as the reference and plotting
Fra. 12.- Low-frequency characteris- s s
tic of a double impedance -capacitance 20 logro 14)' + (1 -f2 )s (! 1
coupled amplifier.
as ordinates and Pi, as abscissas for various values of Q, the curves of Fig. 12
result. These curves explain the characteristics of this type of coupling
and furnish quantitative information on how to fix the values of L,2 and C
for a particular performance at the low frequencies. At the frequency f,
the gain, or loss, in decibels is equal to 20 logo Q. The curves also show how
f for a particular
the gain, or loss, varies with the frequency bad for an amplifiercase. The phase
distortion at low frequencies would be very per stage, Ax, is of this type.
At the high frequencies the amplification
An = 1 +
Ar
(wC.' /G')s .
(15)
where G. = 1 /r,1 plus the conductances due to

the core losses in the two
chokes effective dis-
C. = C,t1 + Copt + C,42 + C,,,(1 + IA. =I) plus the
tributed capacitances of the twoG. chokes.
different decibel losses at
The quantitative relation between C. and of for Fig. 10. (See explanation in
10,000 cps can be obtained from the curves
Art. 8 for extending the ranges or finding values at another frequency.)
Sec. 111 AVD /O-F'REQl'EN( AMPLIFIERS 369
RESISTANCE- COUPLED AMPLIFIER CHART
RCA Receiving Tube Manual
C
= blocking condenser in of Rc = cathode resistor in ohms
=
Ce cathode by -pass condenser in pf Rd = screen resistor in megohms
Cd
= screen by -pass condenser in of Rg = grid resistor in megohms
Ebb = plate- supply voltage in volts RL = plate resistor in megohms
Eo = voltage output in peak volts V.G. = voltage gain
SAS, 2137: See 6SQ7 and 688, respectively.
6BS, 6B8 -G,

6A6í 6B6-G, 6B7: See 6N7. 8SQ7, and 6B8, respectively.
12C8, 6B7, 2B7:
Ebb 90 180 300
RL 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Rg, 0.25 0.5 1 0.25 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25 0.5 1

Rd 0.5 1.1 2.8 0.5 1.18 1.2 1.5 2.8 0.55 1.2 2.9
Re 2.200 3,500 6,000 1,200 1.900 2.100 2,200 3,500 1,100 1,600 2,500
Cd 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.05
Cc 3 2.1 1.55 4.4 2.7 3.2 3 2 5 3.5 2.3
C 0.01 0.007 0.003 0.015 0.01 0.007 0.003 0.003 0.0)5 0.008 0.003
Bo' 28 33 29 52 39 55 53 55 89 100 120
V.G.; 33 55 85 41 55 69 83 115 47 79 150
SCI, SCI -G, (6C6, 6J7, 6J7 -G, 6J7 -GT, 6W7 -G, 12J7 -GT, 67 as triodes):
Ebb uu 180 300
RL 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25
Rgi 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Re 3,400 6,400 14,500 2,700 3,900 5,300 6,200 12,300 2.600 5,300 12,30a
Cc 1.62 0.84 0.4 2.1 1.7 1.25 1.2 0.55 2.3 1.3 0.59
C 0.025 0.01 0.006 0.03 0.035 0.015 0.008 0.008 0.04 0.015 0.003
Eot 17 22 23 45 41 54 55 52 70 84 85
V.G.3 9 11 12 11 12 12 13 13 11 13 14
6C6: As pentode, see 637; as triode, see 6C5.

6C6 -G (one triode unit)Y:
Ebb 90 180 300
RL 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Rgt 0.25 0.5 1 0.25 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25 0.5 1

Re 3,700 7,870 15.000 3,080 5,170 6.560 7,550 12.500 2,840 6,100 11,500
Cc 1.48 0.81 0.43 1.84 1.25 0.95 0.85 0.5 2.01 0.96 0.48
CE 0.0115 0.0065 0.0035 0.012 0.012 0.007 0.0035 0.004 0.013 0.0065 0.004
17 19 20 40 35 45 50 44 80
73 83
V.G 20 23 24 22 24 25 26 26 23 26 27
I For following stage.

Voltage across Rg at grid -current point.
Voltage gain at 5 volts rams. output.
Cathodes of the two nits have a common ter ' al.
7 Cathodes of the two uta have separate terminals.
6F5, 6F5 -G, 6F5 -GT: See 6SF5.

628 -G lone triode unit) t, 6J5, 6J5 -G, 6J5 -GT, 12J5-GT:
Ebb en Ih{u 300
Rt. 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25
Rgf 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Re 2.070 3,940 9,760 1,490 2,330 2,830 3,230 7.000 1,270 2,440 5,77C
Cc 2.66 1.29 0.55 2.86 2.19 1.35 1.15 0.62 2.96 1.42 0.64
C 0.029 0.012 0.007 0.032 0.038 0.012 0.006 0.007 0.034 0.0125 0.007,
30 26 38 34 36 51 56 57
Eof 14 17 18
14 14 14 14 14
V.G.2 12 13 13 13 14 14
6J5, 6J5-0, 8J5 -GT See 6F8-G.

617, 6JJ7 -G, 617 -GT 6W7 -G, 12J7 -GT, 6C6, 57: As triodes, see 6C5:
180 300
Ebb 90
0.5 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5

Rt. 0.1 0.25 0.1
RSt 0.25 0.5 1 0.25 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25 0.5 1
Rd 0.44 1.18 2.6 0.5 1.1 1.18 1.4 2.9 0.5 1.18 2.9
750 1,200 1,600 2,000 3,100 450 1.200 2,200
Rc 1,100 2,600 5,500
0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.025 0.07 0.04 0.04
Cd 0.05 0.03 0.05
6.7 5.2 4.3 3.8 2.5 8.3 5.4 4.1
Cc 5.3 3.2 2
0.003
0.0025 0.01 0.008 0.005 0.00350.0025 0.01 0.005
C 0.01 0.3005
Eof 41
120 69 93 118 140 165 82 140 350
V.13.f 55 85
6L5-CL:
90 180 300
Ebb
0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25

Rt.
Rgt 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Rc 2,500 4,620 10,300 2,240 3,180 4,200 4,790 9,290 2.160 4,140 9.100
Cc 1.86 1.08 0.49 2.2 1.46 1.1 1 0.54 2.18 1.1 0.46
C 0.03 0.015 0.0085 0.03 0.03 0.0145 0.009 0.009 0.032 0.014 0.0075
18 22 22 41 36 46 50 68
46 79 80
0f 12'
V.G. 10' 12' 12' 11' 12' 12' 12' 12' 13' 13'
6147* 6N7 -G *, 6A6, 53:
Ebb 90 180 300
ltt. 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Rg' 0.25 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25 0.5 1
Rcj 2.250 4,950 8,500 1,700 2,950 3.800 4.300 6.600 1.500 3.400 6,100
0.003 0.015 0.015 0.007 0.0035 0.0035 0.015 0.0055 0.003
C 0.01 0.006
83 87 94
Eof 19 20 23 46 40 50 57 54
21 23 24 24 25 22 24 24
V.G. 19 22 23
At 4 volts r.m.s. output For other marks see p. 369.

Values for phase- inverter service.
See. 11] AUDIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 371
6P6 -G, 76, 56:
Ebb 90 180 300
Rt 0.25 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25
Re 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Re 3,200 6.500 15,100 3,000 4.500 6,500 7,600 14,700 3.100 6,400 15,200
Cc 1.6 0.82 0.36 1.9 1.45 0.97 0.8 0.45 2.2 1.2 0.5
C 0.03 0.015 0.007 0.035 0.035 0.015 0.008 0.007 0.045 0.02 0.009
Eo= 21 23 24 48 45 55 57 59 80 95 96
V.G.6 7.7 8.9 9.7 8.2 9.3 9.5 9.8 10 8.9 10 10
6Q7, 6Q7 -G, 6Q7 -GT, 12Q7 -GT:
Ebb ou 180 300
Rt 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Rgt 0.25 0.5 0.25

1 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25 0.5 1
Rc 4,200 7,600 12,300 1,900 3,400 4,000 4.500 7,100 1,500 3.000
Cc 1.7
5,500
1.2 0.6 2.5 1.6 1.3 1.05 0.76 3.6 1.66 0.9
C 0.01 0.006 0.003 0.01 0.01 0.005 0.003 0.003 0.015 0.007 0.004
Eor 8 11 13 26 25 31 37 36
V.G.+
.52 52 60
286 32 33 33 36 38 40 40 33 45 46
6R7, 6R7 -G :
Ebb 90 180 300
Rt 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25
f Re 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Re 2,600 4.400 9.800 2,100 3,000 4,100 4,600 8.880 2,000 3,800
Cc 1.7 0.9 0.42
8,400
1.9 1.3 0.9 0.8 0.4 2 1.1 0.5
C 0.03 0.01 0.007 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.006 0.006 0.03 0.015
Eo= 18 19
0.007
18 40 35 43 46 40 62 68 62
V.3.6 9 IO 11 9 10 10 10 10 9 10 11
6ST, 6S7-G :
Ebb 90 180 300
Rt 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Re 0.25 0.5 1 0.25 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25 0.5

Rd 0.65 1.6 3.5 0.68 1.6 1.8 1.9 3.6 0.67
1
Re 900 1.95 3.9

1.5202.800 540 850 890 950 1.520 440 650
Cd 0.061 0.044 1.080
0.03 0.07 0.05 0.044 0.046 0.037 0.071 0.057 0.041
Cc 5 1.95 6.9 4.6 4.7 4.4
C 3 8 5.8 3.9
0.01 055 0.0026
0.03.23 0.01 0.0071 0.005 0.0037 0.003 0.01
Eo= 0.005 0.0029
21 18 15 43 33 40 44 38 75 66 66
V.G.+ 47. 66& 84 66. 79. 104 118. 134. 78. 122, 162.
6 At 3 volts r.m.s. output.

At 4 volts r.m.s. output. For other marks see p. 369.
372 THE R41)10 ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 11
6SC7 *, 12SC7 +:
180 300
Ebb 90
1tt 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
0.25 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25 0.5 1

Rgl 0.25 0.5 1
1.680 2,980
6.300 1,070 1,850 2,150 2.400 3,420 930
Re/ 1,960 3,750 0.014 0.006 0.003
C 0.012 0.006 0.003 0.012 0.011 0.006 0.003 0.003
28 32 32 50 55 62
Eo 5.9 8.6 10 24 21
35 39 41 43 34 42 48
V.G. 23 30 33 29
6SF5, 12SF6, 6F5, 6F5 -G, 6F5 -GT, 12F5 -GT:
180 300
Ebb 90
0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5

Ru 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1
0.25 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25 0.5 1

Rg' 0.25 0.5 1
5,400
23.000 3,500 4i100 4.500 6,900 1,600 3,200
Re 2;800 8.8080
Cc 10.850
0.20315 0.01 0.2006 03004 0.003 0.01 0.5007 0.004
0.501 0.005 62
Eor 0103 49 63 70
43 46 44 48 53 57 63
V.G. 346
6SJ7, 12SJ7:
180 300
Ebb 90
Au 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
0.25 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25 0.5 1

0.25 0.5 1
1.10 2.2
1.7 0.31 0.83 0.94 0.94 2.2 0.37
Rd 0.29 0.92
1.050 1,060 1.100 2,180 530 880 1,410
880 1,700 800
0.06 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.05
Cd 0.085 0.045 Ó.8O030 0.09
8 6.8 6.6 6.1 3.8 10.9 7.4 5.8
Cc 7.4 4.5 2.4 0.002
0.015 0.001 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.016 0.004
C 0.016 0.005 0.002 96 88 79
18 22 60 38 47 54 44
Eor 23 98 167 238
93 119 82 109 131 161 192
V.G. 68
7 12S Q7, 2A6, 6B6 -G, 75:
180 300
Ebb 90
0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5

Ru 0.1 0.25 0.5
0.25 0.5 0.25 0.5 1

Re 0.25 0.5 1 0.25
4,300
1
4.800 5i300
1
8,000 2,200 3,900 6i100

6,600 11.000 186.600 2,900
Co
0.501 0.0706 0.1030.22 5 0.2015 0.007 0.004 0.004 0.015
3
0.5007 0.004
Eor 43 50 53 57 39 53 60
V.0.8 20 40. 44 36
b At 3 volts r.m.e. output.

At 4 volts r.m.s. output. For other marke see p. 369.
See. 117 AUDIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 373
ITT-G:
Ebb 90 180 300
Rt, 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
RIO 0.25 0.5 1 0.25 0.25 0.5

Re 4.750 8,300 14.200 2.830 4.410 5,220
1 1 0.25 0.5 1
5.920 9,440 2,400 4,580 8.200
Cc 1.5 1 0.6 2.25 1.5 1.25 1.11
C 0.74 2;55 1.35 0.82
0.012 0.0075 0.0045 0.0135 0.012 0.008 0.005 0.0045 0.0135 0.0075 0.0055
V.G.: 248 30' 33 8 34< 38 389''
39 58
48Ó 3
5W7 -G: See 6J7 and 6C5.
6Z7 -G *:
Ebb 90 180 300
Rt. 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
ligi 0.25 0.5 1 0.25 0.25 0.5 0.25

Re* 1,760 3.390
1 1 0.5 1
6,050 1,100 1,820 2.110 2.400 3,890 950 1,680 3,110
Cc 2.02 1.1 0.61 2.6 1.71 1.38 1.1 0.703 2.63 1.46 0.72
C 0.0115 0.006 0.003 0.0115 0.012 0.007 0.0035 0.0035 0.012
So:
0.006 0.003:
11 15 18 28 28 34
V.G.:
41 38 52 59 70
25 30 33 31 35 38 39 40 34 40 44
1íC6, 12F5 -GT, 12J5-GT: See 6B8 68F5, and 6F8-G.

y. respective
12J7 -GT, 1 *Q7 -GT: See 637 and 6C5, and 6Q7, respectively.
12SC7, 1ISF6, 1ISQ7: See 6SC7, 6SF5, 6837, and 2SQ7, respectively.
53, 55, 56: See 6N7, 85, and 6P5-G, respectively.
67, 75, 78: See 677 and 6C5 8SQ7, and 6P5-G, respectively
79*:
Ebb 90 180 300
Rt. 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Rgt 0.25 0.5 1 0.25 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25 0.5

Re* 2,200 4,250 6,850 1.250 2,050 2,450 2,750 4,100 1,000 2.050 3.600
I
C 0.015 0.006 0.004 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.005 0.0035 0.01 0.0055 0.003
Sot 8.4 9.7 12 27 26 34 40 39 57 66 75
V.G.+ 29' 33 38 31 37 41 42 44 34 42 46
66, 55:
Ebb 90 180 300
Rt. 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.05 0.1 0.25
Rgt 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.25 0.5
Re 4,600 9.000 20.500 4.100 6,200 8,700 10.000 20.000 4.100 8.300 19.400
Cc 1.1 0.55 0.25 1.6 0.9 0.7 0.57 0.29 1.5 0.54 0.22
0.03 0.015 0.007 0.045 0.04 0.015 0.008 0.008 0.045 0.015 0.006
Eo= 19 22 23 44 37 47 50 48 74 82 84
V.G.+ 4.9 5.4 5.5 5.2 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.7 5.5 5.7 5.7
h
A 3 volts r.m.s. output.
' At 4 volts r.m.s. output. For other marks see p. 369.
THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (See. it
l
374
cation of the type of coupling shown in Fig. 1

11. Design of Impedance-capacitance Coupled Amplifiers. high plate
to tubes of
resistance is limited principally by the amount ofofinductance
The appli-
that can
be obtained in choke L,, without a large amount distributed capaci-
tube
tance. The distributed capacitance of the choke adds toat the the high
capacitance and therefore helps to lower the amplification in pie
frequencies. Chokes for this purpose are sometimes wound Of course, for
sections in order to reduce the distributed capacitance. possible gain
tubes having high plate resistance some of the maximum variation in gain over
can be sacrificed by lowering R,2 to have a small
the frequency range. This will make it easier to satisfy the requirements
at both the highest and lowest frequency. the design procedure is to
For tubes that have low plate resistance, than the maximum
fix the value of R,: so that it will not be greater
recommended value or the value which will keep the highest frequency
response within the desired limit. The curvesresponseof Fig. 10 are useful for
is concerned. In
determining the limit to R,2 so far as frequency GPs plus a conductance
this figure for this purpose G. is equal to Gp,is +fixed, the value of L,, is
allowed for the core loss of L.,. After R,, in Fig. 20. For this
determined tentatively by the use of the curvesR,2). last step is
purpose R4 on the graph becomes r ,R,: /(rni +not moreThe 0.25 db.
to determine C such that the loss due to it is the resultsthan by applying
In some cases it may be necessary to check
Eq. (11). is
For tubes that have high plate resistance, the design toprocedure work back
about the same as the above except it may be necessary
and forth from h-f consideration to 1 -f consideration in order
the desired characteristics.
In designing an amplifier of the type shown
procedure is the same as above. In some of
amplification may be less than µ, because to two
in Fig. l
1
to obtain
the general
cases the medium- frequency
the core losses of the two
chokes. These core losses are equivalent their effect resistances in parallel
is similar to R,, in
from the grid to the cathode of tube 2 and
Fig. lla. apply Eq. (14) and the
The following example will illustrate howoftothe tube is 10,000 ohms,
curves of Fig. 12. The plate resistance r,,
and the desired gain at
the allowed resistance for Ri,, is 1,000 ohms, From the curves
50 cps is 3 db over the gain at medium frequencies.
of Fig. 12, Q must be -0 to give the desired gain. From the expression
for Q,
L,s - Q (ry, + RL,$)
to,
givesq3 the
coupling condenser
condenser'issggi'enbyvCich and is
equal to 0.29 µf
-coupled Amplifier.
12. The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer a transformer-coupled
The complete equivalent circuit of one stage of
amplifier comprises the plate resistance of the tube ahead of the trans-
input capacitance of the tube after the transformer, and
former, the itself. Figure 13 illustrates
the equivalent circuit of the transformer
circuit for one not
the the condition quite accurately
apply
PP Y types but
many.
In thi, diagram the symbols shown represent the following: µE,, is the
voltage gem.erated in the tube source and rpl is the plate resistance of the tube
source. n, and R. are the primary and secondary winding resistances.
Lp and L. are the primary and secondary leakage inductances. These
inductances are due to the magnetic fluxes that link with each coil and not
the other, i.e., the fluxes that are not mutual to the two coils.
Cp and C. are the effective distributed capacitances of the primary and
secondary windings. C. is the effective mutual capacitance between the
windings. C. may not be present in certain transformers. Sometimes C.
is of a complicated nature and difficult to estimate. Ca is the input capaci-
tance of the tube load.
L. and R. are the magnetizing inductance and core -loss resistance of the
transformer. The magnetizing current and the equivalent core -loss current
of a transformer are nearly proportional to the induced voltage.
L, and L, are fictitious inductances necessary to transfer the current and
voltage to the load and to provide the proper phase change from primary
to secondary. The phase of the secondary voltage with respect to the pri-
mary is important when the mutual capacitance C. is equal to, or greater
than, 25 per cent of C. and Ca. The ratio of the primary turns to the
secondary turns is equal to V'LI /Lt. This ratio is called N, the ratio of
transformation.
PEr
Fia. 13.- Equivalent circuit of
a transformer -coup ed amplifier.
In Arts. 14 and 15 it is shown how the equivalent circuit is modified in
order to simplify matters. This simplification is possible for a transformer
which is intended to cover a range of frequencies like 50 to 5,000 cps and when
the variation in amplification over the range is not more than 6 db.
13. Calculation of Transformer Constants. The material under this
article applies to both interstage transformers and impedance-matching
transformers. The most important constants required in a given design
are the magnetizing inductance L. and leakage inductances Lp and L..
The magnetizing inductance L. is given by the expression
4A10'9Np =µ,A
L. in henrys = (16)
where Np is the number of turns on the primary; µ, is the relative perme-

ability; if the primary carries d.c., µ, is the apparent incremental perme-
ability; A is the net area of the core in square centimeters and l is the
mean length of path in centimeters. When A is not the same for the
entire length of the path, the total reluctance must be calculated from
the sum of the reluctances of the paths over which the net area is con-
stant. To evaluate L. when the winding carries d-c current, there
must be available curves of p, plotted against the d -c magnetizing
ampere -turns per centimeter for various flux a-c densities on the par-
ticular magnetic material.'
I See also Sec. 2, article on Magnetic Circuit.
The leakage inductances Lop and L. depend upon the configuration

of the windings. These inductances are due to the fluxes that link
with one coil and not the other. For the type illustrated by Fig. 14,
Le = Ln + N2L. = 6iN °.
1(De
+ D2 + 2D,)
3f + 2(D12 - Di')
+ [3(D, + D:) + 2D. + Db]Db( (17)
where D, = D; + Db + D,.
For an interspaced winding of this type, i.e., one in which one coil
is placed between the two halves of the other coil, Lo + N'L, is approxi-
mately one -fourth of that given by Eq. (17). All dimensions are in
centimeters and are indicated in the figure.
Fia. 11. Fra. 15. Fie. 16.

Fto. 14.- Simple winding scheme for a transformer.
Fia. 15.- Winding scheme for low effective capacitance.
Flo. 16.- Simple winding scheme for a core -type transformer.
The leakage inductance for a winding of the type shown in Fig. 15 is
approximately
L,= Lp +N'L. =110Hn[(Di +D2

+H)(3°+ Do (18)
For an interspaced winding of this type the total leakage inductance

is approximately one -fourth of the value given by Eq. (18).
For a core-type transformer as shown in Fig. 16, in which half of each
primary and secondary is wound on two opposite legs of the core, the
approximate expression for the leakage inductance is
Le
° W10)
(D, + D: + D,) 3` + 2(D,' - D.2)
+ [3(De + D:) + 2D. + Db]I)4 (18e)

See. lid AUDIO- FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 377
For an interspaced winding of the core type, i.e., one in which one coil
of each leg is placed between the two halves of the other coil of the same
leg, the leakage inductance is approximately one -fourth the value given
by Eq. (18a).
For interstage and impedance-matching transformers the core losses
under most ordinary circumstances are usually small compared to the
copper losses, but for the sake of completeness the expression for the
core-loss resistance R, is given. It is
1erN5tA
X a 2x'10-Kul (19)
where K.. - total core loss per cc

at the operating conditions
B = flux density in gausses.
It is assumed that the hysteresis losses as well as the eddy-current
losses are proportional to B'. It has been found by the author that the
hysteresis losses at low flux densities are nearly proportional to B', but
sometimes the exponent of B is even greater than 2.
(a) -Low Frequencies (b)- High Frequencies

Flo. 17.- Equivalent circuits of a transformer- coupled amplifier.
The distributed capacitance of transformer windings is due mainly
to the layer-to-layer capacitances. The effective capacitance of a wind-
ing is approximately equal to the capacitance between the two mean
layers divided by the number of layers. In most cases the layers may
be treated as parallel plates having a dielectric equal to thickness of
paper between layers plus 2 times the thickness of the insulation on
the wire. If the dielectric constants of the paper and insulation are
much different, they must be treated accordingly.
14. Theory of Transformer- coupled Amplifiers. The characteristics
of this type of amplifier are best explained by dividing the frequency
range into the low frequencies, the medium frequencies, and the high
frequencies. The equivalent circuits of Figs. 17a and 176 apply to
the low and the high frequencies. At the medium frequencies the core -
loss resistance R., is usually so large compared to r,,, + Rn + N'R.
-
that the voltage amplification per stage, i.e., E,, /E,, AAr is practically
equal to µ, /N. Hence 20 logo (µ1 /N) will he used as the reference level
in decibels, and the performance at the low and high frequencies will
be termed a loss, or gain, in decibels measured from this reference level.
At the low frequencies the magnetizing inductance is effective and
the -f amplification AL, in terms of AM, is
1
AL = AM
(R,, + r,1)X 12 (20)
1 1
+ coLR, + R, + ry1J
`
The loss at the low frequencies due to L,,, is
20 logo Nil + 1 li'p + r,, )R. Jr

L R(. +Rp +rp,
This case is so similar to the one illustrated by the equivalent circuit
of Fig. 19a for an impedance-matching transformer that the curves given
(Re, rp,)R.
in Fig. 20 may be used to see the relation between L., and
R.+ r,, +Rp
7 for various decibel losses at 50
6
cps. In many cases R. is so large
compared with rp1 and Rp that
5 the quantity
a
sa (R,,+ rp,)R. ," Rp + rp,
3
g R, +R,, +rp,
2 Hence in most cases Rp + rpi can
be substituted for R. when using
`w. the curves in Fig. 20 to determine
L, for a given loss in decibels.
4
0
2
1 \ The curves of Fig. 20 can be used
for any other frequency f: by
multiplying the ordinates by 50 /f.
and locating L,,, on the new scale.
06 0.8
f
f
I.0 1.2 IA
Fia. 18. -High- frequency characteris- and

At the high frequencies the
leakage inductances and the tube
distributed capacitances af-
tics of a transformer- coupled amplifier. feet the voltage amplification.
For cases in which C. is small
compared to C. + CL, the amplification at the high frequencies in terms
of A M is
AM
AB = (21)
(1-f)+fZ
The gain, or loss, equals
¡( f \2 f2
20 lologo V 1 - f.lJ 1
+f.= Q.2.
Co.L,
where Q, =
R
w. = 1; L,C. and f, = 1 /(22i L,C.)
C. = (Cm + C. + CL) /N2
R, = rp, + R,, + N2R.
L,= Lp +N2L.
CL= C052 + Cop2(I + IA.2I)
N = the ratio of primary turns to secondary turns.
The curves of Fig. 18 show how the loss, or gain, varies around the
frequency f, for different values of c,L, /R,. The best results are obtained
Sec. AUDIO -FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 379
when w,L, /R. is approximately equal to 1. This can be accomplished
to some extent by controlling L, and C. in the design.
When C,,, is not small compared to C. + CL, the voltage amplification
is approximately the value given by Eq. (21) times
NC,,, f=
+
1 C., +C. + CL f,=
where N may be either positive or negative in numerical value. N
is positive if the two coils form a single winding in one direction about
the common core when connected together at the cathode ends, and
negative when the windings are in apposite directions. The mutual
capacitance may he avoided by the use of static shields.
15. Design of Transformer -coupled Amplifiers. Usually transformer
coupling is used with voltage amplifier tubes that have a comparatively
low plate resistance. This is necessary to obtain the desirable char-
acteristics at the low frequencies because the magnetizing inductance
for a given -f response is almost directly proportional to the plate
1
resistance of the tube. It is essential also that the d -c plate current

be as small as possible so that it will not saturate the core of the trans-
former. The magnetizing inductance L., is the first consideration
in the design of an interstage transformer. The curves of Fig. 20
can he used for determining the value of L,,, for a given decibel loss at
the lowest frequency. In the preliminary procedure the core loss can
be neglected and R,, + r,,, can be substituted for R. in Fig. 20. An
allowance of 8 to 10 per cent of r,,, is made for the primary winding
resistance.
The amount of voltage amplification per stage required at the medium
frequencies is nearly equal to the amplification constant pi times the
ratio of secondary turns to primary turns; in the theory this is ., /N.
Practical values for this ratio are 2 to 4. If higher, difficulty is experi-
enced at the high frequencies because of the tube load and distributed
capacitance of the secondary windings, even though the leakage induc-
tance is very small.
The performance of the transformer at the high frequencies depends
largely upon the leakage inductance and the capacitance of the second-
ary winding and tube load. This is illustrated in Fig. 18. For practi-
cally constant gain up to any frequency f,, either the frequency f, must
be at least two times fh or else the winding must be so designed that
f, = fh and the quantity a,L, /R. = Q, is approximately equal to 1.
Interspacing the windings of a transformer, placing one winding
between the two halves of the other, lowers the total leakage inductance
by a factor of one -fourth but generally results in a much higher effective
capacitance. Therefore the net result of interspacing is not to raise
the frequency f, by a factor of 2. Even if f, were raised by a factor of 2,
the quantity Q, might be reduced below 1 at f, and the gain of the ampli-
fier would not be constant up to f,
Winding the transformer like Fig. 15 except with interspaced coils
is very effective in reducing the capacitance of the windings, but this is
I very uneconomical as to space.
The theory and design given here apply to input transformers as well
as interstage transformers. The input transformer must be designed
for a particular source impedance and a particular tube load.
16. Impedance-matching Transformers. When a given load resist-

ance R, is not of the proper magnitude to result in maximum power into
the load from a source which has a resistance R;, a transformer is inter-
posed between the source and the load. Because of the resistances
of the transformer windings and the losses in the magnetic core the
transformer will consume a certain amount of energy itself. In addition
to the energy lost in the transformer the magnetizing current causes a
loss of power to the load at the low frequencies, and the leakage induct-
ance causes a loss at the high frequencies. For a transformer of this
type, intended to cover a range of frequencies, it is convenient to divide
the theory and design into three phases, namely: low frequency, medium
frequency, and high frequency. Figures 19a, b, and c represent the
equivalent circuits that apply to each of these phases of discussion.
(o)-Low Frequencies (b)- Medium Frequencies (c) -High Frequencies

Fla. 19.- Equivalent circuits of an impedance- matching transformer.
In the figures R; is the internal resistance of the source; Ro and R. are the
primary and secondary winding resistances; L, and L. are the leakage-flux
inductances of the primaries and secondaries; L. and R. are the magnetizing
inductance and core -loss resistance; and N is the ratio of primary turns to
secondary turns.
The current in the transferred load resistance at the medium frequency is
used as the reference level. Referring to Fig. 196 and letting R, = R. + Ro,
R= = (R. + Ra)N2, R= = and R4 - R=R+R,

R.
E
I= - + R,) /Rs
R =(R=
(22)
In many cases R2 'Re is so ompared to 1 that lu = E /(R= + R,)

small comp.
For the low frequencies Fig. 19e applies, and the current IL in terms of
1.11 is
I - Ir (23)
R.=
NI
1 + ru=L.=
Then 20log,o 1 + w =R4= is the loss due to L,.. Figure 20 shows the relation
between L. and Ra for various losses at a frequency of 50 cps. For any other
frequency multiply the ordinates by 50'f. and locate L. on the new scale.
Also, because of the linear relation between L. and R., both scales may be
changed simultaneously by any factor x in order to provide a more convenient
range for R4. For most cases, since R. is several times R2, the quantity R4
is equal to R, /(1 + R, /R=)
Sec. Ill AUDIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 381
For the high frequencies Fig. 19c applies, and the current Ix in terms of
IM is
hi I (24)
NI
1 + (R1 + R3)2
472L,
Then 20 logo 1 + is the loss due to the leakage inductance.
80
iI. vos:
..=.!,
70 o
, 60
o ''''Al o5d, db
TE. 50
/213.1112 db I-p5
40
30
IMMISIIIIIIE db
Loss
MATIM%E%ll
20
10
gr%m. f =SOcps
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
R4 (mul+ ply by 1000)
Feu. 20. -Loss at low frequency due to magnetizing ii ductance.
0.20
Os
I0,
f=10,000cps ádb
,os
II 3db h°ss
2ib
o
0
rÌC2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9
RF+R3 ( mulfiply x1000)
IO 1112
1 db
Loss
5 db
(,oss
Fro. 21. -Loss at high frequency due to leakage inductance.

Figure 21 shows the relation between the total leakage inductance
L, = Lp + N2L,
and the resistance R1 + for different decibel losses at 10,000 cps.
Rd any
other frequency j,, multiply the ordinates by 10,000 /j,-, and read In on For
the new
scale. Also both scales may be changed simultaneously by a factor z iii
order to provide a more convenient range for RI + R3.
382 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Set. 11
The procedure in designing a transformer of this kind is to first deter-

mine the size of core and number of primary turns in order to obtain a
value of L,,, which will limit the loss to a preassigned amount. In this
procedure it is necessary to allow for the winding resistances Rp and R.
The expression for L,,, is given in Art. 13. The next step is to fix the
ratio of turns and the number of secondary turns for the desired value
of transferred load resistance. The final step is to determine the style
of winding that will keep the leakage inductance within the limit which
is allowed for a given loss at the highest frequency.
PUSH -PULL POWER AMPLIFIERS: CLASS A, CLASS AB,
AND CLASS B
17. Graphical Analysis for Push -pull Power Amplifiers. The circuit
diagram of the push -pull type of power amplifier is shown in Fig. 22.
Whenever possible, the power stage of an
.TubeA amplifier should be operated in push -
pull. There are several advantages of
push -pull operation over a single -ended
power stage. When a single tube is
operated so that the efficiency of power
conversion is reasonably high, the har-
t: R monies are also high. In push -pull oper-
o ation the even harmonics cancel out in
yb W ß the final load resistor. Consequently,
for a given percentage of distortion, the
operating voltage can be adjusted so
that each tube will deliver more power
into a load resistor than a similar single
TubeB tube will deliver into its optimum load
Fta. 22.- Schematic of a push- in a single -ended power stage.
pull power amplifier. The graphical analyses for all three
classes of push -pull amplifiers are es-
sentially the same. The magnetic field in the core of output trans-
former is a function of the algebraic sums of the a -c currents in the two
sides of the primary windings. Hence the analysis is the same, except
for d-c components, as though the tubes were replaced by a single class A
tube which has I,-Ep characteristics equivalent to the algebraic sum
of the characteristics of the two push -pull tubes. These are called the
composite characteristics of the push-pull unit and are illustrated in
Fig. 23. Each composite curve represents the algebraic sum of the
Ip-Ep curve of one tube for a grid potential of E, + AE, and the
Ip-Ep curve of the other tube for a grid potential of E. - SE,. E.
is the grid bias voltage. Then the load line, which is the load resistance
measured across one primary winding of the transformer, is drawn across
the composite Ip-Ep curves through the d-c operating points. Current
values derived from the intersection of composite load line and the
composite Ip-Ep lines are the algebraic sums of the a-c currents in
the two primary windings. The effect is the same as though all the a -c
current flowed through one primary winding and the source impedance
were equal to the reciprocal of the slope of a composite I,-E, curve.
Hence power output is given by the relation
Po = P2"141412 (26)
(RiN' + t,1)2
See. 11J AUDIO- FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 383
where Ep = r-m -s a -c voltage from one grid to cathode

p = amplification factor of either tube
rp' = reciprocal of the slope of a composite 1p-E5 curve
RL = load resistance
N = ratio of the turns of one primary winding of the output
transformer to the turns of the secondary winding.
The power output can also be obtained from the peak values of a-c plate
current and plate voltage which are labeled 10 and E0 in Fig. 23. It is
M
Po = (Eo /o) /2 The distortion can be obtained by plotting the current
in the load resistance and analyzing the curve according to the method
given in a previous section of this handbook.
Plate Volts -Upper Tube
700
60 M
MAMAA
J
AMP
M NII
MEE AMA
100
t77
200 300
A AAMMAMAAA
,AAAAAMAAAA
400 500
r/
50
AAA111AM!AAMI AAAAAMAAA
ANI,7,' A MAMMA
40
30
II'IAI/A' IIIL
/IAd/IMAr6 . d1
WAWA
20 iiiúiiïáii
17AryAAuu ñïiiÿir,i,íAiÿM
MMIIAUM .M
nAC .vsAA..A .A
á10 AMMAM:IQy!arMr RNnAUIPArIvfff
IAIIRIAYI
E
0 IIm.,+iloI+mouU
Ìr ILfIi7VAn\ IiIIV/AI
MA:
r1ÌÌÌI%ÌÌÌÚÌ
AI
,
110
20
YIAM nriAAA
AAt,M/LMr/Ar. f/1AA/A
r
AAA ! I/AId1 Mr1AgIt
AM M
6-30 MAMMA
ÀAtIAM'/ /IAAA
-
40
AMAAr
MANAMA 1MAIIM
` A'I\ A
50
60
70
MMMAb
AAAAAAA
500 400 300
AV EMU
200
ME
Plate Volts - Lower Tube
100 0
Fta. 23. -The composite characteristics of a push-pull amplifier.
18. Class A Push -pull Power Amplifier. In the class A push -pull
amplifier a -c plate current flows for complete 36O deg. of the input cycle,
and the characteristics of the tube are nearly straight lines over the
complete range of the a-c plate and grid potentials. The composite
Ip-Ep curves have approximately twice the slope of the separate I5-E5
curves from which they are derived. Hence r,,' in Eq. (25) is approxi-
mately equal to 7.5/2 or half the plate resistance of either tube. Then
for class A push-.pull
Po
la'E'RLN= (26)
RL N2 +
Class A operation gives the best wave form for the current in load
resistor, but the efficiency is lower than that obtained by class AB or
class B operation.
Equation (26) furnishes information for the design of the output

transformer for the class A push-pull amplifier. Referring to the design
relations and curves of Art. 16 the generator voltage is AE9i and the
resistance of the source, viz., R;, becomes rp /2. The transferred load
resistance is RLN2, where N is the ratio of turns for one primary winding
to the total secondary turns. The value of RLN2 to be used in Eq,. (26)
is equal to one-fourth of the plate- to-plate load resistance which is
usually specified in tube handbooks as the best value to use for a given
tube. Hence the allowable values for the magnetizing and leakage
inductances can be determined from Figs. 20 and 21.
The design of the input transformer becomes essentially the design of
an interstage transformer which is given in Arts. 14 and 15. To pre-
serve a balance in the magnitudes and phases of the two secondary
voltages, the two secondary windings must be kept symmetrical with
respect to leakage inductances to the primary resistances, and distrib-
uted capacitances. If the two voltages applied to grids of the push -pull
amplifier are less than 180 deg. apart, the net grid -to -grid voltage which
will be effective in producing output power will be less than the algebraic
sum of the two voltages.
19. Class AB Push -pull Power Amplifier. In the class AB push -pull
power amplifier a -c plate current of each tube flows for less than 360 deg.
but more than 180 deg of the input cycle. The grids may or may not
be driven positive with respect to the cathode. For this type of amplifier
the reciprocal of the slopes of the composite characteristics lies some-
where in between rp and rp /2, and the quantity rP in Eq. (25) must be
determined for any particular set of operating conditions.
The design of the output transformer is carried out according to
Art. 16, where R; becomes r,, and RLN2 is the load impedance which
must be used in establishing L,,, and L, for each primary winding. Since
the two primary windings are carrying unequal currents, care must be
taken in the position of each primary winding with respect to each other
and to the secondary winding. The effective leakage inductance will
always he higher than it would he for the same transformer if both pri-
mary windings were carrying equal and opposite currents for all points
of the input cycle.
Class AB push-pull amplifiers may he so driven that their grids go
positive with respect to the cathode. Hence the input transformer
design depends some on whether or not there will be grid current in the
secondary during a part of each positive half cycle of the grid voltage.
When there is no grid current, the design is the same as that given for the
input transformer of class A push -pull amplifier. When there is grid
current, the load on the driver tube varies over the cycle going from no
load for a part of the cycle to a maximum load current which causes
quite a drop in the grid voltage of the class AB tubes. Hence the input
transformer must be so designed that magnetizing inductance will be
high enough for no load conditions and have such a ratio of transforma-
tion that the output voltage of the driver tubes will not vary much over
the cycle. The driver tubes should have as low plate resistance as
possible. Low leakage inductance and winding resistances also help to
reduce the flattening of the crest of the input voltage to class AB tubes.
20. Class B Power Amplifiers. For class B operation the d-c grid
and plate potentials are adjusted so that plate current for each tube
flows for only slightly more than 180 deg of the input cycle. In the
Sec. Ill AUDIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 385
graphical construction the Ip-E, charts for the two tubes are adjusted,
for a particular set of operating voltages, so that a large part of the
!p-E,, curves of the tubes coincide with the composite 1, -E curves.
Only the low values of I,, of each tube will be different from their alge-
braic sum. Hence in this case r'
= rn and the power output is
, 2E,2RLN2
P, - (RLN2 + r,)'
(27)
where r, depends somewhat upon the amplitude of E, and should be

determined for a medium value of E,.
For class B operation each primary of the output transformer carries
current of the fundamental frequency for only alternate halves of the
input cycle. Hence the effective leakage inductance of the transformer
is materially higher than it would be if both windings always carried
equal and opposite currents. The criterion on leakage inductance is
the inductance measured across only one primary winding with the
secondary winding shorted. This is the leakage inductance which
enters into the characteristics of the transformer at the higher frequen-
cies. In the design procedure given in Art. 16, ry is the source resistance
symbolized by R;, and RLN2 is the load impedance transferred to one
primary side. L,, and L, are calculated or preassigned on the basis
that only one primary winding is active at a time. The two primary
windings should occupy similar positions with respect to the secondary
and should be well interspaced with each other. The design of the
input transformer is similar to that given for class AB operation. For
zero-bias class B tubes the design of the input transformer is essentially
the same as that of an impedance-matching transformer which is treated
under Art. 16.
21. Pentode - and Beam -tube Power Amplifiers. The power sensi-
tivity and the efficiency of power conversion for pentode and beam tubes
in power amplifiers are usually much higher than for triode tubes. The
expression for the power sensitivity of a pentode or a beam tube is the
same as it is for a triode, as given in Art. 6. A method for determining
the power output and the distortion from the I,-E, characteristics is
given in Sec. 8, Art. 47.
The load resistor for pentode and beam tubes should be such that the
instantaneous plate current does not fall below the knee of the I E,
curve which is taken for the grid voltage reached on the peak value ofthe
positive half of the input cycle. If the load resistor is higher than this
value, there will be serious distortion of the output power. This limits
the load resistor to a value considerably below the plate resistance of the
tube. Also, if the load resistance is too low, the second harmonic dis-
tortion will he high. Consequently pentode and beam tubes should be
used only when the load impedance remains fairly constant with fre-
quency, or means should he taken to ensure that the load impedance
remains within certain limits when the tube is driven for full power
output. These tubes give much better results in push-pull arrangements
than in single -ended circuits because of the even harmonic cancellation.
Single -ended pentode and beam power amplifiers should incorporate
degenerative feedback for the best results. Further points in favor of
pentode and beam tubes are that they have lower input capacitances
than similar triodes and require lower driving voltages.
22. Phase -inverter Amplifiers. When an amplifier requires a single -

ended input, but it is desirable to have the output tubes in push -pull,
it is necessary to derive voltages for the push -pull grids that are equal
in magnitude and 180 deg. out of phase over the complete frequency
range of the amplifier. This can he done by the use of a transformer
with a single primary and center-tapped secondary. However, it is
somewhat difficult to design such a transformer which will have second-
ary voltages from each end to the center tap that are equal in magnitude
and 180 deg. out of phase over any
Tube A considerable range of audio frequen-
Input
P jj; cies. Also it is often desirable to
have resistance -capacitance coupling
throughout an amplifier. This can
be accomplished by the scheme of
Fig. 24. Tube B is the phase -inverter
tube. Its input voltage is derived
from the output of tube A. The grid
voltage for the phase inverter may
Tube B also be derived from a portion of the
Fia. 24.- Phase-inverter type of grid resistor of the upper output tube
push-pull amplifier. or in the manner shown in Fig. 25.
When all tubes are self-biased, the
grid resistor and coupling condenser are not necessary when the grid
voltage for the phase-inverter tube is derived from a portion of the grid
resistor of the upper output tube.
It is preferable to derive the grid voltage for the phase-inverter tube
from a point on the plate resistor, as shown, rather than from the grid
resistor of the next tube because the magnitude"and phase of this voltage
will vary less with frequency. The proper grid voltage for the phase
inverter tube is obtained by making R = Rob/ Ab, where Rab is the plate
resistor of the regular tube, As is the TubeA
voltage amplification of the phase -
inverter tube, and R is portion of
Rbb between the point of pick -off for
the phase-inverter tube and the d -c /iPut
plate source. The grid voltages of
the two output tubes will be un-
balanced at the higher and lower
frequencies because the voltage for
the lower tube is influenced by tavo Tube B
tube stages whereas the upper tube
voltage is influenced by only one Fla. 25. -A self-inverter. balancing type of
tube stage. phase
Since R depends upon A,,, a correct balance will be had only when R
is adjusted for a given tube. When the different tubes of the same type
have large variations in constants, the self-balancing phase inverter of
Fig. 25 is desirable. The value of R is not critical and may range from
0.1 to 0.5 of the Frid resistors in the output stage.
23. Degenerative Feedback in Amplifiers. Controlled degenerative
feedback is applied to a-f amplifiers for the purpose of improving their
frequency characteristics, reducing wave-form distortion and phase
shift, and increasing the stability. In the simplest case a voltage derived
from the output of the amplifier is fed back so that it is effectively in
series with the input or the grid circuit. Figure 26 illustrates degenera-
tive feedback in its simplest form. For this simple circuit the gene ral
expression for the gain of the amplifier is
E° A°
Gain = m (28)
Ei 1 - A,ß
where A° is the vector voltage amplification without feedback or is
equal to E° /E, and has a negative real value, and ß = R /(RI + R)
when 1/(0C < < RI. A,.ß is called the feed-
back factor. The performance of the ampli-
fier as to reduction of distortion, stability,
etc., depends largely on the magnitude of
That feedback improves stability is shown
by the following example: In the amplifier
circuit shown Ar has a negative numerical
value. Hence the gain = IA ,I1(1 + IA ,10). Fla. 26. -A simple amplifier
Now assume 1A,ßß = 2. The gain of the with degenerative feedback.
amplifier is equal to IA rl /3. Suppose, owing
to a change in d -c operating conditions or the substitution of another
tube of the same type, IA ri is increased by 20 per cent. This will result
in a 6.5 per cent increase in the gain of the amplifier. Greater values
for iA,lß will produce less change in gain of the amplifier. When A
large compared to 1, the gain of the amplifier is equal to -1 /ß
and is entirely independent of the voltage gain of the tube.
Feedback also reduces wave -form distortion which is due to the non-
linear characteristics of the tube.
Distortion output (with feedback) - distortion without feedback
1 - A°ß (29)
when the output voltage E0 is kept the same with and without feedback.
Feedback is applied to different
Rf C types of amplifiers and over one
or more stages of an amplifier. In
any case the equations are of the
same forms as Eqs. (28) and (29),
where Ar is the vector voltage am-
plification that the portion of the
amplifier controlled by feedback
would have without feedback and
ß is the vector ratio of the feedback
Fia. 27. -A two-stage amplifier with voltage to the voltage which exists
at the higher level point at which
multiple degenerative feedback.
A, is reckoned. Feedback must
be so arranged that A,,ß has a negative real value over the use-
ful frequency range of the amplifier and a value less than 1 for
all other frequencies when it cannot he made negative. When the feed-
back becomes regenerative or the real value of A,ß is positive although
not sufficient to cause sustained oscillations, the gain versus frequency
characteristics, the distortion output, and the stability of the amplifier
will in general he worse than it is with no feedback.
The many ways of applying simple and multiple feedback in amplifiers

are too numerous to illustrate here. Figure 27 shows one of such circuits
for a multistage amplifier. For more methods the reader is referred to
the reference below.,
24. Power Supply to Tubes of an Amplifier. The design of the power
supply is not included here. Only the things pertinent to the operation
of the amplifier are given here.
Filament -power supply whether a.c. or d.c. should have good regula-
tion. When using a.c., the leads should be low in resistance and twisted
to avoid setting up disturbing magnetic fields.
For the B supply the importance of regulation depends upon the
class of the amplifier, the class B type requiring the best regulation.
It is important that the internal impedance of the supply, such as a
rectifier, be small at the lowest a.f. as compared to the load impedance,
particularly if the load impedance is somewhat inductive.
When using a common rectifier and also low capacity batteries for the
B supply of a multistage amplifier,
n Ih. Tube feedback will result unless means are
taken to eliminate it. This feedback
effect comes from a voltage set up
largely by th plate current of the out-
put tube flowing through the imped-
ance of the B supply which is common
to the plate circuits of the first stages
28.- Diagram illustrating of the amplifier. The feedback circuit
common impedance coupling be- is illustrated by Fig. 28. Z» represents
tween output stage and nth the impedance of the B supply which
stage from output. is common to all stages of the ampli-
fier. A is the ratio of the plate voltage of the output tube to the plate
voltage of the nth tube from the output end. Z,n is the impedance
offered to the nth tube, and rpn and µn are the constants of the nth tube.
Then the over-all voltage gain of the amplifier is
µZ
Voltage gain of entire amplifier - rs" + Z,, A (30)
1 - Zm(r,,n
Z, Ar,,,,
+ Znn)
The quantity ZnnA /(rn + Zon) is the voltage gain when the common
impedance coupling is zero. Hence feedback from common impedance
coupling changes the gain and will cause sustained oscillations when the
quantity
Z,Arpn
Z,n)
-
The effect of common impedance coupling can be reduced and prac-
tically eliminated by the use of simple circuits of resistance, or inductive
impedance, in series and capacitance in shunt with the plate supply
to each tube, as shown in Fig. 29. These are called decoupling circuits,
and the decoupling elements are Cd, Cd,, Rdi, and Ras. The reactances
of the decoupling condensers should be small compared to the decoupling
impedances at the lowest frequency for which the amplifier is designed.
TERMAN. "Radio Engineering," 2d ed., Sec. 52, p. 248.
Sec. 11l A 1 'MO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 389
Then letting
1
a==
. .
(1,
, m
D, = and D2 =
the input tube of the amplifier of Fig. 29 will be decoupled by a factor

D = D,D2, and the expression for the gain of the amplifier will be
E gain with no common impedance coupling
E2 Z, A Dry
Zoo (r, + Zo )
where A is the gain between the plate of input tube and plate of output
tube. Hence, in order substantially to eliminate the trouble from com-
mon impedance coupling, it is necessary to make AD(r
small compared to 1.
Zo Z
This is usually accomplished quite well by making
+
ze
4
Zdz Zd/
FIG. 29. -The use of decoupling circuits in a three-stage amplifier.
D = 1 /A. In the circuit shown, the middle tube is decoupled from both
the output and input tube. This may not be necessary, but a two-section
decoupling circuit is much more effective than a single decoupling section
having Ce = Ca2 + Ca, and Za = Z.,2 + Ze,. For a filtered rectifier
plate supply the common impedance Z, is the reactance of the output
filter condenser. Some decoupling can be accomplished by connecting
the individual stages of the amplifier across different points of the
rectifier filter.
Self -bias resistors must be by-passed by condensers that have react-
ances (at the lowest frequency to be amplified) small compared to the
resistors, or otherwise degeneration will result and the gain of the stage
will be reduced at the lowest frequencies.
26. Direct -coupled Amplifiers. Under this classification are included
all types of amplifiers in which the grid of one tube is connected to the
plate of the preceding tube in such a manner that changes in d -c potential
on the grid of the input tube will be amplified through the system.
There are two important applications of such amplifiers. One applica-
tion is an amplifying system for d-c purposes. The other application is
an amplifier for a-c purposes when phase distortion at low frequencies
is a consideration. It is difficult to obtain much amplification at low
frequencies without phase distortion by the usual types of a-c amplifiers.
Direct-coupled amplifiers have high-frequency characteristics like
a well-designed resistance- capacitance coupled amplifier. The tube
390 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec.11
capacitances shunt the coupling resistor and cause the amplification

to decrease with increase in frequency above the frequency at which
the effective shunt -capacitance susceptance is about three times the
combined conductance of the coupling resistor and plate conductance.
The one common fault with many of the direct-coupled amplifiers
when used for d -c work is instability. Small changes in the filament -,
plate -, and grid -supply voltages cause false results in the output device.
For amplifying low -frequency a.c. this particular characteristic is not
so objectionable. Another common objection is the nature of the plate-
and filament-supply voltages that
are required.
The types of direct- coupled am-
plifiers that have been proposed
are too numerous to discuss here.
One type which seems to be free
of some of the had features enu-
merated above is a push -pull ar-
rangement of tubes. This type
possesses several advantages over
FIG. 30.- Direct- coupled ordinary single- tube -per -stage
push -pull am-
plifier. types. A two-stage push -pull
type is shown in Fig. 30. For a
balanced system, changes in plate current due to changes in the
plate-supply voltage or to variation in cathode temperature are not
amplified through the system. For balanced-output tubes there is
no d-c component in the output device when no voltage is applied to
the input. The output of the amplifier can be adapted to a high-
impedance device such as the cathode -ray oscillograph or to a low -
impedance device such as a milliammeter or the Duddell oscillograph.
With the advent of twin tubes that have comparatively high transcon-
ductances, the push-pull arrangement becomes quite feasible. The
main objection to push-pull input is that
a device of high impedance must have
balanced capacitances between its terrai
nais and ground if the system is used at
very high frequencies.
The direct -coupled amplifier of Fig. 30
can be converted to a single -ended input
by placing a resistor in series with the C
be' ttery of the input stage and connecting
Flo. 31.- Direct -coupled
the plate of the upper tube through a re- amplifier with phase inverter
sistor to the grid return end of the upper for single -ended input.
tube. This provides the voltage for the
grid of the phase- inverter tube. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 31.
This also introduces feedback into the upper tube and thereby increases its
stability and reduces the distortion. Feedback can also be incorporated
in the output tubes by placing resistors in the cathode circuits and adjust-
ing the gnd battery to give the proper operating grid potentials.
26. High -gain Amplifiers. Ingenious methods such as the one
proposed by Schmitt) for obtaining practically the maximum possible
voltage amplification from a high -mu pentode such as the 57 have
I Scesnrr, Orro H. A., A Method of Realizing the Full Amplification Factor of
High -mu Tubes, Rev. Sci. Inst., December, 1933.
merit. The d-c plate potential is supplied to the pentode through a

similar pentode which acts as a very high a-c impedance. The arrange-
ment is shown in Fig. 32. The full gain of the tube is obtained only
by a load of very high impedance.
27. Dynamic- coupled Amplifier.' A dynamic- coupled amplifier is one
in which two tubes are coupled together as shown in Fig. 33. In this
arrangement the input tube operates with negative grid bias, whereas
the output tube operates with positive grid bias and therefore draws
grid current. This grid current becomes the plate current of the input
tube, or the input impedance of
the output tube becomes the load
Input
Output ' impedance of the input tube.
Moreover the load impedance of
the input is all connected between
111111 l 'Ti
Fia. 32.- Direct -coupled high-gain am- Fio. 33. -The dynamic- coupled
plifier of Schmitt. amplifier.
the cathode and grid return. Hence the input tube has degenerative
feedback, and its output voltage E °o (which is also the input voltage to
the output tube) is
Rio
E°° n
+ R;°
1
rp.(1
+v;)
where g; and rn; = amplification factor and plate resistance of the input
tube
input resistance of the output tube.
Rio =
This scheme of coupling gives satisfactory results only when rn; and R;o
depend upon E°; and Ego, respectively, in such a way that R;o /rp; is
substantially constant over a complete cycle of E i. The output power
of the system depends upon E°o and the output tube and load. Because
the output tube is operating with the grid positive, the characteristics
and load conditions for a triode are similar to those of a pentode instead
of a triode with negative bias.
Usually the grid of the output should be connected through a resistor
to the cathode in order to prevent high transient voltages during the
warming -up period.
28. Frequency- response Control and Equalization in Amplifier Sys-
tems. By the use of certain expedients it is possible to design multi-
stage amplifiers which will work with certain kinds of input and output
devices and give over -all frequency- response characteristics of a desired
type. Much can be done along this line when phase distortion is not a
consideration. It may not always be desirable that the entire amplifier
i STROMEYER. C., General Theory and Application of Dynamic Coupling in Power
Tube Design, Proc. I.R.E., 1007, July, 1936.
or each stage thereof have a response which is constant over the entire
frequency band which is transmitted between the source and the load.
One or more stages of transformer coupling of proper design can be used
to accentuate the gain at the high frequencies. This can be done by
making the Q, factors of the transformers large and their resonant fre-
quencies fall in the proper range. Other methods of accentuating the
gain at the high frequencies can he accomplished by lowering the gain at
the low frequencies. Shunting a portion of the plate resistor in a resist-
ance -capacitance coupled amplifier with inductance will lower the gain
at the low frequencies. The gain of an amplifier at the l -f end of the
range can be accentuated by the use of one or more stages of the double-
impedance coupling which is described in Art. 10. Condensers shunted
across a portion the plate- coupling resistors in a resistance-capacitance
coupled amplifier will result in higher gain at the high frequencies than
at the low frequencies.
With most of the standard coupling methods, such as transformer,
resistance-capacitance, and impedance-capacitance coupling, it is not so
easy to control the gain at the medium frequencies without effect on
the gain at the low or high frequencies. In other words the medium -
frequency gain can be made greater or less than the gain at the low and
high frequencies only by designing for lower or higher gain at low and
high frequencies. A series circuit of resistance, inductance, and capaci-
tance connected between the grid and cathode of one or more stages
can be used to lower the gain over a small range of frequencies in the
medium-frequency range. For such an arrangement the reduction in
gain at the resonant frequency of the circuit depends upon the resistance
of the circuit, and the band of frequencies over which the gain is reduced
will depend largely upon the total effective resistance which includes the
plate resistance of the tube immediately preceding the series circuit.
Variable gain control for the high frequencies, which is commonly
known as tone control, is accomplished in its simplest manner by the use
of a variable resistor and a fixed capacitance in series, both of which are
placed in shunt with the coupling element of one stage of the amplifier.
In a similar manner a variable resistor and a fixed inductance in series
will serve as a gain control for the lower frequencies.
There are so many combinations of methods which may be employed
to give frequency-response equalization in amplifier systems and to give
any desired frequency response that it is impossible to cover all of them.
Among these are the use of low -pass, high-pass, and band -pass filter cir-
cuits which are treated in another section of this handbook.
TESTING AND MEASUREMENTS
29. Frequency- response Measurements. A universal arrangement
of equipment for making gain, or loss, measurements over a range
of frequencies is shown in Fig. 34. The method is simply one of measur-
ing the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage. A calibrated
potential divider or two calibrated resistors R, and R2, so arranged
that R, plus R2 is constant, facilitates in making these measurements.
For making gain measurements, S, is thrown in the position indicated
by the full lines; for loss measurements in the dotted -line position.
When the divider is so adjusted that the reading of the vacuum-tube
voltmeter is the same for the two positions of S2,
Sec. 11J AUDIO -FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 393
Gain, or loss, in db = 20 logo R, + R:

R:
For the full-line position of S, the resistance R: must always be small
compared to the input impedance of the equipment under test plus R,.
To get the true gain, or loss, characteristic of a piece of equipment as
it is actually used, it must be terminated as used and the termination
included in the test. For exam-
ple R. and R. represent the input
and output resistance of the am-
plifier under test. These may
also be any kind of impedances.
When testing an input or inter-
stage transformer it should be
terminated in the tubes for which
it is intended. Care must also
be taken to limit the voltage ap- Fta. 34.- Method for making frequency-
plied to the equipment to the response measurements.
proper value.
30. Measuring Distortion in Amplifiers. The simplest method for
measuring the total harmonic distortion in the voltage across the output
impedance in a power amplifier is shown in Fig. 35. For a given voltage
impressed upon the grid of the amplifier, the vacuum-tube voltmeter
is made to read a minimum by adjusting slide C of R: and the mutual
inductance M. Then the reading of V.T.M. is a measure of the square
root of sums of the squares of all the harmonic voltages across R,.
Mutual inductance M provides for a phase shift from 180 deg. through
the amplifier tube. The vacuum-tube voltmeter must he as nearly
an r-iii-s meter as possible. The
source should be reasonably free
S from harmonics. Switch S pro-
vides for measuring the total a-c
voltage across R. when V.T.M.
has a multiplier to extend its
range. A vacuum-tube voltme-
nf ter, using a type 56 or 76 tube
and operated over a region in
which the square root of the plate
current plotted against grid volt-
Flu. 35.-Circuit for measuring distor- age is nearly a straight line,
tion. makes an excellent meter for this
purpose.
When it is desired to know the separate harmonics in the output
impedance, a voltage having a frequency nf almost equal to the harmonic
sought may be introduced into the connection up to contact d, as illus-
trated. The voltage of nf will be equal to the particular harmonic
voltage when the swing of the needle of V.T.M. is a maximum. The
measurements may be carried out by means of a laboratory oscillator
for nf and some filtering for the voltage obtained from the 60 -cycle
lighting circuit for f.
For the more refined measurements of distortion there are various
types of wave analyzers on the market. These have a wider range of
application than the simple method described above.
31. Measuring the Impedances of a Transformer and an Iron -core

Reactance.' One of the simplest methods for measuring the impedance
of an iron-core reactance at low frequencies and preferably the power
frequency of 60 cycles is illustrated in Fig. 36. The circuit is arranged,
when necessary, so that d.c. can be sent through the iron-core coil.
When R. is so adjusted that the reading of the vacuum-tube voltmeter
is the same for both positions, a and
b of switch S, the absolute value of
the impedance Z. is equal to R., pro-
vided R. is at least 20 times R. The
error is less than 5 per cent. Oftentimes
it is necessary to use an amplifier ahead
of the vacuum-tube voltmeter. It is
essential that the vacuum -tube voltmeter
or amplifier be connected as shown, or
Fia. 36.-Circuit for measur- false readings may result if the meter
ing the impedance of iron -core places too much stray shunt capacitance
coils. across L.
The method of Fig. 36 may be used for measuring the impedances
of the primary and secondary of a transformer. It is not possible,
of course, to obtain the resistance and reactance separately by this
method. Methods that place the standard resistance R. in series with
Z. and require balancing the voltage drop across R. against that across
Z. for the same current are objectionable except for quite low values
of impedance. By such a method the d.c. through and a-c potential
across Z. are disturbed while adjusting R..
It is not generally safe to use the method described to measure the
leakage inductance of a transformer. Leakage inductance is measured
by shorting the secondary and measuring the impedance of the primary.
Generally this measurement requires an inductance bridge because of
the high value of R compared with X.
i See also Art. 29, Sec. ?.
SECTION 12
RADIO -FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS
B1 R. S. GLASGOW, M. S.1
1. Class A Amplifier. Amplifiers are divided into three general
classes, A, B, and C, depending on the type of service in which they are
to be used.
A class A amplifier is one which operates so that the plate output
wave shapes of current are practically the same as those of the exciting
grid voltage.
This is accomplished by operating the tube with sufficient negative
grid bias so that some plate current flows at all times and by applying
an alternating excitation voltage to the grid of such value that the
dynamic operating characteristic is essentially linear. The grid must
not go positive on excitation peaks, and the plate current must not fall
low enough at its minimum to cause distortion due to curvature of the
characteristic.
The characteristics of class A operation are freedom from distortion
and relatively low power output. Practically all a -f amplifiers are oper-
ated in this manner. Radio-frequency amplifiers of the type used in
receiving sets to amplify the signal voltage prior to detection are also
of this class.
Class B and C amplifiers will be discussed under Power Amplifiers.
2. Radio-frequency amplifiers for receiving sets are usually classified
as to the type of coupling employed between stages. This coupling
means can be a resistance, an impedance, a transformer, or any combina-
tion of these elements. The circuit constants of the coupling means
may be adjustable or fixed, giving rise to a further classification of a
tuned or an untuned amplifier. In the latter the circuits are similar to
those employed for a-f amplifiers. Special precautions must be taken
in the circuit design if uniform amplification is to be obtained over an
extended range of frequencies.
3. Resistance -coupled Amplifier. This type of amplifier is occasion-
ally used where uniform amplification is desired over a moderate band
in the lowest range of radio frequencies. In Fig. 1 the output voltage
E2 is given by
Er (1)
r,, + Rb E,
r
where and are, respectively, the amplification factor and plate resist-
ance of the tube used. Defining the voltage amplification per stage A
as the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage, we have
Es
-
E, -
µRe
r,, + Re
(2)
Professor of Electrical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louie.

395
As R,, is made very large compared to r, the value A approaches as a

limit, so that tubes having a large value of are necessary if reasonably
high gain per stage is desired. Equation (2) presumes that the input
impedance of the next stage which is shunted across R,, is enormously
large, so that R,, is not appreciably reduced as a result of being shunted
by this input impedance.
In a typical cascade amplifier as shown in Fig. 2, R,, is in effect shunted
by the grid leak R, in parallel with C,, the input capacity of the tube.
The reactance of the blocking condenser C, in series with them is neg-
ligibly small in comparison. For frequencies lower than 500 kc, with a
11111111 . +
Lb ÉLb
FIG. 1.- Resistance- 2.-Resistance- capacity coupled
coupled amplifier. cascade amplifier.
Pure resistance in its plate circuit, C, m ay be regarded as constant and
independent of the frequency, and i s given by
µ+Rn
C, =C9I +Car \1 +r, R,, (3)
where C,I = capacity between grid and filament
C,, = capacity between grid and plate.
These interelectrode capacities will be from 4 to 10 µµf depending on the
type of tube and socket used; hence C, may lie anywhere from 40 to 80 µµf.
Thus at 1,000 cycles the input impedance of the tube alone will be about
3 megohms, while at 100 kc it has dropped to about 30,000 ohms. As
a result the gain per stage diminishes as the frequency increases due to the
reduction of the effective value of R,, by the short-circuitin' effect of C,.
The voltage amplification in Fig. 2 will be E2 /E,, where
E,
E2 - + R, + .1wC,r, (4)
1 + r,RbRnR,
This expression assumes that the reactance of the blocking condenser C,
is negligible at these frequencies.
4. Resistance- coupled Amplifier Using Pentodes. The constants of
available triodes render them very unsatisfactory in resistance- coupled
r -f amplifiers, and suitable pentodes are accordingly used. These tubes
have an input capacity which is substantially independent of the load
impedance in the plate circuit and is composed of C,I plus the capacity
between the control grid and the screen grid. Accordingly a much
smaller value of Cq can be obtained than with a triode. The value of
a megohm, which is far
r, in r-f pentodes is usually in the vicinity ofcan
greater than the plate -load impedance which be successfully used.
See. ill RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 397
Consequently the alternating component of the plate current i is prac-

tically independent of the load in the plate circuit and is given fey
in = 9,E, (5)
where $. = transconductance of the tube.
In Fig. 3, R is the equivalent resistance of the load in the plate circuit'
and C is the total capacity shunted across the load, consisting of the
input capacity C, of the subsequent stage,
plus the output capacity of the first tube,
plus the stray capacity of leads, etc., to
ground. The expression for the voltage
amplification will be
A =
9"R- (6)
1/w2C'R' + 1
Eb
When the frequency is such that Fto. 3.-Resistance-coupled
R = 1 /wC pentode amplifier.
the denominator of Eq. (6) will he numerically equal to and the
amplification will have fallen to 70.7 per cent of its l -f value, or a reduction
0,
of 3 db. The frequency at this point is
1
f° (7)
2wRC
and is a convenient relationship for design purposes, as it establishes
the maximum frequency the amplifier will transmit without serious loss
of gain. It corresponds to the cutoff frequency of a low -pass filter.
This upper limiting frequency may be extended by using a low value
of resistance in the plate circuit so that the reactance of C is large in
comparison to R. However, this will reduce the amplification over the
entire frequency range. In practice, if f, is to he 1 or 2 Mc, R will per-
haps be 2,000 ohms or less, as it is difficult to secure a value of C much
less than about 25 µµf. Consequently a gain per stage of from 5 to 20
is about all that can be secured, using pentodes having a transconduct-
ance of 9,000 micromhos, such as types 1851 and 1852.
Combining Eqs. (6) and (7) the voltage amplification can also be
expressed as
A = s7
"R (8)
1 +f
IS. Compensated Resistance- coupled Amplifiers. From Eq. (8) it is
seen that the gain gradually falls off as fo is approached, which may
be undesirable, particularly in video -frequency amplifiers for television.
One method of diminishing the shunting effect of the load- circuit capacity
C is to place an inductance L of proper size in series with the plate -circuit
The value of this resistance is R . R+

Rn
but in practice R, is usually very much
larger than Rn. so that the value of plate-load resistance Re may be substituted for R in
most cases.
load resistance R, as shown in Fig. 4. At low frequencies the reactance

of L is small, and the load impedance is essentially equal to R. But
as the frequency increases, the impedance
of the branch R + jwL becomes progres-
sively greater, thus tending to offset the
shunting effect of C.
Ep The plate -load impedance is given by
Zb -
R +7wIL C(R' +w'L')1 -
w'C:Ri + (w'LC 1)' -
(9 )
Eb and it may be shown that, by making the

Fla. 4.- Compensated resist- reactance of the coil L equal to half the load
ance- coupled amplifier. resistance R at the limiting frequency fo, Za
will substantially be constant in magnitude
and equal to R. The gain will be approximately p,R up to a frequency of fo.
The required relations are
R a 1
(10)
2ajoC - 4A ol,
Substituting Eq. (10) in Eq. (9), the load impedance becomes
r a
RI 1 -7( fo' +2jo
Zc a +\(2f= 1\x
(j`!
The accurate expression for the voltage amplification per stage is then
p.RNI1 + (4
A (12)
_ + (21' - 1>=
Using the circuit constants mentioned at the end of Art. 4, L will be in

the vicinity of 25 µh. Additional compensation methods are described in the
reference below.,
6. Impedance -coupled Amplifier. The simplest amplifier of this type
merely employs a choke coil in the plate circuit as shown in Fig. 5. The
voltage amplification per stage in the case of a triode is given by
Es v1VRb' + w'LW' (13)
E, 1/(r5 + Re)' + w'Lb'
where Re and Lb are, respectively, the resistance and inductance (in
henrys) of the choke coil. If the resistance of the coil is small compared
to its reactance wLb and to the plate resistance r,,, Eq. (13) becomes
µwLb
1/r,' + w'Le'
SEELET and KI.PALL, Analysis and Design of Video Amplifiers. RCA Rev., pp. 290-
308, January. 1939.
Sec. 121 RADIO -FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER, 399
If 0,Lb is very large compared to r,,, A approaches p of the tube as a limit-

ing value, as was the case with the resistance-coupled amplifier. By
choosing Lb large enough so that the reactance of the coil is large compared
to the plate resistance of the tube at the lowest frequency we are inter-
ested in, the gain will be constant for all higher values of frequency.
Owing to distributed capacity effects and the shunting of the coil by the
input capacity of the next tube, it is not possible to
obtain uniform amplification as predicted above
except at low frequencies. For high frequencies
such as the present broadcast band the effect of this
capacity is to produce a parallel resonant circuit E E2
whose impedance is high at the resonant frequency
but which drops off rapidly for frequencies higher ItUF
than resonance. This results in a reduction of the Fio. 5.-Imped-
gain for frequencies above resonance. To avoid fier. ance-coupled ampli-
this, it becomes necessary to use a value of choke -
coil inductance such that resonance occurs somewhat below the highest
frequency to be amplified. This value of inductance is governed chiefly
by the input capacity of the next tube which may he of the order of 10
to 20 µµf, depending on the type of tube used and the nature of the load
in its plate circuit. For this reason there is little to be gained by reducing
the distributed capacity of the coil if it is already small compared to the
tube input capacity. At broadcast frequencies the value of inductance
thus obtained results in too low a reactance to give good amplification
for frequencies much below resonance.
có
6
5 _A= ,3/t
I
p-17,AOIDakms
é
<
t2
3
4
0
Pc
Je\
ihtorofical
,
1,
f"6.!
600
NO 400 500 600 100 800 900 1000 1100 1200 BOOHOO
Kilocycles
Flo. 6.-Amplification of a choke -coupled amplifier tube.

This is illustrated in Fig. 6. The coil used was a single layer solenoid
closely wound with 173 turns of No. 28 wire having an inductance of
1.63 X 10-s henry and about 10 ohms d -c resistance. The distributed
capacity of the coil was 3.5 µµf. The curve shows the measured ampli-
fication' using a Western Electric 215-A "peanut" tube which had an
amplification factor of 6.1 and a plate resistance of 22,000 ohms. The
input capacity of the vacuum -tube voltmeter which used a tube of the
same type was 18 µµf, including leads, which lowered the natural period
of the choke coil to 850 kc. The lower curve shows the theoretical
amplification that would be obtained if these shunting capacities were
absent.
Funs and Jarrow, Bell System Tech. lour., 8, 187, April, 1924.
7. Tuned Impedance- coupled Amplifier. Since the coil in the plate

circuit will be shunted by some capacity which will cause the combina-
tion to have a resonant frequency at which the amplification will be a
maximum, the circuit of Fig. 7 is sometimes used in receiving circuits.
This form of circuit, with various modifications in the details, is com-
monly used as the coupling means between amplifier stages in radio
transmitting circuits. The condenser C is not usually variable, except
in low -power transmitters, and tuning
is accomplished by varying the position
of adjust-
ment of inductance is provided the
form of a heavy copper or aluminum
disk which acts as a short -circuited
secondary of a single turn and which can
be rotated within the coil. By rotating
the plane of this disk, a fine adjustment
of inductance is obtained for tuning pur-
poses. The position of the taps should
E6+
b be chosen so that the plane of the disk
Fw. 7. -Tuned impedance- is displaced nearly 90 deg., at resonance,
coupled amplifier. from that of the coil, so as to minimize
the I'R loss in the disk.
In receiving circuits, particularly where space may be at a premium, a
fixed condenser may be used for C, tuning being accomplished by adjust-
ing the position of a suitable cylindrical core of molded iron dust which
is arranged so that it can he moved in and out of the coil.' Improve-
ments in the quality of these iron -dust cores in recent years enables them
to be used to advantage at much higher frequencies. Values of Q
(= wL/R) in the vicinity of 100 can be obtained in the broadcast range
of frequencies, using a coil diameter of about in. and a length of about
1 in. This method, known as permeability tuning, has been used in
connection with push -button tuning, particularly in automotive receiving
sets.
The voltage amplification of the circuit in Fig. 7 at any frequency is
given by
A = É, = g"Z, (15)
where 7,,, is given in vector form by Eq. (9). Transforming Eq (9) into its
scalar magnitude, Eq. (15) becomes
R' + w'L' w'L'C' + Q2)
o "yrco'C'R' + 1)' g'"
(m'LC + Q'(w'LC 1') (16)
At resonance the voltage amplification will be

R' + w'L' g.,wL 1 + Q'
A = g" R = (17)
8. Tuned Transformer- coupled Amplifiers. A typical tuned trans-

former-coupled amplifier is shown in Fig. 8. Receiving sets of the
PoLruoaorr, W. J.. Ferro-inductors and Permeability Tuning. Proe. I.R.E., p. 690.
May. 1933.
Sec. 121 RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 401
t -r-f type are seldom used today as the great majority now use the
superheterodyne circuit. However, most of the better receivers of
the latter type employ a stage of t.r.f. ahead
of the first detector. In its original form,
which is still used to some extent in some of
the short -wave bands of an all -wave re-
ceiver, the primary coil L, in Fig. 8 was of
lower inductance than the secondary. The E
secondary inductance for a frequency range LP " CZ
E2
of 1,600 to 550 kc. is ordinarily from 200 to 11111111
250 µh. Fio. S. -Tuned transformer-
Since the resistance R, and the reactance wL, coupled amplifier.
of the primary can be neglected in comparison
to the plate resistance r, of the tube, the voltage E2 across the secondary at
any frequency is
E: - -JEµM (18)
L
+wz f2 +Jr,(wL.
``
- w4-,2)]
At resonance, where wL, = 1 /wC2, the voltage amplification becomes
E, pwz,llL.
A
- E1 - r,R. + OM' (19)
If the mutual inductance M in Eq. (19) is adjusted to satisfy the condition

wM (20)
the optimum value of voltage amplification will be obtained and Eq. (9)
reduces to
µwL.
(21)
2 v,R.
which is the maximum amplification it is possible to obtain with a given tube
and coil.
When M is adjusted to its optimum value, it will be noted that the figure of
merit of the tube is p/ VT,. Therefore if two tubes have equal values of
transconductance, the one having the higher amplification factor will give
the greater gain. Tetrodes and pentodes will accordingly produce a greater
gain than a triode. With M less than optimum the gain becomes more nearly
proportional to the transconductance of the tube. When optimum coupling
is employed, the amplification is directly proportional to the ratio of the
coil reactance to the square root of its resistance, instead of Q. of the coil.
With values of M considerably less than optimum, as when pentodes are used,
the gain becomes more nearly proportional to the figure of merit Q. of the coil.
The impedance looking into the primary coil in Fig. 7 is
Z,' OM'
-R,+JwLv+ (22)
R. + Jl wL. - 44-.2)
At resonance, with optimum coupling, Z,' = r, of the tube. This condition
differs from the resistance- and impedance- coupled amplifiers in that, in the
latter two, optimum amplification is approached by making the impedance
of the load very large compared to r,.
If a pentode is used in the circuit of Fig. 8, the above equations are still
applicable. Since these tubes have plate resistances r, approaching a megohm
in value and amplification factors varying from several hundred to several
thousand, the coupling that can be used between primary and secondary
without causing instability in the form of oscillations is far below the optimum
value. The preceding equations can therefore be simplified. Since ro
in the case of a pentode, the expression for the secondary voltage in Eq. (18)
wM »
becomes
E2
jElO.,M (23)
C: R. + j( wL. 44,2)]
``
and the voltage amplification at resonance is

A= (24)
These tubes enable values of amplification per stage to be obtained
which are much larger than can be obtained with triodes. With a given
M1,4-
l>S\
1.0
0.9
0.6
'_MMII__
M_IIIII.IMM_...
ó 0.7
Mr/11Mi
3 a6
é
0.5
04
03
0.2
0.1
_I__`
5`_`` 1,504
M25ph m each cote

o 1111 1111 I111 1111 1111 1111
15 10 5 0 5 W 15
Kilocycles off Resonance

Fio. 9.- Selectivity as a function of frequency.
secondary coil the selectivity in the case of a pentode is better than with
a triode; or for equal selectivities the pentode circuit can use a smaller
and less expensive coil. These advantages, together with their freedom
from oscillation without the use of neutralizing circuits, have caused
triodes to be virtually abandoned in the field of r-f amplifiers for receiving
circuits. Triodes are still used in the higher power amplifier stages of
radio transmitters.
9. Variations in Selectivity. The type of t -r -f transformer considered
in Art. 8, which had a primary inductance smaller than that of the
secondary, causes an appreciable variation in selectivity over the tuning
range, as shown in Fig. 9. The amount of gain also tends to fall at the
l -f end of the tuning range. Both of these difficulties can be reduced
by the use of a primary coil of large inductance -about 3 or 4 mh.
This value of La, in conjunction with its distributed capacity, combined
with the output capacity of the tube, resonates the primary circuit to a
frequency somewhat below the l -f tuning limit of the secondary. The
electrical circuit is the same as Fig. 13 with the primary permanently
Sec. 121 RADIO- FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 403
tuned to a fixed low frequency. The variation in selectivity of a tuned

transformer having a large primary is shown in Fig. 10. The variation
in gain throughout the tuning is also much less than with the transformer
of Fig. 9.
The expression for the voltage amplification is
A - µnt (25)
Cts/a' + bi
- m'L1C1)] - rr(Ll - rnR1C1)(mL: - C=
where a = R:[R1
b = ail :(L1
+ rn(1
+ rpR1C1) + + rv(1
`
- =L1C1)1(o/Ls - C=/
m1l
[R1
+ 0.01112C 1r
From a practical point of view it is evident from the complexities of
this expression that it would be much easier to determine the character-
0.9
AIL
0.13
c
o 0.1
0.6
,_ -;_
r
0* I
á
>
0.4 `11IW,
0.3
á 02
0.1
o60
50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 6(
Kilocycles off Resonance
Fla. 10.-Variation in selectivity in t -r -f amplifier having high- inductance
primary.
istics of these transformers experimentally by laboratory measurements.
The variation of the resistances with frequency will have to he measured
in any event, so one might just as well determine the over -all performance
by measurement. In this way the effects of regeneration, stray couplings,
the proximity of shielding, etc., may be included. The presence of
small amounts of feedback, if not sufficient to produce oscillations, will
often cause the actual gain of an amplifier to depart from its computed
value by a considerable amount.
The use of a primary operated above its resonant frequency results
in a plate -load impedance which has capacitive reactance. A load of
this nature results in negative feedback in the case of triodes, so that
neutralizing circuits have to be employed to prevent the gain from being
reduced to a fraction of its theoretical value. Ordinarily, these circuits
are used to balance out the effects of positive feedback and prevent
oscillation. Pentodes are free from these troubles.
10. Combinations of Inductive and Capacitive Coupling. To secure

better performance in tuned amplifiers without resorting to moving
parts other than the tuning condensers, combinations of inductive and
capacitive coupling between stages have been used.' By a proper
choice of circuit elements it is possible to make the effective coupling
vary with the frequency in a predetermined manner. In this way
the variation of gam with frequency can be given almost any desired
characteristic.
Two examples of such circuits are shown in Fig. 11. In Fig. lia the
coil Lb has a large value of inductance; hence its distributed capacitance
CI, ugmented by Cpl of the tube, resonates it to a frequency somewhat
below the tuning range of the set. The output current of the tube
divides between 1.4 and the path through the coupling condenser C..
At low frequencies a larger portion of the output current flows through
this second path because of the high impedance offered by Lb as parallel
(a) (b)
Fia. 11. -Tuned amplifiers using combinations of inductive and capacitive
coupling.
resonance is approached in the latter. This causes the voltage induced
in Li to remain more nearly constant over the tuning range.
The circuit of Fig. lib accomplishes the same results in a somewhat
different manner. The coil Lb and condenser C,, merely serve as choke
coil and blocking condenser of an amplifier using parallel feed. The
amplified output current divides between CI and C, and then recombines
to flow through the primary Lt of the autotransformer.. The capacity
of the tuning condenser C2 is increased as the signal frequency is lowered,
which causes a progressive increase in the effective coupling. CI is
about twenty times larger than the maximum value of Cs, while Li
includes about a turn or two of the coil L2.
11. Cascade Amplifiers. If two or more identical stases of amplifica-
tion are connected in cascade, the over -all voltage amplification is given
by
A = As (26)
where n = number of stages
A = amplification per stage.
This expression presumes that the various stages do not react on each
other, which is not always the case in practice owing to small unavoidable
couplings between input and output circuits. If the various stages are
not all identical, the over -all amplification will be the product of the
individual values of A per stage. The response curve of a multistage
amplifier composed of identical stages is readily obtained from the curve
of an individual stage by raising its ordinates to the nth power, where n
is the number of stages.
I WHEELER, H. A., and W. A. MCDONALD, Theory and Operation
of Tuned Radio -
frequency Coupling Systems, Proc. I.R.E., 19, 738, May, 1931.
Sec. 121 RADIO -FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 405
The use of several stages of cascade tuned r -f amplification enables

both the selectivity and fidelity of the amplifier to be increased, provided
the tuning of each stage is made broader as the number of stages is
increased. This is illustrated in Fig. 12, both amplifier circuits being
alike except for the values of mutual inductance between the primary
and secondary of the t -r-f transformers. The necessity for broader
tuning per stage in multistage amplifiers in order to avoid too great a
sacrifice in fidelity permits the use of coils of rather compact dimensions
wound with relatively small wire. The increased coil resistance thus
produced will reduce the gain per stage, but this can be offset if necessary
by increasing the mutual inductance to more nearly the optimum value.
At frequencies sufficiently remote from resonance so that the gain per
stage becomes less than unity, a cascade amplifier acts as an attenuator
of the signal. An increase in the number of stages will therefore actually
1.0
0.9
/Ik -I 4tqa, M-70
-_-_
ae
S 07
i6e5 06
04
03
,-_
.W\7=1
/__MEM
,:,.., .
-
lS,bqe, M-1S h
a° 0.2
0.1
o till tittiittt till
835 840 845 850 855
1111 1111
660 865
Kilocycles
12.- Increase in selectivity with cascading.
decrease the strength of interfering signals whose frequencies are above
or below the band where the gain per stage is equal to or greater than
one. All signals whose frequencies lie within this band will he strength-
ened by an increase in the number of stages. For this reason two types
of selectivity may be recognized: the adjacent- channel selectivity, and
the distant-channel selectivity. It is therefore possible in a comparative
test of two amplifiers of equal sensitivity to find that the first will pro-
duce less interference from interfering signal of, say, 30 kc away from
resonance than the second; while for a signal of, say, 60 kc away there
may be more interference present than in the second amplifier.
The attenuation of signals remote from the resonant frequency requires
that the amplifier be well shielded in order to prevent short portions of
the lead wires and circuits of the output stage from acting as antennas and
picking up energy. Thus a few inches of exposed wire running to the
grid of the detector tube might have a voltage induced in it from an
interfering powerful local station which is much greater in magnitude
than these same signals after passing through the amplifier.
12. Band -pass Filters. A rectangular response curve would be ideal
for the r-f amplifier of a receiving set designed for entertainment pur-
poses. The use of a pair of tuned circuits as a coupling means between
stages results in a flatter response curve with steeper sides than can be
obtained with a single tuned circuit. Such an arrangement is shown in
Fig. 13, and the general appearance of the resultant response curves is
given in Fig. 14. Owing to the more uniform amplification obtained

over a wider band of frequencies, these circuits are often referred to as
band -pass filters. This form of circuit is
M commonly used in the i-f amplifier of
superheterodynes.
AVhen the primary and secondary are
£2 both tuned to the same frequency, the width
2 of the transmitted band depends upon the
'
magnitude of the coupling between them.

Fie. 13.- Transformer- A double- humped response curve results
coupled amplifier with pri- if M is greater than the critical value, and,
mary and secondary tuned. as M is increased, the two peaks move far-
ther apart and the hollow between them
becomes deeper, particularly if the resistance of the two coils is low.
In practice, both primary and secondary are tuned to the same fre-
quency; consequently 0.1.1 = 14,C, and wL: = 1 /wC:. If the resultant
common resonant frequency is called fo, the selectivity characteristic
can be determined, assuming a pentode to be used, from
E: = ",M
WCIC2
1
X (27)
R1R:L 1- 4Q,Qs1 f f fo/ +.i(Q, + Q2)'f fo] + m°M'
\1\
L `` o
where f
= frequency in question
Q1
.
c
L6
dlsOW
and Q: = values of wL /R of the primary and secondary circuits.
I/Id
WITAMIN,1,, MRiR2 coM>V
I/II/d!`
o
x
IIIUMIILIIMw
I.I."/,N\\\
3
'/.%I\\\\
16 2
'
É 1.5
.Í%IHq\\`\\
,.4
ó
"
08
Efillial\'72
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6
off Resonance
Kilocycles
Fla. 14.- Response curves of doubly-tuned r-f stage.
At resonance when f = fo, the voltage amplification will be
A
g,llf
- coC1C:(R1R: (28)
+ w'M')
A single- humped curve results when Of = 11/T17;, as shown in
Fig. 14. In the case of this figure the value of Q for the two circuits is
somewhat higher than would be employed in the i-f amplifier of a receiv-
See. 121 RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 407
ing set designed for entertainment purposes. While the selectivity

would be excellent, the resulting attenuation of side bands in a two-stage
amplifier using three such transformers would greatly impair the fidelity
of reception. It is sometimes the practice to use transformers of slightly
different characteristics in the several stages. Thus one or two of the
transformers may have a more or less pronounced hollow at fo, while
the other may have a single hump. In this way the amplification may
be made fairly uniform throughout the band between f, and fs and then
fall off sharply on either side. In television receivers where the i-f
amplifier is called upon to transmit uniformly a band of frequencies
about 4.5 Mc in width, a transformer consisting of three tuned coupled
circuits may sometimes be required to secure the desired uniformity
over the transmitted band. The design problems involved in these
applications are discussed in the references below.1
With the trend toward higher fidelity in the better grade of broadcast
receivers, it is highly desirable to have some adjustable control over the
shape of the i -f response curve so as to be able to increase the fidelity
on local reception when high selectivity, to prevent interference and
noise, is not required. But the broad response curve required would be
unsatisfactory in many cases of distant reception where high selectivity
might be needed to avoid adjacent channel
interference. One scheme of securing adjustable
selectivity is to vary the coupling between the == '
primary and secondary coils by mechanical TL
means. Another method, illustrated in Fig. 15, L_
is to have a small coil Ls tightly coupled to L,.
By rotating the switch arm to points 2 and 3, a +B
progressive increase in M between L, and L2 is
secured. This will result in a slight detuning I io. 15.- Method for
of the secondary circuit as the response curve is varying band width in
widened, but this is of no serious consequence. i -f transformer.
Individual iron -dust cores in L, and L2 enable
close coupling to be had between L, and L3 with a comparatively small
number of turns in the latter.
13. Regeneration in Amplifiers. The three -electrode vacuum tube is
not a perfect unilateral device but permits the amplified output energy to
react upon the input circuit. The grid -to -plate capacity of the tube
serves to couple electrostatically the input and output circuits as shown
in Fig. 16. If some of the output voltage is fed back into the input
'circuit so as to be in phase with e, the total, or regenerative amplification,
may be expressed by
A,- A
1
S
-AS (29)
where S is the fraction of the output which is fed back into the input cir-
cuit and A is the gain of the amplifier if feedback were absent. If the
quantity AS is unity, the total amplification becomes infinite, and a
continuous oscillation will result. In addition to feedback due to C p
which almost always has to be balanced out to secure stability, feedback
due to coupling resulting from the use of a common B or C battery may
1 Mourrraox, C., Television Signal-frequenc y Circuit Considerations, RCA Rev., p.
204, October, 1939; and Simplified Television I -f Systems. ibid., p. 299, January, 1940.
be sufficient to cause instability. Small electrostatic or electromagnetic

couplings between the input and output circuits of the amplifier can also
give rise to oscillation even if each
C P stage has been perfectly neutralized.
For example, a four -stage amplifier
eg Z gy c y ZbRV- +JXÓ
having a gain of 10 per stage will
oscillate if as much as 0.01 per cent
of the output voltage succeeds in
getting into the input circuit in the
phase. Consequently multi -
tlo. 16.- F16.-Equivalent circuit of a proper
stage amplifiers of high over -all gain
triode. must be carefully shielded to avoid
instability, particularly at the higher frequencies.
The oscillation of a single -stage amplifier can occur only if the plate circuit
is sufficiently inductive. If the impedance in the plate circuit is pure resist-
ance or a condensive reactance, no oscillations can take place, although
in the latter case antiregenerative feedback may occur of sufficient magnitude
greatly to reduce the resultant gain. The effect of feedback may be looked
upon as being due to the input impedance Z, of the grid-filament terminals
of the tube. This impedance is of the form
Zo = ` ro -7. (301
When the plate circuit is inductive, the sign of r, is negative, so that the tuba
is then capable of annulling part or all of the positive resistance of the asso-
ciated input circuit. In the latter event, oscillations occur. The effect of the
various circuit elements of Fig. 16 on Z, is given by
Cor + Cr/ (Rs ± fXb + ri/

Ze
µTrr 1jXe
+ (Co! + Cop) (n + v) +,1an(IalCor
Cr/Cal) + Corer! +
(31)
When Zn is capacitive and has sufficient resistance associated with it, r, is
positive, and the tube may introduce rather large losses into the input circuit,
even though the grid is biased sufficiently negative so that no conductive grid
current flows.
14. Methods of Avoiding Oscillation. Circuits designed to combat the
effects of regeneration are of two general types. Either sufficient resist-
ance is introduced into the input circuit to offset the negative resist-
ance introduced by the tube or else a suitable network of circuit elements
is employed so as to isolate electrically the input and output circuits
by making them two pairs of opposite points of an a-c bridge. The
most common method of the first -mentioned group is to insert a resist -
ance of several hundred ohms in series with the grid of the tube. In
a tuned amplifier designed to cover a range of frequencies, this resist-
ance must he sufFciently large to secure stability at the highest fre-
quency, which means that it is much larger than necessary at the lower
frequencies. This results in loss of amplification at these frequencies.
15. Neutralizing Circuits. One form of bridge circuit due to ('. W.
Rice is shown in Fig. 17 where are given the actual circuit and the elec-
trical equivalent with the tube electrodes omitted. The filament
Set. 121 RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 40')
terminal of the tube, instead of being connected to the lower end of the
input circuit, is connected to an intermediate point which divides the
inductance into two parts, L,, and Ln. The lower terminal n of the input
circuit is connected to the plate through a small balancing condenser C,,.
The terminals g and n of the input circuit and f and p of the output
circuit constitute two pairs of opposite points of a bridge. An inspection
of the latter figure indicates that no voltage can exist across the input
terminals gn due to a voltage between Jp if the arms are balanced.
1
Fib. 17.-Rice neutralized amplifier.
Hence the energy which is fed back through Ca,, is opposed in phase
by that which flows through C,,. The conditions for a balance arc
L. C (32)
L, C,,,
This balance is not entirely independent of frequency as Eq. (32) would

indicate unless the coupling between L. and Le is substantially unity.
This is because L is shunted by the input capacity of the tube. With
certain arrangements a h-f parasitic oscillation may take place which
will impair the performance of the amplifier at the frequencies for
which it was designed. A small capacity of about the size of C shunted
E
C
Fia. 18.-Hazeltine neutralized amplifier.
across L: will often prevent such parasites in receiving circuits. The
Rice circuit is commonly used in neutralizing r -f power amplifier circuits
in transmitter sets.
Another form of balancing circuit due to L. A. Hazeltine known as the
Neutrodyne is shown in Fig. 18. This type of circuit applies the same
principle to the output circuit as the previous method did to the input.
The conditions for balance are the same as Eq. (32). The coupling
between L. and Lb should again be approximately unity if the circuit is to
remain balanced for a wide range of frequencies with a fixed adjustment
of C, as La is shunted by the output impedance of the tube. This circuit
410
has the advantage over the Rice circuit for receiving sets in that one set of
plates of the tuning condenser is at filament or ground potential. This
enables the rotors of the condensers to be mounted directly on a common
shaft without requiring insulating bushings or couplings. A modification
of this circuit has the neutralizing condenser CA connected to a tap at some
intermediate point in L2 thus dispensing with the coil Lb. Lack of tight
coupling between La and L2 with this arrangement makes it more difficult
to secure complete neutralization for a wide range of frequencies.
A circuit wherein all four of the bridge arms are condensers is shown
in Fig. 19. The grid -plate capacity as well as the grid-filament capacity
of the tube is involved, these two capacities serving as a pair of ratio
arms. The conditions for a balance are
C. Con (33)
CT/
The value of C. is usually about 100 µµf, which requires a value of C.
of the pre-
somewhat larger in size than the neutralizing condensers
ceding circuits. In order to avoid the accumulation of a charge on
Lf
Fia. Fie. 20.- Mutual indue-

19.- Capacity bridge neutralization
of grid -plate capacity. tance bridge circuit.
the grid which may cause the tube to "block," C, is usually shunted by
a 250,000 -ohm grid leak. The distributed capacity to of a suitable choke
coil whose natural frequency is below t he frequency be amplified can
also be substituted for the condenser Ca.
Another form of circuit involving the principle of a mutual inductance
bridge is illustrated in Fig. 20. The conditions for a balance are
A! C,y (34)
L2 C,,, 4- C.
Since C. is in parallel with the grid- filament capacity of the tube, it is

possible to utilize C,f in place of an actual neutralizing condenser C.
and balance by proper adjustment of the mutual inductance between
L. and L2.
method of
16. Neutralizing Adjustments. The most convenient a signal in the
neutralizing the above circuits is to tune the amplifieroftothe stage to be
h -f range of the receiving set. The tube filament
piece of paper between
neutralized is then opened, usually by slipping a the
the filament pin and the filament terminal and in tube socket. This
destroys the repeater action of the tube converts that portion
of the circuit into its equivalent electrical network. TheThe neutralizing
condenser is then adjusted until the signal disappears. filament
is then lighted, and the procedure is repeated with the next
stage.
Sea 151 RADIO- FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 411
When stray couplings are present, the value of balancing capacity

required may vary with the frequency; hence, when exact neutralization
is obtained at one frequency, the stage may be sufficiently unbalanced
at some other frequency so that oscillations occur. In this case a com-
promise adjustment of C must be found which will hold the stage out
of oscillation for the entire tuning range. This may not be possible
if considerable stray coupling is present together with high gain per
stage.
17. Neutralizing Power Amplifiers. Radio-frequency power ampli-
fiers, such as are used in transmitting sets where sufficient power is
available, can be neutralized by means of a suitable r-f ammeter in the
output tank circuit. In these circuits provision is usually made to
remove the plate voltage from the tube to be neutralized rather than to
switch off the filament.
Figure 21 shows the last two stages of power amplification of a typical
1 -kw broadcast transmitter. The first stage consists of two 75 -watt screen -
grid tubes in parallel which require no neutralization. The second stage is
Io7ronsmntronline
ce
7-LA'B60 03
000/
s.
Ri
Choke',
/0,000n
441 -Ec sEte
Fia. 21.- Broadcast transmitter power amplifier.
neutralized by means of the condenser C., which connects to the input tank
circuit LIC, at the point shown. The principle is the same as that of Fig. 17.
The turns to which the various taps on L, are connected are indicated by the
numbers. A 30-ohm resistance R: is connected in series with C. to secure
a more exact phase balance, since Coy of the tube will have some losses asso-
ciated with it and will therefore have a phase angle of less than 90 deg.
The neutralizing adjustment is made as follows: The switch Si is thrown
to the top position inserting a low-range thermocouple Th, in the output
tank circuit L :C,. At the sane time the galvanometer A. is connected to
the thermocouple, and the plate circuit is opened by Si which is mechanically
connected with Si. With excitation applied to the grid, the balancing
condenser C. is then adjusted until A. reads zero. The switch Si is then
thrown to the lower position, closing the plate circuit and inserting a high
range thermocouple The in the tank circuit, and at the same time transferring
A..
18. Pentodes as R -f Amplifiers. The triode was superseded by the
screen -grid tetrode, owing to the higher gains per stage obtainable
without the need of neutralizing circuits. Still higher gains on the part
of the pentode have enabled it to replace the tetrodo in this field. The
freedom from oscillation in these tubes is due to the reduction in the
capacity between plate and control grid. This capacity is broken up in
effect into two series condensers with the mid -point grounded to the
filament, so far as r-f potentials are concerned, as will be seen from
Fig. 22.
In r -f pentodes the suppressor grid is of further assistance in reducing
this capacity, and values of C, of 0.01
Control -Screen Grid µµf, or less, are o b t a i n e d. Feed-
Grid. v (Plate back of amplified output energy through
the tube is thereby reduced to the point
Output where stable operation with fair gain can
Cituit be obtained at wave lengths of a few
t FA:went meters. These tubes may oscillate if
too high a value of gain per stage is
FIG. 22.- Elimination of con- attempted. Capacitive coupling be-
pling between input and output tween grid and plate leads external to
circuits by means of screen-
grid the tube must be carefully avoided b y
the use of adequate shielding.
The majority of these tubes for receiving purposes are of the remote
cutoff or variable-mu type.' This feature enables a variable negative
bias to be impressed on the control grid as a means of volume control
without producing cross modulation and distortion when strong local
signals are being received. With the conventional type of tube on
strong signals the bias would have to be adjusted almost to cutoff in
order to reduce the transconductance sufficiently to avoid overloading
the last stage. Serious distortion of the modulated envelope would
result if the tube were operated in this region of high curvature.
19. Radio- frequency Power Amplifiers. The low output and plate
efficiency of class A amplifiers preclude their use in transmitters, and
class B or class C operation is employed.
rZeio
1bAukfi Modu/afion
Fia. 23.-Characteristics of class B amplification.

Class B amplifiers are operated with a negative bias approximately
equal to cutoff so that the plate current is almost zero when the alternat-
ing grid excitation is removed. With a sinusoidal voltage applied
to the grid, the plate current consists of a series of half-sine waves,
I BALLANTINE and SNOW. Reduction of Distortion and Croes -talk in Radio Receivers
by Means of Variable -mu Tetrodes, Prue. I.R.E., 18, 2102, December, 1930.
Sea Ill RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 413
similar to the output of a half-wave rectifier. The load impedance is

adjusted so as to obtain an approximately linear dynamic characteristic,
as shown in Fig. 23. The grid swings positive on excitation peaks,
causing grid current to flow. Class B amplifiers are used in radio-
telephone transmitters following the modulated stage. The power
output obtainable from a given tube is much greater than with class A
operation and the plate efficiency is much higher, having a theoretical
maximum value of 78.54 per cent. As with a -f power amplifiers, tubes
operating as class B r-f amplifiers may also be operated in push-pull.
A class C amplifier is one in which high output and plate efficiency
are the primary considerations. The grid is negatively biased to a
point considerably beyond cutoff, as shown in Fig. 24, so that the plate
current is zero with no grid excitation. The latter is quite large and is
often sufficient to cause the plate current to reach saturation on positive
swings. Plate efficiencies in the vicinity of 90 per cent may be obtained
with the larger tubes. These high efficiencies arc made possible by
fl
Cut Off Dynamic Characteristic
EFiE.I7
1
h- 6rid Swing ---
1
I
t
-
- -
i
I
t
ep
EIIU, _ UU,
E6
Fie. 2- .- ('lass (' operation. Fie. 25.- Schematic circuit
of r -f power amplifier.
allowing the plate current to flow during less than 180 deg. of the cycle
and only at a time when the plate potential is comparatively low. In
radio-telegraph transmitters all stages are operated class C, while with
radio telephony only the modulated amplifier and the stages preceding
it are so operated.
The plate-current wave shapes in both cases are badly distorted
particularly with class C operation, and the output contains both odd
and even harmonics. However, the tank circuit LoCo in Fig. 25 is
resonant to the fundamental to which it offers a high impedance of the
nature of a pure resistance. The impedance offered to the plate -current
harmonics diminishes rapidly with the order of the latter; hence the
voltage drop Eo across the tank circuit is very nearly sinusoidal in shape.
The instantaneous plate voltage e,, will be the algebraic difference
between the plate -supply voltage E6 and the drop Eo across the load.
Either triodes or screen -grid tetrodes may be used as power amplifiers.
The latter have the advantage of not requiring neutralization. The
screen -grid voltage in transmitting tubes is usually about 15 per cent
of the plate-supply voltage, which is proportionally much lower than
in receiving tubes. These tubes are difficult to construct for power
outputs much greater than 500 watts, and, where larger outputs are
required, triodes must be used.
414 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sea if
20. Current and Voltage Relations. The instantaneous current and
voltage relations for a class C amplifier are shown in Fig. 26. The
potential e,, of the plate with respect to the filament is at a minimum
during the time plate current is actually flowing. The power loss
within the tube will be equal to the product of en and ip averaged over
a complete cycle. It is evident from Fig. 26 that this loss can be kept
small by limiting the angle 20, during which time plate current actually
flows. This will vary from 180 deg. in the case of a class B amplifier
to perhaps as low as 60 deg for class C operation. It will also be noted
that the grid -excitation voltage Ev is at its positive maximum when the
plate voltage is a minimum. The minimum plate voltage should not
Epnau:
lp
Dynamic Charadensfic
Cut -off
â
Epmin
Grid Volta .e
0 I
Cut-off
i7 N e9m ,r.
271
26.- Instantaneous values of current and voltage in class C amplifier.

be allowed to fall below the value of e, m.u. if excessive grid current is
to be avoided. Ordinarily e, ma :. is limited to about 80 per cent E,,
21. Circuit Calculations. In the design of a power amplifier the given data
will include the frequency, the type of tube to be used, and the plate -supply
voltage. The minimum plate voltage and the maximum positive value of
the grid voltage are then selected, also the angle si. The required grid -
excitation voltage will be
E, 1 /EpMin. cos Bi \
E. _
µ
+ 1 cos 01 -µ e. man (35)
The required C bias will be

E, = E, eo man - (36)
and the voltage across the tank circuit is given by
Eo = E, Es. min. - (37)
Corresponding pairs of plate and grid voltages can then be computed for
increments of 5 or 10 deg. over the time interval 20i during which plato
current flows. Since the various current and voltage waves are symmetrical
Sec. 121 RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 415
on either side of the vertical axis, it is only necessary to do this from zero to
01. A suitable table for this purpose is given below:
TABLE I
Given data: Assumed values: Computed values:
Tube E, Mkt
És
e,.
91
E,
E.
Eo
Eq. (35)
Eq. (36)
Eq. (37)
1 8 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° ei
2 cos e 1 0.9848 0.9397 0.8660 0.7660
3 Eo cos 9
4 e, -En-F.o COB 9
5 E. cos 9
6 e, = E, coo 9-E.
7 i, v° yo 92 ta w 0
8 i, . . 0
9 i, cos e 90' 91' yi y,' 94' 0
10 s, COS e .. 0
The values of plate and grid currents in lines 7 and 8 are obtained from the
static characteristics of the tube for the computed pairs of instantaneous
values of e, and e, in lines 4 and 6. The grid-current characteristic will also
be necessary if the power required for grid excitation is to be determined.
The d-c component of plate current lb will be the average value of i, over a
complete cycle and is given by
Ib = 18( 2 7h + yz + + (38)
using the trapezoidal rule to determine the area under the curve for i,. If
5-deg. intervals are used in Table I, the coefficient of Eq. (38) would be mss.
The d -c component of grid current I. can be found in a similar manner by
substituting as ordinates the items of line 8 in Eq. (38).
The maximum amplitude of the fundamental component of the plate cur-
rent is given by
1,1 =
0
i, cos Bdg
= 9( 2' + U"' + 1/:' + + Un -i') (39)
using the trapezoidal rule to evaluate the definite integral. If 5 -deg. intervals
are used in Table I, the coefficient of Eq. (39) becomes yis.
The maximum amplitude of the fundamental component I,, of the grid
current can be obtained in the same way by substituting the items of line 10
in Eq. (39).
22. Power Relations. The d -c power supplied to the circuit from
the source of Eb is
Pin,ut = EbIb (40)
The power output to the tank circuit at the fundamental frequency is
P.°k = E0),1
2 (41)
since the tank impedance is of the nature of a pure resistance Rb at resonance.

The required value of Rb is evidently
E0
Rs (42)
and is related to the constants of the tank circuit by

LO
R (43)
where Ro is the apparent resistance of the tank coil and includes coupled
resistance introduced by the useful load which is either inductively or con-
ductively coupled to the tank coil. In the circuit of Fig. 25 the value of
coupled resistance reflected into the tank coil would be the power absorbed
from the tank divided by the square of the oscillatory tank current.
The resistance of the load required to fulfill the assumed operating
conditions, as given by Eq. (42)t will bear no simple relation to the plate
resistance r, of the tube as used in computations relating to class A power
amplifiers, since r,, is infinite during
the greater portion of the cycle under
class C operation. From Eq. (43) it is
seen that load impedance of the tank
Rflnput circuit may be varied by varying the
ratio of Lo to Co. As the latter item is
often a mica condenser of fixed ca-
1=10 + _1111+
pacity, a variation may be made in the
value of Rn by using the tank induc-
Flu. 27. -Tank- circuit inductance as an autotransformer, as illu-
tance used as autotransformer to strated in Fi g. 27. The ratio of
vary load impedance. transformation will be approximately
the turns ratio P /S, and by moving the plate tap so as to alter the num-
ber of turns included in P, it is possible to change the load impedance as
viewed from the tube by the square of the transformation ratio.
The power input to the grid is
E°! °1
(44)
Pgrid input = 2
The power amplification will be Eq. (41) divided by Eq. (44) and is
p _ EoI91 (45)
E°I°1
'10
Power amplifiers are practically always operated with a fixed-bias

voltage E, instead of being self -biased by means of a grid leak and
condenser, as with oscillators. This is because in the event of failure
of the excitation voltage the self-bias would no longer function and the
tube would be injured. A portion of the power input to the grid would
be consumed across E, and would charge the bias battery, if one were
used. This power lost across the bias is E,I0, and the power consumed
within the tube due to the flow of grid current is
E °Ip1 (46)
2
See. 121 RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 417
Since the grid is enclosed by the plate, the heating of the grid by P°
must be radiated by the plate in addition to its own losses.
The power loss within the tube which is to be dissipated at the plate
in the form of heat, exclusive of the power loss in the filament, is
E2n`
- EZ
Tube loss = E016 + °' - (47)
This expression may be used to check the assumed operating conditions

from the standpoint of allowable plate dissipation.
The plate efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output to the tank
circuit to the power supplied to the plate and is given by
Plate efficiency - E0I P'

2E6I6
(48)
With the allowable plate dissipation fixed, a moderate improvement in

the plate efficiency will matenally increase the useful output, and the
maximum output will be obtained when the plate efficiency is made a
maximum.
The effective value of the oscillatory current in the tank will be
E0
IL =
1/2(Ró + OW) (49)
Where the effective value of Q for the coil is high, the currents in the
coil and condenser are approximately the saine and will he given with
sufficient accuracy for most purposes by
1L = 10 = EsoCo = L6 (5C)
The preceding discussion has been based upon the series -fed circuit
of Fig. 25, but the same equations and method of analysis will likewise
apply to the case of parallel feed in Fig. 21. This latter arrangement
is the one usually employed.
23. Class B Amplifiers. In order not to distort the envelope of the
applied modulated wave in Fig. 23, the dynamic characteristic must be
essentially linear, and the operating conditions are chosen so as to bring
this about. When this is the case, the maximum amplitude of the
fundamental component of the plate current is given by
µE°
(51)
/°' 2r, + R6
to a fair degree of approximation. The d-c component of plate current
will then be
2
lo = /,,, = 0.63741 (52)
The plate efficiency, from Eq. (48), becomes

Ebl y, = ,r E0
Plate efficiency = (53)
2E616 4 É6
418 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. IS
Since E0 approaches E, as a limiting value, it follows that the plate

efficiency of a class B amplifier approaches 78.54 per cent as a limiting
value. In actual practice it is usually about 65 per cent on excitation
peaks at 100 per cent modulation and falls to about 33 per cent when
the a pplied excitation voltage is unmodulated.
24. Tuning Adjustments. The tank circuit should always be adjusted
to unity power factor so that minimum plate voltage may coincide
with maximum plate current. A departure from this relation will
lower the plate efficiency. This adjustment is usually made by tuning
the tank circuit for minimum d-c plate current. Strictly speaking,
minimum lb may be used as an accurate measure of unity power factor
only when Co of the tank is the element varied. The usual tuning
adjustment is Lo, which is varied by means of a copper or aluminum
disk rotated within the tank coil and acts as a single short-circuited
turn. In this case maximum impedance will not occur at unity power
factor, and Lo should be adjusted to a value slightly lower than that
which produces minimum h. If the effective value of Q for the tank is
fairly high, the adjustments for maximum impedance and unity power
factor practically coincide, in which case the current may be adjusted
for minimum plate current with either tuning element the variable.
25. Modulated Amplifiers. If an a -f voltage is superimposed upon
the d -c plate -supply voltage Eb of a class C amplifier having constant
2.0
4-Instantaneous
1" 1.5 !\ Tank Current
I.0
U
c 0.5
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Plate Voltage
Eb----
_Alternating Signa/ Voltage l. I
Superimposed on Eb
Fla. 28- Modulation of class C amplifier by superimposing a-f signal

voltage on plate -supply voltage
r-f excitation applied to its grid, the tank current fo may be made to
rise and fall in amplitude as illustrated in Fig. 28. The schematic
diagram of the circuit is shown in Fig. 29. A linear relation must exist
between tank current and plate voltage if distortion is to he avoided.
The relation between the plate voltage and Io should also be fairly
linear so that the modulator tube supplying the a-f power shall work into
a constant load resistance, which will be equal to Eb /In, or, in general,
DEo /aa.
Sec. Ill RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 419
The grid excitation grid bias, and tank-circuit impedance are adjusted
so as to obtain the desired linear relations. The adjustments may be
checked by varying Eb from zero to twice normal value and plotting
lo and Ir, against E, as in Fig. 28. The value of plate- supply voltage
impressed upon the modulated jb R.f.Cho e C
amplifier is somewhat lower than
the normal value used for unmodu-
lated operation in order to avoid A. F.
excessive plate heating on modu- I n
lation peaks. The grid bias L P(.1
required is approximately twice
the value of cutoff for the tube,
and the tank impedance is usually
higher than with unmodulated Fia. 29.- Plate -modulated class C
operation. The plate efficiency is amplifier.
lower than with unmodulated amplifiers and is usually in the neighbor-
hood of 60 per cent, depending upon the size of the tube used. Either
triodes or tetrodes may be used.
The continuous power output with 100 per cent modulation is 1.5
times the power at zero modulation. The output on modulation peaks
will be four times the unmodulated carrier output. This increase in
the power output when modulated must be furnished by the a-f input
Ip Dynemic Characteristic
R. F:
In ut
QO 11 _1111 +
Ì- (ööuöl Ec Eb
Speech
Input
I.11eVolMge4,T.4
Signal Voltage
Fio. 30.- Schematic circuit and operation details of grid -modulated amplifier.
from the modulator tubes. The amount of a -f power required varies
with the square of the modulating factor, so that the modulator tubes
must be capable of furnishing a sizable amount of audio power if 100 per
cent modulation is to be attained.
While the plate- modulated amplifier has been the most widely used,
other methods requiring very much less audio power can be employed.
Instead of varying the voltage applied to the plate of the modulated
amplifier, it is possible to secure similar results by varying the magnitude
of the C bias at an a-f rate. The schematic circuit is shown in Fis. 30,
together with the details of operation. The signal voltage cyclically
adds to and subtracts from the fixed biasing voltage E., causing the
amplitude of the plate -current impulses to rise and fall. The plate -
current wave shapes will be similar to those of the class B amplifier of
Fig. 23, except that the angle 201 during which plate current flows will
vary with the modulation. The mode of operation changes from an
underexcited class C amplifier when unmodulated to a class B amplifier
on modulation peaks, assuming complete modulation. The advantage
of this method over plate modulation is that very little a-f energy is
required for complete modulation. The modulating source is only
Screen Grid
required to furnish a portion of
the grid -excitation losses of the
Suppressor R. amplifier in this case. The plate
`J.
Modulating., Chokes C efficiency is somewhat lower, and
Zr,
Frequency ' freedom from distortion is more
difficult to secure.
Another method is to insert
Co the modulating voltage in the
RF.Inpuf Iii `ó suppressor-grid c i r c u it of a
Eca _ screen -grid type of power pent-
1---7_11 ode operating as a class C ampli-
fier, as shown in Fig. 31. The
Fia. 31.- Screen -grid pentode used as suppressor grid is biased nega-
tively by a moderate amount and
modulated class C amplifier. swings positive on modulation
peaks, during which time suppressor -grid current flows. The power repre-
sented by this current has to be furnished by the modulating source,
but it is negligible in comparison to the demands of a plate -modulated
amplifier. The distortion is low with moderately high percentages of
modulation but becomes appreciable at 100 per cent.
26. Doherty High -efficiency Amplifier.' The plate efficiency of a
class B amplifier varies between about 33 and 65 per cent from 0 to
100 per cent modulation, resulting in a rather low all -day efficiency in
view of the average per cent modulation of a broadcast station. Conse-
quently an appreciable reduction could be effected in the energy require-
ments of a transmitter if this efficiency could be raised and kept constant.
The Doherty amplifier accomplishes this desirable result in the following
manner:
Two tubes, effectively in parallel, supply power to a common tank circuit
as shown schematically in Fig. 32. Tube Ti is operated so that its output.
voltage Ei is at its maximum permissible value when the unmodulated carrier
voltage E. is applied to the grid. The grid bias on T2 is made sufficiently
negative so that the output current Is is about zero at this value E. of the
carrier voltage. This high value of Et with an excitation voltage of E.
impressed is brought about by having the tube work into a load impedance
of 2R, or twice the value of tank impedance that would be ordinarily used.
This value of 2R is brought about by the properties of the impedance-
inverting network in the plate circuit, which is the equivalent of a quarter -
wave line. These lines have a sending-end impedance Z. which is given by
the relation
Z. = (54)
Z
DOHLRTY, W. H.. A New High Efficiency Power Amplifier for Modulated Waves,
Prue. LR.E., p. 1183, September, 1936.
Sec. 121 RADIO- FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS 421
where Z. = terminating impedance (R /2)

Zc = characteristic impedance of the line, which is equal in this case
to R when the reactive series and shunt arms of the simulating
network have the values given in the figure.
When the carrier voltage increases to a value greater than E. (reaching
2E. at 100 per cent modulation), T= begins to furnish power to the tank cir-
cuit. However, this causes the impedance of the tank, as viewed from the
end of the network, to rise. But this apparent rise in Z., from Eq. (54),
Condensers
¡, I 41R 1'a can be combined
12
{r T
°
1 I
Modulated
w i AR jRT
fjX /mpedance Tank)
r/iny dim
Invework
E2 ne/ R ance
Ten;
FIG. 32.- Schematic diagram of a Doherty amplifier.
causes a reduction in Z,. Consequently, the output current I, of tube T,
rises, even though E1 remains constant. The increasing grid excitation
maintains E, as the plate load impedance Z. falls. As the excitation increases
beyond the unmodulated amplitude E., T: contributes more and more power
to the tank and thereby permits Ti also to supply more power. When the
excitation reaches a value of 2E,, corresponding to the instantaneous peak
of a completely modulated wave, half of the power in this tank is being
contributed by Ts. The network is at that instant effectively terminated in
R ohms instead of the original value of R /2, permitting T1 to deliver twice
its initial power output. The total power delivered to the tank circuit is
then the required value of four times the unmodulated value.
I*'I2+I3
I
c I
N
s-
M
-c'eo
I
>
0 Ec 2Ec 0 Ec 2Ec
a) -Grid excitation- (b) -Grid excitation
Fns. 33.- Current and voltage relations in a Doherty amplifier.
The variations in the various currents in Fig. 32 are shown in Fig. 33a,
and the voltages E, and E2 vary as shown in Fig. 33b. One of the char-
acteristics of the impedance -inverting network shown in Fig. 32 is that the
current Is will lag 90 deg. behind E,. Consequently a network producing a
similar phase shift, but in the opposite direction, is inserted in the grid circuit
of T,, so that the currents Is and I. will be in phase with each other. Revers-
ing the signs of the reactances in the series and shunt arms of the grid network,
as shown, will produce the desired leading phase shift of 90 deg.
The Doherty method of operation enables a plate efficiency of slightly
more than 60 per cent to be secured when the carrier is unmodulated.
The distortion is somewhat greater than with class B operation, Fig. 33.
depicting the ideal characteristics, but by using reversed feedback it is

possible to meet all the requirements of high -fidelity broadcasting.
27. Frequency Multipliers. The plate current of a class C amplifier
is badly distorted and contains a large percentage of harmonics. It
is possible to resonate the tank circuit to one of these harmonics and
cause it to absorb power at the harmonic frequency. The impedance
offered to the fundamental and the balance of the harmonics will be
small; hence little power will be absorbed at these frequencies.
Frequency multipliers are used to obtain higher frequencies than
can be readily produced by crystal -controlled oscillators. Quartz
crystals for high frequencies become rather fragile and are apt to crack
in service. To secure crystal control of the frequency in the case of
short -wave transmitters, the crystal is ground to oscillate at some l -f
multiple of the transmitted frequency. The output of the crystal-
.. controlled oscillator is then impressed on one or more amplifiers con-
nected in cascade and adjusted to multiply the frequency. The usual
practice is to double the frequency with each stage, and, while greater
multiplications than this can be obtained, the output falls off rapidly
as higher multiplications per stage are attempted. If a push -pull circuit
is being used as the frequency -multiplying stage, the output tank circuit
will have to be tuned to the third harmonic of the input voltage, since
even harmonics will cancel in the output circuit. A class C amplifier
having a plate efficiency of 80 per cent would show an efficiency of
about 70 per cent when used as a frequency doubler. The instan-
taneous current and voltage relations in a frequency doubler will be
similar to Fig. 26 except that the frequency of e, will be twice as great
and will therefore be low in value for a shorter time interval. This
requires a smaller value of B, in order to keep the losses within the tube
small. These losses are proportional to the product of the instantaneous
values of e, and i, and can be minimized by restricting the flow of plate
current to a smaller interval of time. This calls for values of E, and E,
somewhat higher than with the conventional type of class C amplifier.
Either triodes or tetrodes can be used. The former will not need to
be neutralized, as the input and output circuits are tuned to different
frequencies and hence will not oscillate.
SECTION 13
RECEIVING SYSTEMS
BY G. L. BEERS, B.S.'
1. Classification. The following is a classification of radio receivers
according to their operating principle.
1. Tuned radio frequency.
2. Superheterodyne.
3. Regenerative.
4. Superregenerative.
2. Tuned- radio- frequency Receivers. Tuned- radio-frequency (t -r-f)
receivers are those which obtain their selectivity and r -f amplification
through the use of circuits which function at the frequency of the incom-
ing signal.
Tuned r -f receivers use from two to six circuits which are tuned
simultaneously by means of a single tuning control. A gang condenser,
which consists of several variable condensers assembled in a single unit,
is used to vary the frequency of the tuned circuits. The series resistance
of a conventional tuned circuit, whose frequency is varied by means of a
variable condenser, increases with frequency. The selectivity of t-r -f
broadcast receivers varies in a ratio of about 3:1 from one end of the
broadcast range to the other. One or two of the tuned circuits in a t-r -f
receiver are generally used in the antenna-input system and the remainder
are used to provide the coupling between the stages oî the r-f amplifier.
One or two stages of a -f amplification are used in the audio portion of
the receiver. Tuned r -f receivers are best suited for use where the
selectivity requirements are not extreme.
3. Superheterodyne Receivers. In the superheterodyne receiver the
received voltage is combined with a voltage from a local oscillator and
converted into a voltage of a lower or intermediate frequency which is then
amplified and detected to reproduce the original signal wave.
The superheterodyne receiver utilizes the essential components of a
t-r -f receiver and, in addition, a frequency converter and i-f amplifier.
The frequency converter consists of a variable- frequency oscillator and a
detector. The function of the frequency converter is to change the
frequency of the received signal to the i.f. The oscillator and t -r-f
circuits in superheterodyne receivers are usually tuned simultaneously
by means of a gang condenser. A constant frequency difference is main-
tained between the oscillator and r-f circuits either through the use of a
combination of fixed shunt and series condensers in the oscillator circuit
in conjunction with a gang condenser in which all of the variable con-
densers are identical in capacity or through the use of a gang condenser
I Engineering Department, RCA Manufacturing Company, RCA Victor Division,
Camden, N. J.
423
in which specially shaped plates are used in the oscillator variable con-
denser. The i -f amplifier uses two or three transformers, which usually
contain two coupled circuits with the coupling adjusted to provide the
so-called band -pass Diller characteristics. The i -f amplifier provides the
major portion of the amplification and selectivity. Since the character-
istics of this amplifier are independent of the frequency to which the
receiver is tuned, the sensitivity and selectivity of a superheterodyne
receiver are usually very uniform throughout its tuning range. The r-f
circuits are used primarily for eliminating certain types of interference
which are common to this type of receiver. The performance of the
superheterodyne receiver is in general superior to that of any other type
of receiver in use today.
4. Regenerative Receivers. In a regenerative receiver the following
action takes place: The received voltage is impressed on the grid of a
vacuum tube. A portion of the resultant voltage which appears in the
plate circuit of the tube is fed hack to the grid circuit in the proper
phase relation to increase the applied grid voltage. The effect of this
action is to reduce the effective resistance of the resonant circuit to which
the signal is applied and, thereby, provide considerable amplification
of the received signal.
Regenerative receivers are usually provided with two controls, one
for tuning the receiver and the other for controlling the amount of feed-
back energy. If the feedback is increased beyond a certain value,
sustained oscillations are produced. It is common practice to tune
regenerative receivers while sustained oscillations are being produced,
as the beat frequency produced between the carrier wave of the trans-
mitting station and the locally produced oscillations indicates when the
receiver is properly tuned. This method of tuning is called the "zero-
heat" method as the tuning of the receiver is adjusted so that the beat
note decreases in frequency till it is no longer audible. When a con-
ventional regenerative receiver is tuned in this way, interference is pro-
duced in near -by receivers which are tuned to the same station. A stage
of tuned r-f amplification is sometimes used between the antenna and
the regenerative circuit to reduce the possibility of producing this type
of interference. The regenerative receiver is quite sensitive considering
the number of tubes which are used. It is not very selective since only
a single tuned circuit is generally used. They are now practically
obsolete as broadcast receivers, although they are still used to a limited
extent in marine receivers and in short -wave work.
5. Superregenerative Receivers. A superregenerative receiver is a
regenerative receiver in which sustained oscillations are prevented by
the periodic variation of the effective resistance of the resonant circuit
to which the received signal is applied.
In the superregenerative receiver oscillations are permitted to build
up at a periodic rate in a resonant circuit tuned to the frequency of the
received signal wave. Sustained oscillations in this circuit are prevented
by the application of a quenching frequency potential to the grid of the
superregenerative tube which periodically affects the tube characteristics
in such a way as to stop the oscillations. The quenching frequency may
be supplied either by a separate oscillator or by the superregenerative
tube itself. The audio system of this type of receiver is usually provided
with an a -f filter to remove the quenching frequency from the audio
output. An r -f stage is frequently used ahead of the detector to prevent
See. 131 RECEIVING SYSTEMS 425
energy being transferred from the superregenerative circuit to the

antenna. A signal input of 50 to 100 µv will give an intelligible signal,
although an input of 500 to 1000 µv is generally necessary to reduce the
noise to a satisfactory value. Harmonics of the quench frequency heat-
ing with the received signal make a source of interference if the ratio
between signal and quench frequencies is not 100:1 or more. The
superregenerator is still used in some police automobile installations but
is being replaced by the superheterodyne because of the better signal -to-
noise ratio and selectivity which this receiver provides.
6. Method of Rating. Receiving sets are generally rated on the basis
of the following characteristics: (1) sensitivity; (2) selectivity; (3)
fidelity; (4) overload level; (5) power consumed.
1. The sensitivity is that characteristic which determines to how weak a
signal it is capable of responding. It is measured quantitatively in terms of
the input voltage required to give a standard output.
2. The selectivity is the degree to which the receiver is capable of differenti-
ating between the desired signal and signals of other carrier frequencies.
This characteristic is not expressible by a single numerical value but requires
one or more graphs for its expression.
3. The fidelity of a radio receiver is the degree to which it accurately repro-
duces at its output terminals the signal which is impressed upon it. As
applied to a radio receiver, fidelity is measured by the accuracy of reproduc-
tion at the output terminals of the modulation of the received wave.
4. The overload level of a receiver is the maximum power output which can
be obtained from it when the output voltage does not contain more than
10 per cent of total harmonics.
7. Method of Testing. A standardized method of testing radio
receivers has been established by the Institute of Radio Engineers and
is described in detail in the Year Book of the Institute. The following
is a brief summary of the procedure:
1. Definition of Terma.
a. Sensitivity, selectivity, fidelity, and maximum undistorted output (see
Method of Rating).
h. Normal test output: An a -f power output of 0.5 watt in a standard
dummy load connected across the output terminals of the receiver is the
normal test output of a broadcast radio receiver except when the maximum
power output is less than 1 watt and more than 0.1 watt, in which case the
normal test output is 0.05 watt.
c. Normal radio -input voltage: This term represents the r -un -s r -f voltage
modulated 30 per cent at 400 cycles which results in normal test output at
resonance.
d. Standard test frequencies: In the testing of a broadcast radio receiver,
the seven standard carrier frequencies are 540, 600, 800, 1,000, 1,200, 1,400,
and 1,600 kc. When tests at only three carrier frequencies are required, the
carrier frequencies of 600, 1,000, and 1,400 kc are used.
2. Equipment Required.
a. A signal generator: This consists of a shielded vacuum -tube oscillator
whose frequency can be varied from 500 to 1,600 kc. An a -f oscillator is
provided to modulate the r -f oscillator by a known amount at any frequency
from 40 to 10,000 cycles. A calibrated attenuator is used to impress a known
potential on the standard antenna connected to the receiver. The attenuator
system should be such as to allow a range of voltage impressed on the standard
antenna unit from 1 to 200,000 µv.
b. Standard antenna: The standard antenna for a broadcast radio receiver
not having a self- contained antenna is an antenna having substantially the
same impedance as a series circuit containing a capacity of 200 µµf, a self-

inductance of 20 ph, and a resistance of 25 ohms.
c. Standard dummy load: This is a pure resistance whose value is equal to
the 400 -cycle impedance of the loud -speaker which is supplied with the radio
receiver. The load resistor should be capable of dissipating the maximum
power output of the receiver without an appreciable change in resistance.
An output filter is provided for preventing the flow of d.c. through the load
resistor when testing sets which normally have d.c. in their output circuit.
A vacuum -tube voltmeter or equivalent device is used for determining accur-
ately the r -m -s voltage across the load resistor.
d. Harmonic -measuring circuit: For this purpose a harmonic analyzer
capable of measuring frequencies up to 15.000 cycles is recommended. The
instrument should have sufficient frequency discrimination to measure har-
monics which are 0.5 per cent or less of the fundamental.
3. Teats.
a. Sensitivity: The sensitivity is determined by impressing an r-f voltage.
with 400 cycles, 30 per cent modulation, in series with a standard antenna
and adjusting the intensity of the input voltage until normal test output is
obtained for carrier frequencies between 550 and 1,500 kc.
b. Selectivity: The selectivity of a receiver is determined by tuning it to
each test frequency in succession, with the receiver in the same condition as in
the sensitivity test, and measuring the r.f. necessary to give normal test
output at steps not greater than 10 kc at least up to 100 kc on eithertimesside of
resonance or until the radio-input voltage has increased to 10,000 or
more if the measuring equipment permits.
c. Electric fidelity: This is determined by tuning the radio receiver to each
condition
standard test frequency in succession with the receiver in the samevoltage
as in the sensitivity and selectivity tests, adjusting the impressed to
the normal radio-input voltage and then varying the modulation frequency
from 40 to 10,000 cycles at 30 per cent modulation and constant r-f input
voltage throughout, taking readings of relative output voltage at convenient
modulation frequencies.
4. Additional Tests.
a. Determination of the overload level: This is determined by increasing
in successive steps the r -f input to the receiver (with modulation adjusted
to 30 per cent at 400 cycles) and measuring both the power output and the
percentage harmonics. The overload level of the receiver is the least power
output which contains a total harmonic distortion of 10 per cent (r-m -s
voltage).
b. Volume -control tests: This test is a determination of the effect of the
volume control on the sensitivity, selectivity, and fidelity.
e. Test for hum: For determining the hum voltage, a filter is connected
between the output of the receiver and the voltmeter. This filter has a
characteristic which evaluates the various hum components according to their
quantitative effect on the human ear.
8. Design of Receiving Systems. The majority of receiving sets in
use today are broadcast receivers designed to cover the frequency range
of from 550 to 1,500 kc. The essential electrical elements of a modern
broadcast receiver may be classified as follows:
1. Radio-frequency system.
2. Audio-frequency system.
3. Volume-control system.
4. Power-supply system.
5. Loud- speaker.
9. Radio -frequency System. Antenna -input Systems. The antenna -
input system transfers the signal wave intercepted by the antenna to
Sec. 131 RECEIVING SYSTEMS 427
the grid of the first tube in the receiver. The antenna-input system also
contributes to the over-all performance as follows:
1. One or more t-r -f circuits in the antenna-input system provide selectiv-
ity for the separation of stations as well as the prevention of cross modulation.
2. A reduction in tube noise for a given sensitivity is obtained through the
step -up in voltage provided by the use of tuned circuits in antenna -input
systems.
A typical antenna-input system is illustrated in Fig. 1. Since there is
considerable variation in the characteristics of receiving antennas used,
the value of the antenna -coupling inductance is
chosen so that the antenna system is always tuned
to a frequency below the tuning range of the
receiver. If the antenna circuit becomes resonant
in the tuning range of the receiver, the first tuned
circuit in an unicontrolled receiver will be thrown 114
out of alignment with the remainder of the
receiver and the over -all performance will be Biota
seriously affected. Figure 2 shows the voltage Fio. 1.- Antenna-in-
i
step-up between the antenna and the grid of the put system.
first tube which is obtained from such an arrange-
ment. Two coupled tuned circuits are sometimes used between the
antenna and the grid of the first tube. This reduces the voltage gain to
approximately half that obtained with the single tuned circuit but
c8
o
4. 6
4
600 100 800 900 1000 1100 R00 000 1400 600
Wave Frequency, kilocycles
Fia. 2.- Amplification of input system of Fig. I.
increases the selectivity and therefore reduces the possibility of cross
modulation in the first tube of the receiver. An antenna-input system
is shown in Fig. 3, which provides considerably greater coupling between
the antenna and the first tuned
circuit. This system is employed
in automobile receivers where the
signal intercepted by the antenna is
usually quite small. By connect-
ing a small inductance in series with
0.0066cí = the antenna so that a series -tuned
0 00/2,cef circuit is formed which is resonant
at approximately 2,000 kc, this
system will provide a voltage gain
which varies from 10 at 600 ke, to
r_C 20 at 1,400 kc. Another antenna
Fns. 3.- Closely coupled antenna- input system which
input system. is used exten-
sively in automobile receivers, par-
ticularly those which are designed for a specific car and antenna, is to
connect the antenna to a tap, approximately 30 to 50 per cent on the coil
in the first tuned circuit.
128 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sea 1$
A number of broadcast radio receivers employ a loop antenna. In

this case the loop comprises the inductance in the first tuned circuit. In
some console receivers the loop is rotatable by means of a control on the
front panel of the receiver. In midget -type receivers the position of the
loop is fixed, and it is sometimes necessary to orient the complete receiver
to obtain the maximum signal voltage from a desired station. The direc-
tional properties of the loop antenna can frequently be used to minimize
interference, provided the source of the interference, the station trans-
mitting the desired signal, and the receiver are not in the same plane.
10. Radio -frequency Amplifiers. The types of r-f amplifiers in use
in broadcast receivers may be classified as tuned, fixed -tuned, and
untuned.
Tuned r -f amplifiers are those which amplify a narrow band of frequencies
and are provided with a control by which the position of this hand of fre-
quencies may be moved over a wide frequency range.
Untuned r -f amplifiers are not provided with a tuning control and are
designed to amplify a wide band of frequencies.
Fixed-tuned r -f amplifiers are those which pass a narrow band of frequencies
and whose resonant frequency is not varied with the tuning of the receiver.
The i -f amplifier of a superheterodyne receiver is an amplifier of this type.
11. Single -tuned Circuit T -r -f Amplifiers. The selectivity and
amplification which can he obtained from a conventional t-r -f amplifier
stage are a function of the effective resistance of the tuned circuit used
in the interstage transformer. Since the selectivity provided by a
t -r-f amplifier cannot be increased beyond a certain limit without serious
attenuation of the high modulation frequencies, the useful amplification
which can be obtained from an amplifier stage is therefore limited.
The selectivity and amplification which a t-r -f amplifier will provide
can be calculated. From a practical standpoint of receiver design,
however, it usually requires less time and is more accurate to determine
the characteristics of a particular transformer experimentally by labora-
tory measurements since a determination of the effective resistance
of the tuned circuit is necessary even if the characteristics of the trans-
former are to he calculated. It is likewise difficult to take into considera-
tion the effects of regeneration and the proximity of shielding, etc., in a
mathematical consideration of r -f transformer characteristics. The
ratio of reactance to effective resistance or
wL /R of the tuned circuits used in r-f trans -
a formers for broadcast receivers is usually be-
mh tween 75 and 150 throughout the broadcast
siof frequency range. The diameter of the coils
MB
4" &,s used in the t -r-f circuits of broadcast receivers
varies from 32 to 1 in. and the size of the
Fla. 4. -T -r -f interstage copper wire used for winding the coils is usually
transformer. between Nos. 20 and 35 B. & S., the larger wire
being used in the short -wave coils of "all-wave" receivers. Litz wire and
cores molded of finely divided iron particles are frequently used to im-
prove the Q of t -r-f transformer coils. The position of the core within
the coil is usually variable so that the inductance of the coil can be
adjusted to a desired value.
Considerable shielding is required in screen -grid r -f amplifiers to
prevent coupling between circuit elements and wiring which may likewise
Sec. 1E1 RECEIVING SYSTEMS 429
cause oscillations. It is common practice to locate the grid circuits and
plate circuits associated with each tube in separate metal compartments
to prevent coupling between them.
Figure 4 illustrates the type of t-r-f transformer which is used in the
majority of broadcast receivers. The primary of the transformer is a
small "universal- wound" coil which is either wound on a form of small
diameter so that it can be mounted inside the secondary or is wound
directly on the end of the same form as the secondary. The secondary
is wound on a piece of tubing made of bakelite or some similar material.
The primary is coupled electromagnetically to the secondary. The
amplification and selectivity characteristics obtained with this trans-
former when used with an r -f pentode, having a transconductance of
1,000 micromhos, are shown in Fig. 5.
Kilocycles Off Resonance
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 IO 20 30 40 50
l00
800
Kilocycles Off Resonance
a
É
=I/l'1\\
° 600
,/-,,.
soo /ILL 1000
80
60
25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
. 300 g
6
40
zoo !:1 20
+
k
e 100
40
30
ilL É
ÿ
á
1á
4
20 3
500 600 700 800 9001000 1100 12801300 1400
Wave Frequency, kilocyc le s 2
Fla. 5.- Characteristics of trans- Fia. 6.- Selectivity comparison of
former in Fig. 4. single and coupled tuned circuit_
12. Coupled Tuned -circuit T -r -f Amplifiers. A number of broad-
cast receivers use one or more transformers in which two tuned circuits
are used. The two circuits are coupled near the point of critical coupling.
The advantage obtained through the use of this type of transformer is
that a considerable improvement is obtained in the shape of the selec-
tivity characteristic. Figure 6 illustrates this improvement. Curve a
shows the characteristic obtained with two coupled tuned circuits, and
curve b shows the characteristic obtained with two similar tuned circuits
in cascade. The width of the top of the resonance curve of a coupled
tuned-circuit transformer depends on the coupling between the two
circuits. The flatness of the top of the curve depends on the effec-
tive resistance of the tuned circuits. By using slightly greater than
critical coupling at the -f end of the broadcast range and less at the h -f
1
end of the range, the selectivity of this type of transformer can be made
more uniform over the broadcast range than one using a single tuned
430 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 1s
circuit. Figure 7 shows the selectivity characteristic obtained from a

transformer of this type. The voltage gain provided by a coupled tuned -
Kilocycles Off Resonance circuit t-r-f transformer is approxi-
16s0 -40 -30 -20 -lo to 20 30 40 50 mately one -half that which can be
obtained from a transformer using
80
a single tuned circuit.
60 13. Untuned R -f Amplifiers.
SO A stage of untuned r -f amplifi-
40 cation is sometimes used in re-
w 30 ceivers where additional gain is
\
É desired without the need for the
a 20 additional selectivity which would
4a
s
cr 1o.
be provided by a stage of t-r -f
amplification. Figure 8 shows an
untuned amplifier stage which has
e
6
/ -/MIli MIEN.
Fia. 7.- Selectivity characteristics
been used in broadcast receivers.
A tube in this amplifier stage will
provide a gain of approximately 6
throughout the broadcast fre-
of coup ed tuned- circuit t-r -f trans- quency hand; 4.5 at 5 Mc and 1.5
former. at 15 Mc.
14. The i -f amplifier in a superheterodyne is the major factor in
determining the receiver sensitivity and selectivity.
Modern superheterodyne receivers use an i.f. at or near either 175 or
455 kc. One hundred seventy -five kilocycles is used to a limited extent
in receivers which are designed to cover only the tuning range from
/01ch
+B
Flo. 8.- Untuned r -f stage.
550 to 1,500 kc, while 455 kc is used in receivers whose .tuning range
includes the international short-wave hands. Nearly all i -f amplifiers
make use of transformers employing two coupled tuned circuits. The
selectivity characteristic provided by a transformer of this type may be
made substantially fiat- topped if the coupling between the two 'tuned
circuits is adjusted to near the critical value.
The two characteristics which are given the most consideration in the
design of an i -f amplifier are gain and selectivity. These characteristics may
either he calculated or determined experimentally. The gain in a coupled
tuned -circuit i -f stage with both circuits tuned to resonance is equal to
E1 ,.M 1
E: = S., X tirs + ,,2M2 X ,r'C5C2
The selectivity characteristic may be determined by
M I
IEiI = S X riro - 4Q1Q:B= + /s(Q, + Q2)BJ + ,..2M2 X ,02C1C2
where E, is the voltage developed across the secondary of the transformer;
E2 is the voltage applied to the grid of the amplifier tube; S., is the trans -
conductance of the amplifier tube; M is the mutual inductance between
primary and secondary; ri and rs are the effective series resistances of the
primary and secondary; Q1 and Qs are the .L/r of the primary and secondary,
-
respectively; B is (j fo) /fo, where Jo is the common resonant frequency and
f is any other frequency; and C1 and C2 are the primary and secondary
capacities.
To obtain maximum gain in an i-f amplifier stage, the L/C ratio should
he the maximum which will give the desired frequency stability. If the
L/C ratio of the tuned circuits is made too high, the variations in the
inter-electrode capacity of the tubes may cause a serious misalignment of
the tuned circuits. The capacity used to Frequency, kilocyces
tune the intermediate frequency circuits lss lbo 165 no s lao les 190 195
is therefore seldom less than 30 or 40 pa.
i
loo
The width of the frequency hand which
a coupled tuned-circuit transformer will
e0
\
1
pass is controlled by the coupling between
the two tuned circuits and the effective
SO
40 /'
30
resistance of the circuits. If increasing
the coupling between the circuits until .. 20
transformer pusses the
uenc band causes the to
quency
fre-
top of the !
i /
selectivity characteristic to become É lo =I
double-peaked; it can be made flat by s G11i
zzaw=
l o
increasing the effective resistance of one - 6 Nruz

'
'
or both of the tuned circuits. To obtain 9 á

wig
!
iii '6
3`
ó
the same selectivity characteristic in kilo- ü4 é
w
the tuned circuits must be approximately

2.5 times as great. To secure compact
2 oz
c
tuned circuits having the Q required (80 to
100) to give satisfactory selectivity at 455 0.1ß
ke, the coils are frequently wound in quency F G. 9.- Intermediate -tre-
sections using Litz wire. A two-to-one tics: Curve se ectiv ty characteris-
A, one stage; curve
improvement in the Q of coils suitable for a B, three stages.
455-kc i -f transformer can generally be
obtained through the use of cores molded of finely divided iron particles
and an insulating binder.
A typical i -f transformer consists of two universal -wound coils assem-
bled on an insulating support such as a wooden rod or piece of bakelite
tubing. These two coils constitute the inductive elements of two tuned
coupled circuits. One of the tuned circuits is connected in the plate
circuit of the amplifier tube and the other in the grid circuit of the suc-
ceeding tube, The electromagnetic coupling between these circuits
ie determined by the spacing between the coils. The tubing or rod on

which the coils are wound is mounted on a plate of insulating material
such as porcelain or isolantite. On this plate are frequently mounted
two small adjustable condensers that are used to tune the two coupled
tuned circuits. Care must be exercised in the design of these condensers
to ensure that the capacity of the condensers remains constant after
adjustment. In another design fixed condensers are used, and each
circuit is tuned by adjusting the position of a molded iron core associated
with each coil. The entire transformer assembly is enclosed in a metal
container which serves both to protect the unit and shield it electrically.
The selectivity characteristic provided by a typical 175-kc i -f trans-
former is shown in curve A (Fig. 9). These characteristics are also
representative of the best 455-ke transformers. A voltage amplification
of several hundred can readily be obtained with a single i -f transformer
and a modern r -f pentode having a transconductance in excess of 1,500.
The voltage gain for the usual i -f amplifier, consisting of three trans-
formers and two amplifier tubes, when measured from the grid of the first
detector to the grid of the second detector is usually from 15,000 to
30,000. The voltage gain in the amplifiers using two transformers and
one amplifier tube is 10,000 or less. The amplification in the three -
transformer amplifiers is usually held considerably below the optimum
value to prevent instability.
15. Frequency Converters. In a superheterodyne receiver the
received signal wave is changed to a signal wave of an i.f. This change is
accomplished through the medium of a frequency converter, which con-
sists of a detector and variable -frequency oscillator. The detector is
frequently called the first detector owing to its position in the circuit.
In some receivers the first detector is a negatively biased r-f pentode
and operates due to the curvature of the E0-1,, characteristic. The
received signal voltage and a voltage from the local oscillator are both
impressed on the grid of this detector. The heat-frequency potential
produced by the rectification of these two currents is impressed on a tuned
circuit connected in the plate circuit of the detector. The majority of
receivers, however, employ a pentagrid converter as the combined oscil-
lator and first detector. The coupling between the oscillator and first
detector, when this tube is used, is obtained through the electron stream
in the tube. The reaction frequently encountered with two -tube fre-
quency converters that employ electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling
between the oscillator and first detector circuits is thus avoided. This
freedom from direct coupling between the oscillator and first detector
resulting from the use of a pentagrid converter makes it possible to
prevent the radiation of the oscillator energy by the antenna system
without employing an r-f amplifier stage ahead of the first detector.
The efficiency of a frequency converter is a function of the conversion
transconductance of the tube employed as the first detector. Conver-
sion transconductance is defined as the ratio of the i -f current through
the i -f transformer primary in the plate circuit of the first detector to the
r-f signal applied to its grid. The conversion transconductance of a
typical pentagrid converter is generally somewhat higher than that
obtained from an r-f pentode used as a first detector and may vary from
300 to 500 micromhos, depending on the potentials applied to the several
electrodes.
See. 13) RECEIVING SYSTEMS 433
In several receivers a separate oscillator tube is used in conjunction
with a pentagrid converter. Greater flexibility in the design the
oscillator circuits is thus permitted since the separate tube has of con-
siderably higher transconductance than the triode portion of the apenta-
dgrid converter. This advantage is particularly important in receivers
esigned to cover frequency ranges up to 30 Mc owing to the difficulty
of obtaining a stable oscillator with the desired output
and frequency
stability at such frequencies.
The major problems in the design of the frequency converter for a
unicontrolled superheterodyne receiver are:
1. To maintain a constant- frequency difference between the oscillator
r -f circuits. and
2. To minimize variations in the oscillator frequency with variations
the supply voltage and variations in tubes, etc. in
3. To maintain a constant oscillator voltage on the detector grid throughout
the tuning range of the receiver.
4. To minimize radiation from the oscillator in order to prevent interfer-
ence in near-by receivers.
16. Methods of Maintaining Constant- frequency Difference. Three
methods have been used to maintain a constant -frequency difference
between the oscillator and first detector in unicontrolled superheterodyne
receivers.
The first method makes use of straight -line- frequency
requires that the oscillator rotor be displaced with respect tocondensers and
the r -f circuit
rotors by an amount sufficient to give the proper frequency difference.
arrangement has the disadvantage that the useful tuning range of the This
densers is reduced by the amount that the rotors are displaced. For con- this
reason this method cannot be used where the i.f. is high.
The second method uses a gang condenser in which the oscillator condenser
plates have a special shape. This method of oscillator and t-r -f circuit
alignment is not suitable for use in all -wave receivers which cover several
wave bands but is frequently used in receivers which cover only the normal
broadcast frequency range.
The third method makes use of condensera of equal capacity for both the
t-r -f and oscillator circuits. This method is used exclusively in all -wave
receivers and in many receivers which cover only the
normal broadcast frequency range. It is suitable
for an i.f. of either 175 kc or 455 kc. The con-
stant- frequency difference between the t-r-f and
oscillator circuits is obtained through the use of a
combination of shunt and series condensers in the
oscillator circuit. The oscillator in superhetero-
dyne receivers is generally tuned to a higher fre-
quency than the t-r -f circuits, since a smaller
percentage change in frequency is required and a
smaller change in capacity is therefore necessary to Cß B
produce the desired variation in the oscillator fre- Fib. 10.- Typical
quency. The oscillator tuning inductance is there- superheterodyne oscil-
fore smaller than that of the r -f circuits, and its lator circuit.
value is such that the correct frequency difference
between the oscillator and t.r.f is obtained at the middle of the tuning range
with equal capacity in each circuit. The combination of shunt and series
condensers used in the tuned oscillator circuit maintains the
ence constant throughout the tuning range of the receiver. frequency differ-
different com-
bination of shunt and series condensers is used with each Atuning range in
all -wave receivers.
These condensers are shown in Fig. 10. Condenser A is the main

tuning condenser. Condenser B is the fixed -series capacity. Condenser
C is a small adjustable condenser for accurately adjusting the total series
capacity. Condenser D is the small adjustable shunt condenser.
Typical values to maintain a frequency difference of 175 kc are as
follows:
Main tuning capacity A 15-350 ppf
T -r-f tuning inductance 270 ph
Oscillator tuning inductance 215 ph
Fixed -series capacity B 750 ppf
Adjustable- series capacity C 15 -70 ppf
Adjustable -shunt capacity D 5 -40 ppt
The equations for calculating the circuit constants in a system of this

type are given in Sec. 6.
Figure 10 shows a typical oscillator circuit used in superheterodyne
receivers. It will be noted that the tube is connected across only a por-
tion of the tuned circuit so as to minimize the effect of tube variations on
the oscillator frequency.
17. Tone Controls. A considerable number of broadcast receivers are
equipped with a h -f tone control, which
is a device that enables the user of a
-- O receiver to vary the over-all fidelity
characteristic of the receiver. The
usual tone control operates on some
portion of the a -f system in such a
j1ARSµ
manner as to vary the h -f response.
Figure 11 shows the most general method
Fla. 11.-Tone-control circuit. of accomplishing this result. In re-
ceivers employing resistance-coupled amplifier stages, the variable RC
combination is shunted across the plate load resistor.
The advantages of a h-f tone control are as follows:
1. Noise encountered when receiving distant stations can be reduced con-
siderably by decreasing the h-f response of a receiver through the use of a
tone control.
2. All broadcast transmitters do not have the same fidelity characteristics
and a tone control permits the user to compensate for some of these variations.
3. The frequency-response characteristic of the ear varies with the intensity
of the sound. A tone control compensates for this characteristic.
A 1 -f tone control is used in some receivers so that -f interference can
1
be minimized. Such interference can be caused by a -f hum on the 1
0.2Spf
0.025,,uf
- /SIt
1 }B C
Fla. 12.- Low -frequency tone control.
carrier wave of a transmitter or by the beat note between two trans-
mitters operating on the same channel. The intelligibility of the speech
See. 131 RECEIVING SYSTEMS 435
reproduced by a broadcast receiver is frequently improved by decreasing
the receiver's l -f response. Figure 12 shows a l -f tone control which has
been used in broadcast receivers. A switch having two or more positions
is sometimes used instead of the potentiometer.
13.- Tone-compensated volume control.

Acoustically Compensated Volume Control. A volume -control arrange-
ment has been used in a number of broadcast receivers in which the over-
all frequency-response characteristic of the receiver varies with the audio
output level. This type of volume control has been called an acoustically
11Il1
compensated volume control and is intended to compensate for the variation
in the frequency-response characteristic of the ear with amplitude.
1
MIMI
.11111 1111
1
ì
1
11111
11132 1111
1111
1111
1
1
°a
NUM
7°°11111
..CA,AI.C4
I o.o2w.PbnerA,tpr,r,r
. ,. . ,.
g BINI 11111 JQSOw.

2.SOw.
s/aoow. -
. _
-
.
- -
1ü11l3
1a111
ERR
til/IR40-¢
IdI/,r/,a1r11
iir/,IISI\IlM
11111
111111
ooW%%/R1\\`àl11I11
1111
11111
1
111111 Il
/%i1KIC\MIII No. WM, -
11101111
MOM
;a1111111 EN
requency in Cycles per second
--,11I]
14.- Variation of -f and h-f response with volume.
1
Reducing the audio output of a receiver to a low value with a typical

volume- control system gives the listener the impression that the very low
and high frequencies have been attenuated and the middle frequency
range has been correspondingly accentuated. The acoustically com-
pensated volume control was devised to correct this effect. Figure 13
shows one of the arrangements which has been used to accomplish this
result. This volume-control system makes use of a resonant circuit
which attenuates the middle frequency range more than the high and low
type of
frequencies when the audio output is reduced. The effect of this relation
control is illustrated by the curves in Fig. 14, which show the of the
between the audio output and frequency-response characteristic
receiver. The 1-f compensation shown by these curves was used, not
only to compensate for the variation in the frequency-response character-
istic of the ear with amplitude, but also to correct for the acoustic
deficiencies of the cabinet in which the receiver was installed. Since a
definite relation should exist between the audio output level and the fre-
quency- response characteristic of a receiver equipped with anoutput
acoustically
for a
compensated volume control, it is necessary that the audio
given setting of the volume control be substantially independent of the
strength of the received signal. Some form of a.v.c. is necessary to meet
this requirement.
18. Volume -control System. The two types of volume control which
are used in broadcast receivers are manual and automatic.
The control of volume in both types is generally accomplished by vary-
ing the transconductance of the amplifier tubes through a change in the
potential applied to the control
grids. This method makes it possi-
ble to apply volume control to a
Cathode
Cathode'To Other Volume number of tubes simultaneously
Bias Tubes using a single potentiometer or
variable resistor. The source of
the variable control grid potential
does not need to supply power which
is a prerequisite of any simple a-v -e
system.
Serious distortion and cross mod-
ulation may be introduced through
the use of this type of volume con-
trol if an amplifier tube is biased
forbade fro off er Wane
near the cutoff point and the applied
signal potential is large. This dis-
a a5 'Controlled
ro//edTcdu
tortion and cross modulation are
tb/ome functions of the third and higher
derivatives of the Es- In character-
FIG. 15.- Volume -control circuits. istic of the tube. To minimize this
distortion, it is advisable to proportion the volume-control potential
applied to the grid of the individual tubes inversely with the signal
voltage on each tube. The use of remote cutoff amplifier tubes is desirable
in a control -grid -bias volume -control system which must take care of a
wide variation in the strength of received signals. Two arrangements
which are frequently used to obtain manual volume control are illustrated
by Fig. 15.
19. Automatic Volume Control. Automatic volume control is used
almost universally in broadcast receivers. It has the advantage that
irrespec-
practically the same audio output is obtained from the receiverstation
tive of the input. This is an advantage in tuning from one strength to
another where a considerable difference exists in the relative field some of
of the stations. It also has the advantage of compensating for
the more serious effects of fading. Automatic volume controlentire also
makes the manual adjustment of vol less critical since the
range of the manual control is used only to vary the actual audio output.
With the manual type of volume control, only a small fraction of the total
variation of the control may be required to change the sound output from
minimum to maximum. The manual type of control is therefore likely
to be very critical to adjust.
Figure 16 shows a typical a-v -c- arrangement. In this
component of the rectified output of a detector ii# usedsystem the d-c
control grid bias for the r-f and i -f amplifier tubes. A single additional
as
tube per-
forms the dual function of providing the control grid bias and demodulat-
Det and4.V'C. /sí. A-F
&as N
Cathode
Amp/iffier
Tubes
Fla. 16.- Combination
detector -volume- control tube circuit.
ing the received signal. The output level is controlled varying the
audio amplification. For the receiver to reproduce by faithfully
dynamic range of a received program, the rectifier from which the a-vthe -e
control potential is derived must have a substantially linear input-output
characteristic. A diode rectifier, with a load resistance of several
hundred thousand ohms, provides a rectifier that is sufficiently linear.
Response and Recovery Characteristic. A resistance- capacity filter is
usually used in the output circuit
r
of an a-v-c rectifier. This filter 140ß10 2nd. /200
prevents the a -f components in NO-220 /`/`f Q25fci
the output circuit of the rectifier . Hba f
from being applied to the f ù
fier grids. The time constant of
the a-v -c rectifier output circuit Q
should he such that the lowest
modulation frequencies will not
cause variations in the amplifier
grid bias. It should not be so
slow, how e v e r, as to give a
noticeable delay when the sys-
tem recovers from a crash of
static. A time constant he- Fi`'. i .__Avoiding detector distortion.
tween o and sec. is usually considered satisfactory.
20. Delayed Automatic Volume Control. The system illustrated by
Fig. 18 is an example of delayed a.v.c. in which no control potential
derived until the signal level at the a-v -c rectifier has reached a predeter
mined value. The control grid of the double -diode triode is directly con-
nected to the diode output resistor so that its bias becomes more negative
with an increase in the amplitude of the signal applied to the diode.
I For description of Chie circuit see Art. 48. p. 455.
When no signal is applied to the diode, the control grid is at cathode

potential and a d -e drop of between 50 and 100 volts occurs across the
cathode resistor. The diode anode A is connected through a suitable
resistor to the plate -supply system at a point sufficiently negative with
respect to the cathode to give the desired delay. When a signal is applied
to the signal diode, the control grid becomes negative and the drop across
the cathode resistor decreases. When
the amplitude of the received signal
exceeds the predetermined level, the
cathode of the tube becomes negative
with respect to the anode A, and current
flows through resistor It' causing an
increase in the negative bias on the
amplifier grids.
21. Selectivity Ahead of A -v -c Sys-
tem. In some receivers employing a
separate a-v -e rectifier, this rectifier
Cathode P/ale is connected to a point in the receiver
ibrAmplifier Tubes which is preceded byof less selectivity
than is used ahead the audio de-
FIG. 18.- Double -diode triode as tector. The advantage of this system
a -v-e. tube. is that, when the receiver is tuned off
resonance with a desired signal, the noise which is normally encountered
is reduced. Under this condition the a-v -c potential is proportionately
greater than the signal potential at the audio detector, and the receiverif
sensitivity and audio output are less than would have been obtained
the same selectivity was used ahead of the a -v-c rectifier and audio
detector. This difference in selectivity should not exceed 10:1, otherwise
the reduction in sensitivity, when tuned off resonance from a strong
signal, will he so great as to prevent the reception of a weak signal on the
adjacent channel.
22. Biasing the Amplifier Tubes at Different Rates. To minimize the
l
type of distortion frequently encountered in volume -control systems due
to the curvature of the Er characteristic, it is desirable to proportion
the volume-control grid bias for each amplifier tube inversely as the signal
potential applied to the tube. The method generally used for approxi-
mating this relation is to provide one or more taps on the a-v-c bias
resistor. The r-f amplifier tube is connected to the resistor; hence the
entire potential drop is applied to its grid. The i -f amplifier tubes are .
connected to the tap or taps on the resistor so that they receive one -half
or less of the total a -v-c voltage.
23. Separate Channel or Parallel A -v -s Systems. In some receivers
a separate i -f amplifier stage is used to feed the a-v -c diode. The use of
the separate channel, which is usually designed to have higher gain a.v.c than
the normal signal channel, makes it possible to provide a delayed also
having a very flat characteristic. The use of the separate channelin
makes it easy to provide less selectivity in the a -v-c channel than the
signal channel and still provide a high signal voltage at the a -v-c rectifier.
Another expedient which can be used with the separate channelofa-vthe -c
system to give a very flat a-v -c characteristic is to apply a part the
a-v -c potential to the amplifier tube in the signal channel followingCare
point at which the additional a -v-c amplifier tube is connected. to an
must be exercised in determining the control potential to be applied
See. 13J RECEIVING SYSTEMS 439
amplifier stage following the point in the normal signal channel from
which the control potential is derived. If the control potential applied
to such a stage is too great, the a -v-c system may be overcompensated
and the receiver output may actually decrease as the strength of a
received signal increases. Figure 19 illustrates an a-v -c system employ-
ing a separate amplifier stage. In this arrangement a portion of the
Fla. 19.- Amplified a -v-c arrangement.

control potential is applied to the signal amplifier tube subsequent to the
point to which the separate a-v -c amplifier tube is connected.
24. Tuning Indicators. The majority of console radio receivers are
provided with a tuning indicator which enables the user of the receiver to
tune it accurately by eye to a desired station. The visual indication of
resonance is usually obtained 28
through the use of a 6U5 or PrillI.....
similar electronic device in s24
which the shape of the pattern 20
on a fluorescent screen is con- .
trolled by the potential applied 16

to one of the device's electrodes. Ell
The control potential in the
majority of receivers is ob- 8
tained from the a-v -c system. S. 4
Receivers designed to pass a
wide frequency band, such as a , 10 50 00 500 1000 Ì000o0
high fidelity receivers, are Rod* Frequency MI ovolts(R.M.S)atF'rstRFGid
usually provided with a special Flo. 20. -Auto m a ti e volume- control
control circuit which is much characteristic.
more selective than the normal signal channel. This selective control
circuit is tuned to the center of the i -f pass hand, and the deflection
of the pattern on the fluorescent screen of the 6U5 thus accurately indi-
cates when the receiver is in resonance with a desired signal.
25. Noise in Receiving Systems. The source of the noise which is
frequently obtained in the output circuit of a receiving system may either
be located external to or within the receiving system. The two general
sources of noise which are external to the receiver are as follows:
440 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK ¡See. 13
1. Atmospheric static.
2. Man -made static.
'l'he expedients which are employed in receiving systems to minimize
noise due to these types of interference without sacrificing the fidelity
of the system are to employ an antenna system which will provide as
favorable a signal -to -noise ratio as possible and to use sufficient shielding
on the receiver chassis to prevent the noise being picked up by the receiver
circuits.
The two chief sources of noise which are located within a receiving
system are thermal agitation and shot effect.
Thermal- agitation noise is due to the random motion of the electrons within
a conductor. The noise voltage introduced into a circuit by this cause may
be calculated from the equation,
e2 = 5.49 X 10-S2TZ df
where i2 = mean square thermal -agitation voltage

T = absolute temperature of the conductor (273 + °C.)
Z = resistance of the conductor or the resonant impedance of a tuned
circuit
df = frequency band width factor.
The number of electrons emitted by the cathode emission of a thermionic tube
varies from instant to instant, and this variation inpass. introduces a
voltage in the circuit through which these electrons This variation in
electron emission has been called shot effect.
The following equation gives the voltage introduced in a circuit by this
cause:
E2 = 3.18 X 10-19122 df
where É2 = mean- square shot- effect voltage (without charge)
I = electron current
Z = resonant impedance of the tuned circuit
df = frequency band width factor.
The space charge obtained in a vacuum tube under normal operating
conditions reduces the shot-effect voltage to about one-half the above
value.
The thermal- agitation and shot -effect noise found in the output circuit
of a receiver usually originates in the grid and plate circuits, respectively,
of the first tube. Where the gain in this tube is very low, the second tube
may also contribute to the noise.
Since both types of noise are introduced as a series of pulses, the
circuits in which the noise is introduced are excited at the frequency
to which they are tuned.
The shot-effect voltage developed in the plate circuit of a tube varies the
in proportion to the square root of the plate current. Chanl5ingratio
plate load impedance has no direct effect on the signalgain -to -noise
since both factors are changed in the same ratio. High in the first
tube with low plate current is therefore desirable to minimize shot -effect
noise.
Thermal-agitation noise varies as the square root of the impedance
across which the noise is developed. The merit of may an antenna-input
system from the thermal -agitation noise standpoint be expressed
as the ratio of g /N/Z, where g is the voltage gain between the antenna
and the grid of the first tube and Z is the effective impedance in the grid
circuit of this tube.
26. Complete Receiving System. The usual broadcast receiver con-
sists of the following elements:
1. The receiver chassis.
2. The loud -speaker.
3. The cabinet.
In the majority of receivers the r -f, i -f, a -f, and power supply circuits
are assembled as a single unit. In a few receivers the power supply
rectifier and filter system and the power output tubes are mounted on a
separate base.
The tuning condenser in a large number of broadcast receivers is
flexibly mounted, with respect to the chassis, by means of soft rubber
washers. The complete chassis in many receivers is also flexibly mounted
in the cabinet. These precautions are used to prevent acoustic feed-
back in receivers which are capable of producing a high power output.
Acoustic feedbacks are caused by the loud- speaker vibrations being
transmitted through the cabinet to the receiver chassis and thence to
tuning condenser or some other circuit element which is caused to vibrate
sufficiently to intermittently detune the receiver at an a-f rate. If the
proper phase relations exist between the loud-speaker vibrations and the
variations in signal intensity which result from the vibration of the con-
denser plates, sustained oscillations may he produced.
27. Shielding and Filtering. It is common practice to confine the
r -f and i -f circuits in metal containers which provide both electromagnetic
and electrostatic shielding. Tube shields are used with "glass" type
tubes to prevent coupling between tubes and between the grid and plate
portions of individual tubes. When metal tubes are used, these shields
are not required. In some instances shielded leads are used to provide the
connections to the grids or plates of amplifier tubes, but in general the
necessity for such shielding is avoided by so locating these leads that they
are electrically isolated by the tube shields and the metal containers for
the r-f and i -f circuits.
Care must be exercised in locating the power transformer and filter
reactor on the receiver chassis, otherwise the electromagnetic field
produced by these units may induce an appreciable hum voltage in the
a -f circuits. It is desirable to keep these units separated from the
a -f circuits as much as possible, and it is frequently necessary to deter-
mine experimentally the best location for these components by connecting
them into the circuit with flexible leads and orienting them until a position
is established which reduces the hum to the desired minimum.
Resistance- capacity filters are frequently used in the voltage supply
leads for the tube electrodes. These filters are employed to prevent
coupling between points in the system which differ in signal potential
and to provide additional filtering for the voltage fluctuations which
may exist at the output of the B supply filter. The d-c drop which can
be tolerated in a given circuit is frequently a limiting factor in the use of
such filters. When r-c filters are used in circuits in which the average
current varies during the operation of the receiver, it is essential that the
recovery characteristic of the filter he such that the voltage on the
electrode can return to its normal value in approximately %0 sec., other-
wise noticeable interruptions in the received program will be obtained
when sudden changes in the average current occur. This problem is

most frequently encountered when r-c filters are used in the plate or
screen circuits of tubes which are controlled by the a-v-c system.
28. Loud -speaker. The electrodynamic loud-speaker is used in sub-
stantially all the broadcast receivers which are produced today. fulfill
29. Cabinet. The cabinet for a broadcast radio receiver must
three requirements:
1. It must house and protect the receiver chassis and loud -speaker
mechanism.
2. It must provide sufficient baffle area for the loud- speaker to give the
desired l -f response.
3. It must serve as a piece of furniture which will harmonize with the
furnishings in the room in which it is to be placed.
30. Single -dial Tuning Problem. One of the major problems in the
design of a unicontrolled broadcast receiver is the maintenance of the
proper alignment of the tuned circuits throughout the broadcast fre-
quency range. To maintain
such alignment normally re-
quires that the inductances
and variable condensers he
made very uniform. It is com-
I
mon practice to sort the coils
in groups so that the variation
in inductance between them is
less than 0.5 per cent. Coils
I are also employed which are
wound in two sections, such as
a and b in Fig. 21. One or
Fia. 21.- Method of varying inductance more of the turns in section a
slightly for tracking purposes. can be moved with respect to
section h so as to increase or decrease the spacing between the tuo coil
sections. The total inductance of the coil can thereby be adjusted to
any desired value. Adjustable iron cores are used in some receivers to
give the coils the desired inductance values.
31. Push -button Tuning Controls. The majority of automobile radio
receivers and a large number of home receivers are equipped with push-
button tuning controls. Three general types of push -button tuning
arrangements have been used.
The first type makes use of separate tuned circuits for each push
button. These circuits are tuned to the desired station by variable
condensers or variable iron -core inductances which are provided with
screw- driver adjustments. The push buttons operate switches which
select the groups of tuned circuits that have been pretuned to the desired
station. The number of stations which can he tuned in on such a
receiver is limited to the number of push buttons and groups of tuned
circuits.
The second type of push- button tuning control makes use of a gang
condenser so that the receiver can be tuned continuously through the
entire frequency range covered by the receiver. The push -button tuning
is accomplished by dams which rotate the gang condenser to the proper
position to tune in the desired station. The cams are generally semi-
circular or U- shaped. When a push button is depressed, the top edge
Sec. 13] RECEIVING SYSTEMS 443
of one leg of the U is brought in contact with a rocking plate which is
geared to the rotor of the condenser. As the push button is further
depressed, the cam causes the condenser rotor and the plate to rotate until
the other leg of the U also comes in contact with the plate. The U- shaped
cams are held in a clamping arrangement which permits easy adjustment
to any position which will cause a desired station to be tuned in. In some
receivers a solenoid is used to supply the force which causes the cam to
rotate the gang condenser to the desired position. In this case the only
function of the push button is to select the cam and close the electrical
circuit through the solenoid. This arrangement is likewise suitable for
ganged iron -core tuning.
In a third type of push- button tuning control a gang condenser is also
used, but the condenser is rotated by an electric motor. The push
button makes contact with a slip ring attached to the condenser rotor
shaft and closes the circuit through the motor. When a push button is
depressed, the condenser rotates until an insulated segment on the slip
ring opens the circuit. The angular displacement between the insulated
segment on slip ring and the condenser rotor can be adjusted so that any
desired station can be tuned in. This type of push -button tuning control
is frequently used to provide remote tuning control. The remote-control
unit with the required number of push buttons is connected to the receiver
through a multiconductor cable.
R. F Bolhcin view Output
6K7 /SOn 25L6 -6
tubesothm
ß01/4f
J ,ls 0.015 3.5.
- - ec. - - C ,),..Auf ...

3 R-400 tot S/op2+
510p /1I00
144, /SOn
1 01pf fcicf V ci
Cha. '
/54000n
SI (On mlcwrhro/) total Fie/.
O.OS_
pT
ww. I Do not connect ground
-+ 190n (in power cord) to chassis
Fla. 22.- Typical t-r-f receiver.
32. Tuned -radio- frequency Receivers. Tuned r-f receivers are no
longer produced except as the least expensive receivers of the midget
type. Figure 22 shows the schematic diagram of a typical receiver.
33. Superheterodyne Receivers. The ease of obtaining high amplifi-
cation and a high degree of selectivity with a minimum of shielding allows
considerable flexibility in the design of a superheterodyne receiver.
Sufficient amplification can be obtained in the r-f and i-f circuits so that a
detector and single stage of a -f amplification are sufficient to provide the
desired sensitivity. The general tendency in the design of superhetero-
444 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 1E
dyne receivers has been to take advantage of the high degree of sacrifice selectivity
in
which this type of receiver can provide at a corresponding
fidelity. The superheterodyne receiver, however, lends itself just as well
of coupled
to the design of a high -fidelity receiver since the advantages
tuned circuits can readily be realized in this type of receiver. selec-
34. Superheterodyne Characteristics. The adjacent -channel readily
tivity and fidelity of a superheterodyne receiver can he determined
from the characteristics of the individual components of the receiver. each tube.
Figure 23 shows the gain from the antenna to the grid ofcontributed
Figure 24 shows similar curves giving the total selectivity
by the tuned circuits between the
4,
101
6
3
AuÌáAmp.P fejopk,k
Audio
I
antenna and the grid of each
tube. To obtain the curves in
Fig. 24, the selectivity curves of
the individual circuits are plot -
ted to the same scale on re pl h-
mit coordinates. The over -all
II((
ä I0ó Ind Ae ctprGrid selectivity characteristic curves

e are then obtained by laying off
u e for each frequency a distance
W c I I I I which is equal to the sum of the
42 t pow= distances which represent the
ordinates of the individual se-
! to lectivity characteristics for the
same frequency. From these
4
Isllnkrmjale Orid __ two sets of curves (Figs. 23 and
fl
termine the
determine
24) it is possible to deof
° 200 voltage on the grid each tube
3 from a local station when the
=v
E
l02
111 / Detector CO receiver is tuned to s. distant
station on an adjacent channel.
so
Such a determination is fre-
quently desirable in this type of
Rf. imp.Grid receiver where the selectivity
T contributed by the circuits be-
Anfenrra
tween each tube is not uniform.
10"
1500
This relation between gain and
selectivity between each tube
500 100 900 IMO 1300
F equency.kilocycles
must be properly proportioned;
Fig. 23.- %oltage gain in superhetero- otherwise, the signal from a local
dyne receiver.
station may be sufficient to draw
grid current on one of the tubes even if the over-all selectivity of the
receiver is sufficient to separate the signals from the local and distant
stations before they reach the second detector.
35. Superheterodyne Interference Problems. The selectivity of a
superheterodyne receiver as determined in Fig. 24 is not a trueasindication this type
of the actual selectivity of the receiver under all conditions, are not
of receiver is susceptible to certain types of interference which interfer-
encountered with a t -r-f receiver. The susceptibility of these following
ences is a result of converting the received signal to an i.f. The
classification gives the more important possible sources of interference
common to a superheterodyne receiver in which the i.f. is lower than any
frequency in the tuning range of the receiver.
Sec. 1!I RECEIVING SYSTEMS 445
1. Image frequency interference: If f is the oscillator frequency in a super-
heterodyne and IF the i.f., signals impressed on the first detector, having
frequencies of either f + IF or f IF, will be heterodyned to the i.f. and
pass through the receiver. It is therefore necessary to prevent one of these
\\1\//.
signals from reaching the first de- Rom
tector; otherwise, image-frequency
interference will result. Radio-
frequency circuits, tuned to the
signal which it is desired to receive,
are the usual arrangement for pre-
venting image-frequency interfer- X000 .U11.01111.111111211
ence. Since the oscillator in
superheterodyne receivers is usually
tuned to a higher frequency than the
r -f circuits, a signal which can pro- g
\\1\/1II
,"1',
duce image-frequency interference 7:1000
must have a frequency of fi + 2IF, ec
CC7 CC
where j1 is the frequency of the
desired station.
When a received signal is succes-
sively heterodyned to two inter- a 100
-e111111111MM
\ .,1,,,i
mediate frequencies, as is the case

in some superheterodyne receivers l`
used in communication work, there
is more than one signal that can SIV 11 /M
mimmwmamimmom 1111 /M
Amim
cause image -frequency interference

with any desired signal. For ex-
ample, if f' is the frequency of the
10 ,"11111",/ 46.2
Im _= /. Cmm a'_o_ =e
riï-
desired signal and IF, and IFx the mmeme iwas umm, m.iiawmmomme
two intermediate frequencies, then
interference can be caused by signals ,11111:11311111
whose frequencies are f, + 2IF, and
f 2IFx. It is assumed that both
oscillators are tuned to a higher Fla.
920 980 oso 1000 10 0
Frequency1ki ocydes
1020 - 1070
frequency than the signal frequency. 24. -Superheterodyne se ectivity

The circuits ahead of the second characteristics.
heterodyne oscillator and associated detector must provide the selectivity
necessary to avoid interference by the fi 2IF2 signa s.
110
S 60
IMI-111=1111M1111
16:°:
ro
030
50 100 200 500 1000 2030 5000 8000
frequency,cycles per second
Fla. 25. -A, side -hand attenuation due to r -f circuits of superheterodyne;
B, over -all fidelity characteristic.
2. Interference due to harmonica of the oscillator heterodyning undesired sta-
tions: If a signal having a frequency of 2j ± IF is impressed on the.first
detector, it will cause interference with the signal being heterodyned by the
fundamental oscillator frequency f. Tuned r -f circuits ahead of the first
detector reduce the possibility of this type of interference.
446 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 1$
3. Interference due to stations which are separated by the i.j.: Combinations

of signals are sometimes encountered which are separated by the intermediate
frequency, and, if such signals are permitted to reach the first detector, inter-
ference will result. Tuned r -f circuits ahead of the first detector are also
used to prevent this type of interference.
4. Interference due to harmonics of the i.j. produced by the second detector:
When the i.f. is lower than any frequency in the tuning range of the receiver,
certain harmonics of the i.f. fall in the broadcast frequency hand. If these
harmonies, which are produced by the second detector, are of sufficient ampli-
tude and are fed hack to the input system of the receiver, they will cause
interference when a station is received whose frequency is equal to a particular
harmonic of the i.f. With an i.f. of 175 kc this type of interference is likely
to be encountered at 700. 875, 1,050, 1,225, and 1,400 kc. This type of inter-
ference is eliminated by careful shielding of the second-detector circuits.
5. Responses when the difference frequency is less than the i.j.: When the
frequency difference between the oscillator and the signal impressed on the
first detector is one -half or one -third the i.f., a second or third harmonic of
the beat frequency may be produced in the first detector which will be
amplified by the i -f amplifier. Interference with a desired signal may be
produced in this way. If sufficient selectivity is used ahead of the first
detector to prevent image -frequency interference, interference of this typo
will also be avoided.
36. Sources of Interference When the I.F. Is Higher Than the Signal
Frequency. In some all -wave receivers the i.f. is higher than the signal
frequency throughout one tuning range. When this condition exists, the
potential sources of interference differ from those enumerated above.
Interference may result from the following causes:
1. Interference due to harmonics of the received signal: If the tuning range
includes a signal frequency equal to one-half or one-third the r.f.. such a
signal may produce harmonics in the first detector which will be amplified
by the i -f amplifier. Intermediate -frequency signals are thus produced with-
out the use of the heterodyne oscillator. The frequency of the signals pro-
duced in this way does not vary as the receiver is tuned. The local oscillator
also heterodynes the signal to the i.f., but the i.f. thus produced varies as the
receiver is tuned. When the receiver is tuned through such a signal, a beat
note is produced by the two i -f signals. Selectivity ahead of the first detector
will restrict the tuning range over which this interference is encountered
but cannot eliminate it when the desired signal is the signal causing the
interference.
2. Interference due to two signals whose sum frequency equals the i.f.: When
two signals are impressed on the first detector and produce a sum frequency
equal to the i.f., a beat note is produced as the receiver is tuned through a
desired signal. Under this condition two i -f signals are produced, one of
which remains fixed in frequency while the other varies as the receiver tuning
is changed. Since the signals which can produce this interference may be on
adjacent channels, the selectivity which must be used ahead of the first
detector to avoid entirely this interference is equivalent to that normally
used in the complete receiver.
37. Choice of the I.F. The choice of the intermediate frequency for a
superheterodyne receiver is a compromise between the following factors:
1. With a given t -r -f system ahead of the first detector the possibility of
encountering image -frequency interference is reduced as the i.f. is increased.
2. Under the above conditions the possibility of interference due to two
stations separated by the i.f. is also reduced as the i.f. is raised.
3. The possibility of interference due to harmonics of the i.f. being fed
back from the second detector to the input of the receiver increases as the i.f.
Sec. 18I RECEIVING SYSTEMS 447
is raised, since lower harmonics appear in the broadcast band and the ampli-
tude of the harmonics which can cause interference is therefore increased.
4. The difficulty of obtaining a high degree of selectivity and amplification
f
in an i -f amplifier is increased as the i.f. is raised.
The majority of broadcast receivers employ intermediate frequencies at
or near either 175 or 455 kc. The higher i.f. is used in all -wave receivers to
_
minimize image-frequency interference and reduce reaction between the
oscillator and first detector circuits when the receiver is tuned to high signal
frequencies. With an i.f. of 175 kc the fourth harmonic is the first to appear
in the broadcast range from 550 to 1,600 kc. The second and third har-
IIií
monics of a 455-kc i.f. appear in this tuning range.
88. Tuned -radio -frequency Circuits. The t -r -f circuits ahead of the
i
first detector in a superheterodyne receiver are used primarily for
Kilocycle Off Resonance
II
py0 S0 200 300 400 500 600 100 800
=MIe,=====sf= =IMI=af i
KP
IM 1M NM Will
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111/1112111111111111011E11111
mu
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600 100 800 900 1000 1100 1200 000 1400
Frequency, kilo yc es
Fia. 26.- Attenuation of one, two, a id three t-r -f circuits.
eliminating certain types of interference common to the superheterodyne
type of receiver. Figure 26 shows the attenuation of one, two, and three
t-r -f circuits for frequencies up to 800 kc off resonance when tuned to 600
kc. From curves of this type it is possible to obtain the image -frequency
ratio for any given r -f system which may be used ahead of the first detec
tor. Imagefrequency ratio has been termed the ratio between the field
strength necessary to produce standard output from a superheterodyne
at the image frequency and that necessary to produce standard output
at the frequency to which the receiver is tuned. The image-frequency
ratio provided by modern broadcast receivers is usually about 20,000: 1
in the tuning range from 540 to 1,600 kc. With an image frequency of
448 THE RADIO ENGINEERING /IANDBOOK ¡See. 13
460 kc this ratio can be obtained with two tuned r-f circuits. This
combination provides an image- frequency ratio of between 100: 1 and
200: 1 in the tuning range from 10 to 20 Mc. Care must be exercised in
the design of a superheterodyne receiver to use sufficient shielding so that
the actual selectivity of the t -r-f circuits is realized. If a reasonable
amount of shielding is not used, signals which will cause image- frequency
interference may be picked up directly on the first detector circuits, and
the benefit of the t-r -f circuits between the antenna and this detector will
be lost.
innluu
Fia. 27.- Regenerative circuit with Fla. 28.- Single -tube
resistance control. superregenerator.
39. Regenerative Receivers. A typical regenerative- receiver circuit is
shown in Fig. 27. In this arrangement a variable resistance is used to
vary the plate potential on the tube and thereby control the regeneration.
The coupling between the tickler coil and the inductance of the tuned
circuit is fixed. This arrangement is generally used in receivers which
make use of plug-in coils to cover a wide frequency range since the tickler
coil can then be wound on the same form as the tuned circuit inductance.
40. Superregenerative Receivers. Figure 28 shows the circuit dia-
gram of a single -tube superregenerative receiver in which the quenching
Fla. 29.-Superregenerator receiver for police cars.

frequency is produced by the same tube which provides the superregenera-
tion. The quenching frequency is usually between 5,000 and 20,000
Sec. 18, RECEIVING SYSTEMS 449
cycles. A filter is generally used in the output circuit of the super-

regenerative tube to eliminate the quenching frequency so that it does
not appear in the receiver output.
In Fig. 29 is shown the complete circuit diagram of a superregenerative
receiver used in police cars for the reception of signals on frequencies
between 30 and 40 Mc. This receiver employs a tuned r-f stage ahead
of the superregenerative detector to prevent radiation. The 20-kc
quench frequency is provided by a separate oscillator. Two stages of
a -f amplification are employed. Amateur practice on 56 Mc is to use a
single tube in which the periodic blocking of the tube is produced by the
proper choice of grid leak and condenser.
41. All -wave Receivers. A large number of the broadcast receivers
being produced at the present time cover one or more short-wave ranges
in addition to the normal broadcast frequency band (540 to 1,600 kc).
These short-wave ranges include frequencies up to 48,000 kc.
In the majority of all -wave receivers separate coils are employed in
the r-f system for each tuning range. A few receivers use a tapped coil
for each tuned circuit. When such coils are utilized, the unused portion
of the coil is always short -circuited. When separate coils are employed,
the coils for two or more of the frequency hands are frequently wound on
a single form. The coil windings differ considerably with the frequency
range which the coils are designed to cover. Wire as small as No. 35
Brown and Sharpe is used in the inductances for the tuning range from
540 to 1,600 kc, while wire as large as No. 22 Brown and Sharpe is used in
some of the short -wave coils. The turns on the short -wave coils are
usually spaced to minimize the coil losses.
All-wave receivers are provided with a gang switch for simultaneously
connecting the coils used for each tuning range to the associated tuning
condensers and tubes. Such a switching arrangement is illustrated by
Fig. 30, which shows the complete circuit diagram of a typical all -wave
receiver.
Receivers of this type are usually equipped with tuning mechanisms
which permit the user to change the drive ratio between the tuning
knob and the variable condenser from 10: 1 to 50: 1. The 50: 1 ratio is
necessary to tune the receiver accurately to a short -wave station since the
frequency band covered in a single h -f tuning range may be over ten times
that covered in the range from 540 to 1,600 kc.
Special tuning dials are necessary on all -wave receivers since a separate
scale is required for each tuning range. In some receivers all the scales
are visible to the user regardless of the tuning range which is being used,
and an indicator which is actuated by the range switch knob is used to
designate the correct scale. In the dials used on other receivers of this
type only the scale corresponding to the tuning range being used is
visible. With this arrangement the dial scales are movable with respect
to the dial opening, and the range switch is mechanically connected with
the dial scales so that, as the tuning range is switched from one frequency
hand to another, the proper scale is moved into place.
42. Automobile Radio Receivers. Compactness and ruggedness are
two of the essential requirements of an automobile radio receiver. Com-
pactness is required because of the small space which is usually available
in which to mount the receiver, and ruggedness is necessary because of
the vibration and road shocks to which the receiver is subjected.
450 TILE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDBOOK (Sec. 13
Since the strength of the signals intercepted by an automobile antenna

varies greatly with the location of the car, it is essential that an auto-
mobile radio receiver be equipped with an effective a -v -c system.
Fia. 30.- Circuit diagram

The plate and bias potentials for the tubes in automobile receivers
are generally obtained from vibrator B- supply systems. Two arrange-
ments which are frequently used are illustrated by Fig. 31. In the system
shown by diagram (a), a vibrator and transformer are used to derive a
high -voltage alternating potential from the 6-volt storage battery.
of all-wave receiver.
This voltage is rectified by a vacuum -tuhe rectifier and supplied to the

ceeeiver circuits through a conventional filter. In diagram (6) the
vibrator is not only used to provide the high voltage but also performs
the function of rectification.
The chassis of an automobile radio receiver is generally completely
shielded to prevent the pickup of ignition interference on the receiver
circuits. Two methods have been employed for preventing the ignition
systems of automobiles from causing excessive interference in automobile
radio receivers. In the first method the interference radiated by the
ignition system is mimimized through the use of suppressor resistors
in the spark plug and distributor leads. An r -f filter is used in the leads
connecting the receiver to the storage battery. All portions of the
automobile electrical system which may radiate the interference such
Vibrator
0.007S,af
i +B
/500n
I^ZO,uf Z r,BOutput
6v. input =O.Sp.f

(a)
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47014a ?Oaf
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6v.input ga P00 =0.S/cf
=pyuf (b)
Fla. 31.- B- supply systems for automobile receivers.
as leads to the dome light, etc., are by- passed with a suitable by-pass
condenser. The objection to this method is that the resistors which are
used to suppress the h-f oscillations may decrease the effectiveness of the
ignition system to the point where a loss in engine efficiency occurs. In
the second method which has been used to minimize this type of interfer-
ence, a special antenna filter system is employed which discriminates
between h -f ignition interference and the desired signal.
In a large number of automobile radio receivers all the receiver ele-
ments are assembled in a single unit. This unit is generally designed for
a specific line of automobiles and is arranged to mount behind an opening
in the dash.
43. Radio Phonograph Combinations. Many radio receivers of the
console type and a limited number of the table type are provided with a
turntable and phonograph pickup. The a -f voltage developed by the
pickup is usually applied to the grid of t he first a -f amplifier tube in the
receiver. Many standard radio receivers are provided with terminals so

that connections can be made to a phonograph pickup.
44. Universal or A -c-d -c Receivers. Figure 33 shows the circuit
diagram of a five-tube superheterodyne receiver which may be operated
from either a.c. or d.c. The heaters of the tubes used in receivers of this
type are connected in series. Since the voltage required for the heaters
is considerably less than the line voltage, the heaters are connected to the
supply line through a series resistor which provides the desired voltage
drop. This resistor must usually dissipate considerable heat. In a
number of the smaller universal receivers the series heater resistor is
included as a third conductor in the power cord thus facilitating the
F a. 33.- A -o-d -c receiver circuit.

dissipation of heat. The rectifier tube prevents the electrolytic con-
densers from being damaged in case the power plug is not inserted cor-
rectly in a d -c outlet.
HIGH -FIDELITY RECEIVERS
46. Audio -frequency Response Range. The term "high fidelity" has
been associated with broadcast receivers which provide reasonably uni-
form reproduction of frequencies from 50 to 8,000 cycles. It is impracti-
cal to exceed the 8,000 -cycle h -f limit as long as the 10-kc spacing between
broadcasting stations is maintained. When the range of high frequencies
reproduced by a broadcast receiver is extended, a corresponding increase
in l -f response range must be made to maintain a proper acoustic balance.
46. Variable Selectivity. To obtain reasonable freedom from cross
talk and h -f interference when receiving weak signals, it is necessary that
a high -fidelity receiver he provided with some means whereby its selectiv-
ity can be increased over that required for the reception of high -fidelity
programs from local transmitters. This change in selectivity is generally
secured by altering the effective coupling between the primary and
secondary of one or more of the i -f transformers. This is accomplished
by moving one i -f coil with respect to the other, by the use of a trans-
former employing a third winding which is shunted by a variable resistor,
or by varying the coupling between two windings of a variometer which
See. Ill RECEIVING SYSTEMS 455
contains a portion of the primary and secondary inductance of the i -f

transformer.
47. "Monkey Chatter" Interference. Receivers reproducing high
audio frequencies are susceptible to "monkey chatter" interference.
This interference is produced either by the side bands of an undesired
signal beating with the desired carrier wave or by the side bands of the
desired signal beating with an undesired carrier wave. A large per-
centage of the energy in this interference is found in the frequency band
from 8,000 to 10,000 cycles. A low -pass filter giving an attenuation of
at least 40 db for frequencies above 8,000 cycles is generally employed
in high -fidelity receivers to minimize this interference. Such a filter is
also effective in reducing other h -f interference such as man -made static,
tube hiss, and heat notes caused by carrier waves on adjacent channels.
48. Minimizing Distortion in High- fidelity Receivers. As the range
of frequencies reproduced by a broadcast receiver is increased, the
distortion which can be tolerated is reduced. The most important
source of distortion in such receivers is the detector and a -f amplifier.
The diode is the most satisfactory of the detectors used in broadcast
receivers from the standpoint of distortion. To minimize the distortion
when receiving signals having a high percentage modulation with a diode
detector, it is necessary that the a-f impedance of the diode output
circuit be the same as its d -c resistance. This condition may be obtained
through the circuit shown in Fig. 17, in which the grid of the a-f amplifier
tube is directly connected to the diode output resistor thus avoiding the
shunt a -c path formed by the conventional coupling condenser and leak.
The distortion introduced by this detector and a-f amplifier stage can he
kept well under 5 per cent when the percentage modulation of the received
signal is approximately 100 per cent. A push -pull class A output stage
is generally used where minimum distortion is desired.
The precautions for minimizing distortion as outlined under Automatic
Volume Control (Art. 19) must also he observed.
49. High- fidelity Loud-speakers. Special loud-speakers are employed
in high-fidelity receivers to reproduce the wide range of frequencies. In
some receivers a special cone speaker is used employing a voice coil
wound with aluminum wire. In other receivers two loud-speakers are
utilized to reproduce the desired frequency range. One of these speakers
is designed to reproduce frequencies from 50 to 2,500 cycles and the other,
frequencies from 2,500 to 8,000 cycles. The h -f energy radiated by the
usual cone loud-speaker is concentrated in a relatively narrow beam.
Sound diffusers are used in a number of high-fidelity receivers to disperse
this beam and produce a more uniform distribution of h -f energy. These
devices consist of a number of vertical or horizontal slats placed in front
of the loud- speaker at various angles with respect to its axis.
50. Frequency Modulation Receivers. A freouency modulation
receiver utilizes the essential elements of an amplitude modulation
receiver and in addition requires some means for converting the variation
in frequency into a change in amplitude. The balanced detector shown
in Fig. 34 is one arrangement used for this purpose. This detector system
minimizes the effect of amplitude variations in the received signal. A
voltage limiter is frequently used ahead of the balanced detector to
further minimize amplitude variations.
51. Commercial Receivers. The principles underlying the design of
commercial receivers are the same as those employed in the design of
broadcast receivers.
Ruggedness and reliability are among the chief considerations in the

design of commercial receivers, since such receivers must usually remain
in continuous operation for long periods of time. Simplicity of tuning is
not so important in this type of receiver as in broadcast radio receivers,
since commercial receivers are generally used by skilled operators. Com-
mercial radio receivers are generally designed to use battery-operated
tubes. The plate potential for such receivers is supplied by either
batteries or a motor generator. In some transoceanic receiving systems,
three complete receiver and antenna combinations are used to overcome
the effects of fading. In an installation of this type the antennas are
separated by several wave lengths. An automatic- volume- control
arrangement is provided so that only the output of the receiver which is
receiving the strongest signal is used.
econto/
6116 0.00/S/I f; pmxgohms
6SJ7 6Q7G
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output
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Fie. 34.- Balanced detector for frequency modulation receiver.
62. Direction Finders. The directional property of a loop antenna is
utilized in direction finders to determine the plane in which the radio
transmitter and the direction finder are located. The circuit diagram
of a typical finder is shown in Fig. 35. The loop antenna in this receiver
is enclosed in an electrostatic shield. The center tap on the loop is
grounded. These precautions are taken to eliminate the electrostatic
effect of the loop antenna. If this effect is present, a broad minimum is
obtained as the loop antenna is rotated and it is impossible to obtain an
accurate bearing. The diagram shows an arrangement for compensating
for the effect of a near-by metal object which might distort the field
around the loop. A small :antenna is erected' and connected through a
resistor to the variometer shown in the diagram. By proper adjustment
of the variometer the signals introduced by the near-by metal object and
the compensating antenna and variometer arrangement are made to
balance so that they produce no effect on, the inherent directional prop-
erties of the loop antenna. The suPerheterodyne circuit is usually
employed in direction finders. Both the loop antenna and oscillator
circuits are tuned through the use of a single control. Bearings can be
determined to within about 1 deg.
53. Single -signal Receivers. Many of the receivers used by amateur
radio operators are of the single -signal type which is characterized by
its extreme selectivity. The high degree of selectivity is frequently
obtained through the use of a quartz crystal as a coupling element in
one of the i -f stages. The selectivity characteristic of a 460-kc quartz
crystal may have band widths at 90 per cent and 10 per cent of 10 and
100 cycles, respectively. The limited frequency band required for code
communication permits the use of receivers having such a selectivity
characteristic.
Loop
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Fia. 35.-Radio direction finder.
Figure 36 shows the circuit diagram of a receiver employing a quartz
crystal. As indicated by this diagram the crystal is used as a coupling
element between the secondary of the first i -f transformer and the grid
of the first i -f amplifier tube. In a number of receivers a parallel-resonant
i -f circuit is also used on the grid side of the crystal filter. A neutralizing
arrangement is employed to counteract the effect of the crystal holder
capacity. This capacity limits the selectivity contributed by the crystal,
and in conjunction with the inductance of the crystal, forms a parallel -
resonant circuit which introduces considerable attenuation for a narrow
band of frequencies near the frequency to which the crystal is resonant.
A switch is provided for removing the crystal from the circuit when
desired, thereby decreasing the receiver selectivity. A switch is also
employed for rendering the a -v-c system inoperative when code signals
are received. The receiver gain is then adjusted by means of a manual
control. An i-f oscillator is used to heterodyne c-w signals.
458 7'HE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 13
SECTION 14
POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
BY R. C. HITCHCOCK, En. D.'
1. Direct -current Power Requirement. The electrical power required
for operating radio transmitters and receivers is usually "steady"
d.c. for plate and grid circuits. Depending on conditions, either d.c. or
a.c. is employed for heating tube filaments or cathodes. Figure 1 shows
a variety of means that can be employed, by using suitable conversion
apparatus, to deliver the desired d.c.
EXTERNAL
ALTERNATING DIRECT
MOTIVE LOAD
POWER CURRENT CURRENT
IA. NONE -J PRIMARY BATTERY
D -C FIL-
GEN TER
MANUA
IB.
o D -C
GEN
STOR
BATT.
STEAM -.N-n_ A- C RECTI- STOR

IC. GEN. FIER I BATT.
D. INTERNAL STOB. -C
D D-C FIL
GEN. BATT. MOTOR GEN. TER
COMBUSTION
A-C
GEN.
STOR.
BATT.
-D
DC
OTOR GEN.
-C FIL
TER
-.
E. WATER cc
A -C A-C D -C FIL-
GEN. MOTOR GEN. TER o
F. WIND A -C RALAS RECTI FIL-
GEN. Mr'FIER TER -
Flo. 1. -Types
of power systems.
Five types of motive power, B to F, in the left column of Fig.1 can
be used with any one of seven of the eight numbered rows showing how
d.c. is secured. The conditions under which each of these types of motive
power is used will vary with the type of service which is desired.
2. Type of Service. The type of system required depends largely
on the amount of power to be furnished. A portable receiver may
operate for some time from self-contained dry -cell batteries, but a
Engineering Department, Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company,
Newark, N. J.
459
50-kw. broadcast transmitter on a regular schedule requires considerably

more energy. An explorer can operate a hand-cranked generator of
50 or even 100 watts capacity for a short time, but for longer periods
other devices are more applicable.
Transmitter power supplies are of two types. One is for regular use,
and the other is the "emergency set" or "stand -by." The latter is
ready on a few seconds notice, and is capable of supplying sufficient
energy for regular operation. For multikilowatt stations preferably
two independent sources of a-c supply are provided, on either of which
the station can develop full rated power. A gasoline-electric set may
serve the purpose, being independent of long wire lines.
CHARACTERISTICS AND MEASUREMENT OF D.C.
3. Indicating Instruments. Since d.c. is largely employed for radio
transmitters and receivers, a brief analysis will be made of the various
E
R:IS
Miromum Aterage (elïedrvel "5
T
Em Em Em Em 1.00
i
Steady d -c
t
E
Em 065Em 088E,,, 089Em 10/
Ripple d -c t
E
0 032E,n OSEm 157
O n 2n t
nnCy
Pulsating d-c half -wave rectifier
E
0 064Em 07/Em 1.11
O n 2n t
Pulsating d-c full -wave rectifier
081E,n OASE,,, 096Em 100
it 2n t
f
O
Pulsating d -c
three phase,full -wave rectifier
FIG. 2. -Types and characteristics of d.c.
kinds of d.c. and their measurement. One reason for this analysis is
that instruments of the repulsion -iron or dynamometer type will not
See. 141 POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 461
read the same as an "average" type on certain types of d.c. This

difference in readings sometimes causes confusion.
If a d -c ammeter is specified, it usually refers to a d'Arsonval instru-
ment (permanent magnet moving coil); one which reads "average"
values.
Figure 2 shows five typical kinds of d.c., one or more of which are
always present in any d-c power supply. Steady d.c. is the output from
a primary or secondary battery, or from a suitable filter connected to a
pulsating or ripple d -c source. Ripple d.c. is the usual output from a
d -c generator, the ripple being caused by commutation. Three types
of pulsating d.c. are as follows: (a) half -wave rectified single phase; (b)
full -wave rectified single phase; and (c) three-phase full-wave rectified.
The ambiguity of the term direct current is readily apparent when
considering Fig. 2 since all these wave forms fall into this classification.
The figure shows the minimum voltage as a decimal part of the maximum
voltage E,; for example, the ripple d.c. shown has a minimum which is
0.65 E. or 65 per cent of its maximum.
The second column shows the average value of potential drop as a
factor times the maximum E,,,. These factors for pulsating d.c. vary
from 0.32 for the half-wave rectified to 0.96 in the case of the full -wave
three-phase rectified.
The r.m.s. or effective value of a current is such that the heating effect
(12R) is the same for d.c. or a.c. For pulsating d.c. the watt reading
found by the average voltage times the average current is not the sanie
as the r -m-s voltage times the r-m -s current. The results of these
average readings are sometimes called' d-c watts.
The readings of different types of instruments can be predicted from
the value of the form factor. On the ripple d.c. from a d -c generator,
when the form factor is 1.01 as shown, a d'Arsonval instrument would
read 1 per cent lower than a dynamometer type of instrument. The
d'Arsonval instrument reads average, and the dynamometer reads r.m.s.
When there is a difference in readings, the r.m.s. instrument always
reads higher. For the pulsating d -c output of the single -phase half -wave
rectifier the form factor is 1.57, and an r.m.s. instrument (repulsion-iron,
dynamometer, or thermocouple) would read 57 per cent higher than
an average instrument (d'Arsonval).
TYPICAL POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
4. Television Receiver Power Supply. Two rectifier -filter systems
characterize television receivers, as shown in Fig. 3.2
The kinescope second anode requires 7,500 volts d.c., which is supplied
by a 2V3-G half-wave rectifier tube and a ,r filter comprising two 0.03-µf
capacitors and a resistor of 470,000 ohms. As will he noted later, when
considering filters, low- current circuits are adequately smoothed by this
simple circuit.
The d.c. for the other parts of the receiver is supplied by a 5T4 full -
wave rectifier, with a choke-capacitor double r filter, having 40, 80, and
10 µf, respectively, connected between the two choke coils.
5. Receivers Using Either Batteries or Utility Power. Figure 5 shows
a combination battery- and socket -power receiver which has no relays,
SMITH, I. R., Rectox Rectifier Testing, Elec. Jour., August, 1938, p. 328.
' RCA Mfg. Co., Camden, N. J. Model TRK-12.
switches, or complicated change -over parts.' All battery connections

are completed when the light socket plug is inserted in the chassis socket.
When the plug is removed, the batteries are isolated so that the plug can
then be inserted into a power -supply socket of 105 to 125 volts, a.c. or
d.c. With this latter arrangement the set has high output power
(117L7GT tube) while it has normal battery output (3Q5(zT) on the
battery connection.
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Fla. 3.- Typical television receiver power supply system.
On utility power the plug ZY is inserted in an a-c or d-c outlet of 115 volts,
correctly poled if d.c. is used. When the line switch is turned on, the
117L7GT filament is heated across the line, and the rectifier section of this
tube supplies half -wave energy to the filter choke. The other filaments in
series are heated by the plate current (d.c.) of the output pentode section of
the 117L7GT, which also provides bias potential, and this connection also
provides bias potential for the control grid of this tube. With this connec-
tion the battery output tube (3Q5GT) is not used, and its filament is not
heated since the A connection in the female receptacle is not completed.
Emerson Radio and Phonograph Co., New York, N. Y., Model DJ -310.
Sec. 141 POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 463
When using battery power, the plug YZ is inserted in the female receptacle
in the set, the Z connection bringing into the circuit the filament of the
battery output tube by grounding the negative terminals of the 9 -volt A
battery. This Z connection also connects the negative terminal of the
90 -volt B battery to ground. The filament of the 117L7GT is not lighted
on battery power, and is connected
through terminal Y to one side of the Page 118 QST Dec 2939
series filaments through a 1,000 -ohm
resistor. ALWAYS
6. Battery-operated Receiver. BE
Figure 6 is a completely battery- CAIEPUL
r t
operated radio receiver which uses a (A) Kill all transmitter circuits com-
1.5-volt A battery for the five tube pletely before touching anything behind
the panel.
filaments which are connected in (B) Never wear 'phones while working
on the transmitter.
parallel, and two series- connected (C) Never pull teat area front trans-
45 -volt B blocks. mitter tank circuits.
(D) Don't shoot trouble in transmit-
Characteristic of both Figs. 5 and ter when tired or sleepy.
6 is the permanent magnet moving - (E) When working on the transmitter,
avoid bodily ontact with metal racks or
coil loud- speaker which does not frames, radiators. damp floors or other
require external power of any kind grounded objects.
(F) Keep one hand in your pocket.
for energizing its magnetic circuit. (C) Develop your own safety tech-
7. Receiver Power Unit for 115 to nique. Take time to be careful.
+
230 Volts D.C. Figure 7 shows a Desna le Pertnawes[l
vibrator -transformer-rectifier circuit
which has two ranges of d-c power Fie. 4. -A good sign to be posted
input, 105 to 125 and 210 to 250 in high-voltage laboratory.
volts. The link board shown in the
figure changes the unit to suit the voltage available. These units
provide an a-c heater voltage of 6.6 volts and rectified d -c plate potential
of 360 to 400 volts.
8. Receiver Power Unit for A.C. and 6 Volts D.C. Figure 8 shows the
two units required when a radio receiver is to be operated on either 6 volts
d.c., or 5 ranges from 105/250 volts, 25 to 60 cycles.
The d-c power supply is a vibrator -transformer type, in which the
vibrator also rectifies the high a-c voltage supplying d -c voltage.
The a-c power supply is a multitapped primary transformer, with a
conventional full -wave rectifier tube. By placing the receiver power
connector in the appropriate unit, the same receiver operates on either
d.c. or a.c.
9. Transformer -rectifier Circuit for Transmitters. Figure 9 shows
a typical high- voltage circuit for a transmitter, using six half-wave recti-
fier tubes. The tube filaments are all paralleled on a single -phase trans-
former, and the plate circuit comprises a three-phase transformer with a
double Y secondary, which can be fed by a delta -connected primary.
Means are generally provided for placing a spare rectifier into the circuit.
The spare tube filament is kept lighted, and its plate lead is connected to all
six inactive jaws of a rack of 6 s.p.d.t. switches. The blade of each switch is
the transformer lead, and the second jaw of each switch goes to the rectifier
tube in use. If a rectifier fails, its s.p.d.t. switch is thrown (either auto-
matically or by hand) from the regular tube plate to that of the spare tube
making the spare tube active and taking plate voltage off the regular tube
-
so that it can be replaced when the s.p.d.t. switch is finally thrown back to
the first position.
464 Y'IIE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Sec. 14
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The use of six rectifier tubes minimizes the possible trouble
since the effect of losing one tube due to decreased emissiondue to tubes,
is generally
merely to introduce a hum into the rectified voltage supply, without decreas-
ing the voltage very much.
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Fla. S. -Power supplies from 6 volts d.c. and 110 to 240 volts a.c.
The interphase reactor between the common points
secondary is a center tapped transformer, carrying currentsof ofthe double Y
times the
power-line frequency. The action of this device is like that of sixa choke used
as an input filter. An iron core is used, with an air gap to limit saturation
with the ensuing d.c. if a rectifier tube fails and thus destroys the balance of
currents.
By using u suitably connected, three-phase filament transformer, some

increase in the life of hot- cathode mercury- rectifier tubes can be obtained.
The plate circuits are the same as shown in Fig. 9, but the filament supply
of any one tube is connected so that it is 90 deg. out of phase with the plate
-4-
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Fta. 9.- High -voltage supply for transmitter.
voltage supplied to it. This makes the filament an unipotential device at
the moment that the crest plate current is drawn.
DRY -CELL PRIMARY BATTERIES
10. Ampere -hour Capacity.' The ampere -hour capacity obtainable
from a dry cell of a given size depends on several factors, including
formula, physical construction, current drain, hours of use per day, and
cutoff voltage. For any specified discharge schedule there is an optimum
value of current drain which will produce maximum capacity to a speci-
fied cutoff voltage. When the current is increased beyond this optimum
value, the ampere-hour capacity decreases because of less efficient
depolarization. When the current drain is less than the optimum, the
ampere -hour capacity becomes less due to the subtractive effect of shelf
deterioration.
Cells designed for heavy duty service will attain their peak capacity at
higher current values than cells designed for light intermittent service.
It is not always practical to use the size and formula of cells which will
operate at peak efficiency under an assumed set of service conditions,
since size and portability may be the deciding factor on one hand, while
the inconvenience and the cost of replacement may warrant the use of
larger cells under certain conditions. Then too, the variety of service
conditions to which battery -operated equipment may be subjected may
indicate the use of a compromise size or formula of cell.
11. Cutoff Voltage. When cells are discharged at heavy current
drains or for long continuous periods at more moderate current draina, a
considerable increase in service life can be realized by using the cells to
1 Articles 10 to 15 were supplied by Ralph E. Ramsay. Ray -O -Vac Co.. Madison. Wi
a lower cutoff voltage. The gain will depend on the size and formula
of the cell. The lighter the current drain or service conditions, however,
the higher the operating voltage and the flatter the discharge curve.
12. Shelf Life. For cells of a given formula and physical construction
the shelf life will increase with the size of the cell. Loss of capacity in
storage or during idle periods is due to local reactions, admission of
oxygen, and loss of moisture. Certain cells designed for heavy duty
industrial service achieve high initial service capacity by increasing the
proportion of depolarizer to electrolyte, or by using more active oxides of
manganese in the depolarizer, or both. In general these cells have a
more rapid rate of deterioration on shelf than cells designed for light
duty service. For C battery service, specifications call for a life of
18 months to 1.45 volts for the D size cell and 12 months for the B size.
TABLE I. DRY -CELL CAPACITY VERSUS DRAIN
For D -size B Battery Cells discharged 5 hr. per day, 5 days per week,
to a cutoff voltage of 1.13; constant current tl seharge.
To an end voltage of 1.13
Current drain, e LO O.OV VOn
milliamperes in terms of life
cent of peak
Ampere -hours Per capacity Weeks of at 1.13 volts*
service
3 4.10 71.5 54.7

5 4.90 87.5 39.2 104
75i 5.20 93 27.8
10 5.60 100 22.4 108
15 5.20 93 13.9 114
20 4.90 87.5 9.8 119
30 3.25 58 4.3 129
40 2.40 42.9 2.4 138
50 1.70 30.4 1.4
These values are for one size one formula, and will not hold for other discharge
schedules.
* Six hours per day, 5 days per week.
13. Effects of Temperature. Chemical reactions are accelerated by

an increase in temperature. In the dry cell a temperature rise increases
both the useful current-producing reaction and the parasitic local reac-
tion during idle periods. The net effect on the total capacity delivered
will depend on the balance between these two forces and will be different
for various designs of cells.
Dry cells should be stored at low temperatures to minimize shelf
reactions. This precaution is especially important for cells containing
depolarizers of high activity. The high limits of temperature for dry -cell
use are usually determined by the point at which seals flow or internal
pressure expels the cell contents. This point may vary with the size,
formula, and construction of the cell. Standard specifications call for a
seal which will not flow at a temperature of 113 °F. during a static test
in which the sealed surface is held vertical for a period of 24 hr.
As the temperature decreases, the activity of the cell is lowered until
finally it is unable to maintain a useful voltage while delivering current.
The lowest temperature limit of use will depend on cell formula, cell si7c
in relation to the current drain, and frequency of use. In general,

dry cells will not furnish useful current when the actual cell temperature
is less than -15 °F. to -20 °F. Freezing does not injure a dry cell, and
capacity which cannot be realized at low temperatures will be available
when the eell is returned to room temperature.
14. Amperage or Short- circuit Current. There is no relationship
between the current delivered by a dry cell on a short-circuit amperage
test and the service capacity of the cell. At best such a test is useful
only in judging the uniformity of a particular lot of cells of a given
formula.
40
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Drain, milliamperes
Fia. 10.- Radio -type dry cells; discharge versus time. Constant current, 6 hr.
per day, 5 days per week to 1.13 volts and 0.80 volt per cell at 70 °F.
16. Dry -cell Battery Standards. The American Standards Associa-
tion in cooperation with the National Bureau of Standards issues a stand-
ard specification for dry cells and batteries. This standard sets forth
various sizes of cells and batteries which are recognized as "standard"
and also gives information on standard tests together with the cor-
responding performance requirements. There are many cells and
batteries on the market which differ in size from those listed in the speci-
fication, and prospective users are advised to obtain current informa-
tion from the dry-cell manufacturers.
16. Cost; Capacity; Weight; Life. It is fully realized that dry-cell
characteristics will vary with the specific requirements of use, which in
turn influence the design. However, it may be of value to give some

data which will allow the comparison of these cells as sources of electrical
energy with other types of electrical equipment.
The cost of a dry cell varies from 0.6 to 11 cts. per watt -hour, and the
weight of a bare cell ranges from 0.024 to 0.05 lb. per watt-hour. The
volume ranges from 0.4 to 0.8 cu. in. per watt -hour. These values are
based on an average of 1.3 volts per cell and optimum discharge rates.
Very small cells cost more in proportion to their capacity, since there
are just as many manufacturing operations as in constructing a larger
cell. Thus a premium is paid for increased portability.
The ampere-hour ratings of cells can also be computed, varying with
the several factors which have been given, and are not proportional to
the sizes of the zinc cans enclosing the cells. For discharge currents
which are usually required from a dry cell, the variation in ampere -hour
rating may cover a 3 to 1 range. A graph can be made from Fig. 101
with milliampere -hours as ordinate, and current drain as abscissa.
From this the maximum milliampere-hour capacity at normal room
temperatures under 6-hr. daily discharge for 5 days a week can he found,
Table II being a typical schedule.
TABLE II. DRY -CELL CAPACITIES*
Maximum
Cell Life
Current Capacity, milli-
drawn, ampere-hours, to
milliamperes 1.13 volts
Hours Weeks
AAA 3 110 4 330

A 5 230 8 1,150
B 8 220 7 1,760
D 10 540 18 5.400
G 15 780 20 11.700
* Data from Burgess Battery Company and Ray -O -Vac Company.

The life of a dry cell is somewhat increased if the external current drawn
is very low. In doing this, the capacity in milliampere -hours may be
decreased by a few per cent. There is a more important factor, however,
which is the time limit of shelf life, the case when no external current is
drawn.
On expeditions which are to last several years, it is possible to carry
along the separate ingredients from which dry cells can he made up.
In this case the shelf life does not begin until the cells are assembled.
SECONDARY OR STORAGE BATTERIES,
17. Acid and Alkaline Cells. There are two general types of storage
cells in use in the United States, the lead -acid and the nickel -iron-
Data from Burgess Battery Company and Ray -O -Vac Company.
General reference: VINAI., G. W., "Storage Batteries," 2d ed., John Wiley & Sons.
Inc., New York, 1930. Helpful suggestions have been received from W. B. Manson,
Thomas A. Edison, Inc.; A. E. Harrold. Willard Storage Battery Co.; H. H. Hud-
son, The Electric Storage Battery Co.; H. N. Stover. Philco Corporation, Storage Battery
Division.
alkaline. Cells are usually combined in series to form batteries, but

cells may also be used in parallel. Lead -acid cells form the major
number of storage batteries in use. Lead is a very heavy metal which is
not mechanically strong, and it is a tribute to the designers that such
sturdy cells are available. The alkaline cell of nickel -iron is superior in
its resistance to mechanical shock. The first cost of the alkaline cell is
relatively higher, but its life expectancy is also longer than that of the
acid cell.
18. Selecting a Storage Battery. To select a storage battery suitable
for some particular use the following factors must be known:
1. Nominal circuit voltage.
2. Final permissible voltage.
3. Number of amperes required in use.
4. Hours of use before recharging.
The first two items determine the number of cells which are used in
series, and the third and fourth items make definite the ampere -hour
capacity of the battery. For example, if the lowest permissible value for
a filament supply is 10.0 volts, the use of six acid cells at 1.75 volts each
(total 10.5) or 10 alkaline cells of 1.0 volts each (total 10.0) are
required. Further, since the initial voltage will be higher, unless the
equipment is designed to use this higher potential, some means should
be provided to reduce the value, e.g., a series rheostat. The six acid cells
will have an initial (charged) potential of 6 X 2.05 = 12.3 volts, an
excess of 2.3 over 10.0, and the 10 alkaline cells will have an initial
potential of 10 X 1.45 = 14.5, an excess of 4.5 volts over the required
10.0 volts.
19. Ampere -hour Ratings. The ampere-hour ratings are approxi-
mately determined by multiplying the hours of use before recharging,
h; the amperes drawn during that period. These ratings vary con-
siderably with the length of discharge, as will be mentioned later. As a
general rule, an acid storage-cell capacity should he adequate for at least
4 days of operation without discharging. The alkaline cells may be used
on a 24 -hr. charge -recharge schedule.
In specifying the capacity of a storage cell in ampere -hours, it is
necessary also to give the rate of discharge and the permissible finish
voltage because the ratings will vary over a wide range with changes in
these two factors.
To specify "100 amp.-hr. at an 8-hr. discharge rate to 1.75 volts per
cell" is quite definite and is one of the standard ratings for acid cells.
These are usually termed "normal discharge rates."
20. Approximate Dimensions; Weight. Weight and volume of any
battery can be approximated directly from Tables III and IV by multi-
plying the columnar values by the ampere -hour rating. A large range of
cell capacities is included since the radio use for B voltage uses a low-
capacity cell and for A voltages a high-capacity cell is required. For
example, in Table IV since the usual range for stationary cells is 0.25
to 0.50 lb. per ampere -hour, a 100 -amp.-hr. cell would be from
100 X 0.25 = 25 lb. to 100 X 0.50 = 50 lb.
in weight. Similarly the use of 100 amp.-hr. shows that the normal
charge is 0.125 X 100 = 12.5 amp., which also is the normal 8-hr. dis-
charge rate; and the trickle rate is 0.0025 X 100 - 0.25 amp.
TABLE III. LEAD -ACID STORAGE BATTERIES (10 TO 1,000 AMP:HR.)5
All ampere-hours are for an 8-hr. discharge to 1.75 volts per cell at
77°F. to 80 °F.
a. Weight, Capacity, Dimensions, per cell:
Lb. per Cu. In. per Lb. per
Amp.-hr. Amp.-hr. Cu. In.
Small capacity glass jar cells 1.1 25 0.05
Usual range of stationary cells 0.25-0.50 3.9 -7.7 0.06 -0.08
Starter batteries, high specific gravity 0.18 2.4 0.07
b. Charging Amperes:t
Multiply
Amp.-hr. by
Normal for 1.250 to 1.150 sp. gr. stationary cells 0. 125
Trickle for 1.250 to 1.150 8p. gr. stationary cells 0.0025
Per Multiply
Cent Amp. -hr. by
Normal current 100 0.125
Start 135 0.1fí9
Finish 35 0.044
Trickle 2 0.0025
c. Charging Volts 2.5 at normal ampere rate, approximately 10 hr to final specific gravity.
d. Discharging Amperes to Various End Voltages:
Factor by Which Resulting Factor
to Multiply by Which to
Final Per Cent Amp. -hr. to Get Multiply
Volts Rated Amp. Amp. Dischg. Amp. -hr. Capacity
72 hr. discharget... 1.75 lii 0.020 1.50
8 hr. discharge.... 1.75 100 0.125 1.00
3 hr. discharge.... 1.72 200 0.250 0.80
1 hr. discharge.... 1.00 400 0.250 0.55
1 min. discharge... 1.40 1,000 0.500 0.04
e. Volta versus Specific Gravity When Charged:
Specific Gravity Volts
Stationary cells 1.215 -1.250 2.05 (charged)
Starter cells 1.280 2.10 (charged)
1.300 2.20 (charged)
f. Freezing Pointa of Electrolyte:
Specific Gravity Degrees Fahrenheit Degrees Centigrade
1.280 -96 -71
1.250
1.200
-61
-17
--
52
27
1.180 - 6.5 -21
1.160 1.6 -17
1.150 5 -15
1.100 18 -
7.8
Compiled from data furnished by Willard Storage Battery Co., Cleveland, Ohio;
Gould Storage Battery Co., Depew, N. Y.: Philco Corporation, Storage Battery Division.
Philadelphia, Pa., The Electric Storage Battery Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
tt Normal charging amperes for 100 amp. -hr. cell is 0.125 X 100 = 12.5 amp.
Suppose battery 8 hr. capacity is 200 amp: hr. and the 8 hr. discharge rate
is 200/8 = 25 amp. For 72 hr. discharge 16 per cent of 25 = 0.020 X 200 = 4 amp..
and the actual capacity now is 1.50 X 200 = 300 amp.-hr.
Based on an average voltage of 1.90, a lead -acid stationary cell of
100 amp.-hr. or greater capacity, weighs from 0.13 to 0.30 lb. per watt -
hour and occupies from 2.1 to 4.1 cu. in. per watt -hour. Using an
average voltage of 1.20, a nickel -iron alkaline cell of 100 amp.-hr. or
greater weighs from 0.06 to 0.13 lb. per watt -hour, occupies from 1.4 to
1.9 cu. in. per watt -hour, and costs from 74 to 12% cts. per watt -hour
for capacities from 150 to 900 amp.-hr.
21. Types of Charge and Discharge; Life and Cost., The severest
type of work for a storage battery is "cycling," meaning that the cells
are run from complete charge to a complete discharge before recharging.
As an approximate figure an average acid battery after 400 of such cycles
H. H. Hudson. The Electric Storage Battery Co., New York City.
474 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK ¡See. 14
has about 75 per cent of its original ampere-hour capacity left, and the
same rating for an alkaline battery is about 1,400 cycles.
The life guarantees of lead -acid storage cells vary with three major
factors: the type of construction, the ampere-hour capacity, and the
extent of discharge before recharging. This may be completely stated
by assuming the extent of daily charging and discharging of cells over
60 amp.-hr. capacity. On "full float" service or not over 5 to 10 per cent
daily charge -discharge, the life varies from 8 to 14 years. If the dis-
charge and charge is 20 per cent daily, the life is 6 to 10 years, and, when
discharged and charged 40 per cent daily, the life is 4%y to 7% years.
At the end of these times cells will have approximately 75 per cent of
their new ampere -hour capacity.
The range of cost of a lead -acid cell depends both on the construction
and the ampere-hour capacity. For low capacities 10 to 60 amp.-hr.,
the cost is about 10 cts. per watt-hour, and for capacities from 100 to
1,000 amp.-hr. the cost per watt-hour ranges from 3% to 6 cts. Note
that the nominal voltage is 2 volts and that the cost per ampere-hour per
cell would be doubled.
For a given capacity in watt-hours the initial cost of a lead -acid cell is
less than that of a similar nickel -iron -alkaline cell. The life of the latter,
however, is definitely longer, and usually over a long period of time the
cost is not appreciably different for the two types. It should be men-
tioned that stationary-type lead cells are higher in quality and also in
first cost than cells used on automobiles. As a result the stationary cells
have considerably longer life than the usual automotive type of cell.
Acid storage cells can be satisfactorily trickle charged and thus kept
available for emergency service. Alkaline storage cells thrive best when
charged at the normal rate, although they may be trickle charged if the
service does not require high discharge rates. The alkaline cell when
trickle charged will not deliver as good voltages at the higher discharge
rates as when it is "cycled," but in actual operation the cell may be
selected to meet such discharge requirements. However, a periodic
complete discharge and charge at normal rate is recommended if full
alkaline cell capacity is desired.
The regulation of a cell (the maintenance of terminal voltage under
load) varies with the internal resistance. The lead cell will have better
regulation than the nickel -iron cell.
Acid storage cells have a lower internal resistance than alkaline cells
of the same ampere-hour ratings. In the case of stationary cells this
factor is from % to %. On momentary exceptionally heavy-load condi-
tions the acid cell can deliver from two to three times the current that
can be drawn from an alkaline cell. This may he both an advantage and
a disadvantage. On a short circuit the damage to an acid cell is usually
to the plate lugs and the top connectors, but the alkaline cell is not
harmed. It is suggested for alkaline cells that periodic complete dis-
charge be followed by an intentional short circuit and then completely
charged. If an acid cell is short-circuited, it should be recharged imme-
diately. Alkaline cells can be stored in a discharged and short -circuited
condition indefinitely, but acid cells should he stored fully charged.
Acid storage cells are essentially low -resistance devices and therefore
particularly useful for applications where very high currents are required.
However, for each ampere -hour of electricity delivered, a definite weight
of lead peroxide and sponge lead must be converted to lead sulphate by
electrolytic action. A very high current discharge rate causes a progres-
sive slowing down of the electrolytic action until more active electrolyte
can diffuse to and through the plates, and there is a reduction of the
total capacity of electric energy stored at this particular high rate. To
take an extreme case, a certain battery rated at 100 amp. -hr. on an 8-hr.
discharge to 1.75 volts per cell will deliver 150 amp.-hr. at a 72-hr. rate
to 1.75 volts per cell, but only 55 amp.-hr. when discharged in 1 hr. to
1.68 volts per cell, as shown in Table III.
TABLE IV. SUMMARY* OF NICKEL -IRON STORAGE BATTERIES (II TO
900 AMP.-HR.)
All ampere -hours are for 3- to 5-hr. discharge to 1.00 volt per cell; above
60 °F.
a. Weight- Capacity Dimensions, per cell:
Lb. per Cu. In. per Lb. per
:
Small capacity (11 to 20 amp hr.)
Large capacity (100 amp. -hr. up)
0.28
Am0 28
0.11
r 6-2.3hr'
1.7
0.043
In.
0.048-0.060
b. Charging Amperes for 7 Hr.:
Multiply
Normal Amp:hr. by
Trickle 0.200
Start 0.0066
Finish 0.400
0.074
e. Charging Volts:
Hold at 1.7 volts per cell to obtain start and finish amperes of item b, above.
Charge at normal amperes to 1.8 or 1.9 volts per cell until voltage per cell remains
constant for 3. hr.
d. Discharging Amperes:
Hours Discharge Relative
Final Volts Ampere-hours
10 1.05 1.00
5 1.00
2.5 0.91
1 0.64 0.96
e. Freezing Point of Electrolyte:
Note that electrolyte density varies little, and does not show state of charge. At
minimum sp. gr. of 1.160 at 60 °F.:
Starts to freeze out at -4 °F., -20°C.
-
Freezes to "slush" at 87°F., -60 °C.
Compiled from data furnished by Thomas A. Edison, Inc., West Orange, N..1.
While the capacity in ampere -hours of a lead cell decreases at increased

discharge rates, this capacity in a nickel -iron cell does not decrease very
much at high rates up to five times normal if no restrictions are placed
on the useful voltage. At five times normal discharge rate the nickel
iron cell delivers 96 per cent of its normal full rate ampere -hour capacity.
This point is of theoretical rather than practical interest, however, since
there is a lower limit below which the voltage cannot drop and be of
actual use. At five times normal rate to get the 96 per cent amp.-hr. in a
nickel -iron cell, the end voltage is 0.64, which is too low for most purposes.
22. Electrolyte Characteristics. The specific gravity of an acid cell
varies with the amount of charge, being greatest at full charge and least
when discharged. The freezing temperature of an acid cell varies with
the amount of charge, a discharged cell at specific gravity 1.10 will
freeze at 18 °F., and a charged cell at sp. gr. 1.25 will freeze at -61 °F.
The electrolyte density of an acid battery is a readily tested indication
of the extent of its charge.
On the other hand, the electrolyte specific gravity of an alkaline cell

is no indication of its state of charge, since it remains practically constant
during charge and discharge. However, owing to gradual deterioration,
the specific gravity of the alkaline electrolyte in a cell ranges between
1.215 (new) to 1.160 and when it reaches this latter value it should be
replaced. Electrolyte having a specific gravity of 1.160 at normal
temperature will start to freeze out at -4 °F. and will freeze into a slushy
snow at -87°F. Higher gravity electrolyte starts freezing at correspond-
ingly lower temperatures.
23. Effect of Temperature on Capacity. The capacity of a lead -acid
cell decreases about 1.3 per cent for each degree C. the temperature is
lowered (0.75 per cent per degree F.). The usual 100 per cent rating
-
at 25 °C., 77 °F., is decreased to 50 per cent at 25 °C., 10 °F.
At about 5 °C., 41 °F., the alkaline cell has the minimum output at the
normal rates of discharge. However, the higher internal resistance
heats up in a cell which is either being charged or discharged, and in
actual use the 5°C. temperature is only a rough approximation.
There are certain details which influence the construction of an acid storage
cell for specified conditions. If the discharge rate must be high, the use of
wood separators between the plates rather than perforated rubber separators
are preferred, due to the lower internal resistance of cells having the former.
Further, lead -plated copper connectors between cells can be used to reduce
the resistance. An increase in life is obtained if the specific gravity of the
electrolyte is reduced from the normal charged value of 1.250 to 1.210 or
1.220. (Note that stationary cells use lower values than those for portable How-
or starting cells, where the specific gravity may be as high as 1.300.)
ever, the reduction of the maximum specific gravity of the electrolyte but
decreases the capacity of batteries at the 8 -hr. discharge rate, or longer,
has no noticeable effect at higher rates or shorter times of discharge. One of
the benefits resulting from the use of acid of lower specific gravity is the
increased life of the wooden separators.
24. Charging Storage Batteries. There are several standard schemes
of charging storage cells which are detailed in hooks on the subject and
explained in booklets issued by battery manufacturers. Briefly the
methods are termed the step, constant voltage, modified constant voltage,
constant current, and in addition there are equalizing and booster charges.
To charge fully a battery in a minimum time, the step method resembles
the booster charge since both give a heavy current charge at the start.
Since each of these methods requires a high- capacity charger, the constant-
current method is often preferred. On the other hand the constant-
voltage scheme automatically tapers the rate of current charge, since a
discharged cell potential is low and a maximum difference between cell
potential and charging potential is available to force through a heavy
charging current at the start.
Under emergency conditions a battery may be prematurely and coin -
pletely discharged. This means that in addition to a trickle charger,
another rectifier should be available with sufficient capacity to charge
the battery in from 10 to 24 hrs.
In charging, the positive potential lead of the charger is connected
to the positive cell lead, forcing current to flow in the cell in the opposite
direction to that of a cell which is furnishing current on discharge.
25. Relays for Charging. Relays to control automatic charging are
actuated by the voltage of the storage cells. Ordinarily the increase
of the resistance of the relay exciting coil with increase in temperature
will require a higher voltage to initiate the relay action.
In one relay' this problem is met by using a bimetallic strip on which
the actuating contacts are placed. This strip bends with temperature
change and intentionally overcompensates for temperature, so that the
voltage temperature requirements of the battery are followed faithfully.
When storage batteries are used, indicating instruments are of great .
value in showing the instantaneous charging or discharging current and

voltage across the battery when charging, or the battery voltage when
discharging.
26. Integrating Meters. An integrating ampere-hour meter is fre-
quently very desirable. The mercury -motor d -c ampere -hour meter' is
admirably suited for use with a storage battery. The use of a mercury -
floated rotating disk eliminates the use and maintenance of a commutator
TABLE V. FUEL CONSUMPTION PER KILOWATT -HOUR, ENGINE- GENER-
ATOR SETS
Gasoline, Fuel oil, Gas, 800 B.t.u. Diesel engines,

gal. per kw -hr. gal. per kw -hr. pe lit;-
pr gal per kw -hr.
hcr.
Full load 0.21 100% 0.17 = 100'; 28 100% 0.13 100%

Vy load 119% 118';, 118% 104%
.§ load 138% 135'; 137% 108%
. ¡load 172% 171'; 172% 112%
and brushes. The cumulative ampere -hour dials are very desirable
since they show at a glance the extent of charge in the battery. Stand-
ard dials are available for many ranges from 150 to 1,200 amp. -hrs.,
and the current ranges of standard meters cover practically all possible
charging rates. In one model two-rate charging is provided by a switch
which, when a preset number of ampere- hours, say 20 per cent of the
battery capacity, has been supplied at the first high rate, initiates a
suitable circuit breaker giving the second lower rate of charge. In
addition, when the full number of ampere -hours have been supplied to
the battery, another switch operates to discontinue charging. Other
models are available without switches, so that charging rates are manu-
ally adjusted as required and shown by the dial indication.
Since all storage batteries require more ampere-hours when charging
than discharging, in all meter models an ingenious mechanism actuated
by the direction of disk, which runs forward when charging and back-
ward when discharging, requires more ampere -hours when charging
than discharging to show a given amount on the dial.
The amount of excess in charging over discharging can be adjusted up
to a maximum of 35 per cent to suit both the type of battery used and the
normal discharge rate which is desired.
The main precaution in installing mercury -motor d-c ampere -hour
meters is to avoid excessive heat and continuous vibration. A clever
design of the mercury chamber prevents damage if the meter is turned
over during shipment or prior to installation.
TVR Relay, U. S. Patent 1960198, The Electric Storage Battery Co.
' Type N, Sangamo Electric Co.. Springfield, Ill.
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27. Precautions to Observe in Using Lead -acid Storage Batteries.

1. Keep the level of the electrolyte covering the plates and insulation.
2. Use distilled or approved water to replace loss by evaporation.
3. Do not allow the cells to stand for any great length of time after the
specific gravity has reached the lower limit. They should be given a charge
to bring up the specific gravity.
4. Charge for the proper length of time at the proper rate.
5. Do not add acid or electrolyte to the cells.
6. Do not allow the temperature of the electrolyte to rise above 110°F. or
43 °C.
7. Keep the battery and the battery compartment clean and dry.
S. Keep the terminals clean, tight, and well covered with vaseline.
9. Keep away from flames when charging with vents open.
28. Precautions to Observe in Using Nickel -iron Alkaline Storage Batteries.
1. Keep the plates covered with electrolyte.
2. Use distilled or approved water to replace losses by charging and
evaporation.
3. An occasional short circuit is not detrimental, in fact this is suggested
after complete discharge, before recharging.
4. Hydrometer readings mean little; charge to 1.8 to 1.9 volts per cell until
the cell voltage remains constant for ;y hr.
5. Renew the electrolyte by that supplied by the manufacturer when
the specific gravity decreases to 1.160. Do not pour off old electrolyte until
the new is ready to put in.
6. Do not put acid in the cells.
7. Do not allow the cell temperature to rise above 115°F.
8. Keep away flames while charging.
FUEL -DRIVEN ENGINE- GENERATOR SETS

29. Types of Fuel. Gasoline is widely used, but kerosene and natural
and manufactured gas, as well as No. 1 fuel oil and commercial Diesel fuel,
are also in general use. Gasoline- driven generators give from 3% to
5 kw-hr. per gallon, and Diesel- driven generators give 7.7 kw -hr. per
gallon. Proper engine adjustment and good grades of fuel will improve
these outputs.
TABLE VIII. DIESEL-ELECTRIC GENERATING SETS*
1,200 r.p.m. A.c., kilo-

watt. 80 Floor Height, Total
Name Cylinders engine space, inches
nches weight,
horsepower per cent inches pounds
P.F.
DG3C It 5 3
10
22 X 56
23 X 72
44
44
1,475
2,000
DGH 10C 41 19
DGH25C 6 42 25 24 X 90 44 2,850
John Reiner & Co., Inc., New York. Cooling is either by radiator and fan or by
cooling tank or tower. D -c models available with same ratings as above.
t Single cylinder models are of StoverHercules
type, hand-crank starting.
four -cycle full Diesel operation.
j Four- and six -cylinder models are
The Diesel engines of Tables VIII and IX are characterized by a high
compression ratio, about 16:1, and have good efficiency at various load
percentages, but the speed range is limited by that of its particular
design. This may he a disadvantage if different output voltages are to
be secured by varying the engine speed, but for a -c generation, where
the frequency depends directly on speed,

this is an advantage. The Diesel is d e
being steadily improved in design and is d
increasing in its popularity. §§gs m a
The gasoline engine, characterized by mómr 0
d
3 $
a lower compression ratio (about 5: 1) m
d^
and spark -plug ignition, is further along O
in its state of perfection, and this means m m o
less maintenance trouble and also ease Sí '$

5
of starting. For large Diesel engines a `
small gasoline engine is supplied for .,
starting. r>m
g&
Kerosene is often used as a fuel, in F o"
which case auxiliary means are generally N
provided for starting the engine with a
fuel of higher volatility, such as gasoline. E
o
eÓ
m
30. Cooling. For cooling, the small-
sized engines use air which is forced
F
t a-
aaas
past the cylinder blocks by a fan. w a

Large sizes use water cooling, and in N=
general this can be supplied either by a 0 m >
water tower or by a fan -radiator-pump "0"Ñ

system. The latter is usually recom- z d.Ni-10
mended since the use of proper water ti OO
G
m
minimizes the formation of scale in the
jacket passages of the engine block. á
0.d
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31. Emergency Service. Fuel- ê °>» i
driven generators are often employed am.Co
EÑV ii
ww
as an emergency source of electrical w

energy. Automatic switches may he áNd4
used to start up the engine when the
regular power has been discontinued for
15 sec. This requires an electric start-
ing motor and a storage battery as part
ß°
4
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m
Toe,:
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of the equipment. For emergency ser-

vice a high -speed engine permits the
A U°a
.óc
->öo
rated capacity to he obtained in a
minimum of space, and for a reduced - 4 ÿOoM O
first cost. For regular service the
heavy-duty, slow-speed engines are
generally recommended although they
require more space and have a higher
w
oa
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initial cost. 2.299.91 ó ,N,

Diesel- powered electric plants are not G....0,,
usually available for "full-automatic" E.óóN
starting. Semiautomatic operation is
sometimes employed, in which the Diesel it mVm vda
is manually started when the load is
.Y1 ñii.: mmö
expected and operated at low idle con-
tinuously. With the plant running, if m e:1Q84
11§g . }
the normal power supply fails, relays ti °a
d
operate to cause the Diesel to speed up Eccá óá

and take full load.
32. Regular Service A -c Generators. Fuel- driven generators are also

employed as a primary source of electrical power, and for this type of
work may be divided into two classes, a.c. and d.c. For a-c generators,
where no storage of electrical energy is possible (unless a converter and
storage battery are also provided), it is desirable to supply means for
stopping and starting the engine, so that it runs only when a load is
connected. This is sometimes called full automatic control and suitable
relays and switches operate to start up the engine generator when a load
of 1 per cent or more of the rated capacity is connected to the line. While
running, any load can be supplied up to the rated capacity. Whenshuts the
load is decreased to less than 1 per cent of the rating, the engine
down. Push-button stopping and starting is also employed on a -c plants
because it is less expensive than the full automatic control.
88. Regular Service D-c Generators. When the generator supplies
d.c., the problem may be somewhat different than that just described.
A d -c generator is almost always used to charge a storage battery, so that,
when the battery is fully charged, it is seldom necessary to run the
generator continuously. A voltage-controlled relay may be used to
start up the generator when the battery voltage drops to a certain
amount. This arrangement automatically charges the battery when its
voltage decreases and shuts down the generator when the proper point
of charge has been reached. Light loads are carried by the battery
alone, but heavy loads pull down the battery voltage so that the generator
starts up and helps to carry the load.
Push-button stopping and starting is often used for d -c as well as for
a-c plants. When a d -c plant is to furnish fairly steady loads of over
half its rated capacity, sometimes the storage battery is not used at itall.
In this case the automatic starting on battery voltage is not used, but is
possible to employ an automatic device to start up the engine when 1 per
cent or more of the rated load is connected. Hand -crank starting and the
use of a rope starter are also employed, mainly for small -sized plants used
to charge storage batteries.
A convenient formula for determining wire sizes requires the knowledge
of the amount of current supplied, the distance, and the maximum allow-
able voltage drop along the set of two wires. This maximum voltage
drop is 2 volts for a 32-volt system, and 10 volts for a 110 -volt system.
The formula is as follows:
22 X load amperes X distance in feet (one way) = wire size in circular
Allowable voltage drop mils'
While this formula was primarily derived for use with various voltages
on two-wire d -c systems, it is also of value in single -phase two-wire a-c
systems of 110 volts.
34. Cost; Capacity; Weight. Gasoline- engine driven generators of
200 to 6,000 watts output capacity range in weight from 0.18 to 0.22 lb.
per watt, occupy 7 to 12 cu. in. per watt, and cost 17 to 35 cts. per watt.
For capacities of 50 to 350 kw the weights range from 0.08 to 0.17 lb.
per watt, occupy 2.4 to 4.2 cu. in. per watt, and cost 3.5 to 6 cts. per watt.
Diesel- driven generators of 3 to 25 kw weigh from 0.11 to 0.49 lb. per
watt, occupy 4 to 18 cu. in. per watt, and cost from 11 to 33 cts. per watt.
Delco Appliance Division, General Motors Sales Corp.. Rochester. N. Y.
Sec. 14) POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 483
For ranges of 15 to 85 kw, Diesel generators range from 0.19 to 0.29 lb.
per watt, occupy 9 to 16 cu. in. per watt, and cost from 7% to 13% cts.
per watt.
TABLE X. DIRECT- CURRENT TO ALTERNATING -CURRENT CONVERTERS;
OUTPUT A.C. = 110 VOLTS 60 CYCLES, 1 PHASE
Input, Input, Output,

Code No. volts amperes volt -
d.c. d.c. amperes
a.c.
1010 K 110 1.6 110 Heavy -duty 1,800 r.p.m. 4 -pole ball
1020 K 110 2.7 200 bearings, 7 X 10% X 8 in., 35 lb.
1075 K 110 10 750t
3215 K 32 7.8 150
3250 K 32 25 5001
A -680 6 19 80 2 -pole converter, 454 X 5 X 855 in.,
B -1215f 12 21 150 1352 lb.
C -3250 32 7.6 150
D-1015 110 2.6 150
Carter Motor Co. Chicago. Ill.

f 75 lb., 7 X 16 X 8 'n., with starter box.
t 55 lb.. 7 X 12% X 8 in.
f Models with 40-volt -amp. output and weight of 8 lb. are available, operating from
6, 12. 32, and 110 volts d.c.
TABLE XI. DIRECT -CURRENT TO ALTERNATING- CURRENT CONVERTERS;
OUTPUT A.C. = 110 VOLTS, 60 CYCLES, 1 PHASE
T Pe Input, Input, Output,

volt - Length. Width. Height, Rpm Weight,
volts, amperes, amperes, inches inches inches pounds
No' d.c. d,c,
a.c.
640* 6 13.3 40 10 6 10 21
1216 12 20 160 10 6 10 26
3230 32 15 300 11 6 10 30
1130 110 3.9 300 11 6 10 30
11T100 110 .... 1,000 14 8 9 73
2R61í 6 .... 40 .. .. .. 3,600 37
2R121 12 .... 80 .. .. .. 3,600 46
2R319 32 .... 80 .. .. .. 3,600 39
4R328 32 2,000 .. .. 1.800 245
2R151 115 .... 90 .. .. .. 3.600 33
4R158 115 .... 2.500 .. .. .. 1,800 315
Pioneer Gen -E-Motor Corp., Chicago, Ill.

t Electric Specie ty Co..
Other power
Stamford, Conn.
ratings are available.
MOTOR- GENERATOR SETS
35. Direct -current to Alternating-current Converters. Converters
permit a storage battery to he used as a source of energy to operate a-c
devices, even when the charging d -c generator is not running. Since
many radio units are designed to operate on 110 volts 60 cycles, the
converter is often a valuable piece of equipment. Change -over switches
can be provided to connect the radio unit normally to utility a-c power
and in an emergency to switch to the storage-battery -converter equip-
ment for continued operation.
36. Dynamotors. When low voltage d.c. is available, a dynamotor
can be used to supply d -c plate voltage. Marine, aircraft, police, sound
systems, and amateur use are among the types of service which employ
dynamotors. The single armature, two bearings, and general compact-
ness are features of the designs. Dynamotors are usually designed to
have a high efficiency in order to conserve the limited capacity of the
storage-battery power source. High speed is usually employed to get
a maximum output with restricted space and weight limitations.
37. Motor Generators. A motor generator usually comprises two
distinct units, each with two hearings, generally coupled together mechan-
ically to run at the same speed. Motor generators are used for both
emergency supply and regular operation. In the latter cases low-speed
units are preferred, as they have longer life and require less maintenance.
Part of Table XII gilt.es typical motor-generator ranges, including
double -current generators. The latter have two distinct d -c supplies,
one being high voltage for the plate circuits and the other low voltage
for the filament circuits.
38. Price and Weight Ranges. There are several factors which cause
variations in price and weight for a given output. For d -c to a-c con-
verters, lightweight high -speed devices are available for low outputs,
ranging in price from 15 to 46 cts. per watt and weighing from 0.07 to
TABLE XII.* PLATE -VOLTAGE GENERATORS, DOUBLE-CURRENT GENER-
ATORS, A -C AND D-C MOTORS, AND DYNAMOTORS
Generator
D.C.
Item Filamenta and 60
No. Motor Watts,t cycle,
a.c. and r.p.m.:
Volts 60
cycle Volts Amp-
eres
2 D.c., 50, 60 cycle 350 40 3.500

17 D.c., 50, 60 cycle 1,000 1,000 1,750
372 D.c., 50, 60 cycle 5.000 9,000 1.750
40 3,500
Double-
28 D.c., 50, 60 cycle 400 50 6-12 current
405 D.c.. 50, 60 cycle 4,000 4,000 8-16 1,200 1,200 generators
3,500 Dynamotors
45 32 -230 d.c. 350 40 32 -230 volts
62 32 -230 d.c. 1,000 800 2,000, d.c.
Volts Weight.
pounds
6.75 Special high
100 12 volts, 3 amp. 150/250 15 efficiency
105
110
12
12
volts, 26.5 amp. 250/800
volts, 50.5 amp. 1,200 /1,500
100
400
20
36 } lightweight
ball- bearing
* Electric Specialty Co., Stamford. Conn.

f 50 -cycle output, approximately 75 per cent of that when using d.c.
and 60 -cycle
motors.
$ 50 -cycle r.p.m., approximately five -sixths that of d.c. and 60 cycle.
TABLE XIII. DIRECT-CURRENT PLATE- VOLTAGE DYNAMOTORS
Input Output Approximate

Type No. over -all Weight,
Milli-
M dimensions, pounds
Volts Amperes Volts ill
amperes inches
El W272* 6 4.7 250 50 6 X 5 X 5 734

E1W339 6 7.5 250 100 6 X 5 X5 7
E3W413 6 15 500 100 7 X 5 X 5 11
RA1W549 6 25 750 125 9 X 6 X 6 1734
RA3W534 12 32 1.000 250 10 X 6 X 6 2331
A420í 6 23.5 400 200 All 434 X X 834 in.,

5
B420 12 12 400 200 weight lb.
1331
131150 12 19.8 1,000 150 Ratings are for continu -
C420 32 0118 duty, will carry 75
4 400 200
C1150 32 8.3 1.000 150 per cent overload on
intermittent use
B445 12 24 400 450
C1250 32 14 1.000 250 i}
All 43ÿ X 5 X 1031 in.,
D1250 110 4.2 1.000 250 weight
l % X 5 lb.
Pioneer Gen -E Motor Corp.. Chicago. Other ratings are available.

t CarterMotor Co., Chicago, Ill. Other ratings are available.
. 0.52 lb. per watt capacity. Heavy-duty devices usually run at lower
speeds and are available in ranges up to the highest outputs, varying in
price from $0.16 to $1.50 per watt and weighing from 0.14 to 1.00
lb. per watt, the lesser weights and lower prices applying to higher output
devices.
Similarly for the motor -generator sets listed in Tables XII and XIII,
the high -speed devices range in price from 9 to 27 cts. per watt and weigh
from 0.04 to 0.7 1b. per watt. The heavy-duty and high -capacity units
vary from 25 to 30 cts. per watt and weigh from 0.16 to 0.40 1h. per watt.
WIND- DRIVEN CHARGERS
39. Data on Wind Conditions in the United States. Properly installed,
a wind -operated generator may be used, as an auxiliary means of charging
a storage battery, over a larger portion of the United States than is
generally supposed. The Weather Bureau, under the U. S. Department
of Agriculture in Washington, maintains various stations throughout the
couriry, and data on the average velocity of the wind, prevailing direc-
tion, and the date and maximum velocity of wind are published yearly
in several pamphlets, entitled the Annual Meteorological Summary,
each of which gives data for one of the various stations.
Most wind -driven chargers commercially available are characterized
by a two- or three -bladed propeller, some type of governor preventing
speeds rising much above those encountered in a 20-mile per hour wind,
and a d -c generator either driven "direct" at the speed of the propeller
or by a "step -up" gear drive. The governors are of several types.
The centrifugal "air -flap" device comprises two vanes, held concentric
with the propeller axle at low speeds by springs; but at high speeds the
flaps become radial, acting as an air brake.'
Wincharger Corp., Sioux City, Iowa.
A dual tail vane is also used, to change the relation of the propeller
to the wind direction. Here the propeller axle is always parallel with
the ground.' A third method is the "tilt back," in which the propeller
axle is moved toward a vertical position thus decreasing the effect of the
wind.'
A two-bladed propeller permits ready adjustment in the field of the
"tracking" of the blades and the governor is essential to prevent damage
in high winds. The propellers can be of wood, with either stainless-steel
or copper -lined leading edges, or constructed entirely of metal. The
generator is usually of the three -brush constant -current variety, giving
t;%.--, e
/
hvRS.¡' .'2
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F o. 11.- Average hourly velocity of the wind for an elevation of 100 ft.
(Courtesy of Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)
maximum output at low speeds; in conjunction with the governor it keeps

a reasonably stable current output at high wind speeds (see Fig. 12).
In general the approximate hour of the greatest wind movement in
the United States is at 3 P.111. local standard time, and over considerably
more than half the country this average is above 12 m.p.h. at an eleva-
tion of 100 ft. For New York City the minimum hourly wind velocity is
8 m.p.h. in July and August, at which time the lowest of the maximum
hourly velocities is 10 m.p.h.
The attractiveness of the absence of fuel costs and the maintenance
of the accessories required by a fuel- driven engine are to some extent
offset by the uncertainty of the supply of wind. In any case the primary
LeJar Mfg. Co., Minneapolis, Minn.
need is for a suitably high location of the generator and propeller. Local
conditions vary so widely that only general suggestions can he made.
The installation should he high enough to secure the maximum effect
of the wind and should therefore he away from, or higher than, obstruc-
tions such as trees and buildings. One instruction book specifies that
10
9
8
4) 6
L
Q
E4
2
0
0 5. 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Wind velocity,miles per hour
Fio. 12.- Characteristics, 110-volt, 1,200 -watt direct -drive Wincharger.
generator, 11%-ft. propeller.
the wind charger should be 15 ft. above any obstruction more than 400 ft
away.'
40. Reliability. The amount of wind suitable as motive power can
hardly be guaranteed for any location. If the preliminary survey of
local wind conditions indicates a reasonable average wind velocity, the
observance of proper installation procedure will generally produce
satisfactory results. In general, the maximum winds occur in the spring
and the minimum in midsummer, varying, of course, with the section
of the country. The steadiness of output from a wind charger cannot be
compared with that, for example, of a fuel -driven engine. The wind
charger operates at variable output unless the wind velocity varies
above a certain minimum speed.
For reliable results the wind -driven generator should begin charging
the battery at the lowest possible wind speeds, since in 'midsummer the
hourly wind velocities in many localities do not reach very high values.
Here the use of the word "auxiliary generator" becomes of importance.
A wind generator can be relied upon for a great deal of the time, but an
auxiliary source of power such as a fuel- driven generator is recommended
where absolute continuity of power supply is required.
A one -year curvet of the performance of a 1,200-watt wind -driven
generator, in Sioux City, Iowa, shows a cyclic output, ranging from a
maximum of 215 kw -hr. for April to a minimum of 120 kw-hr. for August.
Montgomery Ward & Co.
2 Wincharger Corp.
488 THE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDROOK [Sec. 14
For four wind-charger plants used on farms in Minnesota, all having

over 1,000 watts capacity, the average monthly consumption was
60 kw -hr. and the lowest consumption was 18 kw -hr. in August.'
The wind chargers of 'fable XIV develop sufficient voltage to start
charging at 5y- to 7t -m.p.h. wind velocities, and their outputs are
substantially constant and at their maxima if the wind speed is above
20 m.p.h.
41. Direct Current Only. Since the speed of a wind charger will vary,
the generators are made to furnish d.c. only. A storage battery is
invariably required to störe energy for use when there is no wind. As a
general rule, a two -week "calm" is the maximum, which requires battery
capacity to carry the load for that length of time.
Some wind chargers are mounted on towers above roofs, and in this
ease mention should be made of the necessity of a suitable means for
absorbing the vibration, such as the use of rubber pads. Special towers
or poles for mounting the chargers are frequently employed, in which
case vibration prevention is of little importance, rigid mounting being
preferred.
42. Length of D -c Leads. For low- voltage chargers the leads to the
battery have to be low in resistance. It is generally advisable to have
less than 200 ft. between the battery and the generator and preferably
less than 50 ft. As a rule the voltage drop at full -current rating should
be less than 20 per cent of the nominal voltage rating. For example, a
6-volt charger, 200 ft. away, with a capacity of 120 watts will furnish 20
amp. maximum. If the IR drop is to be 20 per cent total, each lead wire
has 10 er cent of 6 volts or 0.6 volt. Hence the allowable resistance
R = Ell = 0.6/20 = 0.03 ohm, which is the maximum resistance for
each of the two conductors, i.e., the wires must be No. 2 B. & S. gage or
larger. Thus two copper wires each 200 ft. long, having a minimum size
TABLE XIV. WIND-DRIVEN GENERATORS*
Diem- Rated output in Approx-

eter, 20 m.p.h. wind Rated Mini- imate found Type of
feet, 10 mum "1" weight generator
Name two- m.p.h., m.p.h. erator less
bladed am- to r.p.m., tower drive
pro- Watts Am- peres charge 20
peller peres m.p.h.
li voltt 6 120 17t 4 7)4 1.100 58 Direct

Heavy duty 6
volt .73 4 200 25 8 5% 800 96 Direct
Heavy duty:
volt
12 7% 225 14 5 6 800 96 Direct
volt
32 8 600 15 4 7%4 800 140 Direct
volt
32 11 1,200 30 6 654 1,600 270 Gear 4:1
Streamliner:
110 volt 113.4 1.200 9 2.3 634 400 681 Direct
From data furnished by the Wincharger Corp.. Sioux City, Iowa.

t The voltratings are nominal, a 6-volt charger will charge a three -cell (6 -volt) lead -
acid battery,a 110 -volt battery. etc.
j
The third brush on the generator, in conjunction with the wind governor, keeps the
current substantially at this value for wind speeds above 20 m.p.h.
University of Minnesota, Apr. Ens. News Letter, No. 23, February, 1934.
of No. 2 B. & S. are required. For higher voltages correspondingly
smaller wires may be used for a given watt rating. In any case short
leads decrease the first cost by requiring smaller cables, but the IR drop
should be lower than 20 per cent if possible, preferably 5 per cent, or 0.12
volt on a 6 -volt system.
43. Capacities and Types. Wind- driven generators are available for
outputs of 6, 12, 32, and 110 volts. Standard gear- driven models are
available, allowing the use of smaller sized, higher speed generators, as
well as direct -driven generators which have the same speed as the
propeller.
In addition to, or in conjunction with, the governors, brakes and
other devices for stopping the propeller are provided. Some of these
turn the tail vane at 90 deg. from its operating position, so that wind
does not affect the propeller; others are of conventional brake -shoe
construction.
44. Radio Interference. Since the generator is high up in the air,
it is essential to prevent radio waves froin emanating, and the com-
mutator ripple is usually minimized by built -in condensers. In addition,
however, it is suggested that the metal parts of the tower be solidly
grounded at the base and that one of the lead -in wires to the battery
also he grounded.
45. Maintenance and Depreciation. Generators are permanently
lubricated, but provision is made for removing a cover to lubricate the
collector rings, about which the propeller-generator unit moves as an axis.
The small number of moving parts reduces maintenance to a minimum.
On the larger models the design is arranged so that the units are indi-
vidually assembled. For example, the governor can be removed with-
out disturbing the balance of the propeller, and the collector ring can
he removed without disturbing the generator assembly. With reasona-
ble care, depreciation ranges from 5 to 20 years and thus can be figured
at from 20 to 5 per cent per year.
RECTIFIERS AND CHARGERS
The general types of rectifiers which are mainly used for supplying d.c.
for radio power from various a-c supplies are as follows:
Vacuum tubes, with filament or indirectly heated cathodes.
Gas -filled tubes with filament cathodes.
Igniter-type gas-filled tubes.
Dry-contact metal rectifiera.
There are two general types of rectifier tubes, vacuum and gas filled.
Both types have certain maximum inverse voltage ratings, i.e., the
largest safe voltage which can be applied to the tube in the non -rectifying
direction. Both types have maximum current ratings, either in r.m.s. or
peak values, or both. Indirect heated vacuum rectifiers are used
generally on voltage doublers and have a maximum safe voltage which
can be applied between heater and cathode.
Hot -cathode mercury -vapor rectifiers usually require cathodes to be
heated for periods up to 1 min. before plate voltage is connected. These
tubes must be used in circuits which limit the current, since mercury -
vapor rectifiers operate at practically constant voltage drop and thus
could be ruined by too high a current demand.
46. Characteristics of Rectifiers for Receivers. Figure 13 gives
100
80
60
40
--..-
average plate characteristics for receiver -type rectifiers. The vacuum
rectifiers have a varying voltage drop (vertical coordinate) with current
-...-
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EQUIVALENT PLATE CHARACTERISTICS
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SW4 SV4G SXS 5X40 25Z5
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0A
0.3 MNI11111ME11111UMIIIIUME11111 4 20 30 40 60 80100 200 400 600 1000
01 0.2 0.304 0.6 0.81 2 3 6 8 10
/DC, milliamperes
13.- Average plate characteristics of receiver-type rectifiers.
drain (horizontal coordinate). The equivalent types of tubes are shown
in the figure, e.Q., 80, 5W4, 5Y3G, 5Y4G, 5Z4, each of which is repre-
sented by the line labe ed "80." On this figure the average mercury-
mini IIIIIU!,.a, a
340
300 i1
IIIIIIII1111111111111I Imfdlmld4mrdBmfïl6mfd
II I
11111111111111I111!IIÌ2I;111L1I
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1111111IIIIIIII/'/U.dIV/11C11111111
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/./.aI!i II% IIIIIIII
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//I IlII mum
1111111I.s-!! i!iillls1111111IIIII
1000.1
!
..i11
11111
0 00 1000 10,000
Mi Iiamperes,d-c
FIG. 14.-Half-wave rectifier characteristics, useful for receiver circuits.
vapor rectifier drop is indicated by a horizontal dot-and -dash line,'
at 15 volts, and does not vary with current drain.
Half-wave rectifiers, typified by the high- voltage circuit of Fig. 3,
have output characteristics shown by Fig. 14, and the peak inverse
Figures 13, 14, 15, and 17 are reprinted by courtesy of Aerovox Corp., from the
Aerovox Research Worker, August -September, 1937.
voltage is 2.83 times the transformer voltage. A full-wave rectifier,
also shown in Fig. 3 has output characteristics shown by Fig. 15, the
peak inverse voltage is 2.83 times half the secondary transformer voltage.
170
11111111111111111111111111111111111
160
1111111111111 1111111 IIIII
11111111111111111111' !!"'
6u 150 111111111111111111p'/.ei
1111III11111111111i11I1i111,11I1I¡
,
11111111111111IhIIII%rIP1lmIIIIII
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N
15 130
1111111IIIIIIIÌIIÍIIM11111p011111I
11111111111111I/IIIII/,Si!iiC"LtTiJllll
y120 11111111111111E IPíII/I/,IUIIII11111I
1111111IIIIIIIIOIISIIIIÌI,4IIIII111111
IIO 11 11111.!/,ivaIII dIIIIIIIIIII
Ill
111111IRí11l!'/.ÍPíUwGIIIIIII111111
100 1wmer.n:ï;gr,; wma1111111111111
0.1 0 00 1000 10,000
M lliamperes , d- c
Fu:. 15. -Full -wave rectifier characteristics.
47. Voltage -doubler Circuits. A typical voltage-doubler circuit
shown by Fig. 16 has output characteristics shown by Fig. 17. For
receiver circuits there are several tubes comprising two rectifier elements
in one envelope, among which are 25Z5, 25Z6, 25Z6G, 25Z6GT.
If electrolytic condensers arc used in
voltage -doubler circuits, the positive Type
lead of one condenser must be connected 2.575
to the negative of the other. It is not
possible to use a dual electrolytic condenser //0V. R 11
for voltage doubling if the negative lead is RAIS 1
common. Input
Voltage -doubler tubes are often used 11111111 Output
in a-c receivers with both plates and C
both cathodes connected in parallel.
This connection does not permit voltage
doubling, reduces the internal drop below
that of a single element tube and in- Fio. 16.-Voltage-doubler circuit.
creases the rectifier output from a low
voltage a -c supply line. On d.c. the tube acts as a resistance and also
forces the user to lug in the set with the proper polarity.
As a voltage doubler the two half -wave rectifiers operate on con-
secutive half cycles of input power to charge their respective condensers.
The load is connected across the two condensers in series. The ripple
frequency is twice the line frequency. The maximum inverse voltage
applied is 2.83 times the applied a.c.
48. Vacuum -tube Rectifier with Filament Cathode. This type of
rectifier is used in nearly all a-c powered radio receivers and has numerous
applications in higher powered circuits. Oscillograms' showing the
' WISE. ROGER, Radio Broadcast, April, 1929, pp. 394 -395.
effect of different load circuits are given in Figs. 18 and 19. In both
figures the letters a to e refer to similar load circuits, a being a simple
resistor load, b a 4 -µf condenser across the resistance, e a 20-henry choke
in series with the resistor, d a standard three- condenser, two -choke
filter with load resistance, e the saine as d with the first condenser omitted.
190
1111111IIIIIIIUIIII Bmfd /6mfd 37mf
170 NIIIIIIImIIIIIauIIIIImli Illl'iÍI11111
1111 11111111E11111 1111111 1111111
I50 M1111 IIIIIII 11
11111111111111111114111
" I111111111111 II
H111111
o
ÿI30 111111111111 I1.111!1111111i 111111111I
1111111I1111IIIIIII)111.1111/14II4III I111111
I lo
11111111111 IIELlliltlli/ill'Ill! 111111
1111111111111 IW11411111IiV111111111111
90 111111111IIIIIIIMM1RíIlII/IPI
1111 III
111111111111 II/I/d1í1111/1111111111 II
70 111111111111111!M0511511//.11111111111111
1111111/:íll!!%Í:ÍI'i1/I1111111111111
50 111IU1I111>'inwi!_:;iiÌl1111111111111
0.1 0 100 1000 10,000
Mil amperes,d -c
17.- Voltage-doubler characteristics for receiver circuits.
1000 Time -+ a 03
7. 500 ' V3 rms.SecVoll K,°,o, mf .
300 °`¿Üri7ajV/! ( b)
200
E 100
o 71:7\7.."\ TubeCurrent
zon .r32.:"3..±.5.5.+4
200 (c) (d
E 100
0
VrI
Load Current
-1- I
(a) (b) (el
100 1-
)- V3
> 50
30 )-
a 20 )-
E 10
) V2
o
20 3-
E
10 ) ....-.
VI
o
(cì (d) (e)
F a. 18. -Half -wave rectifier, different load circuits.

For each load three factors are shown, the V letters denoting the oscillo-
graph vibrators, the transformer secondary voltage being V3, the tube
current V2, and the load current VI. The curves of special interest are those
of d and e in Figs. 18, and 19. In both figures d shows a severe load current
being drawn from the rectifier tube, the beak current from the half-wave
tube being 540 ma, and the output current 102 ma, a ratio of 5.3:1. The full -
wave tube peak current is 290 ma, while the output current is 118 ma, a
ratio of 2.5:1. For the e section of these two figures the half-wave tube peak
_
current is 130 ma and the load 45 ma, a ratio of 2.9:1; while the full -wave
Time- 3
4a
ó
- V3 rans.kc Vo
400
81H1
(b)
n ME.
: V? (0)
E 200
o
7_=Tube Current
200 VI
)c)
É 100
0 '17-oadCurrent/
(a) (b) `Ç) ` '
v3
1000
,- 500
0
a 400
E 200
0
200
= V2
- -lM,M
E 100 -
0 11
VI
(c) (d)
Fla. 19. -Full -wave rectifier, different load circuits.
(e)
peak current is 110 ma and the load 96 ma, a ratio of 1.5:1. In all these
curves the power transformer was the same, and an idea of the relative output
voltages and currents can be secured by comparing the desired circuits of
Figs. 18 and 19.
From the standpoint of the rectifier tube, these
figures show that the omission of the first filter B
condenser will decrease the high periodic loads
which are required by the standard filter having B'
an input condenser. By referring to Fig. 34 it will
be seen that the omission of C' decreases the avail-
able voltage, and this is verified by the curves in
g
Figs. 18 and 19, as the same transformer supplied
the voltages to both d and e circuits in turn. B
Figure 201 gives the load current, through several
cycles, for several forms of filter. The letters are c
made the same as for Figs. 18 and 19 wherever
possible. Curve B of Fig. 20 corresponds to the et
b curve of the full-wave rectifier of Fig. 19 while B'
is the saine as b with the condenser capacity
approximately six times as large. B" is the same
as B', for a half-wave rectifier, and B ." has about
six times as much capacity as B" but is otherwise
_ g
FIG. 20. -Load cur -
the same. Curve C corresponds to the regular c of rents for several forms
c
the former figures, and C' is the sanie as c with of filter.

2.13 pf across the rectifier side of the choke.
Curve C" is like C' with the condenser increased to nearly six times its
original value. Curve D resembles the d of the former figures, except that it
comprises only one filter section instead of two as in Fig. 19.
I KUHLMAN and BARTON. Jour. A.I.E.E., January, 1928, p. 17.
49. Hot-cathode Mercury-vapor Rectifier. The hot-cathode mercury-

vapor rectifiera differs from the mercury-arc tube in two respects: (1)
It operates at a relatively low temperature, so that the vapor pressure is
low. This low mercury pressure gives a useful characteristic, a high
breakdown voltage in the inverse direction. (2) The electrons are
emitted from the filament and not from a pool of mercury. In the second
respect this tube resembles the vacuum-tube rectifier, but the difference
lies in the much lower potential drop due to the neutralizing of the
filament space charge by the positively charged mercury ions.
The filament -to-plate drop of the mercury -vapor tube is about 15
volts and is practically independent of the load current. This low drop
improves regulation and increases the available d-c output. This tube
is self- igniting and does not require the starting mechanism of the mer-
cury-arc rectifier.
50. Battery Chargers. For low- voltage high -current rectification
the argon-filled, tungsten -filament Rectigon and Tungar bulbs fill the
need. The use is largely that of charging storage batteries, and no filter
is needed for this application.
Filters have been designed for use with these rectifiers, so that the
output can be fed directly to the filaments of d -c radio tubes. To
design a proper low -pass filter for d -c tube filament currents, Eqs. (1)
and (2) Art. 62 should be used, as the chart of Fig. 30 does not cover this
range. The condenser has to have a large capacity, and low- voltage dry
electrolytic condensers are often used. In using these condensers it is
important to connect the correct polarity to the rectifier.
TABLE RV. BATTERY-CHARGER TUBE CHARACTERISTICS
(All half-wave single phase)
Filament Maximum d -c anode

ratings Maximum Over -all
Number* inverse length,
voltage inches
Volts Amperes Volta Amperes
289415 2 12 75 2 275 59¢

289416 2.2 18 90 6 375 64'
766776 2.5 27 60 15 225 8b
Style number of Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturii g Co., Rectigon tubes.
General Electric manufactures similar tubes under the name Tungar.
51. Mercury-arc Rectifiers. Formerly, mercury -arc rectifiers were

most used2 in the field lying between the argon tube and the filament-
vacuum rectifier. With the introduction of the mercury-vapor tubes
many of the advantages of the mercury-arc rectifier-low voltage drop,
high efficiency-were duplicated. The mercury -arc tube requires a
starting electrode, and usually a mechanical tilting device for starting.
52. Igniter-type Mercury Rectifier. A mercury -pool cathode pro-
vided with a thyratron igniter is called the ignttron.3 This rectifier
PIKE and MASER, QBT, February, 1929, p. 20.
2 PRINCE and VOODES. ' Principles of Mercury Arc Rectifiers and Their Circuits.'
p. 23, McGraw -Hill Book Company, Inc.. New York, 1927.
a Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., East Pittsburgh, l'a.
Sects) POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 495
is characterized by an efficiency of about 90 per cent from 10 to 125 per
cent rated load for a typical 300 -kw 275 -volt d -c output from 2,300 volts,
three phase, 60 cycles. This is a higher efficiency over a wider range of
loads than is possible from a synchronous converter or a synchronous
motor -generator set.
The high vacuum required is maintained by a mercury -vapor pump
plus a rotary pump. The latter, automatically controlled, is used only
a short time each day.
Ignitrons are particularly useful for supplying high- current direct
voltage below 600.
63. Dry- contact Rectifiers.' At present the dry rectifier field in the
United States is divided among three different types of rectifiers, the
copper sulphide,' the copper oxide,' and the selenium.4
64. Copper Sulphide Rectifiers. The copper sulphide rectifier is
assembled from disks of copper sulphide and magnesium, with or without
radiating fins, mounted on bolts and clamped together under high
pressure. The rectifier is characterized by small size and weight, by
ability to operate with a high temperature rise (100°C.), by its low initial
cost, definitely limited life, good voltage regulation, and poor efficiency.
The thermal capacity of the element is relatively low. There is also
some difficulty in operating units in parallel, generally requiring separate
transformer secondaries for each rectifying element. There is also a
limitation as to the number of elements that can he operated in series,
so that the rectifier is found only in the low- voltage fields. An additional
limitation exists in the range of sizes of the rectifying elements due to
the high pressure required. They cannot be used in the small -power
classification, e.g., in instruments.
The proper field of application for the copper sulphide rectifier is for
intermittent duty, where the definitely limited life can be stretched out
over a satisfactorily long time and where in addition the initial cost is
important. Among such applications are power units for operation of
various types of electromagnetic loads, such as circuit-breaker solenoids,
and in intermittently operated battery chargers such as used around the
home. The low efficiency and definite life limitations appear to bar this
rectifier from fields where long life and good efficiency are paramount.
55. Copper Oxide Rectifiers. The copper oxide rectifier is assembled
from oxidized copper disks with lead washers, with or without radiating
fins, clamped on a bolt under high pressure, or from large area low-
thermal -capacity plates furnished with sprayed or plated collecting
surfaces, which can be assembled under little or no pressure at all. This
rectifier is characterized by its large size and weight, its limitation to low
temperature rises in operation (15 °C.), good efficiency, poor voltage -
regulating characteristics, indefinitely long life, high thermal capacity,
and high initial cost. The rectifier is flexible as to size of element of any
dry rectifier, elements in production today ranging from 3/2 -in. diameter
to 50 sq. in. in area. Figure 21 shows a typical E -I curve for a 1h-in.
disk.
Mwrsa, K., " Trockengleichrichter," Oldenbourg, Berlin, 1938.
r Manufactured by the B -L Corp., St. Louis, Mo.. and by the P. R. Mallory Co.,
Indianapolis, Ind.
Manufactured by Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co. and General Electric
Co.
Manufactured by the International Telephone Development Corp., New York.
Applications for this rectifier are almost unlimited. It is best fitted,

of course, for those purposes which require long life and fairly good
efficiency and where the matter of first cost is less important than is the
operating cost. Because of its volt-
It) ampere characteristics this rectifier can be
used for almost any application requiring
9 d.c., provided it can be economically
8 justified. Its high thermal capacity, par -
titularly in the disk type, and the ability
/ of the elements to withstand high voltages
6
rectifier very useful in intermittently
i5 loaded aptlications, such as the operation
X
aE4 56. Selenium Rectifiers. The selenium
3 rectifier is assembled from plated iron
2 disks coated with selenium and sprayed
ly pressure' is
i not required for this rectifier because each
0 J disk is an integral rectifying unit with a
5mA low-resistance contact surface on either
-4 -3 -2 - 0 I 2 1 4 side. Assemblies are available without
Vo ta radiating fins and also with or without
Fia. 21.-Typica Rectox cur- increased disk spacing. This rectifier is
rent- voltage curve. noted for its small size and weight com-
pared to power- handling ability.
The efficiency is comparable with copper oxide, and the permissible
operating temperature is higher. Voltage overloads are not permissible,
but the rated voltage per disk is higher than copper oxide and short-
period current overloads are permissible. Fields of application and
flexibility are roughly the same for selenium rectifiers as for copper oxide
except that selenium rectifiers are not available for very low capacity
uses, such as indicating instruments.
Information as to the life of this type of rectifier comes from Europe
where it has been in use for about 11 years. Long-term service tests
have not been completed in this country since the American product
has been available for less than 2 years.
57. General. From the above brief descriptions, it may be seen that
copper oxide and selenium are nearly alike on the basis of performance
with selenium having the advantage as to
size and weight, and copper oxide having the
advantage in range in element sizes and use
on instrument applications.
Neither of these rectifiers is competitive
with the copper sulphide rectifier in those
fields where efficiency is unimportant, oper-
ation is intermittent, and first cost is Fie. 22.-Bridge circuit for
significant. Copper s u p hide rectifiers
1
Rectox rectifier.
reach into fields, which are also supplied by
copper oxide and selenium, such as railway battery charging and
electroplating.
A typical rectifier circuit employing a transformer without a center tap
is shown in Fig. 22. When A is positive, the path of the current is ADBC;
when C is positive, the current path is CDBA. During the time that A
is positive, nearly the entire transformer secondary voltage is applied
across the bridge arms DC and AB.
LOW -POWER TRANSFORMERS FOR RECEIVERS

58. Transformers. The design of a reliable power transformer, having
high efficiency, requires fairly elaborate calculations. To take into
account the d.c. which flows in a transformer secondary when a half-wave
rectifier is used, some interesting equations have been derived.'
A simple approximate -design method will be given hers for the
construction of single-phase low- powered transformers up to 180 volt
amp., or 180 watts for approximately unity power factors. This design-
is especially suited to transformers which supply a full-wave rectifier
and filament energy to an a-c powered radio receiver, three factors making
it possible to secure a satisfactory transformer without complicated
design methods. These factors are as follows:
1. There is no urgent need for high efficiency. An per cent efficient
transformer which takes 60 watts to supply 48 output 80 watts is fairly satis-
factory if it can radiate the heat which it generates.
2. These transformers are operated at a fairly constant
improves the maintenance of the various output voltages as eachload. This
secondary
winding will have a constant IR drop.
3. The load on the transformer secondary is nearly of
The filament power load is essentially a resistance loadunity with
power factor.
factor. The current supplied to the filter has slightly less than unity power
factor, but this can be disregarded in low- powered transformers. unity power
The indirect
heated receiving tubes, such as the 56, require less than half as much d-c
power in their plate and grid circuits as that which is needed to heat their
cathodes. This would mean a unity power- factor heater supply and (assum-
ing a series voltage divider) less than half as many additional watts for plate
and grid supply at a lower power factor. It is true that a power tube, such
as 6L6 at its maximum rating, uses slightly over four times the wattage in its
B + C circuit as it does in its filament. It is rare, however, to have more
than two power tubes in a receiver, and the assumption that the power factor
of the secondary is unity is usually not over 20 per cent off. This means
that the wire of the high -voltage secondary and of the primary should be
increased to allow for this added current.
59. Small Transformer Details. Economy in a transformer is secured
when the winding encloses a maximum of core area with a minimum of
wire, and the magnetic path should be as short as possible.
The core form of a small transformer can be of several shapes, but it
usual to use standard punchings shaped like capital letter E's. As a rule,is
two punchings are used, one having longer legs than the other so that
the magnetic circuit "breaks joints" in stacking the iron. Another
convention usually followed in small transformers is the use of a single-
winding form, all secondaries and primary being on the middle leg of the
E core.
The spool form is usually an insulating tube, and side pieces may be
fitted, on which terminals are placed; or, if the coil is to be machine-wound
with interwoven cotton, the side pieces can be omitted, and flexible leads
provided.
HARDER, E. L., Elec. Jour., October. 1930, p. 601,
60. Ten Steps in Designing a Small Power Transformer. 1. Determine the

Volts and Amperes Needed for Each Secondary.
a. Find the total maximum secondary watts = W. = EiI1 + Ed: +
b. Find the total watts needed for primary = W,
Assuming 90 per cent efficiency W, = W./0.9
c. Find primary amperes assuming 90 per cent power factor
E, X 0.9 0.61E, -
and for E, = 110 volts, I, = W. /89.1 amp.
Id
160
Lo
Wanking
equoiion 1.4
12
Walls I.2
558
10
°
X0e
06
,41
0 05 I. 1.5
ACore Area ,sq
20 2.5
in
0.4
02
0
0 I 2
!!111
3 4 5 6 1 8
B Kilogousses
9 10 II 12 1$ 14
FIG. 23. -Small Fla. 24.- Core-loss curves Armco Radio grades
power transformer (60 cycles).
core area as a func-
tion of watts.
2. Size of Wire. Knowing the current for each winding, the wire size is
determined by the circular mils per ampere which it is desired to use. A safe
rule is to use 1,000 cir. mils per ampere for transformers under 50 watts and
1,500 cir. mils per ampere for higher powers.
3. Core Considerations. A curve showing core areas for different powers is
Fig. 23 which shows the area for 40 watts to be 1 sq. in.; 70 watts, 1.5 sq. in.;
and 120 watts, 2 sq. in. The area of the
0.6 core is the sane as the inside dimensions of
the spool, making a 10 per cent allowance
0.1 for stacking; for example, a spool 1 by 2 in.
inside would enclose 2 sq. in., but, allowing
0.6 for a 10 per cent loss, only 90 per cent or
a° 0.9 X 2 = 1.8 sq. in. is the net core area.
The core area is needed to determine the
04 turns per volt.
4. Core Loss and Induction. The flux
0.3 density at which the core is to be worked
determines the iron (core) loss. Figure 24
0.2
10 30 40 So 60 gives several curves of different core mate-
Cycles pe Second rials, watts per pound being plotted against
flux densities in kilolines per square inch.
Fra. 25. -Core loss versus fre- Sixty -five kilolines per square inch is an
quency B = 10,000. average value of the induction. The mak-
ing of a curve such as Fig. 24 depends
largely on experimental data, not directly on a theoretical basis. For this
reason, no definite value of the core loss can be given; it depends on the quality
of core material which is available. It should be noted that better and better
core material is constantly being made, having lower loss per pound,
the use of higher flux densities is becoming possible. Up to 15 kilolinessoisthat
not
uncommon, but unusual for this application. The core loss increases with
frequency, a typical curve being Fig. 25.
5. Induced-voltage Equation, Turns per Volt. The elementary definition.
that 108 magnetic lines cut per second will induce one volt pressure, is the
basis of the equation
E - B1ÓNf X 4.44
where E = voltage
A = area of the core
B = flux density in the same units as A
f = cycles per second
N = number of turns.
A more useful working equation for small power transformers is obtained by
solving for N/E in turns per volt:
N 108
E - BAf4.44
Figure 26 is an alignment chart of this equation. The left column is
flux density B, in both kilolines per square inch and kilogausses ( kilolines the
per
square centimeter) the center column is the net core area in both square inches
;
and square centimeters; the right column giving the turns per volt for both 25
and 60 cycles per second.
Using a flux density of 65 kilolines per square inch and the net area
mentioned in step 3 (1.8 sq. in.), the turns per volt for 60 cycles are core
be 3.1 turns per volt. Thus, for each volt on the transformer, there must to
found
3.1 turns. It is customary to change the turns per volt to an even number be
so that center taps can be provided. In this case, by using 4 turns per
volt, with the same core area, the induction will be lower, with a corresponding
lower core loss. It is also quite possible, and sometimes advisable, to change
the core area so that an even numberpf turns per volt is given. For example,
by increasing the core area to 2.8 sq. in., 2 turns per volt could be used; by
decreasing to 1.4 sq. in., 4 turns per volt would be used. The reason for
desiring the even numbers of turns per volt is to supply the .4-volt steps for
receiving tubes, such as 6.3 volts, which would require an integral number of
turns when the turns per volt are used.
The voltage drop in the transformer winding should be mentioned here, and
it will be again taken up in detail in the example. For instance, the load
voltage at a tube filament is lower than the no-load voltage by the amount
of IR drop in the winding and the connecting wires to the tube. it
may be that to secure 6.3 volts at the tube filament, the transformer Thus no-load
voltage will have to be 7. In this case any integral number of turns per volt,
either odd or even, will suit the design.
6. Turns for Each Winding. In step 1 the desired
E,, Es, etc. Using the value of turns per volt in step 5,voltages were given,
the total turns for
each winding are found. For example, with 4 turns per volt, a 110 -volt wind-
ing should have 4 X 110 = 440 turns.
7. Winding Space Required. From the total turns for each winding, and
the wire size, the total area of winding space is calculated. Different wires
and insulations have definite turns per square inch. The method insula-
tion, however, may have these values vary by factors of as much asofthree to
one. That is, a 900-turn coil wound in layers with enamel wire may take up
1 sq. in. of cross- section area. By interleaving thin insulating paper between
layers, only 600 turns can be wound on a square -inch area; and by using a
certain size of cotton interwoven between turns, only 400 turns be wound
in a square inch. Thus the space of winding depends to a large can degree on the
kind and thickness of insulation. Double cotton-covered wire takes up
considerably more space than enameled wire. Yet, if the extra -needed
insulating space for the interlayer protection is considered, the space ratio
may not be so great.
After adding up the winding space of all the windings, the area should be
compared with that of the core. If the winding will go in the core space, this
part of the design is finished.
If the wires will not go in the available space, the winding may be rede-
fewer
signed, or the core area increased. Using thinner coverings for wire,needed
secondaries or fewer circular mils per ampere will decrease the space will
for the wire. A larger iron size or a thicker stack of the same sized iron
Turns per Volt

30 --70
-60 .
Core Ores 20 -50

0.1 0,7
-40
035 15
flux Ches.fy 1.0
140 , 0.2
1.5
-30
20
r
_100
120
18G
161
0.3
c0.4
2 «
`
10
9-
J
90 14 ï06 0.5
4
3
É
-es
é;
8 r20 ó
380 12f vi2; x
n 70 ° QB 6 s15
ú IO.Y---- °-I.
0
6
°-- X
6Ó 89X .ñ 1.5 8
I0Ñ
é =5- ú
ú
4 ví
c 50
10
° 7 ó 2
15 .°0 9
40 6 x 3 20 8
30 }5 4 3ti7
5
30
40
-6
6
.1- 5
-4
t5.
3
X 4.44
Fta. 26.- Transformer design chart based on E = BAN!10'
increase the core area and allow a smaller number of turns per volt, thus
decreasing the cross section of the winding.
8. Copper Losa. a. Find the length of the mean (average) turn in feet.
b. Find the length of each winding in feet by multiplying the number of
turns by the mean turn length.
c. From wire tables find the ohms per 1,000 ft. for the size wire used, and
then from 8-b the actual ohms for this length.
d. Multiply the current squared for each winding by the ohms for that
winding.
e. Add the I'R's for each winding to get the copper loss LI.
9. Core Loss. The core loss in watts L2 is found from the weight of the
4. A useful factor is
core and flux density and kind of core used in step inch.
that 4 per cent silicon steel weighs 0.27 lb. per cubic
W. X 100
10. The approximate percentage efficiency is + Lt + Lx' W. being the
Ws
secondary watts (see step 1).
NOTE. If step 10 shows about 90 per cent efficiency, the design is complete.
If much less than 90 per cent, step la must be modified, a new larger value
of I, being used in finding a larger primary wire. This will not change the
efficiency but will prevent overloading the primary winding due to its carry-
ing a greater current than that for which it was designed.
It is desirable, as a rule, to keep the efficiency above 90 per cent, and this
can be done by reducing LI and L: by using larger wires or larger cores.
61. Typical Small Transformer Design. This transformer gives a full-
wave rectifier supply, filament supply for rectifier and receiver, and works on
a primary voltage of 110, at a frequency of 60 cycles.
Power
Transformer
Fla. 27.- Typical a -c powered unit for furnishing B and C voltages.
1. The desired secondary voltages and currents are as follows:
E, volta I, amperes Use Watts = El
330 0.075 B and C supply 24.75

330 0.075 B and C supply 24.75
5.0 2.0 Rectifier filament 10.0
8.3 1.8 Filament 11.34
2.5 3.0 Filament 7.5
a. Total secondary watts W. 78.34

b. Primary watts W, = W./0.9 = 78.34/0.9 = 87.0
e. Primary amperes I,, - W./89.1 = 78.34/89.1 = 0.88
2. This transformer is over 50 watts, so 1,500 cir. mils per ampere is the
current density to use in finding the proper -sized wire. The wire sizes, with
Volts Amperes Size wire
110 88 18
330 0.075 29
330 0.075 29
5 2.0 14
6.3 1.8 15
1 5 3.0 12
the identifying current and voltages, are listed in the foregoing table. The use
of larger wires of even numbers keeps the IR drop lower than when using a
smaller wire. However, if the use of these larger wires makes too large a
winding cross section, smaller wires must be used.
!folio
Screen Or d Radio Amp/ihers Lose Audio
Power Qeeeefer Push-Pull
Fm. 28.-Voltage divider with graded filter.
3. The core area available is 136 X 2 in., the net area being lßß X 2.0 X
0.9 = 2.48 in. This is larger than necessary as shown by Fig. 26, but allows
the design, in this case, of a transformer with good efficiency and good
regulation.
4. The flux density used is 65 kilolines per square inch and 4 per cent
silicon iron with a loss of 0.6 watt per pound.
5. The turns per volt for 65 kilolines per square inch and core area of 2.48
sq. in. give three turns per volt.
6. The turns for each winding are as follows:
Volts Turna
110 330
330 990
330 990
5 15
6.3 18.9(20)*
1.5 4.5(5)
*It is usual to add }ÿ to 1 turn to filament windings to allow for the IR drop in the
winding and leads to the tube filaments.
7. Winding space, in square inches, using enamel wire, follows:
Ohms per Actual IR volts / =R watts

Turns Feet 1,000 ft. ohms drop
330 320 6.51 2.08 1.61

990 906 83.4 75.6 0.43
990 906 83.4 75.6 0.43
15 13.7 2.6 0.035 0.07 0.14
20 18.3 3.25 0.064 0.115 0.37
5 4.6 1.8 0.008 0.024 0.07
Total "
3.05
a. The mean turn is 11 in. = 13{9 ft.

b. The space needed is 1.6 sq. in. and the space available is 1 X 2 = 2 sq. in., so the
extra space can be used for the spool and for insulation between windings and layers
Turns Size wire Turns per Actual space,

square inch square inch
330 18 400 0.82

990 29 3,500 0.28
990 29 3.500 0.28
15 14 175 0.09
20 15 220 0.09
5 12 120 0.04
Total .. 1.60
e. The copper loss Li is 3.05 watts

8. The core weighs approximately 5 Ib., which at 0.6 watt per pound gives
5 X 0.6 = 3.0 watts = L2.
9. Watts output = 78.34 = W.
Losses = Li + L2 = 3.0 + 3.05 = 6.05 watts
= 78.34 X 100 7,834
Per cent efficiency 93 per cent
78.34 + 6.05 -
84.39
NOTE. The copper losses are approximately the same as the iron loss, which
is generally an indication of good design.
10. Volts Drop. It is seen by the IR column that the drop in the winding
is not serious.
The core weighs 5 lb., and the copper winding is 2.8 lb.; allowing no weight
for insulation, this transformer gives 78 watts output for 7.8 lb., or 0.1 lb. per
watt of output.
FILTERS FOR SMOOTHING RECTIFIED AND GENERATED D.C.
62. Low -pass Filters. The filters used to give d.c. from rectified a.c.
are knucn an lows -1),i,, filters.' Low -pass filters are divided into two
C
0
00
(a) (6)
Flo. 29. -(a) Low-pass filter. (6) Tuned low -pass filter.
classes, tuned and untuned filters. The tuned filter offers a maximum
impedance or attenuation to the frequency of the supply, but the imped-
ance at near -by higher or lower frequencies is not quite so great (see
1 The theory of filters is admirably covered in the following books: K. S. Johnson and
T. S. Shea, "Transmission Circuits for Telephone Circuits : G W. Pierce, "Electric

Waves and Oscillations."
Fig. 29b), although the general trend of the curve is a rising attenuation
as the frequency increases.
The usual form of untuned low -pass filter is that of Figs. 27 and 28,
using three condensers and two chokes. This filter (Fig. 29a) has a
continuously rising curve of impedance as the frequency increases.
To obtain good filtering with this filter, it is desirable to choose fe, the
frequency at which attenuation begins, as low as possible. The equations
as follows:
C = =
0.3183
f
for determining the proper inductance and capacity for this filter are
farads
= R = 0.3183R henrys
(1)
(2)
srfe fe
where f, = frequency at which attenuation begins

C = capacity in farads
L = inductance in henrys.
As this is an often-used type of filter, Fig. 30 is devised to give the data
of Eqs. (1) and (2) in a convenient chart form. The four columns from
coif
fc R 30-
Cycles per Second L
100 Menr.es
Ohms
200
2o -
90
80 IS
70 500
60 5 1000 6
50 10 4
40
50 5,000 2
30
10 10,000
IA
20
oe,-
0.6
Cs R farads
1
50,000
04-
10
L
03f/BR
/rnnu
T L c+
02
O.I a
30. -Low -pass filter design chart, w section.
left to right are le in cycles per second; L in henrys; R in load ohms; and
C in microfarads. Thus with any two of the factors fixed, the correspond-
ing two are determined from this chart by a straightedge across the two
known factors. For use on 60 -cycle half-wave rectification, it is neces-
sary that f, be below 60, and for the double-wave rectifier f, should be
below 120 cycles; the lower the fe the better will be the filtering at the
desired frequency, as shown by the rising attenuation curve of Fig. 29a.
The third column R is the usual starting place for finding the filter
values when the voltage divider and tube load have been calculated
first. When the point on the R column is fixed and fe is, say, 50 cycles
per second, the values of L and C are quickly determined. It is seen
from Fig. 30 that, for a given cutoff frequency fe, as the load resistance
increases the L increases. while the C value goes down. Very high -load
Sec. 14] POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 505
resistances require chokes of large inductance values, but as high -

resistance loads mean small currents, the use of large inductances is
feasible.
63. Ripple per Stage. By assuming that the load resistance R does
not affect the values of L or C1 a useful approximation' can be secured
concerning the amount of filtering
needed in each stage for the circuit 100 IaINa...a.Ow 1w.
MRIM.=.1411uu
w. al=
shown in Fis. 28. Suppose the
output stage is supplied with plate
80
W111=o INII
IIMMIM.M,I1
,=0BWnusi_e>si.
MI
power which is filtered x per cent,

60
40 1 1I1\1,1NIIIMINIMM11111
1\\\1\\1111MMENI
so that its hum is reduced to z per
cent of its unfiltered value, and at
this value it gives no noticeable
30
TO
1 mum,
1
hum in the loud -speaker. Sup -

=;-,=111r1
1=.a.eL.Mw.
pose further that the amplification
between the plate of this last tube m 8
and the preceding tube plate is A. ó 6
IO
&'
11.al..,V.
IIIIuoIuIIMMOsie
sisNI[maLIIMMIN=IMI
Then the preceding stage must ó 4 MIIII\\\I'1\_\IMMIIII
have its power supply filtered x/A g 3 M111\11111L\IIIIIII
per cent. This means that the S
ripple in the plate supply of the 11111liMillil
''w'
a,oz
2
next to the output stage must be d
1 /A as much as the output stage, 111111, 1M11111
because of its amplification. Fig- 08
waze1MIw
ure 31 gives this relation in useful
ra hic form. If a stage of am-
graphic
has a gain of 25, it is
essential that the preceding tube
0B
0 5
0410 2 0 60 800ro'-00 30500
Frequency
.7
be supplied with plate power with Fia. 31.- Smoothing effected by
one twenty -fifth the ripple, or 4 various products of inductance (henrys)
per cent. An LC product of 56 and capacity (microfarads).
will give this degree of filtering at
100 cycles, according to Fig. 31, and this means a 28 -henry choke and a
2-µf condenser which are close to standard values.
64. Resistor- capacitor Filter. A similar circuit to Fig. 28, using
resistors instead of chokes, is frequently used to provide an extra degree
of filtering for stages preceding a
L, power stage (see Fig. 32). This is
Power especially useful when the output
Oct. stage requires a high voltage and
N F Lz when the voltage for the other stages
must be materially reduced. The
s. 0 reason chokes are used is that they
have high impedance to the un-
Fia. 32.- Circuit which minimizes wanted rectified a.c., but low resist-
feedback. ance to the desired d.c. Now, if the
amount of d.c. is no great object, a
resistance of as great a value as the impedance can be employed, and this
is quite useful in some cases where the voltage is to be reduced. If, as in
Fig. 32, two stages of choke and condenser filtering are used, the additional
resistance and condenser filter stages simply increase the amount of filter-
ing without the extra cost of chokes which are more expensive than
1 Cocz:ueo, W. T., Wirdeee World, Nov. 19, 1930, pp. 565-568.
THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. 14
10
50
60
..
resistors. The RC values and the degree of filtering are given in Fig. 33,
and the use is the same as that of Fig. 31. The circuit of Fig. 32 is quite
similar to Fig. 28, in eliminating the undesired feedback effects.
The use of the chart (Fig. 30), based on Eqs. (1) and (2), gives very
G
.etso
s1,o
48 MIIMME10 ?'I
...
satisfactory results, but the experimental
curves' showing the effect a of load and
different condenser values are quite interest-
mg and will give a clearer idea of the validity
of the chart.2
I1311111 ó
"111'I'-
,,
30
65. First Filter Condenser. The effect of
the first filter condenser, shown dotted in
Y0
'1II,c Fig. 27, is to raise the available output
voltage'. Figure 34 gives the output voltage
10,,=viii r ¡;,
available as the first condenser C, is changed,
as a function of the load current.
61IMMEl \IIIII MI 5
si111sfi11111Vq 4$a'
\l21111100
iii Egii
40
3
\\111'íl e.
E
2
`
3.
0.8
IlinliiI.
........... e
300
``C+O`
l
= 200
0.6
0.5
Q4 =11111111
20 300 5060 80100 200 300 l00
0 20 40 65 80 100
Frequency Load,milliamperes
Era. 33.- Filtering effected Fla. 34. -Effect of CI on voltage
by resistance (ohms)-capacity available.
(microfarads) circuit.
Figure 35 gives the per cent ripple in output as the capacity of CI

is varied. This curve shows that the use of a single condenser C, can
never reduce the ripple much below 10 per cent with a reasonable value
of capacity. Much less than one -half of 1 per cent is needed in a good
filter, and, as at least two condensers must be used to provide a single
filter section, Fig. 35 agrees with the theory.
66. Second and Third Filter Condensers. Figure 36 gives the per
cent ripple as a function of C2 and C3 for a given current drain. It will
be seen that, when Cs = C3, the most economical filter results. For
example, suppose the ripple permissible to be 0.1 per cent. This can
be supplied with C2 = O If C3 = 5 pf, a total of 5µf. But this can also
be met with C2 = 2 µf, and C3 = 2 µf, a total of only 4 pf. The dotted
line gives the ripple value where C2 and C3 are equal. The per cent ripple
figures, of course, apply only to a specific filter, but the relations between
the condenser values hold for similar filter circuits.
I The curves (Figs. 34 to 38) are experimental curves taken from the Aerovox Research
Worker, articles by Sidney Fishberg, research engineer.
2 A theoretical calculation of the effects of C1, Ci, and Ci On the output voltage is
given in Gen. Elec. Rev., 19, 177. 1916.
Figure 37 gives the percentage hum as a function of the current drain.
This shows that the higher the values of C2 and Ca the lower the per-
centage hum. It should be re-
membered that increasing cur- 0.5
rent means a decreasing load 04
resistance. From Fig. 30, as- 0.3
suming fe is constant, the ca-
pacity should increase and the 02
inductance decrease as the load
resistance decreases. Thus, as
Fig. 37 was taken using the same ti 0.i
100
x o.oe
i;oo6
ó 005
ç 004
0.03
0.02
00I
0.008
0006
2 4 6 8 10 0.0050
3 4
C inpf 2
Capacity C3 In pfd
Fro. 35. -Effect of CI Fm. 36.- Percentage ripple as a function
on
ripple in output. of C2 and Ca.
inductance coils throughout, larger values for C2 and Ca are needed as the
current drain increases. It is almost certain that the inductance values of
L L
Tca
T Tc T
(b)
Lz Lz
-L) óL7
TC3
20 40 60 80 100
Current Drain,mlliomperes
120 140 y TCt
(e)
Fia. 37.- Percentage hum as a function Fla. 38. -(a) Low -pass fil-
of current drain. ter. (b) and (c) Tuned low -
pasa filters.
the chokes decreased as the current through them increased. To a
certain extent this inductance decrease does not interfere with the
filtering, especially if the capacity is increased, as, referring again to

Fig. 30, when the resistance decreases to half a certain value, the capacity
should be doubled, while the inductance need be only half its former
value, if f, be kept the same. Thus in Fig. 37 as in the other figures,
the experimental facts agree with the theoretical chart (Fig. 30) and
Eqs. (1) and (2) for this type of filter.
67. Swinging Choke. A "swinging" choke is often used in transmitter
circuits as the first choke following the rectifier. The inductance of this
type of choke varies from a maximum greater than that shown to be
needed by calculation, at no load, to a minimum equal to that shown by
the calculation.
68. Tuned Low -pass Filter. Two tuned low -pass filter circuits are
given in Fig. 38, b and c, whose attenuation characteristics were given
m Fig. 29b. For comparison, Fig. 38e gives the ordinary low -pass filter.
For the tuned filter of Fig. 38e, having the series chokes shunted by small
condensers, the equations are
1 0.07858
farads (3)
4xj.Ra a= 1 - j.Ra a= - 1
C: = 4C,(a= -
1) farads (4)
L = R!C henrys (5)
a =1.7 (0)
For the tuned filter of Fig. 38c, having small chokes in series with the con-
densers, the equations are
v'a= -
1
= 0.3183 Vat -
1
farads
j.Ra j.Ra
Li = R =C, henrys
LI
L, - 4(aß 1)
farads
a =f
js
If wide variations in the supply frequency were likely to occur, this

type of filter would not be advisable. As a rule, the frequency of most
power companies is now kept con-
L, stant enough to run synchronous
electric clocks, and this is quite good
enough for this type of tuned cir-
c, c2 ca cuit. However, the values of C,,
1
L,, and C,, L, have to be accurately
maintained in order fully to secure
the advantages of the tuned filter.
Owing to these closer manufactur-
ing limits, the use of the tuned filter
Fia 39.- Tapped choke -filter cir-
is not so wide in large production
cuit.
as its advantages would seem to
warrant. A combination of tuned low -pass filter and the regular-type
filter is sometimes used with very good results.
69. Filter Chokes Having Mutual Inductance. An interesting type
of filter is one in which the first and second choke are magnetically
coupled. Figure 39 shows a tap on the first choke' to which the positive
rectifier lead and a filter condenser are connected. The a-c component,
flowing through the L, section of the choke, neutralizes to a large degree
the a -c component of L2, so that the output ripple is reduced. Figure 40
shows the relative a-c output ripple with a variable C2 as the tap on the
choke is changed, so that L, uses from 10 to 40 per cent of the total turns
of the choke.
12
49%
10
30% ; C,=CJI{I /uf
7i8 8
-s
Cr=z f
.CJ°2¡rf
It
g6 1
0 1 0
0 02 0.4 as 0.8 1.0 12 L4 1.6 02 04 0.6 08 1.0
Cz,mwofarads CZ m¢roforads
Flo. 40.- Tapped choke. Fla. 41.- Condenser values for
Percentage of total turns tapped choke filter (Fig. 39).
(Fig. 39) used in L,.
Figure 41 shows how the values of C, and C, affect the relative a-c
ripple as a function of C2. These curves indicate that the best C2 value
is fairly independent of C, and C,.
70. Design of Filter Chokes. It is important that the filter choke be
designed to carry the desired d.c. and at the same time to offer the
necessary reactance to the a -c component. A direct method of design'
has been derived using both the normal and incremental permeability
curves for the core material.
The derivation gives the two following working equations:
Y
LIY
B2(1 + a-) X 10-s
V=
0.4( +)
NI B 1 a
=0.4Yr µ+l) (12)
where L = henrys
I = d -c amperes
V -
core volume in cubic centimeters
N = turns
'Prue. I.R.E.. January, 1930, . 161, from which Figs. 39 to 41 are taken.
s HANNA, C. R., Jour. A.I.E.E.. 46, 128, February, 1927.
Z= magnetic path in centimeters

= air gap in centimeters
14 = steady flux density on iron and air gap in gausses
p, = normal permeability B/H
µA = incremental permeability AB /AH for a minor hysteresis loop.
o 0 0 0 0 o ó
m
o
en o
r I S ti
tli óó
I
O O ó0 ó ó/ O ó ó q
0 ó ó ó 0 0 ó 0
, ó
Ó Ó O
1--ó O' O Ó
'1...9 2 O O O g g O O
a0 8
1 , 1 1 I I 1 Ó
Oft. 2Só ó ó \\óO ó ó

0
o
ó
óO o
ó
ó
ó
[V
ó ó ó ó ó
\ CO
\\ C
ó
E $.
\\
a
d,
.QR
\
\
\ Vv
ux y
tl
y
,tE
o
..o
\\ U
\ N
\
I' 0
p1p
pp
O
O
ó
ó
o
{5
O
oó ó
o
ó
ó ó
ó óó
Oa.ci
the
The original curves were plotted with a/1 as a parameter, LI =/V being
ordinate, and NI /1 as the abscissa for both 4 per cent silicon steel and hipernik.
Figures 42 and 43 are alignment charts which include the data of the original
curves. L/2 /V is the left column, and NI /i and a/l are on the right column.
A straightedge passing through a given LII /V and tangent to the curve in
Sec. 14J
Fco.
r6000
:a
k3000
44.- Typical
8000
7000
5000
4000
20002
4a
°\\
POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
the central part of the chart will cut the right column at the corresponding
value of N1/1 and a /l. The reverse procedure, beginning with N111. is also
possible.
Figure 44 gives typical permeability curves for three grades of mag-
netic material which is commercially available.' A chart for calculating
"
3
a a
/E\'2\
4 5 6
MENE
7 8
13- Kilogausses
9 10 I 12
permeability curves of radio grades of Armco iron.
0.003-
2
L
0001
0002
a
13
ro
15
20
511
0002
0003 25
\ -30
0.001
a.ó04 -35
0 -40
-45
Fitt. 45.-Choke design; Armco Radio 4.
chokes, using Armco Radio 4 is Fig. 45, the values of LI'/V and NI/1
being the same as for Figs. 42 and 43. In Fig. 45 either the desired
value of LI' /V is followed over the curve and then down to NI/tor the
reverse procedure can be followed. The gap ratio a/l shown opposite the
curve has exactly the same significance as before.
71. Designing a Choke to Carry D -c. A small choke to carry SO ma and
have 14 henrys is desired. The left column of Fig. 42 is L12/V, and this is
' These curves were supplied by C. W. Rust, electrical engineer, American Rolling
Mill Co., Middletown, Ohio.
calculated first. L is 14 henrys, 1 is 0.08 amp.; I= is 64 X 10-4 amp.' V is

the volume of the core, which was calculated to be 83.6 cc.
LI! 14 X64 X10 10.7X10-e =0.00107
V = 83.6
Lining up this value with a straightedge which is tangent to the central curve
(Fig. 42), the value of NI /l is found to be 18. The core used has i = 14 cm,
so N = 18 X f/I = 18 X 14/0.08 = 3,150 turns. Thus to get 14 henrys,
3,150 turns are wound on the core given. To have this inductance at 80 ma,
an air gap is needed, as shown in Fig. 42, the a/1 (gap ratio) being 0.0021. As
l is 14 can, a = l X 0.0021 or 14 X 0.0021 = 0.029 cm (equivalent to
0.029/2.54 = 0.011 in.). This required air gap is made by inserting paper
sheets of the proper thickness between the punchings, and then clamping
them firmly in position.
00005
00°04
00001
0
0 5 a 15 20 25 30 35 40
Fla. 46.-Typical reactor design curve; V in cubic centimeters and l in

centimeters. Armco Radio 4.
The inductance of a choke depends to some degree on the frequency. For

use with low frequencies in a filter circuit the inductance remains practically
constant. Both the hysteresis loss and eddy- current loss are of importance in
choosing a core material for chokes and transformers. The hysteresis loss
is directly proportional to the frequency if the maximum flux density remains
constant, and to the 1.6 power of the maximum flux density if the frequency
remains constant.
The eddy -current loss can be kept low by using thin sheets of core material.
A usual standard thickness is 0.014 in., and this is quite satisfactory for filter
choke and transformers for 60 cycles. The insulation between laminations
does not need to be very thick, the usual oxide layer on the sheet being
sufficient.
72. Filter- condenser Ratings. Some rectifiers begin supplying recti-

fied voltage before the tubes in the load heat up sufficiently to take
their rated currents. (This is especially true of the slow indirect- heated
tubes.) For this reason it is often desirable, especially from a safety fac-
tor viewpoint, to use peak voltages in calculating all condenser ratings.
Sec. HI POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 513
The first condenser should, then, be able to stand the peak voltage
of the power- transformer secondary. For a 400 -volt secondary the
peak is 564 volts. For reliable continuous use, the rating of the first
filter condenser should be 564 volts. If no current flows, the voltage on
both the second and third condensers will also be within a few per cent
of the peak value 564 volts.
Assuming that an appreciable percentage of the total load current
flows in the voltage divider as a "waste" or "circulating" current, the
second and third condenser ratings do not have to be so high as that
of the first condenser by the amount of the voltage drop in the chokes.
This drop is figured by the usual E = IR formula, where the circulating
current is I and the resistance is that of the respective chokes.
If an appreciable load of resistors, or fast-heating tubes, is always in
the circuit, the IR drop through the chokes can he subtracted from
the voltage applied to the first condenser. For instance, if a current
of 60 ma flows through the first choke having R = 400 ohms, the voltage
drop is 0.06 X 400 = 24 volts. Assuming the r-m -s voltage (neglecting
the tube drop) at the first condenser is 400 volts, the steady voltage com-
-
ponent at the second condenser is 400 24 = 376 volts. To this should
be added 10 per cent to allow for the ripple, so that 376 X 1.1 = 413.6
volts should be the d-c rating for the second condenser.
It is true that a good filter condenser will stand, for a time, voltages
greater than its d -c rating, but the practice of applying these higher
voltages is seldom advisable.
73. Filter Condensers. The advent of reliable electrolytic condensers
has greatly simplified the construction of adequate filter systems at a low
cost. The untuned low -pass Sheri can readily be made by using a very
few high- capacity electrolytic units. The one thing to note carefully is
that electrolytic condensers are suitable only for d.c.t and must be
connected correctly. Condensers mounted in metal cans usually have
the can negative. Cardboard units always have colored tracers, the
red lead usually being plus. Wrongly connecting electrolytic con-
densers not only will ruin the condenser but are likely to damage the
transformer and the rectifier tube. Mercury -vapor rectifiers, with their
low voltage drop, are especially susceptible to such wrong connections.
Electrolytic condensers may be considered as comprising two general
classes: low voltage, high capacity, from 1.0 to 50 µf, for grid filtering;
and high voltage (up to 450 volts d.c.) for plate filtering, from 1 to 16 pf.
Higher voltages are available by using several 450-volt units in series.
While electrolytic condensers are constantly being improved, there
probably will always be a characteristic current which flows through the
condenser. This current rises with temperature and may be a con-
siderable fraction of a milliampere per microfarad at the temperature of
radio-set operation.
There is a lower limit of temperature at which electrolytic condensers
lose an appreciable portion of their capacityy to store electrical energy.
This limit is invariably below freezing (32°F.) and is usually of little
consequence for indoor radio -set use.
I See Art. 64.
For capacitor -type a-c motors, two electrolytic condensers are used in series, s', that
at all times one is connected correctly.
SECTION 15
HIGH -FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND

RECEPTION
BY DALE POLLACK, SC. D.
PROPERTIES OF H -F WAVES
1. Classification into Frequency Ranges. For purposes of analysis
it is convenient to divide radio waves into bands of frequencies within
which propagation effects are similar. Any such classification must, in
part, he arbitrary since changes in the properties of waves with frequency
are not sharply defined and are dependent upon time. In this section
the classification of Table I will be followed in general, but minor changes
TABLE I.- CLASSIFICATION OF FREQUENCY RANGES
Range
Nomenclature Approximate useful
communication radius
Kilocycles Meters
Below 550 Above 545 Low frequencies Ground wave: 0 -1,000 miles
Sky wave: 500 -8,000 miles
550-1,600 545-187 Broadcast band Ground wave: 0-100 miles
Sky wave: 100 -1,500 miles
1,600-30,000 187 -10 High frequencies Ground wave: 0-15 miles
Sky wave: 15-8,000 miles
Above 30,000 Below 10 Ultra -high frequencies 0-150 miles
in the dividing frequency between ranges will be made when desirable.

The column Approximate Useful Communication Radius is relatively
approximate, the exact radius being dependent upon the power, time,
earth properties, and other conditions.
2. General Characteristics of H -f Waves. The signal intercepted by
a radio-receiver antenna may have been propagated either by the ground
wave, which travels along the earth's surface, or by the sky wave, which
travels in the air, including the ionized layers above the earth. The
received' signal is, in the general case, made up of components of both
types, but it is often convenient to investigate transmission by each
of the modes independently. Frequently one or the other predominates,
facilitating such independent analysis.
The ground wave is attenuated by losses in the earth and falls off at
distances from the transmitter, the exact manner in which it decreases
being dependent upon the frequency and the conductivity and dielectric
constant of the earth. The ground wave is useful only for medium
514
Sec. 151 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 515
distance communication at low frequencies and for short distances at

low and broadcast frequencies. At high frequencies it can be employed
only for local communication.
The sky wave may be employed for communication over greater dis-
tances since it travels through the air, in which the attenuation is rela-
tively small. It can be refracted and reflected by the ionized layers in
the upper atmosphere (the ionosphere) and by the earth. Thus the
wave may return to earth at distances remote from the transmitter. All
frequencies, up to the ultra high, may be reflected or refracted to earth
by the ionosphere, and their sky waves may, therefore, be useful.
If the ground wave is to render good service at a distant receiving
point, it must be strong compared with (1) the noise and interference
level and (2) the sky wave. The limit to the useful service range of the
ground wave may be fixed by one or both of these factors. The ground
wave may be increased with respect to the noise and interference level
either by increasing the transmitter power or by employing a directional
antenna, but with respect to the sky wave the only effective aid is
the use of an antenna system in which high angle radiation is minimized.
In the region in which the sky wave and the ground wave are nearly
equal in magnitude (within, perhaps, 2 to 1 of each other) fading, par-
ticularly selective fading is excessive. At locations beyond the region
in which the ground and sky waves are of similar magnitude, the sky
wave predominates and is most useful for communication.
Ultra -high frequencies are very rapidly attenuated over the earth's
surface, and their sky wave is not normally returned to earth by the iono-
sphere. Consequently, the transmission properties of u-h -f waves must
depend upon the direct ray from the antenna and upon reflections of
the direct ray from the earth's surface, as assisted by diffraction around
the curved surface of the earth and refraction in the lower atmosphere.
Their usefulness is limited to short distances although greater than the
optical line-of-sight limitation which is too frequently assumed. As the
frequency is increased further, however, diffraction and refraction
phenomena become less useful in extending the service radius. Conse-
quently communication by means of centimeter waves is limited to
paths that are only a little longer than optical.
S. Propagation of the Ground Wave. The distance for which the
ground wave is useful decreases as the frequency is raised. The ground
wave of low frequencies is useful up to medium distances, and in the
broadcast band its usefulness is limited to short distances. Above the
broadcast band it can be used only for local transmission.
Sommerfeldi has computed the propagation of waves over a plane earths
i.e., for distances short enough that the earth's curvature may be neglected.
The results may be further simplified if the dielectric constant of the earth
may be neglected, which is true within an error smaller than 2 to 1, if the
frequency is less than
7 X 10170
= (1)
e
where . = frequency
kilocycles
below which dielectric constant may be neglected, in
e = soil conductivity in e.m.u.
e = dielectric constant.
SOMMERFELD, A.. The Propagation of Waves in Wireless Telegraphy, Ann. Ph ya.,
28, 665 -736, Mar. 16,1909; 81, 1135-1153, Dec. 11, 1926.
516 THE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDROOK [Sec. 15
Typical values of soil conductivity and dielectric constant are as follows:
Type of soil a (e.m.u.) f. (ke)
Dry, sandy or rocky, ground 10-14 5 1,40U

Eastern and far Western United States (approximately) 3 X 10-tß
Average ground, Central United States and Europe (ap-
proximately) 10 X 10-1'
Moist ground 30 X 10 -14 30 7,000
Salt water 4 X 10-» SO 350,000
Detailed data on soil conductivity throughout the United States have been
published by the FCC.,
Distance .miles
50
40
0 200 400
imir
600 800
Power =1 kw
1000 1200
300 t
11/11111 47=10-13
e.m.u.'
2000
1500
u 1000 11''""
tats.
INIIMIa.NI..MI IIIIMMtIII
800 MMEIMM
fa\1\I0',- llINMM
-ck.
v2 600
- \\\°.>)
ó\\ \gS,X 1111
v
LL
400
300 v
1$ l°4.
y I
A1° 1L 6. .
200 XP
150
,,,,
100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance, kilometers
Flo. 1.-Ground-wave propagation over average ground; 1 kw, vertical
/4 antenna. (Report of Committee on Radio Wave Propagation, Proc. I.R.E.,
>,
28, 1193, October, 1938.)
Making use of the above assumptions, the ground -wave field intensity,
according to van der Pol's= simplification of Sommerfeld's work, is given by
E = kVPA (2)
d
where fi = field intensity in millivolts per meter
k = antenna constant (= 195 for quarter-wave antenna or 270 for
half-wave antenna)
Federal Communications Commission, Standards of Good Engineering Practice con-
cerning Standard Broadcast Stations, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1940.
2 VAN DER Po*, B., Propagation of Electric Waves, Zeil. Hochfrequenz, 37, 152 -156,
April, 1931. For an excellent discussion of propagation formulas, see K. A. Norton,
d = distance in miles
P = power radiated in kilowatts
2 + 0.3p
- 2 +p +0.8p=
(Sommerfeld's "reduction factor ")
9.38 X 10 ttf =d (Sommerfeld's
p = cr
"numerical distance ")
u = soil conductivity in e.m.u.
When large numbers of such data must be computed, the slide rule of J. F.
Morrison' is convenient. In practical computations of wave propagation,
account must be taken of changes in the soil conductivity within the trans-
mission range. A procedure for accomplishing this is outlined by P. P.
Eckersley.+
More recent analyses have extended propagation calculations to
account for the earth's curvature. Curves giving the results of such
Distance, miles
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
5000
4000
3000
1,,,,,1 1111111
Power =1
Q-4x10 em.ur
(Sea water)
2000
1500
1\;.
I000
MMaI
:CC
I. .1,
,...M:
ú 800
600
tg 400 :
o\z:,G
g NM
Ima,--
a.
300 .
il A,
200
150 _ _a- \
100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
FIG. 2.- Ground -wave propagation over sea water; 1 kw radiated power .
vertical x/4 antenna. (Report of Committee on Radio Ware Propagation,

Proc. I.R.E., 26, 1193, October, 1938.)
calculations will be found in the Report of Committee on Radio Wave
Propagation.3 Two such sets of curves for two typical earth conduc-
tivities (those of average ground and sea water, respectively) are shown
in Figs. 1 and 2. For radiated powers different from 1 kw, the field
The Propagation of Radio Waves over the Surface of the Earth and in the Upper Atmos-
phere. Part. I (Ground Wave), Proc. I.R.E., 24, 1367 -1387, October, 1936.
For aale by Keuffel & Esser Co., Hoboken, N. J.
The Calculation of the Service Area of Broadcast Stations, Proc. I.R.E., 18, 1160-
1198. July, 1930.
Proc. I.R.E., IS, 1193-1234, October, 1938.
intensities of these figures should be multiplied by -/P, where P is the

radiated power in kilowatts. For other antenna structures the field
should be multiplied by the appropriate factor. For a half -wave antenna,
for example, this factor is 1.4.
4. Propagation of the Sky Wave. Energy which leaves the antenna at
angles greater than zero con-
Distance, miles stitutes the sky wave, in con-
ii
4000
3000
100 200 500 1000 2000 6000
trast to the ground wave, which
`. leaves the antenna at a zero
.
angle to the earth's surface.
i
2000 N
\\ Power = kw. I
The sky wave travels through

the atmosphere until it reaches
1000
°.::a:
800
600
íÿ'1.
400
300
.r
Z Iñlhisregion
\ iii i
_.IIIII
the ionized layers 100 to 500 km
above the earth, called the
ionosphere or the Kennelly-.
Heaviside layer. It may then
200
intens ry
field
depends upo
le 1
,eP
111111 be bent hack to the earth im-
Ì\
mediately, it may travel in the
Ì.....
L frequency, anlenna
E
d 60
I80 =
__and
_ soilcaadcrhYiYy
Average
may liebetween s: Illl1
'iii
tY so
ionosphere for some distance
before being returned to earth,
or it may pass through the
a -hmitsshown
40 ionosphere and never return to
ó 30 earth. Long- distance radio
° 20
communication is almost always
accomplished by means of the
E
portion of the sky wave refracted
tt-:
ú
8
6
1111
iiwisssew
.aws
m sbi IIIiiJth
61`
to earth. After the wave returns
to earth, it may be reflected from
the earth's surface into the iono-
IiiT ''iII
.c 4
v 3
sphere once more and to the
earth at a more distant point.
i,
fil!.... The medium through which
2
the ground wave is propagated,

1
0.8
the surface of the earth, changes
little with time. The sky -wave
0.6
Ill
N1
1111.
W$
propagation, however, depends
upon the ionosphere character-
0.4
4-
istics, which vary widely with
0.3 time.
Sky -wave propagation is con-
1200 ZOO 500 1000 2000 5000 10000
veniently subdivided into low,
D'sfance,kilometers broadcast, and high frequencies.
The sky wave at low frequencies
Fla. 3. -Sky -wave propagation, quasi- is usually considerably stronger at
maximum field intensity for frequencies night than during the day. The
up to 1,600 Ice. (Report of Committee on day field may be estimated from
Radio Wave Propagation, Proc. I.R.E., the modified Austin -Cohen for -
26, 1193, October, 1938.) mula,
= 3 X 106 exe 6° be
(3)
S
dP V sin B e
AUSTIN, L. W., Preliminary Note on Proposed Changes in the Constants of the

Austin -Cohen Transmission Formula, Proe. I.R.E., 14, 377 -380, June. 1926.
where S = field intensity in microvolts per meter

P = radiated power in kilowatts
d = distance in kilometers
B = angle at center of earth subtended by transmission path in radians
f = frequency in kilocycles.
The quasi -maximum field (the field intensity which is exceeded only 5 per
cent of the time) for a propagation path completely in darkness is given by
Fig. 3.1 For long distances a distinction must be made between transmission
//////////////or///th//////////////i
Transmitter E
antenna
Fla. 4.- Probable paths traversed by sky wave at l.f. A single ionized layer
is shown.
paths near the magnetic pole (corresponding to a north -south or south-north
transmission, such as between Europe and South America, or between North
and South America) and transmission paths far from the earth's magnetic
pole (corresponding in general to east and west transmission, such as between
northern United States and northern and central Europe, or between northern
and central Europe and Siberia).1 The median value of the field (the field
exceeded 50 per cent of the time) is about 35 per cent of the quasi -maximum
value. For powers other than 1 kw multiply the field intensity by ,/P where
P is in kilowatts. P should also include the antenna power gain if a direc-
tional antenna is employed.
Earth '1
Skip distance
Fro. 5.- Probable paths traversed by sky wave at h.f.
layer is shown.
A single ionized
When part of the transmission path is in twilight, l -f propagation suffers.

The field strength is likely to be lower than during either night or day trans-
mission, for long- distance communication, and its value is not easily predicted
1Report of Committee on Radio Wave Propagation, Proc. I.R.B., It 1193 -1234,
October, 1938.
ESPENSCHIED, L. C. N. ANDERSON, and A. BAILEY, Trans -Atlantic Radio Telephone
,
Transmission, Proc. I.R.E., 14, 7-57, February, 1926.

At broadcast frequencies the sky wave does not return to earth during the
day. Sky-wave propagation, therefore, need be considered only during the
night. Figure 3 represente propagation of broadcast frequencies at night.
High -frequency sky-wave propagation is a complex phenomenon. For
each of the ionosphere layers there exists a critical frequency, below which
radiation from any angle from the antenna is returned to earth. Above
this critical frequency high -angle radiation passes through the ionized layer,
..
while radiation from lower angles is still returned to earth. This is illustrated
by Figs. 4 and 5. In Fig. 4, for a frequency lower than the critical value,
the entire sky wave is returned to earth. In Fig. 5, however, the frequency
-
is higher than critical, and the high -angle radiation is not returned to earth.
` ' /j
The distance between the transmitter and the point at which the highest
angle radiation returns to earth is
the skip distance for that fre-
MIEN
0 500
Distance, miles
1000 1500 2000 quency. Conversely, for this
smallest skip distance, the corre-
frequency a called the
maximum usable frequency. In
" 0`?
°,......
20 general the higher the frequency
the greater is the skip distance.
ú 15 '°'" Within the skip distance the
%' signal strength is usually too weak
to be useful, which explains the
necessity for employing frequen-
gE .- , cies lower than the maximum usa-
O..EMEEE
5 ble frequency. In traversing non -
ionized air, h-f waves suffer little
attenuation, other than that result -
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 ing from spreading of the wave
Distonte,kilometers front. In passing through ionized
Fie. 6.- Average maximum usable air, however, the attenuation is
frequencies during summer at latitude greater. An operating frequency
39 °N. Time refers to place where wave should be chosen for which as little
is reflected. The upper edge at each of the path as possible is in the
range is for the sunspot maximum, 1938- ionosphere. This will be the case
1939, the lower edge for the sunspot mini- if a frequency slightly lower than
mum, 1933 -1934. (Bureau of Standards the maximum usable frequency is
Ionosphere Reports, Monthly in Proc. employed.
I.R.E.; Smith, Gilliland, and Kirby, Natl. The maximum usable fre-
Bur. Standards, Jour. Research, 21, 835,
December, 1938; Gilliland, Kirby, Smith, quency is dependent upon the
and Reymer, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 1347, No- time of day (or longitude),
member, 1938.) month, year, and latitude, as
well as upon the distance be-
tween transmitter and receiver. The curves of Figs. 6 and 7 give the
values over which the maximum usable frequency has ranged during the
period between 1933 and 1939 for summer and for winter transmission,
respectively. The time (noon and midnight are shown separately in
the figures) and latitude (39° north) refer to the place at which the
ionosphere reflection takes place, usually halfway between transmitter
and receiver for transmission paths less than 3,500 km long. The
curves represent average conditions only; during the relatively infrequent
periods of ionosphere disturbances, the maximum usable frequencies
may be considerably changed. While the measurements were made at
latitude 39° north, the results may probably be used with insignificant
error between 30° and 50° north.
The curves are shown for distances up to 3,500 km. For greater dis-
tances the maximum usable frequency is substantially the same as for
3,500 km.
Sec. 15J HIGH -FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 521
The higher values within the ranges illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7 were
measured during the period of high sunspot activity, 1938 -1939, while
the lower limits are for the inac-
tive portion of the sunspot cycle, Distance , mi les
1933-1934. The cycle is expected 0 500 1000 1500 2000
to repeat itself, with the next mini- 45
mum about 1944.1
Curves giving the maximum T40
usable frequency in greater detail á
will be found in the Report of 535
Committee on Radio Wave Prop- E
agation.2 Monthly reports are ú 30
published in the Proc. I.R.E.
(since September, 1937) and in the B-25
Bull. U.R.S.I.
From a knowledge of the iono- u 20
sphere characteristics over the
earth, it is now possible to coin- § 15 4NAME
pute the propagation of h -f -MIME
waves., During the past few
years, sufficient ionosphere data
have been accumulated to permit
such calculations to be made.
Propagation maps, for frequencies
IO
O
// ON/6N/
of 8.6 and 18.8 Mc, calculated 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
O
entirely from ionosphere data are
given in the Report of Commit- FIG. 7.-Average maximum usable
tee on Radio Wave Propagation.' 39°N. Timeduring
frequencies winter, at latitude
refera to place at which
The refraction of ultra-high wave is reflected. The upper edge of
frequencies by the ionosphere is each range is for the sunspot maximum,
erratic. In the winters of 1936 1938 -1939. The lower edge is for the
through 1939, however -the peak sunspot minimum, 1933 -1934. (Bu-
in the sunspot cycle was in 1938- reau of Standards Ionosphere Reports,
1939 -maximum usable frequen- Monthly in Proc. I.R.E.; Smith, Gilli-
cies for long- distance daytime land, and Kirby, Natl. Bur. Standards,
transmission exceeded 40 Mc, as Jour. Research, 21, 835, December,
1938; Gilliland, Kirby, Sm ith, and Rey-
is indicated in Fig. 7. Except for mer, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 1347, November,
such instances of extreme maxi- 1938.)
mum usable frequencies, ultra-
high frequencies are rarely employed for dependable ionosphere
transmission.
SMITH, N., T. R. GILLILAND, and S. S. KIRBY, Trends of Characteristics of the Iono-
sphere for Half a Sunspot Cycle, Natl. Bur. Standards, Jour. Research. 21, 835 -846,
December, 1938; GILLILAND, T. R.. S. S. KIRBY, N. SMITH, and S. E. RaYMER, Maximum
Usable Frequencies for Radio Sky -wave Transmission, 1933 -1937, Proc. I.R.E., 26,
1347 -1359, November, 1938.
RSYMER, lac. tit.
tit
Loc. cit. Also SMITH, GILLILAND, and KIRBY, /OC. GILLILAND, KIRBY, SMITH, and
+ An early attempt at such computation was by S. Numbs and T. Tsukada, A Method
of Calculation of Field Strengths in High Frequency Radio Transmission, Prot. I.R.E.,
21, 1003-1028, July, 1933. More recent and more satisfactory methods are presented
in the following papers: SMITH, N., Application of Vertical-incidence Ionosphere Meas-
urements to Oblique- incidence Radio Translission, Natl. Bur. Standards, Jour.
Research, 20, 683 -705, May, 1938; MILLINGTON, G., The Relation between Ionosphere
Transmission Phenomena at Oblique Incidence and Those at Vertical Incidence, Proc.
Phys. Soc. (London), 50, 801 -825, September, 1938.
Loc. cit.
5. Propagation of Ultra -high Frequencies. Ultra-high- frequency

waves, as intercepted at the receiver antenna, are made up of two com-
ponents one received directly from the transmitter antenna, the second
reflected by the earth.
When the distance between transmitter and receiver is small enough so
that the earth's curvature may be neglected, the received field strength may
be computed from
12.6 X 1068ofh8hr
S - d!
av meter (4)
where h, and h, = heights of the transmitting and receiving antennas,

respectively, in kilometers
Co = field intensity 1 km from transmitter in microvolts per
meter, in the direction of maximum field strength. (For a
half-wave dipole, Co = 220N/P)
P = transmitter power in kilowatts
d = distance between transmitter and receiver in kilometers
f = frequency in megacycles.
This equation assumes the earth to be a perfect plane reflector and both
antennas are at least several wave lengths above the earth.
More recently the theory of u-h -f propagation has been improved to take
account of diffraction of waves around the curved surface of an earth of
finite conductivity., The results, from Eckersley's report, are plotted in
Figs. 8 and 9 for frequencies of 50 and 150 Mc. For other frequencies the
original paper or the Committee Report on Radio Wave Propagation=
should be referred to. The curves are plotted for several values of H, which
represents either the receiver or transmitter antenna height, assuming the
the other antenna height to be zero. If both antennas are above the surface
of the earth, the correction may be obtained from the curves in the following
manner: Assume first (the roles of transmitter and receiver antenna may be
interchanged if desired) that H = transmitter antenna height and that the
receiver antenna height is zero. Read the appropriate field strength from
the curves. To this a correction for the actual receiver antenna height is to
be added. This correction is the vertical distance, in decibels, as read from
the right -hand ordinate, between the H = O curve and the curve for
H = receiver antenna height at the appropriate distance. To illustrate,
find the field strength for h, = 500 meters, h, = 50 meters, f = 50 Mc,
d = 100 km, and P = 1 kw (if the antenna were at the earth's surface). The
field for H = 500 at d = 100 km is 12 µov per meter. The correction between
H = 0 and H = 50 is 34 -5 = 29 db, corresponding to a ratio of 28.2: 1.
The corrected field is thus 12 X 28.2 = 338 µv per meter. This method of
correction applies accurately to transmission distances beyond the line of
sight. For low antenna heights the method of correction of Eckersley's
paper should be referred to.
Line-of-sight distances are plotted in Fig. 10 and are also indicated in
Figs. 8 and 9. Note in Figs. 8 and 9 that the field strength at the line-of-
sight distance is nearly independent of the antenna height. For a 1 -kw
antenna power at frequencies between 50 and 150 Mc, the field is between
20 and 40µv per meter for antenna heights between 100 and 2,000 meters.
While attenuation is more rapid beyond the line-of -sight distance,
nevertheless reliable u -h -f communication is perfectly possible to dis-
tances far beyond the optical horizon, as is evident from Figs. 8 and 9.
i EcxzRSi.Ey, T. L., Ultra -short Wave Refraction and Diffraction. Jour. I.E.E., 80,
286 -304, March, 1937; VAN DER l'o'., B., and H. BREMNER, The Diffraction of Electro-
magnetic Waves from an Electrical Point Source round a Finitely Conducting Sphere,
Phil. Mag., 24, 141 -176. 826 -864, July and November, 1937.
Loc. cit.
Sec. 151 HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 523
Dis+ance,miles
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
100,000 J .
- -
100
40.000 90 L
;,, 10,000
4000
Ut
WE
:
r., !10o Limit of
. á;
E 1000
á 400
k3 ,00 P s/,-
line of
sight
60
.a\ AIm
50
1\r N `6605r ZIS

:
W 40-g
140
-: M2
.
ó
4 `90 mm/ópi
20.9
M
1
10 E
.y
E I.0
0.4
_MI
ò
MI IMM ME
.wo'mliseò N
-IO v
0
mmismommomm'mm 20 h
á
-o
v
°-
0.04
0.01
0.004
0.001
immum';'
IMI MME 1011 -30t)
40;;;.
-50n
-60
120 160 200 240
Fu:. 8.- Ultra -high -frequency propagation over average land (e = 5, o =
10 -IIe.m.u.) at 50 11e. Antenna current equals that produced by 1 kw in
antenna at surface of earth. (Report of Committee on Radio Wave Propaga-
tion, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 1193, October, 1938.)
Distance, miles
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
um .
100
40,000 90 L-
i
4000
1000
400 ro Ue4e6,,
40 'i, / Limit of
line of
80
10 E
60
°k
,1
0 0 ip 54/7" 50
100
% I,' Mis sso L!X
r N M 40
40
'k^ lik. 30 °
10
4
1.0 _.\ .\\. ,XJ
..mmik
20 'E
10
0M-
0.4
_,_ ---i-----
WNW WA v
-
-IO
0.1 -20 0)
0.04
0.01 -IMI MN II
1111111111=112MIIIIMIIII
-30
40-ñ
0.004
0.001
4 80
0 011. -50°
60
120 160 200 240
Dis +ance,kilometers
F'tc. 9.-- Ultra- high -frequency propagation over latid (e = 5, o =
e.m.u.) at 151) Mc. (Report of Committee on Radio 10 -0
Wave Propagation, Proc.
I.R.E. 26, 1193, October, 1938.)
'1
The rate of attenuation beyond the horizon, however, increases with

frequency, and for very short centimeter waves transmission is not
possible very far beyond the line of sight. Within the horizon the
attenuation may be expressed, roughly, by an inverse square relationship,
Eq. (4), but beyond the horizon the attenuation is better expressed by
Transm'tferantenna height, feet
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
2 ht:1000rr
e(3280:
ó 20 nnnahi rs(Ibff'i o i
140
E
'ei t) 120
2
n' u
Y 200 Ey0111i rs(656 u
IPA era _.PCs '
/,.,.i/i' ../E11. 80'á
100
ti 16 fa
12 om/i/im r
LO+
Y-
O
I/././GN
%%I/2/%a
$
4 MI ZE,...
60°'
40 13)
J
. 00 200 400 600 800 1000
Transmitter antenna height meters
I
20-+
0
Fia. 10.-Length of line -of -sight path for various antenna heights.
an exponential equation of the form
g = ke -'d (5)
in which k and a are constants independent of the distance. E is If

measured in microvolts per meter and d in kilometers, the value of a may
be obtained from Fig. 11.
Figures 8 and 9 take account of diffraction around the curved surface
of the earth, but they do not include the effect of refraction caused by the
variation in the density of the air near the earth's surface. Refraction
0.08
0.01
0.06
0.05
0.04
30 40 50 6070 8090100 150 200 300
Frequency, megacycles
Fia. 11.- Factor a in Eq. (5).
has two effects. It increases the received field, and it causes it to vary
or fade as the temperature gradient varies. The effects may be expressed
in terms of an increase n the effective radius of the earth.' The observed
'Salmi-Ross, R. L., and J. S. McPErRIE. Ultra -short Waves: Refraction in the
Lower Atmosphere, Wireless Eng., 11, 3-11, January, 1934; ENOLUND, C. R., A. B.
CRAWFORD, and W. W. MOMFORD, Further Results of a Study of Ultra-short -wave
fields are in consequence higher than the theory represented by Figs.
8 and 9 indicates, and are equivalent to an increase of perhaps 15 to
35 per cent in the earth's radius, with a corresponding increase in the
line -of-sight transmission distance. Furthermore, the received field
is probably higher in summer than in winter and higher at night than
during the day. Some evidence on these points is conflicting, and insuffi- '
cient data prevent the drawing of
any. more specific conclusions.'
The propagation formulas assume F
that the terrain is flat. In practice
such conditions rarely occur. This -á
is especially true in cities among tall } I
¡ -a
á
Summer Winter
Ion density 'Ion density
TYPICAL DAY CONDITIONS
<c-
Common Occasional
Ion density '
Ion density
TYPICAL NIGHT CONDITIONS
Flo. 12.- Heights Flo. 13.- Probable variation in
over which ionosphere atmospheric ion density with
layers range. altitude.
buildings, where field strengths considerably lower than the values
predicted by the curves, may be observed.2
8. Ionosphere Characteristics.3 All long- distance radio communica-
tion takes place through refraction of waves in the ionized layers above
the earth. Ionosphere research has been accelerated during recent years,
and knowledge of ionosphere characteristics has increased accordingly.
Transmission Phenomena, Bell Sgslem Tech. Jour., 14, 369 -387, July, 1935; HULL, R. A.,
Air -wave Bending of Ultra-high- frequency Waves, QST, 21, 16-18, May, 1937.
BURROWS, C. R., A. DECCxo, and L. E. HUNT, Ultra- short
Land, Proc. I.R.E., 23, 1507 -1535, December, 1935; Stability-wave Propagation over
of Two-meter Waves,
Proc. I.R.E., 26, 516 -528, May, 1938.
= BURROWS, C. R., L. E. HUNT, and A. DECINO,
Elec. Eng., 46, 115 -124, January, 1935.
Ultra -short-waves in Urban Territory,
I For a general introduction to the subject see P. O. Pederson, "The
Radio Waves," published by G. E. C. Gad, Copenhagen (in English) or PropagationK. Darrow.
of
The Ionosphere, Elec. Eng., 59 272 -283, July, 1940. A historical surveyK.
information is contained in S. S. Kirby, L. V. Berkner, and D. M. Stuart, and résumé of
Ionosphere and Their Application to Radio Transmission, Proc. I.R.E., Studies of the
22, 481 -521,
April, 1934, and is brought up to date in Report of Commission II, Radio Wave Propaga-
tion, International Scientific Radio Union, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 645 -649, October, 1939;
and in T. R. Gilliland, S. S. Kirby, N. Smith, and S. E. Reymer, Characteristics of the
Ionosphere and Their Application to Radio Transmission, Proc. I.R.E., 21, 823-840,
July, 1937.
The ionization is apparently caused by ultraviolet radiation from the

sun, and it varies with the 11 -year sunspot cycle, the time of day, the
time of year, and the longitude. At the earth's surface the ion density
is very small, increasing to maximum values at altitudes between 100 and
500 km. While the ions are distributed continuously in the atmosphere,
the concentrations vary and several maximums are reached at various
altitudes. The regions near these maximums are called layers. For
each such layer there is a critical frequency above which an electromag-
netic wave, directed vertically, will not be returned to earth. Ionosphere
H
scl
INWIli
500
o \OF
unspol Maximum 191: ' '
S00 Washin. .n, D.C.
Sunsplit nìiniinum 1933-1934
Washington,D.C. 400
400
June ir,
.4/1F á,30o
ZF cember 12.%
s
300
200
F ' ember
F June alr d l
F' ú
f 20
100
gì
mumumnim
100
ó 0
0 z 0 4 8
E
12
.S.T.
16 20 24
4 8 12 16 20 24 Noie: Fundetected
E.S.T. in winter
Fie. 14. Fie. 15.
Fia. 14.-Average diurnal variation in virtual heights of ionosphere layers
during sunspot minimum. (Bureau of Standards Ionosphere Reports, Monthly
in Proc. I.R.E.; Smith, Gilliland, and Kirby, Natl. Bur. Standards, Jour. Re-
search, 21, 835. December, 1938; Gilliland, Kirby, Smith, and Reymer, Proc.
I.R.E., 26, 1347, November, 1938.) of ionosphere
Fie. 15.- Average diurnal variation in virtual heights Ionosphere Reports,
layers during sunspot maximum. (Bureau of StandardsNatl. Bur. Standards,
Monthly in Proc. I.R.E.; Smith, Gilliland, and Kirby,
Jour. Research, 21, 835, December, 1938; Gilliland, Kirby, Smith, and Reymer,
Proc. I.R.E., 26, 1347, November, 1938.)
characteristics are frequently studied from measurements of critical
frequencies.'
The three ionosphere regions of greatest importance, so far as radio
The
communication is concerned, are denoted the E, F,, and F2 layers.
range of altitudes over which these layers may vary is shown in Fig. 12.
At night the Ft and F2 layers merge, forming the F region. It is thanalso
possible that a C layer, lower than the E, and a G layer, higher
the two F layers, exist.2 such
The ion density in the upper atmosphere probably varies in some
manner as shown in Fig. 13. Only the virtual heights of the maximum
For
points and the apparent densities at these heights are known. goes
intermediate altitudes it is usually assumed that the ion density
through minimum points as shown.
GILLILAND, T. R., Alultifrequency Ionosphere Recording and
Its Significance. Proc.
I.R.E., 23, 1076-1101. September. 1935.
2 K1awc. S. S., and E. B. JUDSON,
Recent Studies of the Ionosphere, Proc. I.R.E.Phys.
23,
733 -751, July, 1935; CowELL, R. C., and A. W. FRIEND, The
Lower Ionosphere,
Reo., 50, 632-635, Oct. 1, 1936.
Sec. 151 111011- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 527
The E layer is usually constant in height at 100 to 120 km, except
during the relatively infrequent appearance of the "sporadic E," whose
course is not predictable. At such times the E layer height goes through
extreme variations. The E layer, furthermore, is not always detectable
at night.
The F layer, which exists only at night, exhibits little diurnal or
seasonal change in height. Its height does, however, change during
the sunspot cycle. The F layer divides into the F, and F2 layers during
the day. The F2 layer varies symmetrically about noon and is con-
siderably higher in summer than in winter. The F2 layer appears to be
the daytime continuation of the F layer, while the F1 layer is non -existent
during the night. After 1933 the F, layer gradually became less clearly
defined and between 1936 and 1939 disappeared entirely during winter.
It will probably reappear in winter before 1943.
A wave directed toward the ionosphere is split into two components,
one in the direction of the earth's magnetic field, the other at right
angles to it. The two rays are called the ordinary and the extraordinary
rays, and, since the magnetic field acts upon them differently, their
propagation in the ionosphere is different., One consequence of this
is that two critical frequencies exist for each ionized layer, the critical
frequency of the ordinary ray, usually denoted by a superscript o, and
the critical frequency of the extraordinary ray, denoted by the super-
script z. Subscripts refer to the layer. For example, fp,a refers to the
critical frequency of the extraordinary ray for the F2 layer. For fre-
quencies greater than 2.5 Mc the ordinary and extraordinary critical
frequencies at Washington, D.C., are related approximately by
P = fe + 0.8 (6)
where the frequencies are in Mc.2 Detailed consideration of critics.
frequencies and their significance in radio communication is described
in the literature.a
Normal ionosphere properties, i.e., those whose variations may now be
predicted with reasonable precision, have been emphasized above. In addi-
tion to these variations there are those resulting from less easily predictable
ionosphere disturbances, viz., ionosphere storms, sudden ionosphere disturb-
ances resulting in fade outs and lengthy periods of absorption below the
E layer. Considerable study is being devoted to such disturbances, but
various investigators disagree as to the predictability of such effects.'
The U. S. Bureau of Standards and the International Scientific Radio
Union (U.R.S.I.) have broadcast and published comprehensive ionosphere
data for several years. For details of maximum usable frequencies, virtual
I APPLETON, E. V., and G. BUILDER, Ionosphere as a Doubly refracting Medium,
Proc. Phya. Soc., 45, 208-220, Mar. 1, 1933.
GILLILAND, T. R., S. S. KIRBY, N. SMITH, and S. E. REYMER, Characteristics of the
Ionosphere and Their Application to Radio Transmission, Proc. I.R.E., 25, 823 -840,
July, 1937.
I SMITH, GILLILAND, and KIRBY, IOC. Cif.; GILLILAND, T. R., S. S. KIRBY. N. SMITH,
and S. E. REYMER, Maximum Usable Frequencies for Radio Sky -wave Transmission,
1933 -1937, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 1347 -1359, November, 1938 PEDERSON, op. cit.; KIRBY,
SERENER, and STUART, IOC. Cit.; Report of Commission If, /sc. cif.; GILLILAND. T. R ,
S. S. KIRBY, N. SMITH. and S. E. REYMER, Characteristics of the Ionosphere and Their
Application to`Radio Transmission, Proc. I.R.E., 25, 823 -840, July, 1937.
KENRICE, S. W., A. M. BRAATEN, and J. GENERAL, The Relation between Radio-
transmission Path and Magnetic Storm Effects, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 831 -847, July, 1938;
DELLINOER. J. H., Sudden Disturbances of the Ionosphere, Proc. I.R.E., 25, 1253.-1290,
October, 1937.
heights, critical frequencies, and ionosphere disturbances, reference should be

made to the publications of these organisations.,
7. Fading. Fading. accordin* to the standards of the I.R.E., "is
the variation in intensity of radio signals resulting from changes in the
transmission medium." Fading may conveniently he divided into twoa
types. In the first the radio wave reaches the receiver antenna over
single path. In the second the received wave is made up of two or more
components traveling over paths of different lengths.
In single -path transmission the received field depends directly upon
the properties of the transmission medium. In such transmission,
fading is likely to consist of slow variations, and the distortion in the
received wave is negligible.
In multipath transmission small changes in the length of one of the
transmission paths may have a considerable effect on the strength of the
received signal. Such fading, therefore, is usually more rapid and
the range of the fading greater than that in single -path transmission.
In addition, as will be indicated below, the frequency and phase charac-
teristics of the medium may be imperfect and the wave is distorted
during transmission.
When the propagation is dependent upon frequency, the fading is
called selective. The effects of selective fading on reception will be shown
by means of the following simplified analysis:
The voltage at the receiver antenna is assumed to be made up of two
components, received over different paths:
a = Vi sin wt + V: sin (wt +P) - (7)
where v =received voltage
V1 =amplitude of one component
V: =amplitude of second component
w =angular velocity of signal = 211
=phase angle by which second component is delayed with respect
to first.
This equation may be manipulated to give
o = V:N2V= cos 1G + 1,,y) +1 sin co -

tan -1 Vi
\
sin
! + cos /
If the difference in lengths between the two paths is As, then the phase angle
is
w As
(9)
-3X10"
where the velocity of propagation has been assumed to be 3 X 108 meters per
second. Equations (8) and (9) show that the amplitude, represented by the
square root factor in Eq. (8), and the phase angle, represented by the arc-
upon the frequency of the
tangent term, of the received signal, both dependreceived
signal and the ratio of the magnitudes of the two components.
If an a-m signal is transmitted, the phase and amplitude relationships
between carrier and side bands may be seriously disturbed if the distance
between successive minimum points in Fig. 16 is comparable in magnitude
1
The Bureau of Standards has published Washington, D. C., ionosphere data monthlya
in the Proc. I.R.E. since September, 1937. The monthly Bull. U.R.S.I. contains
summary of data taken throughout the world.
Sec. ill HIGH -FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 529
to the width of the frequency band transmitted. This is particularly
true when the signals transmitted over the two paths are of similar
magnitude, i.e., V, approximately equal to V2. If the difference between
the path lengths is known, the delay time and the frequency difference
100
E 90
80
'x 10
l' "
É 60
$ 50
4- 40
30
; 20
°- 10
0
'''fur
Zy if
7r 3f2ir tir s//ir 37r 77r 4ir Radians
(Proportional lo frequency)
Fro. 16.- Variation in amplitude against frequency in selective fading. V1
and Vi are the amplitudes of the two received components.
.V_/ IIIM
I
I
V2
Vi i' -Y- S I
V i,,,,....,
"WI
E
6
3
E EN
'ns
Ell
2 %27f 7r shir 2ir S/Zir 37r 7/2ff 4nRadians
w=3 s(Proportionaltofrequenty)
Fra. 17.- Variation in phase against frequency in selective fading. Vi and V1
are as in Fig. 16.
between successive minimums of Fig. 16 may be calculated from the
following relations:
s
Af (10)
At Aslo
where Af = frequency difference between successive minimums of Fig.
16 in cycles per second
At = time by which one ray is delayed compared to the other in
seconds
As = difference in path lengths in meters.
The rapidity of fading in multipath transmission depends upon the
rate at which the path lengths change. A change in the difference
between path lengths of a half wave length may bring about a change
from a minimum to a maximum in a fade.
numerical
The selectivity or non-selectivity of fading depends upon the one
value of Af and the width of the band transmitted. When of the
transmission paths is by way of the ionosphere and another is the ground
wave, the difference in path lengths is of the order of hundreds of kilo-
meters, making of of the order of kilocycles. This is a type of selective
primary
fading common in the broadcast band at night, and it limits the between
service range of high -power broadcast stations to somethingwave have
100 and 200 km, at which distances the sky wave and ground
similar amplitudes. The presence of small amounts of undesired f.m.
causes a particularly pernicious type of audible distortion when selective
fading occurs.' With modern broadcast transmitters, however, the
amount of residual f.m. is small. The periodicity ofslow broadcast band
fading is usually large, of the order of minutes. Such changes may
be accommodated by conventional a -v -c circuits, provided that the
minimum of the fade does not drop below the noise level and that the
distortion resulting from selective fading is not excessive.
At high frequencies fading is in general more severe. Reception over
a multiplicity of paths is common. The ground wave is rarely alonger, factor
in transmission and differences between path lengths are often
giving values of .5f as low as a few hundred cycles.2 Short -wave fading
has many periods. As mentioned in connection with h-f propagation,
seasonal, yearly, and diurnal variations take place, but in additionaremuch
not
shorter periods exist, some with periods less than 3io sec., which
readily accommodated with conventional a-v -c arrangements.
High-frequency fading is minimized through diversity reception.
If two receiving antennas are spaced several wave lengths apart, it has
been observed that the signals picked up do not fade in synchronism.
Accordingly, if several antennas, normally three, spaced approximately
10 wave lengths apart, are employed, sufficient output is almost always
available from at least one of the antennas to provide a useful signal.2
Distortion resulting from selective fading is usually worse on the poorer
are commonly
signals. Diversity radio-telephone systems, therefore,voltage from the
arranged to provide nearly all the low- frequency output-band signals also
strongest signal automatically. The use of single -side
assists in avoiding distortion of this kind.
The effects of lnultipath transmission may be further avoided by the
use of receiving antennas, directional in both the horizontal and vertical
planes and aimed to pick up the strongest component of the signal.4
Antennas whose directivity is under the control of the operator have been
developed for this purpose.2
BowN, R., DEL. K. MARTIN, and R. K. POTTER,1926; Some Studies in Radio Broadcast
1
Transmission, Proc. I.R.E., 14, 57 -132, February, also ECKERSLEY, T. L., Fre-
7, 482-487,
quency Modulation and Distortion, Exp. Wireless and Wireless Eng.,
September, 1930. Short -wave Telephone Circuit,
POTTER, R. K.. Transmission Characteristics of a
Proc. I.R.E., 18, 581 -648, April, 1930. Receiving Systems of R.C.A.
BEVERAGE, H. H., and H. O. PETERSON, Diversity
Communications, Inc., for Radio Telegraphy, Proc. I.R.E.. 19, 531 -561, April, 1931;
PETERSON, H. O., H. H. BEVERAGE, and J. B. MOORE, Diversity Telephone Receiving
System of A.C.A. Communications, Inc., Proc. I.R.E.. 19,562 -584, April, 1931.
Fans, H. T., C. B. FELDMAN, and W. Proc. M. SHARPLESS, The Determination of the
Direction of Arrival of Short Radio Waves. I.R.E., 22, 47 -78, January, 1934.
5 FRIIe, H. T., and C. B. FELDMAN. A
Multiple Unit Steerable Antenna for Short-
wave Reception, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 841 -917, July, 1937.
As noted in connection with u -h-f propagation, the field intensity

calculated from the diffraction of waves around the curved surface of the
earth is increased by refraction in the lower atmosphere. Changes in
the temperature gradient, therefore, are equivalent to a change in the
propagation medium, and result in changes in the signal level.'
The approximate range of fading -maximum to minimum -which
may be expected for frequencies of about 50 Mc during 1 day is shown
in Fig. 18. The abscissas are given in terms of the ratio of the transmis-
sion distance to the line-of-sight distance. Since data on u-h -f fading are
inadequate and, in any event, are too complex to represent in a single
curve, the probable error in Fig. 18 is about +10 db. If the highest and
lowest 5 per cent of the field strengths observed in 1 day are excepted,
the range of variation is about half (measured in decibels) that shown in
Fig. 18. The data have been assembled from several sources.
8. Noise. Among the factors limit-
ing the usefulness of a received signal 60
is noise, which may originate in any of
the following places: 7 S0c
1. Within the receiver circuits.
2. Within the transmitter circuits. .2 40
3. Interfering signals. X
4. Atmospherics (static) and man- 1. 30
made noise.
The principal concern here will be
with item 4. § 20
Noise Wave Forms. Noise, in the ° l0
broadest sense, is any type of interfer-
ence. It may include continuous sig- a°- 0
nais from undesired transmitters, for 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
which the noise is contained within Transmission distance
a known, relatively narrow, band of Line -of- sight distance
frequencies, and also discontinuous Fta.18.-Ultra-high-frequency
noises¡ for which the frequency band fading. Probab e error in curve
occupied is essentially infinite. Con- is ± 10 db.
tinuous disturbances are more easily
studied by conventional methods; the term noise, therefore, is commonly
restricted to discontinuous disturbances.
Discontinuous noises may be considered to be made up of sharp
pulses, the frequency with which the pulses occur determining the
character of the noise. If the pulses are relatively infrequent and clearly
separated, the noise is said to be impulsive. If, on the other hand, the
pulses follow each other so rapidly that they overlap and are not clearly
distinguishable, then the noise is random. Between these two types
any gradations may occur. Ignition noise is impulsive. Tube and
thermal agitation noises are random.
Since the frequency spectrums of discontinuous noises are infinite in
extent, their magnitudes will depend upon the band width of the device
with which they are measured. Jansky= and others have shown that
MACLEAN, K. G., and G. S. WICKIZER, Notes on the Random Fading of 50- megacycle
Signals over Non -optical Paths, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 501 -506. August, 1939.
'JANS =T, K. G., An Experimental Investigation of the Characteristics of Certain
Types of Noise, Proc. I.R.E., 97, 763 -789, December, 1939.
the peak, average, and effective voltages of discontinuous noises depend

upon band width in the manner shown in the table:
Impulsive Random
Peak Proportional to band width Proportional to Vband width

Average Independent of band width Proportional to /band width
Effective Proportional to Vband width Proportional to Vband width
For thermal agitation noise, Jansky found the peak to effective voltage
ratio to be 4 and the average to effective voltage to be 0.85.
Atmospheric noise resembles random noise in that the individual
pulses overlap. While the measured voltages increase, therefore,
directly as the square root of the band width, the ratios of peak to effec-
tive voltage are not constant as in the case of thermal noise.
The maximum tolerable noise level has not been measured under a
wide enough variety of circumstances, up to the present time, to be able
to specify its value for all conditions. The tolerable noise level depends
upon a great many factors, including the following:
1. Type of service (sound, television, etc.).
2. Quality of service (excellent to poor).
3. Volume range of program material.
4. Width of frequency band.
5. Character of noise.
0. Type of modulation (amplitude or frequency; preemphasized or flat;
etc.).
7. Method of measurement.
The effect of most of these factors has been only incompletely studied,
particularly in so far as correlating noise levels with the physiological irri-
tation they produce to the ear (or to the eye in television and facsimile .
Notice Measurements. The trend in noise measurements appears to be

toward the use of a semipeak vacuum -tube voltmeter. The indicating
instrument should have a natural period of 0.5 to 0.7 sec. and a damping
factor between 10 and 100 (American Standards Association test methods).
but the actual time constants of the noise meter should be determined more
by the electrical circuit than by the indicating instrument. The charging
time of the circuit should be approximately 10 millisec. and the discharge
time approximately 600 millisec.' The addition of a frequency weighting
network to simulate the ear's response is sometimes recommended.
Using an instrument of this type, the signal -to -noise ratio required at the
output of a sound receiver for various qualities of service are, approximately.
as follows:
Perfect signal 60-80 db
Excellent quality 40-50 db
For intelligibility 10 -30 db
For television a peak signal to peak random noise ratio of 40 db gives a perfect
picture, while a ratio of 30 db is intolerable. For single frequency noise
which is a small multiple of the line frequency, the interference is barely
perceptible for a signal /disturbance ratio of 50 db, while for a ratio of 35 db
it is intolerable.2
Aooeas, C. V., D. E. Fosraa, and C. S. YOUNG, Instruments and Methods of
Measuring Radio Noise, Trans. A.I.E.E., 59, 178-192, March. 1940. Interfering Signals
2 JARVIS. R. F. J., and E. C. H. SEAMAN, The Effect of Noise
and
on Television Transmission, P.O.E.E. Jour., 32, 193-199, October, 1939.
Atmospherics, or static, originates in lightning discharges. The impulses
are frequent and overlap, so that the noise is more or less random, with
sharp peaks exceeding the average level. Atmospheric static originates
both in local storms, relatively infrequent in northern latitudes, and in
more distant tropical storm centers. Static is propagated in the same
manner as other radio waves; variations in distant atmospherics may
often be predicted on this basis.
The signal strength from local storms varies approximately inversely
as the frequency.' Thunderstorms and static are, of course, more
intense in summer than in winter. The curves of Fig. 19 were measured 1
near New York City, but probably are representative of most of the
United States as well.
DV -N.
_'
1 1 1 1 1
10 Approximate tregoency
60 distribut/on in torn/
1rs 'viers/arms
50
a0
30
t0
_ Mi..'.111.
_ONt4
11111
10 -Noon
0 average
10
10 IiiiJ!
10
0
0
10 20 40 60 8100 200 400 6 81000 2 4 6 810,000 2 4 6 810 000
requency, kilocycles
Flo. 19. -Peak energy distribution in static. Relative values are
Absolute values depend on location and time. (Potter, Proc. I.R.E., 20,given.
1512,
September, 1932.)
Since most static is of tropical origin, the lowest disturbance levels
are found at distances remote from the equator, especially for low fre-
quencies. However, at ultra-high frequencies and at broadcast fre-
quencies during the day, for which only short-distance communication is
feasible, most static is of local origin. Since local storms are infrequent
in northern latitudes -about 30 per year near New York City-static
causes little interference with communication above 30 Mc. At 150 Mc
the peak voltage from thunderstorms has been found to vary approxi-
mately inversely as the distance, being 75 ± 10 db above 1 per meter
when measured with a 1.5 Mc band width at a distance 1 mile from a
storm.2
In the absence of either atmospheric or man -made static, Jansky has
found that noise is still picked up by the receiver antenna, noise which he
ascribes to stellar radiation. This noise, at frequencies between 9 a
POTTER, R. K., An Estimate of the Frequency Distribution of Atmos
Proc. I.R.E., 20, 1512-1518, September, 1932.
2 SCHAFFER,
J. P., and W. M. GOODALL, Peak Field S
Local Thunderstorms at 150 Megacycles, Proo. L
21 Mc, was found to be some 10 to 30 db above the level of thermal

agitation noise in the receiver and, except for man -made noise, is the
limiting noise at high frequencies a large portion of the time.'
Man -made noise may be generated by internal combustion-engine
ignition systems, by power-line discharges, by diathermy machines,
by motor -brush sparking, and by other electrical devices. Man -made
noise usually reaches the receiver input in the following ways:2
1. Radiation or capacitance pickup by receiver antenna direct from noise
source (relatively rare) or from power lines which convey noise voltages to
vicinity of antenna.
2. By transmission over power lines direct to receiver.
Means for reducing such pickup are described in the literature.'
Typical noise voltages within the broadcast band measured at the terminals
of noise- generating devices follow:'
TYPICAL NOISE VOLTAGES
Line -to-line Line -to-ground

Source r -f voltage. r -f voltage,
millivolts millivolts
Vacuum cleaner 3 3.5

Electric razor 40 5.6
Diathermy machine 250 37
Portable electric tool 20 26
The band width of the measuring device was presumably between 3 and 5 kc.
These voltages may be reduced by the addition of simple noise -suppression
filters.
During the past few years interference of radiation from physician's at
diathermy machines with radio communication has become objectionable
high frequencies. Jansky+ has measured peak power levels of such inter-
ference ranging from 24 to 40 db below 1 paw.
At ultra-high frequencies the most objectionable types of noise are ignition
and diathermy. In some cases diathermy signal strengths in excess of 100 pv
per meter are encountered in cities. The peak ignition noise produced by
90 per cent of the vehicles passing 100 ft. from an antenna 35 ft. high has been
found to be less than between 9 and 20 pv per meterthe per kilocycle low -fre-
quency band width. The higher value for is 40 Mc, lower for 450 Mc.
Vertical polarization appears to give ignition noise a little40greater than
horizontal.' In New York City, values varying between 1 and are observed
at typical antenna locations.
JANssY, K. G., Minimum Noise Levels Obtained on Short -Wave Receiving
Systems,
Proc. I.R.E., 25,1517-1530, December, 1937. 3,235-240, August, 1938; MERRI-
2 BLocx, L., Radio Interference, Philips Tech. Rev.,
MAN, H. O. and F. G. Nixox, Radio Interference -Investigation,
Suppression and Con-
trol, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 16-21, January, 1939; Aponte, C. V., Methods of Controlling
Radio Interference, Trans. A.I.E.E., 59,193-201, New April, 1940.
+ For example. V. D. Landon and J. D. Reid, A
Antenna System for Noise Reduc-
tion, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 188-101, March, 1939. A survey of noise- reducing systems is con-
tained in the "Radio Noise Reduction Handbook.' 1938, Radio, Ltd., Santa Barbara,
Calif. Coverage. Communications, 18,23-26,
4 HARKINS, R. L., and C. W. METCALF, Station
April, 1938; British Standard Specification for Limits of Radio Interference,
Brit.
;¡- ^darda Inst.. Spec. No. 800, 1937.
loc. cit.
Field Strength of Motor Car Ignition between 40 and 450 Mega-
^. September, 1940.
See. DM HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 535
TABLE II.-SUMMARY OF FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS IN UNITED STATES

For details of frequency allocation in United States, see General Rules
and Regulations, FCC, Part 2, U. S. Government Printing Office,
and Order no. 67, FCC.
Frequency Allocation Frequency
Allocation
channels, kilocycles channels, kilocycles
10-103 Fixed, government 11,010- 11,685 Ship telegraph, mari-

103 -141 Coastal telegraph, time calling, govern-
government ment, coastal tele-
143-193 Maritime calling, ship graph, fixed, avia-
cea fixed and
coastal telegrtate 11,710- 11,890 International broad-
(190 kc to state cast, Bgovernment
police and govern- 11,910 -13,990 Aviation, fixed, gov-
ment) ernment, ship tele-
194 -391 Government, fixed, graph, coastal tele-
airport, aircraft (375 graph, miscellaneous
kc to direction find- 14,005- 14,395 Amateur
14,410- 15,085 Fixed
ing)
Coastal telegraph,
,,330
15,110-15,330 International
cast, government
broad -
government, ship Fixed,
15.355 17,740 , governnment,
telegraph, aircraft.
intership phone (500
sta
aviation, ship and
coastal telegraph,
kc to maritime call- miscellaneous
ing and government) 17,660- 17,840 International broad -
550 -1,600 Broadcasting (1,592 to east
Alaska services) 17,860 -21,440 Fixed, government,
1,600-1,712 Geophysical, relay, aviation
police, government, 21,460- 21,650 International broad -
experimental, marine cast, government
fire, aviation, motion 21,650- 23,175 Coastal telegraph,
picture government, ship
1,716-2,004 Amateur telegraph, miscel-
2,004 -2.500 Experimental visual laneous
and relay broadcast, 23,200- 25,000 Aviation, government,
police, government, miscellaneous
ship harbor, fixed, 25,025- 26,975 Broadcast, govern -
miscellaneous ment
2,504-3,497.5 Coastal harbor, gov- 27.000- 27,975 Government, general
ernment, aviation, communication
28.000-30,000 Amateur
3,500 -4,000
fixed, miscellaneous
Amateur
30,000 0
42,0 Police, government,
relay broadcast, coast -
4,005-6,000 Government, aviation, al and ship harbor,
fixed miscellaneous
6,020-6,190 International broad- 42,000 -50,000 Broadcast and educa-
cast, government tional
6,200 -6,990 Coastal telegraph and 50,000- 56,000 Television, fixed
phone, government, 56.000- 60,000 Amateur
fixed, miscellaneous 60,000- 112,000 Government, televi-
7,000 -7,300 Amateur Ilion
7,305 -9,490 Government, fixed, 112.000 -116,000 Amateur
aviation, ship tale- 116,110-139,960 Broadcast, govern -
graph, coastal tale ment, aviation, no-
lice, miscellaneous
graph, miscellaneous 144.000-400,000 Aviation
9,510-9,690 International broad- 144,000-400,000 Government, televi-
cast sion, fixed
9,710-11,000 Government, fixed 400,000-401 000 Amateur
aviation 401,000 and above Experimental
HIGH -FREQUENCY USAGE

9. Frequency Allocation. The most recent international conferences
at which frequency allocations have been agreed upon were held at
Washington in 1927, Madrid in 1932, and Cairo in 1938. Frequency
allocation between North American countries has been decided at the
North American radio conferences, at Mexico City in 1933 and at Havana
in 1937. The North American Regional Agreement, reached in Havana,
went into effect in 1940, requiring a number of minor changes, particu-
larly in broadcast -frequency allocations.
Technical information is supplied by the International Radio Consult-
ing Committee (C.C.I.R.) which has had recent meetings at Lisbon (1934)
and Bucharest (1937), and the International Scientific Radio Union
(U.R.S.I.) with recent General Assemblies at London (1934) and Venice
(1938).
In the United States licensing, regulation, and allocation are handled
by the FCC, which succeeded the Federal Radio Commission under the
Communications Act of 1934, as amended in 1937.
The general plan of frequency allocation in the United States is shown
in Table II. The European system differs in several respects, one being
the use of the 200- to 400-kc channel for broadcasting. In allocating
channels to stations in the United States, care is taken not to permit
operation at times and frequencies for which propagation is such that
interference with foreign stations would be caused.
TABLE III. -BAND -WIDTH REQUIREDMENTS
Service Band Width
Continuous -wave telegraphy Equals the telegraph speed in bauds (1 baud
- 0.8 words per minute, for a telegraph
code having 8 dots or blanks per letter) for
the fundamental, 3 times this for 3d har-
monic, etc.
Modulated continuous -wave telegraphy Add twice the modulation frequency to the
above
Commercial telephony 6 to 8 kc.
Broadcasting 10 to 30 kc.
Television 6,000 kc for both sound and sight, R.M.A.
system (1940)
Wide-band f.m 200 kc.
Facsimile Approximately equals (number of picture
components) X (time of transmission in
seconds) + twice the suhcarrier frequency,
if used
10. Selection of Best Operating Frequency. One of the problems in

the design of a radio system is the selection of the best frequency for
carrying on communication. The first step is a decision as to the range
within which the frequency to be selected will fall. Table V, which
tabulates frequency ranges normally employed for communication over
specified distances, will be found useful for this purpose. Other con-
siderations besides purely technical ones will often dictate the choice
of frequency range. The cost of transmitters, antennas, and receivers,
as well as the availability of channels, must be studied. When a choice
between the -f and h -f ranges is indicated by the table, high frequencies
1
should be employed, since the cost of such service will normally be lower.
Exception must be made for periods during which the h -f hand is useless
for long -distance service because of magnetic storms, in which case low
frequencies are sometimes used. Table V is intended to cover only the
Sec. ill HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 537
TABLE IV.- FREQUENCY TOLERANCES

As specified by Cairo Convention (1938). See General Rules and
Regulations, FCC, Part 2, U. S. Government Printing Office
Frequency Band Tolerance
A. 10 to 550 kc:
a. Fixed, land, mobile 0.1%
(other than under b, below) stations
b. Mobile stations between 110 -160 kc and 365 -515 kc
and aircraft 0.3%
B. 550 -1,500 kc broadcasting 20 cycles
C. 1,500 -6,000 kc:
a. Fixed stations 0.01 %
b. Land stations 0.02%
c. Mobile stations:
1. 1,500-4,000 kc
4,115 -4,165 kc 0.05%
5,500 -5,550 kc
2. 4,000 -6,000 kc 0.02%
d. Aircraft stations 0.025%
e. Broadcasting 0.005%
D. 6,000- 30,000 kc:
a. Fixed 0.01%
b. Land 0.02%
e. Mobile:
6,200 -6.250 kc
8,230 -8,330 kc
11,000- 11,000 kc 0.05%
12,340 -12,500 Ice
16,460- 16,660 kc
22.000-22,200 kc
Other frequencies 0.02
d. Aircraft 0.02.1^
e. Broadcasting 0.005 ^b
normal situations. In unusual circumstances other frequency ranges
might be used in addition to those specified. For example, for corn -
TABLE V.- SELECTION OF FREQUENCY RANGE
Frequency Ranges Normally Used
Distance (Nomenclature as in Table I)
Local (less than 15 miles)
Short (15 to 150 miles) 1. Low (ground wave)
2. Broadcast (ground wave)
3. Ultra -high frequency
Medium (150 to 1,500 miles) 1. Low (ground wave)
2. Broadcast (sky wave)
3. High (sky wave)
Long (greater than 1,500 miles) 1. High (sky wave)
2. Low (sky wave)
munication between two airplanes, both flying at high altitudes, ultra-

high frequencies may be used for medium distance communication.
After the frequency range has been decided, the problem of deter-
mining the most desirable frequency within that range remains. The
conditions required are as follows: a specified signal /noise ratio; a mini-
mum transmitter power; and a minimum of fading (especially of selective
fading). The sky wave and ground wave should preferably have
appreciably different amplitudes. Consideration must, of course, be
given to the availability of channels.
The problem is divided into ground -wave and sky -wave transmission.
Ultra -high frequencies will be considered separately.
When the transmission is to take place by means of the ground wave
the smallest attenuation in the earth, corresponding to maximum received
field strength and a minimum of selective fading, will be obtained
through the use of the lowest frequency in the range selected. On the
other hand, the noise level increases at lower frequencies. An optimum
frequency exists, therefore, for a given transmitter power which will
result in the greatest transmission range. The use of a frequency some-
what lower than that for which the ground wave and the quasi-maximum
sky wave are equal at the receiver is desirable.' The size and cost of the
antenna structure should also be considered in the choice of frequency.
Sky-wave transmission depends upon the changeable characteristics
of the ionosphere (discussed previously). The best signal strength and
the minimum noise level, normally, are obtained for a frequency just
below the "maximum usable frequency," as given in Figs. 6 and 7.
At ultra-high frequencies, for transmission within the line -of-sight
distance, the highest frequency at which sufficient power for reliable
communication can be generated should be employed. The signal /noise
ratio for transmission within the line of sight varies approximately as J°
where, 5f vertical antenna directivity is assumed at both receiver and
transmitter and the transmitter output falls off with frequency, the
exponent n robably lies somewhere between 2 and 5.
Beyond the line of sight the decrease in signal strength at ultra-high
frequencies is more rapid the higher the frequency. An optimum fre-
quency exists, therefore, which will provide the best signal /noise ratio
at the receiver under a given set of conditions. If transmission far
beyond the line of sight is required, then lower frequencies will be favored
between 35 and 45 Mc. If, however, transmission only slightly beyond
optical distances is necessary, the use of higher frequencies is indicated.
Usually, however, the optimum conditions are not critical, and considera-
ble deviation from the optimum frequency is possible without too great
an effect upon transmission.
TECHNICAL FEATURES OF H -F TRANSMITTERS
In this section the design of transmitters for use at frequencies above
2 Mc is considered, emphasizing those features in which h -f transmitters
differ from low.
11. High- frequency Transmitter Requirements. No more can be
given here than a list of the points which must be considered in the
preparation of specifications and design of h -f transmitters:
1. Cost; size; weight.
2. Reliability; maintenance di fficulties.
3. Power output; efficiency.
4. Fidelity; noise level.
5. Frequency range; variable or fixed frequency operation; frequency
stability.
6. Antenna termination.
7. Power supply availability.
8. Type of modulation (a.m., f.m., telegraph, etc.) and class of service
(telegraph, telephone, television, etc.; police, aircraft, army, amateur, etc.).
A typical h -f transmitter consists of a stable oscillator circuit (crystal,
if for fixed frequency operation master -oscillator, if variable frequency
operation is necessary) followed by frequency multiplier and amplifier
stages to raise the oscillator frequency and power to the desired level.
I A group of curves from which the approximate optimum frequency may be found
(taking account of noise levels and fading) is published in the Report of Committee on
Radio Propagation Data, Proc. I.R.E., 21, 1419 -1438, October, 1933.
Amplitude modulation is most often accomplished by variation of one
of the electrode voltages of the final amplifier stage. Frequency- modula-
tion transmitters are usually modulated at a low level.
12. Considerations in the Design of Equipment. At high frequencies
increased attention must be given to coupling between circuit elements
particularly through capacitances and mutual impedances in the ground
circuits and leads. Amplifier units may frequently be better arranged
by the use of link circuits. Capacitative coupling may be avoided,
at the expense of increased capacitance to earth, by the use of static
\\'
shields.
By -pass condensers pass through resonance, normally, at intermediate
U
C
10 _
high frequencies. If effective by- passing is required, the impedance
*iel V
3
E
a)
60 lialibto. oe,c/ n
Q
ó40
"
aL) 20
L
a)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Transit angle, 0, degrees =
Transit time,cathode to grid , x 360
Period of r -f cycle
Fio. 20.-Variation in amplifier and oscillator efficiency against transit angle of
electrons. (Wagener, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 401, April, 1938.)
of the by-pass capacitors at the operating frequency must be known.
Frequently a lower impedance can be obtained by the use of a smaller
capacitor, i.e., choosing a capacitor size which more nearly resonates with
the inductance of its leads.
Insulating materials are available with very low losses. Polystyrene
(under its various names) has remarkable h -f properties but fails mechani-
cally at temperatures above about 70°C. For the higher temperatures
encountered in transmitters the use of one of the ceramic materials, or
Mycalex, is preferable.
13. Power Amplifier Design. Up to a certain frequency (between 1.5
and 500 Mc, the exact frequency depending upon the tube used) the
determination of vacuum -tube operation conditions is the same as that
described in the section on Amplifiers. Beyond this frequency, transit
time and dielectric losses increase, and the tube may become an apprecia-
ble portion of a wave length in dimensions, such that the efficiency drops
and grid driving power requirements are increased.' Oscillator efficiency
I WAQENER, W. G., The Developmental Problems and Operating Characteristics of
Two New Ultra- high-frequency Triodes, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 401 -414, April, 1938; SANIIEL,
540 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK 1844. 15
is lower than amplifier efficiency, as Fig. 20 indicates. Data on indi-

vidual tubes should be obtained from the manufacturer.
Class C saturated amplifier stages are in widest use as h -f ampli-
fiers, with a.m. accomplished at the highest power level. In some types,
however, modulation at a low level, fol-
lowed by class B linear amplifiers, is em-
ployed, the reduction in tube complement
and high -power modulation equipment
offsetting the increase in adjustment diffi-
culties and the possible loss in efficiency.
An example of the latter is a single -side-
CN
band transmitter, in which it is usually
simpler to accomplish the relatively coni-
Fla. 21.-Imperfect grid neu- plicated modulation process at a low level
tralizing circuit. and then to amplify the modulated signal
in linear amplifiers. High efficiency linear amplifiers' are not widely
used at higher frequencies, although amateur and experimental installa-
tions have been made.
Frequency multiplication is required
when an oscillator of requisite stability
cannot be built at the output frequency,
where a wide range of output frequencies
is to be covered and the oscillator fre-
quency range is limited, or where neutral - "z
ization must be avoided. Crystals are CN
now (1940) available up to 20 Mc with
FIG. 22.- Cireuit capable of
temperature coefficients better than 2 ppm satisfactory
per °C. between 20°C. and 60 °C., so that unity couplingneutralizing
if
'
exists between
less frequency multiplication need be used, halves of grid coil.
even in crystal-controlled transmitters.
Higher frequency crystals are available but with poorer temperature
coefficients. Frequency multipliers have the further advantage that
neutralizing is not required, since
fj2X output and input circuits operate
at different frequencies and in-
stability is less likely to occur.
Input . eP: Output Multiplier efficiency is lower than
that of amplifiers, however, and
their use is avoided in high -power
stages.
If necessary, the frequency
CN multiplying stage may be mod-
Flo. 23. -Plate neutralizing circuit.
ulated, although higher distor-
Capable of good neutralizing, if plate tion will be encountered. A fre-
impedance of tube can be neglected. quency multiplier may also be
used as a linear amplifier of a -m
waves, although distortion is likely to be excessive and efficiency low.2
A. L., A Negative Grid Triode Oscillator and Amplifier for Ultra -high Frequencies, Proc.
I.R.E.. 26, 1243 -1252. October, 1937.
I Such as the circuit of W. H. Doherty, A New High Efficiency Power Amplifier for
Modulated Waves, Proc. I.R.E., 24, 1163 -1182. September, 1936.
= IVANOV, A. B., Amplitude Modulation of Frequency Multiplying Stage (in Russian),
Izeeetia Elect. Slab. Toka., No. 7, pp. 34 -38, 1938.
See. 151 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 541
An f -m signal is not distorted in traversing a multiplier stage; in so doing
the frequency deviation is multiplied by the same factor as the
fundamental.
Neutralization. It is not always appreciated that the object of neutrali-
zation is actually twofold, the prevention, first, of amplifier instability, and,
second, of reaction of the amplifier on preceding stages.' Many neutralizing
circuits are incapable of accomplishing both of these aims. An example of a
neutralizing circuit which does not provide perfect neutralization is shown
in Fig. 21. This circuit, while it can be adjusted to prevent reaction on the
driving stage, is degenerative. Figure 22 is better. 1f C = C,,,. and L, is
approximately equal to Li, and the coupling between L, and L2 is .11 = L,, good
neutralization results. The saine is true if the input is inductively coupled
to the preceding stage. A satisfactory plate-neutralizing circuit is shown
in Fig. 23. The output should not be
Equivalent coupled inductively to the plate tank
I half-wave line coil but should be taken between plate
and cathode, as shown. The plate tank
circuit, comprising the two capacitors
x
i i i i,i i
1
and the coil, may be considered equi-

I X 2 "
_-:Y --lX -- J
C,
Input
Output
Fla. 24.- Neutralization Fta. 25. -Push-pull neutraliz-

with
half -wave line. ing circuit.
valent to a half-wave transmission line, whose input and output voltages,
e, and e
are 180 deg. out of phase. There is, of course, an infinite
number of circuits equivalent to a half-wave line, any of which may be
employed in neutralizing circuits. Another equivalent, in a grid -neutralizing
arrangement, is shown in Fig. 24. In push-pull circuits good neutralizing
may be obtained by the use of cross-connected capacitors (Fig. 25).
Neutralizing is complicated further by the decrease in the grid -plate
impedance and the increase in the lead impedances, particularly that
of the cathode to ground, as the frequency is increased. The decrease
in the grid -plate impedance can be mitigated by more careful adjustment
of the neutralizing circuit. The increase in the lead impedances can be
compensated by the use of more complicated neutralizing circuits.
The most troublesome of the lead impedances, that of the cathode to
ground, is frequently eliminated by tuning the filament leads to series
resonance and thereby effectively bringing the cathode to ground poten-
tial. This may be accomplished by the use of series condensers (Fig.
26A) or by making the heater -ground leads one -half wave length long
(Fig. 26B).
DosasT:, W. H., Neutralisation of R -F Power Amplifiers, Pick -ups, pp. 3-5,21-23;
December, 1939: MOMOTIIHA. K., and K. SAzi, Considerations of Neutralizing Methods.
Nippon Elect. Comm. Eng. No. 14, pp. 518 -519, December, 1938,
One of the oldest neutralizing circuits, has recently been resurrected.

It consists simplyin tuning the grid -plate capacitance to parallel reso-
nance by the addition of a shunt coil (Fig. 27) and thus raising the grid -
plate impedance to a high value. The Q of the coil should be large
enough so that the resonant impedance, XQ, where X is the reactance
Lead
" inductances A2
R. F: Chokes for supplying R.F.Chokes
Cathode ' heater current s
tuning Marnent
condensers supply
A
Y___
Bypass
1 I
condensers
B
Flo. 26.- Methods of tuning filament leads to return filament to ground
potential. At A, leads are tuned with condensers. At B, a half-wave line
is used.
of the grid -plate capacitance at the resonant frequency, is much higher
than the impedance of the grid-cathode circuit. At u.h.f. the shunt
coil and blocking capacitor may be replaced by an open -circuited line
slightly lees than a half wave length long.
All the above neutralizing circuits suffer the disadvantage that the
interelectrode capacitance is compen-
Blocking Neutralizing sated exactly at only one frequency,
usually the carrier frequency. The cir-
cuit must also be designed to be well-
balanced at the side -band frequencies in
stages through which modulated energy
is passing. At frequencies remote from
C0 the carrier, the stage will be under- or
over -neutralized, either of which is usu-
ally undesirable. This lack of neutrali-
zation at frequencies remote from the
carrier is a frequent cause of parasites,
as is noted below. In addition, if the
Fia. 27. -"
Coil " or "shunt" transmitter
must be tuned rapidly over a
neutralizing. wide range of frequencies, it is desirable
to employ a wide -band neutralization
circuit, requiring no readjustment of neutralizing as the transmitter fre-
quency is varied. In wide -band, or "complete," neutralization, this is
accomplished by duplicating each part of the tube structure, including the
lead inductances, in a similar element in the neutralizing bridge. The
bridge will then be balanced at all frequencies. A simple mechanical
1 Nicaoi.s, R. W., U. S. Patent 1325879.
arrangement' which accomplishes this for water -cooled tubes in a push -
pull circuit is shown in Fig. 28A, while Fig. 28B shows the equivalent
bridge circuit. The series cathode condensers, Ck, Ck', which tune the
cathode leads, are used only when it is desired to keep the grid and plate
tank voltages in phase with the corresponding electrode voltages. The
Filament terminals
Grid terminals
Condenser
plates
-- Anodes
A
J
--
P.
Lg input
B
Fra. 28.- Wide-band, "complete," neutralizing. A shows the mechanical
arrangement; B, the equivalent circuit. The condenser plates are adjustable.
anode connection in water- cooled tubes has no appreciable inductance,
and it need not be compensated.
A recently developed circuit which requires little or no neutralizing= is
shown in Fig. 29. The arrangement is inherently degenerative. If the
I BUSCHBECE, W., U. S. Patent 2002338.
HAVES, L. W., and B. N. MwcLAHrr, The Empire Service Broadcasting Station at
Daventry, Jour. I.E.E., 85, 321 -369, September, 1939.
grids are grounded effectively, they screen the grid from the cathode
circuit and no reaction on the exciter is possible. One disadvantage
is that provision must he made for operating the filaments at high r-f
potential. If the screening effect of the grid is incomplete, neutralizing
condensers, shown dotted in the figure, should be used. In general, very
small neutralizing condensers suffice, and the minimum plate tank
reactance is cut nearly in half, as compared with conventional circuits.
C
Fla. 29.- Grounded-grid amplifier. The neutral sing condensers, shown
dotted, are required only when the shielding provided by the grid between
cathode and plate is incomplete. The grid leads nay be tuned to series
resonance to improve the grounding. (Hayes and MacLarty, Jour. I.E.E., 85,
321, September, 1939.)
The commonest expedient for avoiding neutralizing difficulties is the
use of screen -grid tubes. In the past the efficiency of such tubes has
been low because of the high screen current required, but this is now
avoided by the use of the beam principle. Many transmitter tubes of
this type are available, including the 832 u -h -f push -pull tube and a 20-
Anti-parasite _ - - -- kw television tube.'
circuits Parasites are undesired oscillations
in transmitters,2 to which h-f high -
s power transmitters are particularly
prone. The presence of parasites is
usually revealed by low efficiency,
excessive distortion, high r-f voltages,
overheating of components, or a com-
bination of these effects. An absorp-
tion wavemeter may be used to locate
Fia. 30.- Parasitic suppression re- the parasite and to determine its
sistors and choke. frequency.
A common cause of parasitic oscillation in single-ended r-f amplifiers is
the existence of a very h -f mode of oscillation whose frequency is deter-
mined by the lead inductances and the interelectrode capacitances. The
cure is the insertion of resistance in series with the grid circuit and a
small choke -a few inicrohenrys is common -in
parallel with a resistor
in the plate circuit, as in Fig. 30. The impedance of the parasitic sup-
HAEFF, A. V., L. S. NEROAARD. W. G. WAGENER, P. D. ZOTTO, R. B. AYER, and
H. E. GIHRINO, Development of a 20- kilowatt Ultra -high Frequency Tetrode for Tele-
vision Service, Abstract in Proc. I.R.E., 27, 610-611, September, 1939; Elect. Eng., 69,
107, March, 1940.
FILER, G. W.. Parasites and Instability in Radio Transmitters, Proc. I.R.E., 23,
985 -1012, September, 1935.
See. 16] HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 545
pression elements should not be so large that they interfere with the
desired operation of the amplifier.
Push -pull amplifiers frequently develop parasites of the type indicated
above, the amplifier oscillating in push -pull at a higher frequency than
normal. Wide-band neutralizing is very effective in suppressing such
parasites. A push-pull amplifier may also oscillate in parallel, in which
the two tubes are connected in parallel by the tuning condensers at h.f.
or by the tuning inductances at 1.f. The solution indicated in Fig. 30
applies here also. If oscillation occurs
at 1.f., the r -f feed chokes should be
investigated as likely causes. It is
usually preferable to center -tap the
tank condenser rather than the tank
coil, to obtain the ground point. Output
Similarly, tubes operated in parallel
often oscillate in push -pull at a fre-
quency determined by the intere-
lectrode capacitances and the leads
connecting the tubes together. The Fla. 31.- Parasitic suppression
cure is to insert isolating resistors and resistors and chokes for parallel -
chokes between the tubes, as indicated connected tubes.
in Fig. 31.
Many high -power tubes have an appreciable negative resistance over
a portion of their grid characteristics which may cause a dynatron oscil-
lation in some part of the grid circuit. The grid resistor of Fig. 30, plus
parallel loading from grid to ground, is usually effective in suppressing
such parasites. In some transmitters diode load tubes have been con-
nected between grid and cathode for the same purpose.
In screen-grid tubes the screen by -pass connection should be as short
as possible, to avoid the introduction of inductive reactance at a very h.f.
Beam power tubes, with their very high
power gains, are prone to oscillations from
this source. A small non -inductive resistor
Parasite inserted directly in series with the screen
suppressor (Fig. 32) is useful in suppressing such
parasites.
14. Interstage coupling circuits frequently
employed in h-f transmitters are illustrated
in Fig. 33. The arrangements of A, B, and C
claim attention because of their simplicity.
+S.G. Inductive coupling, as at D and E, is advan-
Fto. 32.- Parasitic sup- tageous because no current flows in the
ression resistor in screen ground impedance to add to feedback prob-
lems. Their use is desirable when the two
amplifier stages are separated by considerable distances. The feeding line
in such cases is sometimes made coaxial. If purely inductive coupling is
desired, a static shield may be interposed between any two of the coils
of I) or E. F, G, and II are three arrangements for coupling transmission
line tank circuits. I, .1, and K are used to couple from a single-ended
stage to a push -pull stage.
15. Push -pull versus Single -ended Circuits. The principal advan-
tages of the push -pull connection are as follows: simpler neutralizing,
cancellation (at least in part) of even harmonics, and simpler by- passing
(a)
(c)
(f) -T-!
'HEV 711 -0
(e)
(j)
(k)
Fia. 33.-Interstage coupling circuits. a, b, and c, direct coupling; d and e,
inductive coupling; f, p, and h, transmission -line coupling; i, j, and k, single -
ended to push-pull.
546
problems. The advantages of single -ended stages are as follows: lower

tank voltages, generally lower tube cost per kilowatt, and simpler con-
nection to grounded transmission lines and antennas.
Tank circuits may be either lumped or distributed. At higher fre-
quencies transmission-line elements are employed as tank circuits, as
in Fig. 34 in which a parallel -wire short-circuited line is shown for a
N L '` ,/4 N
Fia. 34.- Transmission -line tank circuits.
push -pull stage. If the tube capacitance were zero, the line length
would he an odd multiple of a quarter wave in length. Since the tube
capacitance is never zero, the line length is shorter than a quarter wave.
The length of line necessary to resonate with a given tube reactance is
shown in Fig. 35. Occasionally an open -circuited line is used for a tank
circuit, as in Fig. 34, in which case the line is a quarter wave length
longer.
In a wide-band amplifier the power output of an amplifier is limited by the
required hand width and by the minimum tank capacitance. Thus, if the
111111111111
1
0.
=HUI
0
ÌÌÌ1 .alÍ1111111=111111111ÌÌ
LQ16
0.12
a
111
1.Mid
111/
MINI1I11VAIIII
1
Rimiiiíiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
004
0.1 0.2
iiimiiiúiiiiiiiiri
as 10 2 5 IO 20 50 100
X/Zo
Fta. 35.- Length of line to resonate with condenser. X = reactance of con-
denser; Zo = characteristic impedance of transmission line.
tube has a maximum emission current 1.,, a maximum modulation frequency,
J., and a minimum output capacitance C, then the power output of the tube
is proportional to 1,2'(f, .
ULTRA- HIGH -FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
16. Ultra -high- frequency Circuits. Both the tube and the circuit
problems become increasingly difficult as the frequency is raised, but
during the past few years several developments have appeared to reduce
the magnitude of some of these. The product of maximum realizable

power by frequency is constantly being raised.
Up to between 250 and 500 Mc, more or less conventional tubes and
circuits are employed in transmitters, with master oscillators at the
output frequency, or at subharmonics of the output frequency, driving
one or more multiplier or amplifier tubes. Amplifier-tube construction
for ultra -high frequencies has vastly improved during the period between
1935 and 1940. For example, a screen -grid tube is available with an
output of 20 kw at 120 Mc with a band width of 2 Mc.
Several circuit arrangements are in use. One scheme employs a
crystal or other stable oscillator at a relatively I.f. -10 to 30 Mc-followed
by multipliers and amplifier stages. By the use of multipliers in all
amplifiers except, perhaps, the output stage, few neutralizing circuits
are needed. Alternatively, an attempt may be made to secure higher
efficiency in the amplifier stages by completing the multiplication at a
low level and accomplishing most of the power amplification at the output
frequency. Such designs are facilitated by the availability of u -h -f
tetrodes, which need no neutralizing, such as the 832 and the 20-kw tube
mentioned previously. Another circuit arrangement employs a stable
oscillator circuit operating at the output frequency, sometimes of
appreciable power output, followed by one or two stages of amplification.
Such a system has the advantage of simplicity. A transmission -line
stabilized oscillator is common in transmitters of this type.
Whenever possible, a.m. of u-h-f transmitters is effected in the final
amplifier, either by grid or plate modulation, avoiding the use of linear
amplifiers. Frequency modulation, on the other hand, is most easily
accomplished at low level, since the amplifiers operate saturated and
present no particular adjustment problems.
The most common type of tank and coupling circuit employed at
u.h.f. is shown in Fig. 33H. The opportunities for the exercise of
mechanical ingenuity in the arrangement of the circuits are plentiful. If
the frequency range to be covered is wide, the effective Q of the tank
circuit can be maintained substantially constant by simultaneous varia-
tion of the line length and the tuning capacitances. It should be noted
that in h-f transmitters the effective Q is frequently higher than desired,
and every attempt is made to reduce the tuning capacitance in order to
reduce the tank losses and to obtain the required band width. Figure 35
may be used to calculate the length of line for any capacitance and
frequency, although this may be altered somewhat by the effect of the
coupled circuit. The coupling between the two lines is a combination
of distributed mutual inductance and capacitance, unless a static shield
is interposed between the two to eliminate the capacitative coupling.
The use of such a shield may be desirable in some instances to improve
the balance between the two sides of a push-pull stage.
17. Tubes for U.H.F. Triodes and tetrodes are now (1941) available
which will furnish appreciable power output at centimeter wave lengths.1
At 100 cm, for example, the 832 type will furnish 20 watts, while the 887
and 888 water- cooled tubes will furnish 350 watts. The 1628, with its
double lead construction and dissipation of 40 watts, may be used as
WAGENER, W. G., The Developmental Problems and Operating Characteristics of
Two New Ultra-high -frequency Triodes, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 401 -414, April, 1938; SAMUEL,
A. 1.., A Negative Grid Triode Oscillator and Amplifier for Ultra -high Frequencies, Proc.
I.R.E., 25, 1243-1252, October, 1937.
low as 60 cm at full rating. Small Western Electric triodes are available

with useful output down to 10 cm. The simpler centimeter -wave
transmitters employ tubes such as these as self -excited oscillators.'
The most promising development in centimeter -wave transmitters,
however, is the electron beam tube principle, exemplified by the Klystron
of the Varians'. These are described in the section on Vacuum Tubes.
18. Variable ( "Floating," "Controlled," or "Hapug ") Carrier Trans-
mitters. Variable Carrier Operation. The carrier level is made depend-
ent in some way upon the amplitude of the modulating voltage.: There
are many systems of this type. In one the carrier level is made to vary
instantaneously according to the amplitude of the modulation voltage,
and the percentage modulation, therefore, is kept constant at every
instant.
Modulated
amplifier
111.1111
36.- Variable
carrier transmitter circuit.
In an alternative system the carrier level follows the syllabic variations,
i.e., the average peaks in the modulation voltage whose frequency is of
the order of 1 to 10 c.p.s. A common practice is to make the minimum
carrier level about 25 per cent of the maximum. The filter constants
must be so chosen that the plate voltage of the r -f tube rises rapidly,
or the transmitter will overmodulate on the leading edge of steep wave
fronts. The current R.M.A. television signal is an asymmetric -side-
band system with a variable carrier, whose amplitude is proportional to
the average picture illumination.
The advantages of variable carrier are as follows:
1. Reduced noise level: in the absence of strong carrier the noise com-
ponents beat only with each other and are reduced in amplitude.
1 For examples of such self-excited centimeter -wave oscillators. see W. L. Barrow,
Oscillator for Ultra-high Frequencies, Rev. Sei. Inst., 9, 170-174, June, 1938; O. Croon,
Einfuhrung in Theorie und Technik der Decimeterwellen," S. Hirzel, Leipzig, 1937;
"Radio Amateur's Handbook," 17th ed., American Radio Relay League, Hartford,
Conn.. 1939; "Radio Handbook," ed. by W. W. Smith, 6th ed., Radio, Ltd., Santa
Barbara. Calif. 1939.
r HARSicH, iì., F. GaRTR, and L. Polvos, Modulation with Variable Carrier Ampli-
tude, Hoehe. u. Elek., 6, 141 -147, May, 1936; FTLzR, G. W., Phone Transmission with
Voice Controlled Carrier Power, QST, 19, 9-12, January, 1935.
2. Reduced power consumption: since the average percentage modulation

in typical audio program material is very low, the average power output is
correspondingly low.
3. In television the d -c picture component is more easily transmitted.
The disadvantages are as follows:
1. Conventional receiver a-v -c circuits, which operate in proportion to the
received carrier level, will not function properly.
Modulation
frequency input
Suppressed
carrier signa/
Fia. 37.- Balanced modulator. The balance is adjusted by varying the

screen bias voltages.
2. Distortion on steep wave fronts may be excessive if the rectifier does not
act rapidly.
3. Complexity of the modulation circuit. Because of the complexity and
low efficiency of the modulation circuit, modulation is normally accomplished
at low level and power output is
increased by the use of linear
amplifiers.
Audit 19. Suppressed Carrier
Transmitters. In suppressed
carrier transmission only the
side bands are radiated. Ìn the
absence of modulation no volt-
age appears across the antenna.
Carrier At the receiver the carrier is
100000
reintroduced in order to facili-
tate demodulation.
The carries may be sup -
Side band pressed in any of a number of
Output balanced modulator circuits.
Fla. 38.- Balanced modulator using The tubes are operated on non -
copper oxide rectifiers. The balance is ad
justed with the two resistors. (Koomans, linear pportions
o of their char-
Proc. I.R.E., 26, 182, February, 1938.) acteristies. By careful ad-
justment of such balanced
modulator circuits, the carrier can be suppressed some 50 to 60 db below
its normal value in an a-m wave, but suppression beyond about 50 db is
difficult to maintain over long periods of time without readjustment of the
modulator tubes. More recently, copper oxide rectifiers have found
Sec. 15] HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RÇCEPTION 551
application in carrier suppression modulators.' By adjustment of the

resistors a carrier suppression of 90 to 100 db is possible.
While it would seem possible to effect considerable power savings and noise
reduction through the use of carrier suppression, in practice this type of
modulation is rarely used because of the difficulties involved in replacing the
carrier at the receiver. If the signal is to be demodulated without distortion,
the replaced carrier must be not only of the correct frequency, but also of
correct phase. This can be accomplished by transmitting a pilot frequency
along with the side bands, from which
the carrier is derived, but the difficul- Carrier
ties are relatively great as compared
with single-side-band transmission. Or' irAa/
tedwave
20. Asymmetric (or "Vestigial ")
Side -band Transmitters. In asym-
metric-side -band transmission all of Atlrnionratchararkratic
one side band, except for low fre-
{
of
quencies, is removed, the carrier is
partially attenuated, and the other Asymmetric-side-
side band is completely transmitted, p
bandsignrr/
except for low modulation frequen- I
Fia. 39.- Asymmetric -side-band

cies which are partially transmitted. system,
Two systems are in use. using filter to suppress un-
desired portion of spectrum.
In the first system of asymmetric
transmission= an ordinary double -side -band signal is passed through a
filter whose characteristics are idealized in Fig. 39.
In the Koomans systems conventional double-side-band a.m. is
employed from the lowest modulation frequency up to some intermediate
modulation frequency (about 2,000 cycles for sound transmission), and
single side band of double amplitude for higher frequencies. The
Carrier
Single side band
band
Doublet side
Fm. 40. -nergy distribution in Koomans asymmetric-side-band system.
( Koomans, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 687, November, 1939.)
spectrum resulting from the application of a constant -amplitude, varying-

frequency modulation voltage is shown in Fig. 40.
The advantages of asymmetric-side -band transmission are as follows:
1. Reduction in band width.
2. Reduction in deleterious effects of selective fading.
Furthermore, asymmetric side -band signals may be generated without

complex modulation equipment and may be demodulated by conven-
tional receiving circuits with little distortion.
KOOMANS, N., Single -side-hand Telephony Applied to the Radio Link between the
Netherlands and the Netherlands East Indies, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 182 -206, February,
1938.
s ECHERSLEY, P. P., Asymmetric- side -band Broadcasting, Proc. I.R.E., 96, 1041 -1093,
September, 1938.
KOOMANB, N., Asymmetric -side-band Broadcasting, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 687 -690,
November, 1939.
21. Single- side -band Transmitters. Two methods are available for
the generation of a single -side -band signal, one using filters, the other
phase rotation of the modulation and r -f voltages.
In the filter system, the commoner of the two, the carrier is first sup-
pressed by a balanced modulator. This is followed by a sharp cutoff
filter which removes the undesired side hand. These operations are
carried out at a low carrier frequency. The resulting single- side-band
signal is then converted to a higher r-f frequency by beating with a
-r' 1*-'Modulation
Low R. f.
carrier
Upper
and
Filter
lowerfeZ
Single side band
_ I-
High carrier,
Filter
Output
f side bands
Fia. 41.- Filter system for generating single -side -band signal.
h -f carrier in a second balanced modulator and refiltering to remove
undesired modulation products.1
The difficulty with such a system is that, if low modulation frequencies
are to be transmitted, very sharp filters are necessary. If crystal filter
technique is used, the lowest frequency which can be transmitted (in
audio transmission) is limited to about 100 cycles. The initial carrier
frequency should be chosen as low as possible, and in addition it may be
necessary to reach the desired output frequency through several inter-
Balanced
Ma>r ng
Modulating modu/ator
dul
voltage
1-1
Carrier
voltage
-90°°Phase
shifter /Single-side-band
voltage
l I V
`- -Balanced
ÀD°Phase modulator
shifter
Fia. 42.- Phase -shift system for generation of single- side-band signal.
mediate modulations to simplify filtering the undesired modulation
products in each of the subsequent balanced modulator stages.2
In the phase- rotation system for the production of single- side-band
signals no sharp filters are needed. One embodiment is shown in Fig. 42.
Two balanced modulators are employed, one of which is fed by modulat-
I POLHINOHORN, F. A., and N. F. SCHAACK, A Single Side -band Short -wave System
for
Trans- Atlantic Telephony, Proc. I.R.E., 23, 701 -718, July. 1935; OSWALD, A. A., A
Short -wave Single-side -band Radio Telephone System, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 1431 -1454,
December, 1938.
* Koomwxe, N., Single -side -band Telephony Applied to the Radio Link
between the
Netherlands and the Netherlands East Indies, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 182 -206, February, 1938.
Sec. 15) HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 553
ing voltage, and also by carrier voltage, 90 deg. out of phase with the
voltages fed to the other.
The outputs of the two modulators are, accordingly
Vr = Vm sin pl sin wi
and
V2 = Vm cos pt cos rot
where V and m represent the amplitudes of the carrier and modulation
voltages, respectively, and ro and are the angular velocities of the same
voltages. Adding gives
Vt +
= Vm (sin Nt sin rot + cos pl cos ort)
V2
= Vm coa (r) µ)t -
which shows that the output voltage of the system contains only the lower
aide band. By shif ing the voltage to the second balanced modulator in the
opposite direction the upper side band can be derived.
The modulation voltage phase shifter must be designed to give a constant
90 -deg. phase shift, without change in amplitude, over the entire band of
modulation frequencies. While this is difficult, it is not impossible, and var-
ious methods have been suggested for its accomplishment.,
A single- side-band signal has the following advantages. as compared with
amplitude modulation:
1. Reduced channel width.
2. Secrecy; cannot be demodulated with conventions% receiver.
3. Improved signal /disturbance ratio.
4. Reduced power consumption at transmitter.
To conveniently demodulate a single- side -band signal, it is usual to
reinsert the carrier at the receiver. In contrast to the suppressed carrier
system, the distortion is not excessive if the reinserted carrier deviates
slightly -to 1 to 5 cycles -from the correct value. A "pilot" frequency
is often transmitted along with the side band. The pilot frequency'
need not be the correct carrier frequency, but only a tone related to the
carrier frequency, from which the carrier may be easily derived at the
receiver.2
22. Single- side -band- plus -carrier Transmitters. In this case the
side band may be generated independently, as in the preceding section,
and then added to the carrier. Alternatively, if the phase-shift system
of Fig. 42 is employed, conventional modulators may he substituted
for the balanced modulators, in which case a single- side-band- plus -car-
rier signal is generated directly.
Single -side -band -plus- carrier has the following advantages:
1. May be demodulated by conventional detectors, without modification.
2. A gain in signal /disturbance ratio over amplitude modulation is attain-
able.
3. Selective fading is reduced.
23. Frequency -modulation Transmitters. A great many circuits
have been proposed for f-m transmitters. Three of these have found
application to the Armstrong wide -band system,' and will be described
here.
For example, see BYRNE, J. F., Polyphase Broadcasting, Trans. A.I.E.E., 58, 347-350,
July, 1939.
s KOOMANS, lot. cil.
ARMSTRONG, E. H., A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signalling by a
System of Frequency Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 24, 089 -710, May, 1936.
Armstrong Circuit. A block diagram is shown in Fig. 43A. The

unmodulated carrier is added to the side bolds after the latter have been
shifted by 90 deg. The resultant of the carrier and side -band voltages
is thereby shifted in phase (Fig. 43B), and this change in phase is linearly
To multipliers
Side bands;
re- 4
k
.
,
f Carrier
.
A vB
Fra. 43.- Armstrong modulation system. A, the circuit arrangement,
(Armstrong, Pros. I.R.E., 24, 689, May, 1936); B, a vector representation of
manner in which side -band voltage is added to carrier to generate p-in wave.
related to the side -band voltage so long as it is restricted to angles less
than about 30 deg.' In addition to the phase shift the resultant also
undergoes a small change in amplitude which is readily removed by the
succeeding saturated amplifiers, the "limiter" stages.
0
-10
-20
Into preemphasized
frequency modulation
ó -30
E
° -40
Into frequency
0 modulation
50
-60 a --
Ñ e p2
pp Q pp
N pD pp
O Ó O
a0
ó
Modulation frequency,cycles
Fro. 44.- Frequency
characteristics of audio system to convert phase modu-
lation transmitter into f.m.. and into pre-emphasised Lin.
The Armstrong circuit is fundamentally a phase modulator, since the
phase deviation is independent of the modulation frequency. If it is
JAFFE, D. L., Armstrong's Frequency Modulator, Prix. I.R.E.. 26, 475 -481, April.
1938.
See. 16] HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 555
desired that the output wave be frequency modulated, for which the
phase deviation is inversely proportional to the modulation frequency, it
is only necessary to introduce a correction circuit in the modulation-
frequency amplifier whose response is inversely proportional to the modu-
lation frequency. The wide-band system, in its present form (1940),
however, makes use of a combination of f.m. and p.m., in which the
radiated wave (for audio transmission) is frequency modulated between
about 30 and 500 cycles and approximately phase modulated at higher
modulation frequencies. This combination is called pre-emphasized f.m.
The audio response curves employed by Armstrong for converting a
p-m transmitter into pre -emphasized f.m. is shown in Fig. 44, along with
Output
Converter
tube
I. F. .
the curve for converting a p-m transmitter into a f -m transmitter.
-
am Plifier"d&nminala
cirait
acbnc Crystal
tube oscillator
T
Modulation'
frequenciés
Flo. 45. -A -f -c f-m circuit.
For a sinusoidal modulation voltage the phase deviation, in any system
in which the angular velocity (or frequency) is modulated, is related to the
frequency deviation by
0 = µm
where AO = maximum phase deviation in radians
= maximum angular velocity deviation in radians per second =
2r ,1f
= angular velocity of modulation frequency in radians per
second = 24A.
In the Armstrong system a frequency deviation of about 75 kc (corre-
sponding to Au) = 2r X 75 X 103 = 4.71 X 106 radians per second) is used.
If the lowest a.f. to be transmitted is 30 cycles (µ = 2r X 30 = 188 radians
per second), then the phase deviation needed is AO -
Aca
µ
4.71 X 106
- 188
2,500 radians. The amount of p.m. which may be produced in a circuit of the
type illustrated in Fig. 43 is limited by non -linear distortion to a maximum of
about ;ç radian. The increase from ;ç to 2,500 radians necessitates a
frequency multiplication of about 5,000. In the Armstrong transmitters,
this is accomplished in a series of low -power multiplier stages. A frequency
multiplication of 5,000 may be carried out in 13 doublers, 8 tripiers, 6 quad-
ruplera, or combinations of these.
f
A c Circuit. The second f -m transmitter circuit which has found prac-
tical application in the wide -band system is an adaptations of the automatic
frequency control system sometimes used in a-m broadcast receivers. If
1 CROSBY, M. G.. British patent 504766; CRIRElx, H., and P. BORIAs, C. S. patent
2076264. Detailed information on the operation of reactance tube and di.eriminator
circuits may be found in the following papers: FOSTER. D. E., and S. W. SEELEY. Auto-
the grid voltage of a high plate resistance tube is fed with r-f voltage from
the plate circuit through a 90 -deg. phase shifting network, as in Fig. 46,
then the impedance seen, looking into the plate circuit, is very nearly a
pure reactance whose magnitude (in the absence of degeneration) is
X=VVn
By varying the transconductance
of a tube connected in this manner,
called a reactance tube, the react-
ance may be varied from infinity
to a minimum value indicated by
Flo. 46.- Reactance tube in a -f-c the above equation. The by trans-
circuit. conductance may be varied ap-
plying the modulation in series
with one of the electrode voltages, such as that of the control grid.
In the a -f -c circuit a reactance tube is shunted across the tank circuit of a
conventional self- excited oscillator. By varying the bias at an audio rate,
the resonant frequency of the tank and the oscillation frequency are varied.
To stabilize the mean frequency, a degenerative feedback circuit of the same
type as that utilized in automatic frequency control in receivers is employed.
The oscillator frequency is heterodyned to an i.f. by means of a converter and
crystal oscillator and then passed to a frequency discriminator circuit, whose
output voltage is proportional to frequency. This voltage is returned
degeneratively to the reactance tube and serves to minimize frequency
variations of the oscillator. If the circuit constants of the feedback circuit
Modulating Output
I Reactance JModulatorl
voltage modulator osci,Illator ¡¡
a
1'f Two phase
drive on
(motor
tuning g condenser
Balanced Crystal ,J 90 °-phaseL Balanced

`modulator J Oscillator) I shifter modulator
¡Frequency
dividers
Fio. 47.- Morrison f -m circuit.
are suitably adjusted, the transmitter may be made degenerative for audio
frequencies as well as for slower variations and the usual advantages taken of
degenerative feedback. At 20 Mc linear frequency deviations of 100 kc or
more are easily obtained with the a -f -c circuit, so that little multiplication
is needed to adopt the circuit to the wide -band system. The frequency
stability, however, depends upon the stability of the discriminator circuit
in addition to that of the crystal oscillator, so that temperature or other
control of the discriminator may be necessary. Hum problems may be mini-
mized by the use of push-pull reactance tube arrangements.
matie Tuning, Simplified Circuits and Design Practice, Proc. I.R.E., 25, 289-313, March,
1937; Ronaa, H., Theory of the Discriminator Circuit for Automatic Frequency Control,
Proc. I.R.E., 26, 590-611, May, 1938.
See. 18] HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 557
Morrison Circuit. The third circuit to be applied to the Armstrong
system was developed by Morrison.' The reactance modulator and
oscillator are similar in principle to those used in the a-f -c circuit.
The frequency correction, instead of being applied through the reactance
tube, is furnished by a motor -driven tuning condenser. The motor is
operated from vacuum -tube modulators, supplied by two voltages, one
of fixed frequency from a crystal oscillator, the second proportional to
the mean frequency of the output signal. The difference between the
frequencies of the two voltages actuates the motor and corrects the out -
put frequency accordingly.
The voltage whose frequency is proportional to the mean frequency of
the output signal is derived without the use of frequency selective circuits.
This is accomplished by passing the modulated wave through frequency
dividers which reduce the depth of modulation to a small value. The
advantage of the Morrison system is that the modulation circuits and
the frequency control circuits are independent of each other. One
function is not limited by the other, therefore.
TECHNICAL FEATURES OF H -F RECEIVERS

24. High -frequency Receiver Requirements. As in the case of h -f
transmitters the details of the specifications for h-f receivers are fixed
by the use to which the receiver is to be put. The items which are
usually considered in the design of a receiver are the same as those listed
for h -f transmitters and, in addition, the available signal strength,
selectivity requirements and image per-
formance must be considered. ,Transmission line
25. General Receiver -design Consider-
ations. Most h -f receivers are of the
superheterodyne variety, although at
ultra -high frequencies other circuits, re-
generative detectors, the superregenera-
tive receiver, and even diodes or crystals
followed by audio amplification are some- Fio. 48.- Typical input cir-
times employed. To attain the best cuit of receiver.
signal /noise ratios, it is necessary to
amplify the signal before conversion to the i.f., or to employ a high -gain
converter tube; improved tube designs are constantly extending the h -f
limit at which such amplification or conversion is possible.
The i.f. of the h -f bands of a home receiver is usually the same as that
employed for the broadcast band, which is fixed by other considerations
at about 455 ice. This is too low to give satisfactory image response and
other characteristics for many specialized types of h -f receivers. Accord-
ingly, in receivers primarily intended for h-f use, higher intermediate
frequencies are found, values near 1.5, 3, 5, and 10 Mc being common.
From the point of view of signal /noise ratios the input circuits of the
receiver are of primary importance. Figure 48 is a typical antenna
coupling circuit, which may be idealized in the manner shown in Fig. 49
where the voltage e and the resistances have been reduced to terms of
either primary or secondary quantities. The thermal agitation noise
' Moaateox. J. F., A New Broadcast Transmitter Circuit Design for Frequency
Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 48, 444 -449, October, 1940.
558 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Mee. 15
power generated in the input circuits at room temperature is

W = 1.64 X 10 -Y0F watts
where F is the band width of the receiver in cycles. In a receiver of
optimum design the only receiver noise affecting the signal /noise ratio
is that resulting from thermal agitation in the input circuit. To accom-
plish this, the gain of the input circuit and of the first amplifier tube is
made as large as possible, so that the thermal noise of the input circuit
predominates over the tube noise in the first tube and in the superhetero-
dyne converter and over the thermal noise in later circuits.' At low
frequencies, where the tube input resistance is very high, this is accom-
plished by making the ratio Rs /R,, Fig. 49, and the gain of the first
tube large, or, in terms of Fig. 48, the transformer ratio and its Q are made
high. At higher frequencies the input resistance of the tube fixes the
maximum impedance of the first circuit. In such cases best operation
is obtained if R, is made equal to R2. The resulting signal /noise ratio
is 3 db lower than the theoretical maximum.
Generator
4, resistance
Amplifier Output
I
Resistive
Generator; component
(antenna) ; ofinputcircuit
FIG. 49.- Equivalent input circuit of receiver.(Johnson, Llewellyn, Elec.
Eng., 63, 1449, November, 1934.)
If the receiver is connected to the antenna through a transmission
line, it is desirable (and in television, necessary) that the transmission
line be terminated in its characteristic impedance to minimize reflections
and the attendant distortion in the frequency characteristic. This also
corresponds to making R2 = R, in Fig. 49.' In the design of wide -band
receivers it is necessary also that the frequency response of the input
circuit be considered.
Converter circuits are similar to those employed at low frequencies,
except that more attention must be paid to interlocking ( "pulling")
between oscillator and converter circuits since the ratio of signal to inter-
mediate frequencies is usually high. If separate oscillator and mixer
tubes are employed, the 1851 and 1852 tubes will be found to have high
conversion transconductances, of the order of 3,000 micromhos, and low
noise.' The 6K8 tube is the best combination mixer- oscillator tube
available at present (1940) for use in h-f superheterodynes.
26. Ultra- high -frequency Receivers. Up to about 100 Mc u -h-f
receivers follow the same patterns as other h-f superheterodyne receivers.
Differences are as follows: r-f amplifier and conversion gains are lower,
loading of tank circuits by tubes is more troublesome, higher intermediate
frequencies are employed, and interlocking of oscillator and amplifier
tuning is more difficult to avoid.
JOHNSON, J. B.. and F. B. LLEWELLYN, Limits to Amplification, Elec. Eng.. 53,
1449-1454, November, 1934.
= KAOZMANN, A. P., New Television Amplifier Receiving Tubes, RCA Rev., 3, 271 -289.
January, 1939.
To avoid excessive loading of the tank circuits (Fig. 50) by the tubes,
the plate and grid connections are tapped down on the tank circuits.
Lead lengths should, of course, be short, and the use of by-pass capacitors
with low- impedance leads is essential.
The 6K8 tube as an oscillator -converter or the 1852 as a converter with
a separate oscillator were most widely used in 1940.
F-Ft©
Fta. 50.-Typical
u-h -f amplifier circuit.
Above about 500 Mc it is difficult to amplify the received signal at the
carrier frequency using conventional u-h -f tubes. A diode converter
circuit successfully used in a 700-Mc receiver' is shown in Fig. 51. The
third harmonic of the oscillator heterodynes with the incoming signal
in the special diode to produce a
10-Mc t -f beat. To/0Mc
Because of the difficulty of /.F.
amplification and frequency con-
version of centimeter waves,
simpler receiver types than su-
perheterodynes are often em-
ployed. A crystal detector fol- Antenna
lowed by an audio amplifier, Fig.
52, is the simplest of these and,
while insensitive, is frequently 700 Mc Small
used in laboratory receivers. signal diode
Regenerative detectors, as in
Fig. 53, have also been em-
ployed. To increase the sensi-
tivity, the supergenerative prin-
ciple is often used.2
Perhaps the most promising 2 Mc 00
development in centimeter -wave oscillator

receiver technique is the applies- Fla. 51.- Centimeter -wave mixer cir-
tion of the electron -beam princi- cuit. (Bowles, Barrow, Hall, Lewis, Kerr,
ple to converter and amplifier The CAA -MIT Instrument Landing
tubes.' It is probable that this Syne22 present)ed at A.I.E.E. Convention,
principle will be widely used in
the near future and that appreciable amplification at frequencies above
500 Mc will be attained thereby.
I Bowtas, E. L., W. L. BARROW, W. M. HALL, F. D. Lawte, and D. E. KsaR, The
CAA -MIT Instrument Landing System, presented at A.I.E.E. Convention Jan. 22, 1940.
Many such receivers are described in the following: Gaoos, O., "Einfuhrung in
Theorie and Technik der Decimeterwellen," S. Hirzel, Leipzig, 1937; "Radio Amateur's
Handbook," 17th ed., American Radio Relay League, Hartford, Conn., 1939; "Radio
Handbook," ed. by W. W. Smith, 6th ed., Radio, Ltd., Santa Barbara, Calif., 1939.
z HAata, W. C., and G. F. METCALF, Velocity- modulated Tubes, Proc. I.R.E., 27,
108 -116, February, 1939.
27. Reception of Single- side -band -plus -carrier and Asymmetric -side-
band Signals. Signals of these types may be amplified and demodulated
with conventional receivers. In the asymmetric- side-band case the
carrier in the side -band filter should normally be located at the midpoint
of the filter attenuation curve, i.e., at the point where the filter is 6 db
down. Such operation normally gives minimum distortion.
Crystal
detector
A2
r--;;;F"
output
ou
+
Y_- B
Fla. 52.-Centimeter -wave detector. Fm. 53.- Centimeter -wave re-
generative detector.
A single-side -band-plus- carrier signal suffers a certain amount of non-

linear distortion when rectified by a linear rectifier. Figure 54 shows
the r-m -s total of the harmonics produced by the demodulation of
a sine -modulated single-side-band signal by means of a linear rectifier.'
-§30
k2p
10
!r
This distortion is large y second harmonic, and may be partially avoided
by the use of a full -wave or of a
square-law demodulator. Some evi-
dente indicates also that the distor-
tion produced by the demodulation
of a single -side-band signal by a lin-
ear rectifier is not so objectionable to
the ear as the values indicated by the
ts 6 curve would indicate. For sinusoidal
4 modulation no distortion is produced
.
- if the single -side -band signal is de-
by a square-low rectifier.
g2 0 62040.60.8 10 1.2 1.4 L8 2.0 modulated
1.6 The modulation depth m of Fig. 54
Modulation depth,m. equals 2 when the side band and car-
Fio. 54. -R-m-s total harmonic rier are of the same amplitude.
distortion introduced in demodula- In asymmetric- side-band transmis-
tion (by linear detector) of sinusoid- sion the demodulation distortion is
ally modulated single -side -band- avoided by the use of both side bands
plus- carrier signal. at modulation frequencies for which
the percentage modulation is likely to be high. At high modulation
frequencies the energy content in typical program material is low, so
1 Winne, P. J.. Modulation Distortion (in Dutch), Tijdachr. Nederland. Radiogenoot,
7, 99-114, April, 1936.
See. 161 IIIGII- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 561
that the distortion resulting from rectification is correspondingly low.'
An alternative expedient that may be employed is the accentuation of
the carrier in the receiver. No simple means of accomplishing this is
available, however.
Antenna
Converter
R. F.
and 1- F. L Limite Demodu- A.F.
r-
amplifier oso Ilator amplifier] lator amplifie
Fla. 55.- Frequency -modulation receiver.

6SJ7
Output
transformer
I.F
Transformer C
SOto/00
volts
Fta. 56.- Conventional limiter circuit.
While the demodulation distortion is higher in single- side-band -plus-
carrier and in asymmetric- side-band systems than in a conventional a-m
transmission, it should be noted that distortion resulting from selective
fading, which may be very objectionable, is reduced.
28. Single- side -band Receivers.
In order to demodulate a single -side- 1400
band signal with a conventional recti- a
fier, a carrier of approximately the § 80
correct frequency must be added to
the received signal. For highest 60
quality reception the replaced carrier
must be within 1 to 3 cycles of the &40
correct position, since all the fre-
quencies in the received signal will be á20
shifted by the amount by which the 12 o
replaced carrier deviates. 01 0.203 0.50110 2 3 5110
The simplest means for replacing R-F Input voltage
the carrier is to add the output of a Fps. 57.- Typical limiter charac-
stable oscillator to the signal in the teristic.
i -f or r -f channel of the receiver. A
crystal oscillator is convenient for this purpose. If the carrier is replaced
in the i -f circuit, the heterodyne oscillator of the superheterodyne must
also have good stability.
In many single- side -hand signals a pilot frequency is transmitted along
with the signal, from which the carrier is derived at both the receiver
ECHeasLór, P. P., Asymmetric -side-band Broadcasting, Prot. I.R.E., 36, 1041 -1093,
September, 1938.
562 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [sec. 16
and the transmitter. If this arrangement is employed,some the receiver

carrier frequency cannot depart from the correct value. In arrange-
ments the pilot frequency is filtered from the signal and used to operate
an automatic frequency -control circuit connected to the beating oscil-
lators. A number of schemes have been devised for this purpose.'
29. Frequency-modulation Receivers. In Fig. 55, from the antenna
for the
through the i -f amplifier, the receiver is quite conventional and,width
wide-band system in present use (1940), should have a band of
150 to 200 kc. Following the i -f amplifier is a limiter stage, designed to
Audio
Output
By-pass
Audio
R-F output
I.nput
B
Fla. 58.- Frequency- modulation demodulator circuits. A shows Arm-
strong circuit (Armstrong, Proc. I.R.E., 24, 689, May, 1936); B shows fre-
quency discriminator. By -pass condenser is for r.f.
remove amplitude variations from the signal as completely as possible.
The time constant of the RC combination is preferably less than 10portion
micro -
sec. in an audio receiver. It is essential that the horizontal
of the input-out characteristic of a limiter stage be flat, and it is desirable
that it extend to low values of input voltage. New developments in
limiter circuits will undoubtedly improve these two limiter properties.
r un advantage cannot be taken of the benefits possible with the wide-
oand system unless sufficient gain is provided preceding the limiter so
that the input signal is always beyond the flat part of the curve. If this
I KooiAxs. N.. Single-side-band Telephony
Applied to the Radio Link between the
26, 182 -206, February, 1938;
Netherlands and the Netherlands East Indies, Proc. I.R.E.,-hand
P0L[INOHORN, F. A., and N. F. SCHAACK, A Single Side Short -wave System for
Trans- Atlantic Telephony, Proc. I.R.E., 23, 701 -718, July, 1935; OSWALD, A. A., a
Short -wave Single -side-band Radio Telephone System, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 1431 -1454,
December, 1938.
Sec. 151 111011- FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 563
can be accomplished, an input signal only a few decibels
level can be made to produce noise-free output voltage. above the noise
The demodulator circuit, which follows the limiter, is designed
convert frequency variations into -f output and also to
I
in suppressing amplitude variations. The two circuits to assist the limiter
of Fig. 58 are in
current use. Figure 58A. Armstrong's circuit,! employs two series W
circuits resonant above and below the mid -band frequency.
ages of the two series circuits are rectified and combined in theThe volt-
which partially cancels amplitude changes. Figure 58B is an polarity
adapta-
tion of the frequency discriminator, employed in automatic frequency
control circuits.= It affords the same advantage of partial cancellation-
of amplitude variations as the circuit above.
ARMSTRONG, E. H.. A Method of Reducing Disturbances
System of Frequency Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 24,689-740. in Radio Signalling by a
2 Forma. D. E., and S. W. SEELEY.
May. 1936.
Automatic
Practice, Proc. I.R.E., 95, 289-313, March, 1937; Tuning, Simplified Circuits and Design
H., Theory of the Discrimina-
tor Circuit for Automatic Frequency Control, Proc.RODER.
I.R.E., 26,590-611, May, 1938.
SECTION 16
CODE TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION

BY JOHN B. MOORE, B.S.1
1. Radio communication, as distinguished from radio broadcasting

of educational and entertainment programs, is carried on chiefly by means
of some one of the recognized telegraph codes. Radiotelegraph signals
are, therefore, made up of short and long periods of constant signal
strength separated by idle periods of proper duration to correspond to
the combinations of dots, dashes, and spaces comprising the characters
of the code being used. The design of the entire system must be such
that the lengths of the dots, dashes, and spaces in the signal supplied
to the receiving operator are substantially the same as they were made
by the transmitting operator. In a simple system operated at slow speeds
no special difficulties are encountered in meeting this requirement. Pres-
ent -day commercial systems, however, which utilize remote control from
a central traffic office and which are operated at high keying speeds,
impose severe requirements on all the equipment used.
2. Standard Codes. In international communication the International
Morse Code is used. Specially marked and accented letters such as are
used in German, French, and the Scandinavian languages have special
characters which are used when working a station in the same country
or its possessions. When communicating with a foreign station, these
letters are either replaced by a combination of unaccented letters or in
some cases the unaccented letter is transmitted alone. Some countries
such as Japan and Egypt having alphabets differing radically from the
Latin alphabet use special codes for working within the country or to
ships. Nationals of such countries desiring to transmit a message in
their own language to a foreign country must spell out the sounds of their
words in one of the languages using the Latin alphabet.
3. Business Codes. Business concerns that have a large volume of
telegraph communication use so-called five-letter or ten- letter codes.
Standard codes for such use are available and consist of groups of letters
arranged alphabetically; each group standing for a complete sentence
or part of a sentence. Special and private codes are also used, and large
concerns often have a department for the coding and decoding of coded
telegraphic messages.
4. Printing Telegraph Equipment. Various types of printing systems,
in which the received signal is automatically printed in standard letters
on a paper tape, are being employed on the higher grade radio circuits
of the world. The trend is toward such automatic reception, as a sub-
stitute for manual transcription.
Codes employed are the Standard International Morse Code, the
"five unit" Baudot Code, and the recently developed2 "seven unit"
code.
Research receiving engineer, R.C.A. Communications, Inc.
= U.B. Patent 2,183,147
564
Sec. 161 CODE TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 565
A-
B----
Period
C-.-.
- --
D
Comma
- --
Colon
F ----
G Question mark, or request for
J - --
-
repetiton of
not understood
a transmission
K
L
M
--
-- Apostrophe
N
---
--.-
Dash or hyphen
-
P Fraction bar
R
S
T
---
-
---
Parenthesis (before and after words) ( ) -
---
--
--
Underscore (before and after
U
V words or part of sentence)
W.-
X Equal sign
y
Z Understood
Ä (German) - -- - Error
or A (Spanish-Scandi.
navian
CH German-Spanish
Cross or end-of.telgram or end-
of-transmission signal -------- - -
- ---
Invitation to transmit__
g (French)-.
(5
(Spanish)
(German)--
UlGerman)----
- Wait_
End of work
Starting signal (beginning

every transmission)
Separation signal for transmission

of fractional numbers (between
the ordinary fraction and the
whole number to be trans-
mitted) and for groups con-
sisting of figures and letters
(between the figure-groups
sud the letter-groups)
ri:;. 1. --The Continental code.

The International Morse Code consists of dots and dashes, as depicted

on age 576. The Baudot Code is built up of all possible combinations
5, into which
of five consecutive and equal time intervals, numbered 1 tocode
the length of time allotted to the transmission of any group is
divided. The "seven unit" printer code divides the time allotted for
transmission of any one code group into seven consecutive and equal time
intervals. Only three of these possible seven pulses are used for any
code group or character. The receiving equipment is so designed that a
or marking
received group containing fewer or more than three pulsesinstead
intervals will cause a special "error sign" to be printed of an
incorrect letter or figure.
5. Multiplex operation over a radio circuit has certain very definite
No single operator can
advantages from the viewpoint of the traffic man. radio
keep traffic moving at 100 words per minute. The circuit, however,
is often capable of handling twice this speed or better. Economical
operation then requires that two or more operators hemost assigned to the
circuit. Multiplex equipment permits doing this in the expeditious
and straightforward manner since each operator then has a channel under
his complete control. This makes it possible to efficiently use suitable
printing telegraph equipment -each such channel being handled Three by a
single operator at a speed of approximately 50 words per minute.
such channels give a circuit capacity of 150 words per minute, with no
complications such as are experienced when such high -speed operation
is attempted over a single -channel circuit employing tape transmission
and reception.
Two basic types of multiplex system have been employed. One
utilizes two or more modulating frequencies, which are applied toThis the
radio transmitter. The other employs the time-division principle.
latter is a more recent development, as appliedheto radio communication
systems. Its chief advantage is that it can applied to any radio-
required
telegraph circuit which will properly handle the keying speedsmultiplex
by the particular system and equipment. Time-division provide a
systems now in use on long -distance radio-telegraph circuits
total of two, three or four separate channels over the one radio circuit.
6. Character Formation. The unit used in code characters, and in
figuring speeds of transmission, is the dot. Present practice, based on
automatic transmitting equipment, is to speak of dots per second. On
duration
this basis the time required to transmit one dot includes thecharacter.
of the space separating the dot from the next element of the
As the duration of the dot itself and of the following space are equal,
stated
they constitute a cycle. Keying speeds are, therefore, commonlyrequired
in dots, or (square) cycles, per second. The equivalent timefollows: a
for the transmission of the other elements of the code are as words,
dash, two dots; space between letters, one dot; space between
three dots. For traffic purposes speeds are generally stated pe in words per
minute. The ratio of words per minute to dots or cycles r 100 second is
words
generally accepted as being 2.5:1 for usual commercial traffic,
per minute being equivalent to 40 cycles keying frequency.
In the Baudot code used for printing telegraph equipment, the duration
of the character is divided into five equal periods. For any one of these
periods either a marking, or h spacing (no current or reverse current)
impulse may be transmitted. One impulse is required between letters,
and in the non-synchronous type of equipment an additional impulse is
required at the start of each character to set the receiving mechanism
in motion. The total number of elements per character is, then, either
six or seven depending on the type of equipment used. The space
between words is a full- length character. 'l'he code consists of a differ-
ent combination of marking and spacing impulses for each character,
there being a total of 32 possible combinations for the five periods utilized.
For calculation of keying frequency the single period or element, which
is the shortest impulse required to be transmitted, corresponds to the
marking portion of a dot in the Morse Code. This is one half cycle.
For the non -synchronous printer equipment each letter requires, for its
transmission, seven half cycles or three and one -half full cycles. On the
basis of five letters per word and a space between words, the ratio of
words per minute to keying cycles per second is 2.86 to 1. This is the
figure realizable with automatic tape transmission. Where the impulses
go directly from the keyboard- operated machine to the line, the dot
speed will remain unchanged, but the number of words per minute that
can be transmitted will be reduced on account of the unavoidable irregu-
larities in the speed of the typist.
7. Required Frequency Range. A square -wave shape such as a suc-
cession of dots, where the value of the current or voltage rises instantly
to a steady value at which it remains for one half cycle and then instantly
drops to zero, can be analyzed into the fundamental and all of its odd
harmonics. The equation of the voltage wave is
e= 4El sin x +3 sin 3x +5sin5x+ (1)
1r
/
which holds for values of r between -a and +a. For most practical
telegraphic purposes it is only necessary for the system to pass the funda-
mental, third, and fifth in their proper intensity and phase, as terms of
higher order do not add sufficiently to the fidelity to warrant building the
equipment to handle them. The frequency range required by a sufficient
number of higher order harmonics to give appreciable improvement can
often be used to better advantage for additional channels.
For any service where the received signal strength rises to the same
maximum value on every dot and dash, it is not necessary to pass even
the third harmonic of the keying frequency. A system which will pass
the second harmonic of the fundamental keying frequency is satisfactory.
The receiving equipment can be adjusted to operate at a fairly definite
level on the building up and decaying of the current or voltage wave so
as to give characters which are neither too heavy (long) nor too light
(short) as compared to the spaces. However, in a system where the
received signal may vary by 2:1 or more in intensity at fairly short and
frequent intervals, it is necessary to have quite a steep rise and fall of
the received signal at make and break in order to obtain a constant
"weight" of keying. This applies particularly to automatic reception,
where the signal operates a recording device either directly from ampli-
fiers or through a relay of either the mechanical or vacuum -tube types.
For aural reception it is desirable to retain the harmonics of the keying
frequency, as the signal then sounds cleaner cut and more definite, making
it easier to read.
Cases of interference, in both the radio and the land -line portions of a
system, are sometimes encountered where it is necessary slightly to round
off the sharp, square envelopes of the dots, in order to reduce or eliminate
the interference or cross talk caused by the too sudden rise and fall of
current.
Where the exact effect of a given circuit on the shape of a square input
wave is desired, the range of frequencies passed by the system must be
considered as a continuous band rather than dealing with only odd har-
monics of the keying frequency.
The usual modulation and side-band theory of radio telephony is
applied to code transmission by considering the fundamental keying
frequency, and such of its harmonics as are passed, to modulate the
carrier 100 per cent. The total band width required to be passed by
the entire system is equal to twice the frequency of the highest harmonic
of the keying speed that it is desired to retain. (See Arts. 30 to 33 for
actual values.)
8. Speeds Attainable. Speeds of transmission range from about 15
up to 300 words per minute; the corresponding keying frequencies being
6 to 120 square cycles per second. Work with ships and with aircraft
is carried on mainly at speeds up to about 35 words per minute. Trans-
mission is by means of a manually operated telegraph key. Reception
is by ear. In point -to-point service, such as transoceanic, traffic speeds
normally range from 30 up to 250 words per minute depending upon the
type of equipment used, transmission conditions, and the amount of
traffic to be handled. Keying is done by machine almost entirely, hand -
operated keys being used only for minor service communications. Recep-
tion is generally by means of an ink recorder, the telegraphic characters
on the tape being transcribed on a typewriter by the operator. Aural
reception is resorted to only under adverse conditions. In radio systems
where multiplex equipment is employed on the circuits, each channel of
the two or three going over a single circuit will operate at approximately
50 words per minute. This gives the circuit a total capacity of 100 or
150 words per minute.
9. Fidelity of the mark -to -space ratio, while important at all speeds,
requires special attention when automatic operation at speeds in excess
of 100 words per minute is to be maintained. Where the duration of
the mark portion of a dot is only to sec. or less, factors that are dis-
regarded at slow speeds become of primary importance. Automatic
transmitters, relays, and electrical circuits should be fast enough so that
the signal supplied to the recording equipment will not be heavier than
60/40 or lighter than 40/60 in mark -to-space ratio at the highest speed
used. At 200 words per minute, which is not exceptional in present-day
short -wave work, this means a variation of not more than 1.25 millisec.
in the duration of a dot. While it is sometimes possible to compensate
for heavy or light keying characteristics by means of relay adjustments
in another portion of the system, this should not be depended upon for
obtaining the desired over -all fidelity. Each unit of the system should
he capable of giving the required fidelity at a speed in excess of the maxi-
mum operating speed, the margin required depending on the number of
elements in the over-all system and the fidelity of each.
10. Checking the keying characteristics of portions of, and of the
entire, system is clone by means of keying wheels which send out either
a single word over and over, or a succession of dots of 50/50 mark-to-
space ratio. For speeds up to about 100 words per minute the usual
high -speed ink recorder can be used for checking character formation
See. 161 CODE TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 569
quite satisfactorily. For accurate information, especially at higher
speeds, some form of oscilloscope or oscillograph must be used.
low -voltage type of cathode -ray oscilloscope is admirably suited to The
this
work where photographic records are often not required. Associated
amplifiers must be better than the equipment being tested.
11. Requirements for Facsimile. Facsimile service requires equip-
ment capable of handling keying frequencies up to about 500 square dots
per second. This speed is possible only on short -wave equipment and
requires a band width of about 5,000 cycles. In the transmission of fac-
simile half tones higher keying speeds may require a total band width of
10,000 cycles. This system of facsimile is now practically obsolete.
RADIOTELEGRAPHIC SERVICES
Services. Code -communication channels and equipment can be
classified, according to the type of service rendered by them, under
the general headings of transoceanic, shorter distance point to point,
ship to shore, aircraft, special mobile services, and military.
12. Transoceanic (long -wave), long-distance communications were,
prior to 1928, handled almost exclusively on frequencies ranging from
about 14 to about 30 kc. Great -circle distances covered on such com-
mercial circuits range from 2,000 to 5,000 miles, roughly. To cover dis-
tances greater than this with commercial reliability requires so much
power to be radiated from the transmitter that it becomes uneconomical.
Approximate values of signal strength to be expected are calculated from
the Austin-Cohen transmission formula
E = 12071---
XD sin O
X e- (2)
0.0014D
u Xee
where HI = effective height times current for transmitting antenna in meter
amperes
X = wave length in kilometers
D = great- circle distance in kilometers
O = arc of great circle between transmitter and receiver
E = received field strength in microvolts per meter
or the slightly different expression
Em
;AV
= -377HI
xxi)
e (3)
where
0.005D
u - XI .26
which is derived from data taken on the New York to London circuits at
frequencies ranging from 17 to 60 kc.I
13. Field Strength Required (Long Wave). For successful operation
the received field strength must he sufficiently above the level of atmos-
pheric disturbances and other local sources of noise to give fully readable
signals. Automatic recording requires a signal -noise ratio of at least
2:1. This is based on the general, or average, noise level. Moderately
ESPENSCRIED, ANDERSON, and BAILEY, Prot. I.R.E., February, 1926.
severe atmospheric disturbances such as "crashes" and "clicks" will

be from several to perhaps ten times as strong as a normally satisfactory
signal. Field strengths obtained on transoceanic circuits range from
10 or less up to 250 pv per meter. A value of 20 is about the minimum
for satisfactory communication under average conditions. Modern
high -powered transmitting stations have an antenna input power of from
40 to 500 kw with output ratings up to some 130,000 meter -amp.
14. Short Wave. During the last few years "short waves" have
assumed increasing importance in long -distance radio communication of
all types. 1 requencies used range from about 4,000 to 23,000 ke, depend-
ing upon distance, season of year, time of day, and path traversed.
Proper choice of frequency allows of reliable communication between
any two points on the earth with transmitters of modern design. Power
output of the equipment ranges from 1 to 40 kw. Owing to the extreme
variations in transmission conditions encountered at these frequencies,
it is necessary to have available at least 10 kw output from the trans-
mitters for high -speed automatic operation over the longer distances.
Even with the maximum output of present transmitters and with direc-
tive antennas for both transmission and reception, communication is
slowed down or even stopped, at times, by severe disturbances in trans-
mission conditions. Normal field strengths obtained at the receiving
antennas range from 0.1 up to 100 Nv per meter or more, depending on
transmitter radiation, path and transmission conditions. The minimum
signal required for reliable commercial operation depends partly on the
noise level at the receiving point Atmospheric disturbances (static),
while troublesome at times are not so serious as in the case of long
waves. Fading requires the use of a greater signal -noise ratio on short
waves. Utilization of space. frequency polarization, or time diversity of
fading will overcome, to a great extent the bad effects of static and permit
successful operation on much weaker signals. A very rough estimate of
the minimum field strength ordinarily required for code communication,
with automatic recording, is 5 µv per meter. Slow -speed aural reception
can be carried on with field strengths of as low as 0.1 pv per meter.
Minimum field strength required is determined by (1) directional dis-
tribution of noise at the receiving point; (2) directivity and pickup of the
antenna system, which are both effective in determining the gain of the
antenna in signal-noise ratio as compared with a standard vertical
doublet; (3) the noise equivalent of the receiver itself.
15. Short Waves versus Long Waves. Advantages of short waves
for transoceanic code communication are (1) lower first cost of equip-
ment and antennas, (2) smaller power consumption, (3) higher keying
speeds of which the equipment is capable, (4) less trouble from static,
(5) directive transmission, (6) greater distances covered with a reason-
able and practicable transmitter power. Disadvantages are (1) inter-
ruption of service due to severe magnetic disturbances, (2) effects of
fading, (3) necessity of having revers' frequencies, a separate antenna
being required for each, for 24-hr. service the year round.
Advantages of long -wave operation are (1) freedom from interruption
of service by magnetic disturbances, (2) comparative reliability and
steadiness of signal strengths. Long -wave arcs, alternators, and tube sets
are used. Tube transmitters, only, are used for short-wave operation.
16. Point -to -point communication for distances up to some 2,000
miles is carried on at frequencies ranging from approximately 30 kc
up to 100 kc. These stations are used for domestic service and also
for the shorter international circuits. Certain bands in the 6,000- to
23,000 -kc portion of the spectrum are also used for these shorter circuits.
Types of equipment used for 30- to 100-kc work include spark (obso-
lete), arc, frequency multipliers, and tube transmitters. For short -wave
operation, tube transmitters are used exclusively.
17. Ship -to -shore and ship -to -ship communication is an entirely
different class of service, in all respects, from point to point. Except
at the larger coastal stations and on a very few ships, transmission is
entirely by hand and copying is by ear. This is because of the nature
of the service; a coast station usually has not more than 10 to 20 messages
for one ship at a time, and vice versa. Automatic transmission and
reception are used only when traffic on hand amounts to some 40 messages
or more. The same operator generally handles both transmission and
reception, which is not the case in point- to-point work. Owing to the
great number of ships, and to the intermittent nature of their traffic,
the marine frequency bands must be shared by all ships. This creates
interference and traffic-handling problems that are not encountered in
point -to-point work. A marine operator must be located at the receiving
equipment. Remote control is used only on the transmitters of coastal
stations, the transmitting and receiving stations being separated by
distances of up to 50 miles to permit of simultaneous transmission and
reception.
Frequencies utilized lie within the 100- to 550-kc hand; those around
150 kc being used for long- distance work to the larger ships, while those
from 400 to 550 kc are for shorter distance work, mainly to the smaller
ships, and for distress calls (500 kc). Coastal stations using efficient
5- to 10-kw transmitters and directive reception can normally work ships
about 1,500 miles and up to 3,000 miles under favorable conditions, at
the lower frequencies. Operation in the 400- to 550-kc band is more
variable, a 5 -kw transmitter having a normal daytime range of around 500
miles and a night range of several thousand under favorable conditions.
Spark (obsolete), arc, and tube transmitters are used at the lower
frequencies. On the higher frequencies tube sets are replacing the old
spark equipment. These operate either cw or icw as desired.
Short waves have been coming into more and more use for the handling
of ship- to-shore telegraph traffic and special services. The chief advan-
tage is the great distances that can be covered with a low-powered trans-
mitter, as compared with conditions existing on the 500-kc and lower
frequency marine bands.
TRANSMITTING SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
18. The high- frequency alternator is one of the most used types of
transmitter for long-wave transoceanic code communication. The
Alexanderson alternator used in this country is a high-speed inductor-type
machine having a large number of poles so that frequencies up to 30 kc
and higher may be obtained directly. These machines have an output of
200 kw and are driven by a 600 -hp. two -phase induction motor through
a set of gears to give the desired alternator speed. The stator is built in
sections to facilitate dismantling for repairs and maintenance and has
64 separate windings which are connected to separate windings on the
antenna-input transformer. One winding is used to supply a tuned
circuit, the output of which is rectified and used for automatic speed
control. Forced lubrication and water cooling are used on account of

the high speed and relatively high losses as compared with commercial
power- frequency machinery. Such an alternator intended for operation
at 27,200 cycles is driven at a speed of 2,675 r.p.m., has 1,220 poles, and
requires a field current of 2 amp. at about 120 volts.
To maintain the frequency constant to approximately 0.1 per cent no

and to have it the same under conditions of full load and practically the
load, elaborate compensating means are provided as shown on
schematic diagram. Primary compensation saturation transformers
each have an a-c and a d-c winding so connected that the voltage at the
motor depends upon the impedance of these transformers which, in turn,
depends upon the value of current in the d -c winding. Connected to the
slip rings of the wound rotor are two banks of liquid rheostats, the
"running" bank being connected at all times and the compensation bank
being thrown on or off by the contactors. These contactors, and the
contactor in the primary compensation d -c control circuit, are operated
from a master relay which is controlled from the central traffic office.
Compensation adjustments are made to maintain the machine at the
same speed with the control key open or closed.
19. Method of Keying. Keying the output is accomplished by means
of a magnetic modulator which is a special transformer having an a-c
winding and a differentially connected d -c saturation winding. When the
control key is open, a relay closes this d -c circuit, and the resulting drop
in impedance of the a-c winding detunes the antenna and reduces the
alternator output voltage so that practically no current circulates in
the antenna circuit. For key closed, the d-c winding is deenergized and
the antenna circuit now becomes resonant to the alternator frequency, so
that normal antenna current is obtained. Owing to the low frequency of
the system and the low resistance of the antenna circuit, also on account of
the large contactors required in the compensation circuits, keying speeds
are limited to about 120 words per minute on long -wave transmitters.
20. Goldschmidt Alternator. Another type of h-f machine that has
been used to some extent is the Goldschmidt alternator. The funda-
mental frequency generated is usually one -fourth of that desired. This
is then changed successively to the second, third, and fourth multiples
by utilizing the e.m.f. generated in one winding by the rotating field due
to current of the next lower order frequency which is flowing in the other
winding. The heavy circulating currents are obtained by tuning the
respective windings, the output circuit being arranged to deliver energy
to the antenna at the desired multiple frequency. The object of this
method of obtaining radio frequencies is to use a comparatively low -speed
machine rather than to attempt direct generation at the desired fre-
quency, which requires the use of a high -speed machine having a large
number of poles.
21. Static Frequency Multipliers. Present practice favors the use of
static frequency multipliers where it is desired to use an alternator of com-
paratively low frequency. Two general methods, both of which depend
upon the use of special transformers having d -c saturation windings, are
employed. The first utilizes either two or three transformers connected
in such a manner that the second or the third harmonic of the funda-
mental is in phase in the several output windings. The second may
utilize but a single transformer with a d -c saturation winding. The
output winding is tuned to the desired harmonic frequency and receives
its energy by "shock excitation." This is accomplished by so adjusting
the d-c and a -c supply currents that voltage is induced in the secondary
winding for only a small portion of a cycle of the supply frequency. In
this manner harmonics of the fifth, and higher, orders may be obtained.
22. Arc transmitters are used, to some extent, for long-wave trans-
oceanic work. There have been two main objections, however, to the
use of such equipment. Most arc transmitters emit two frequencies,
one for mark and the other for space. As there must be a sufficient
frequency difference between these to allow of their being separated
in the receiving equipment, one such transmitter really requires two
communication channels for its operation. The other objection has been
that most arc sets emitted strong harmonics. These can, however, be
prevented from radiating strongly by proper shielding and the use of

properly arranged circuits for feeding the antenna. Elimination of the
space wave or "hack wave" is rather difficult in transmitters of this
type, especially when the output may be as high as 1,000 kw in large
installations. The actual power output of the arc cannot be keyed, as
the arc, to be stable, must draw a fairly constant current while in opera-
tion. Keying is generally accomplished by changing the inductance
of the resonant circuit associated with the arc, thereby changing the
frequency of the emitted wave. This is done by short -circuiting a few
turns that are coupled to the main tuning inductance.
Methods have been proposed for shifting the output of the arc to a
dummy antenna, or absorbing circuit, for keying the actual power
radiated on but one frequency. Such methods have not come into gen-
eral use.
The arc is operated from a d -c source, usually motor generators, at a
voltage of from 300 to 3,500 volts depending upon the power rating of
the unit. It burns in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen, which is supplied
Antenna
Keying
Cogoer Relay
Carbon
Fla. 3. -Arc transmitter.

by gas or by the vaporization of some such liquid as alcohol which is fed
into the arc chamber. For the efficient production of undamped oscilla-
tions the arc must burn in a transverse magnetic field. This is supplied
by a large electromagnet, the poles of which are respectively above and
below the arc chamber and the coils of which are energized by passing the
arc current through them. The intensity of magnetic field required for
optimum results is inversely proportional to wave length and also depends
upon the material used to furnish the hydrogenous atmosphere in the arc
chamber. Values normally range from about 2 to 20 kilogausses. A
water -cooled copper anode is used with a carbon cathode which is slowly
rotated by means of a motor while the arc is in operation. A current-
limiting resistor, normally used while striking the arc, is shorted out when
the arc is running.
23. Tube transmitters have been used but little at frequencies between
14 and 30 kc for long-distance communication. Tubes to handle the
power required have not been available until quite recently. This
meant that a number of tubes had to be operated in parallel in the power -
amplifier stage. Such transmitters have rated outputs of from 40 to
500 kw and are of the usual master-oscillator power- amplifier type.
24. Long -wave antennas of the various familiar types such as the T,
inverted L, and umbrella have been used. Masts for these structures
have, in some cases, been as high as 1,000 ft. Ordinarily they range from
See. 16) CODE TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 575
400 to 800 ft. high. The technical problem is to get as many amperes
in an antenna of as great an effective height as possible with a given
power input. Voltages from antennas to ground may easily be 100
kv or more so that corona and insulation considerations place a limita-
tion on the design. Of the total power supplied to the antenna, the useful
portion is that radiated. The remainder is accounted for by conductor
losses, coil losses, leakage, and corona (if present), and by loss in the
resistance of the ground-return path. In a structure where most of
the capacity is from the flat top to earth, and where the dimensions are
considerably less than a wave length, the radiation resistance is given
approximately by the relation R = 1,600(H' /X2), where H is the effective
height of the antenna and X the length of the radiated wave. Approxi-
mate calculation of H is possible in simple cases by summing up the
products HI for all sections of the structure and dividing by the total
current. This is done by calculating the capacities to earth of the various
sections, and by measurement of the total value. Experimental methods
of determining the capacity from small -size models are described by
Lindenblad and Brown.,
Flat Top Supported by Six Towers
Alternator á
Output
Transformer ( f {
Fria. 4.- Multiple -tuned antenna.
25. The multiple -tuned antenna, consists of a long, fiat top supported
be towers and having down -leads at a number of points which pass
through tuning inductances to earth. The total antenna current is
the sum of all the currents measured at the base of the tuning coils.
A system of buried wires and overhead conductors connected to them
through current-equalizing coils is laid out to give a uniform distribution
of current in the earth under the antenna. This is approximately the
condition for minimum earth resistance. This uniform distribution is
sometimes altered, by experiment, to still further reduce the losses.
Such antenna and ground systems often have a total resistance of less
than !-2 ohm. Total antenna currents of 700 amp. and more are obtained,
by this means, from a transmitter output of 200 kw. For N tuning points
the inductance of each down -lead and coil is approximately N tines that
which would resonate with the total antenna capacity at the desired
frequency. The physical length of such an antenna for operation at 17
ke, or thereabouts, may he or I miles, with as many as six tuning
1
points.
26. Removal of Ice. In climates where sleet is experienced the
antenna wires should be counterweighted, rather than solidly anchored,
in order to lessen the chances of breakage. A heavy coating of sleet on
the wires, with the attendant increase in sag, throws the antenna out
of tune as well as endangering it mechanically. When this becomes
1TNDENDLAD, N., and W. W. BROWN. Main Consideration in Antenna Design, Proc
LR.E., June,1926.
serious, it is necessary to melt the sleet from the wires in order to get
normal antenna current. For this purpose break insulators and by-pass
condensers are so arranged in the antenna wires that a series circuit of
all (or part) of the wires is obtained at the low power-supply frequency.
Special transformers supply power at about 2,000 volts for the purpose.
This is sent through the antenna conductors just long enough to heat
them sufficiently to melt off the sleet or ice.
27. Marine Transmitters. For marine work, tube transmitters are
replacing the older spark and arc equipment. The radiated energy is
confined more to a single frequency, which is essential for reducing
interference; and systems for simultaneous transmission and reception,
for break -in operation, and for remote control are much more easily built
up by the use of tube transmitters. With a well- filtered plate supply
the beat note obtained by use of a heterodyne cr autodyne receiver is
fairly pure, and its pitch can be Kern,
changed at will by the receiving Relay 500-AC
operator to suit conditions. For - ' Supply
attracting the attention of ships
standing by on a calling wave,
or for working ships not equipped
for heterodyne reception, the
radiated energy can he modu-
lated at an a -f rate.
Transmitters for coastal sta-
tions usually have an output of
from 5 to 10 kw. An air-cooled
1 -kw tube functions as master
oscillator and drives the 10-kw
power-amplifier tube, which is
of the water-cooled type. Plate
supply is obtained from a full -
wave kenotron rectifier, the out-
put of which is filtered to some
L rrom
Dynamoto,
extent. Bias voltages are nor- Flu. 6.-Essential circuit of i -c -w marine
mally obtained from a small rec- transmitter with a -c plate supply.
tifier, to eliminate as much
rotating machinery as possible. Filament supply is a.c. from step -down
transformers. Because of the nature of the service, interruptions due
to equipment trouble must be reduced to a minimum. For this reason
two power -amplifier tubes are mounted so that either one can be used.
Cooling water systems are provided in duplicate and equipped with pres-
sure- or flow- operated relays which will shut down the transmitter in case
of water failure. In some cases it is advisable to locate the antenna at
a distance from the transmitter proper. A two -wire transmission line
is used for this purpose, being matched to the power- amplifier and
antenna-circuit impedances at its ends by means of air -core transformers.
To make the transmitter instantly available, the tube filaments are
operated at reduced voltage, with plate supply off, when not in actual
use. The "starting" relay operates contactors which apply full voltage
to the filaments and close the low- voltage circuit to the plate -supply
transformers. For remote control, the starting and keying relays can
be operated from a single line by using double- current keying with a
polar "keying" relay and a neutral line relay with weighted armature for
578 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (5ík. 16
-
"starting." The 500 source, for production of icw, may also be relay
operated. Wave change can be arranged by relay- operated contactors
which change taps on the tuning inductances, these contactors being
operated by a polar relay controlled from the operator's table.
28. Transmitters for shipboard use are generally of smaller power out-
put than are those for coastal stations. Cost and space requirement
are also important factors which must be kept down. The usual equip-
ment is, therefore, more simple and compact than that treated above.
The master-oscillator power- amplifier arrangement with d -c plate supply,
or a.c. at a frequency of 350 cycles, meets the requirements very well in
the intermediate frequency bands. The master oscillator holds the fre-
quency steady regardless of changes in antenna capacity due to rolling
of the ship, and the elimination of a separate rectifier saves space. Where
space permits, a high -voltage d -c generator is used for plate supply.
Medium power tubes require about a
l-S: 7oNal 2,000 -volt supply. Change of wave
... is accomplished by changing taps on
the tuning inductances. Choice of
several frequencies in the band is
Low Power Slage provided by means of a multipoint
0000
or Doubler switch operated from the front of
B,osI
AG Ì the panel. The normal power-sup-
Keying Tube ply mains being d.c., a motor gen-
erator is required to furnish the
plate -supply voltage. Another ma-
chine may furnish a.c. for the fila-
Dc.KeymgVonage ments. On small transmitters satis-
00000 factory keying can be effected in the
PiocsunPN (A 1
low -voltage a-c plate supply by
means of a relay controlled from the
FIG. 7. -Tube keyer for transmitter. operator's key.
29. Short-wave Technique. Channel spacings resulting from the ever
greater demand for frequency and channel assignments, in the range from
approximately 3,000 to 23,000 kc, require ever greater stability of the
frequency of emitted carrier waves. Government regulations, based on
international agreements, are yearly becoming more severe. To maintain
a tolerance of plus or minus 0.01 per cent -which is what can be expected
of a good short-wave transmitter- requires the use of either a very
carefully stabilized and compensated tube oscillator or of some control
device such as a quartz crystal. Crystal control has found most favor in
this country to date.
Commercial short -wave code transmitters used for long -distance
communication have an output of from 20 to 40 kw. The crystal is
kept at a constant temperature and operates at one -eighth or one-fourth
of the final frequency desired. The oscillator stage is followed by a
screen -grid "buffer" stage, to isolate it from feedback and detuning
effects, then by two or three frequency-doubling stages before the first
amplifier stage operating at the signal frequency. Screen -grid tubes
used in these stages, with proper shielding of tubes and circuits and
filtering of supply leads, eliminate troublesome feedback effects without
the use of neutralization. Water-cooled triodes used in the final power
amplifier must be employed in a balanced stage with proper neutralization
of feedback through the tube capacities. The tank circuit of the power
amplifier is coupled either directly, or through a transmission line, to
the antenna.
For high -speed telegraphic operation the voltage regulation of all
plate and bias supplies must be good. If poor regulation exists, the
envelope shape of the characters will be triangular or irregular, instead
of rectangular. (A small amount of lag may be introduced intentionally,
in some eases, to round off the corners in order to eliminate trouble front
keying clicks in near-by receivers.) For this reason hot -cathode mer-
cury- vapor rectifiers are used for supplving the high d -c potentials
required. These tubes, together with the high-voltage transformers,
have very good voltage regulation at high values of output voltage.
For continued operation at keying speeds up to 250 words per minute
(100 cycles per second) it is inadvisable to use a system of keying which
employs electromechanical relays. A vacuum -tube keying stage is
therefore used to key one of the low -power stages of the transmitter.
Where a plate supply having good regulation is not available, the
load on it can be held constant by using two power amplifiers one of
which supplies the antenna and the other a resistance load. Keying is
accomplished by shifting the load from the main amplifier to the absorb-
ing tube by biasing the amplifier grids below cutoff and bringing the
absorbing tube grid bias up to such a value that the load drawn from
the plate supply is the same as when the amplifier is supplying energy
to the antenna. For receiving systems which rely partly upon frequency
diversity of fading, it is desirable to modulate the wave radiated from the
transmitter at an a.f. of something under 1,000 cycles per second. To
prevent interference with signals on adjacent channels, this modulation
should he reasonably free of harmonics. Otherwise, the higher order
side bands will extend over into the adjacent channels and cause
interference.
RECEIVING SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
30. Long -wave Receivers. Long -wave receiving equipment must be
designed to reduce trouble from static to a minimum and to separate
transmitters differing in frequency by only about 200 cycles, which is the
approximate spacing of assigned channels. The use of four efficient
tuned circuits provides the required selectivity together with moderate
ease of handling. For commercial work it has been the practice to
obtain the h -f selectivity ahead of an aperiodic amplifier, then to go to a
heterodyne detector of either the single-tube or balanced -modulator
type which is followed by as much a-f amplification as is required. The
final selectivity may, if necessary, be obtained by the use of narrow
a -f band -pass filters. For complete separation of signals on adjacent
channels this is often necessary. Owing to the difficulty of obtaining
complete shielding at these comparatively low radio frequencies, it is
generally advisable to use astatic pairs of coils in all tuned circuits,
couplers, oscillators, etc., in addition to the use of a reasonable amount of
shielding. Transformers and couplers are built with electrostatic shields
to prevent capacity coupling, where this is undesirable.
In a multiplex receiving station, where it may he necessary to receive
from 10 to 20 signals from approximately the saine direction, a single
aperiodic antenna system is the most economical and practical. The
individual receivers are fed by means of "coupling tubes" operated from
a common, or from individual, antenna- output transformers. All tuning
580 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. 1s
is done beyond these coupling tubes so that operation of the individual

receivers is entirely independent of all others.
31. Directional Antennas. Reduction of static is accomplished by the
use of directive- antenna systems. Arrays of large loops, or of loop and
vertical combinations, are one means of obtaining directivity. Where
the nature of the soil is such as to produce a considerable tilt of the wave
front, the Beverage wave antenna is used to advantage. This antenna
consists of one or two wires strung on poles at a height of about 20 ft.
and extending in the direction of the desired signal for a distance of
approximately one wave length. The antenna is highly directional,
and small signal voltages obtained from stations to the rear can be
compensated for by feeding into the signal circuit a small voltage of
proper amplitude and phase obtained from the damping resistance
connected between antenna and ground, or by setting up reflections
in the antenna itself.
As keying speeds on long-wave transoceanic circuits seldom exceed
100 words per minute (40 cycles per second) and signal strengths are
Antenna
-
Reflection Desired Output
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steady, such a channel requires only a total band width of about 160
cycles. Frequency variations of the transmitters can be kept within
about 0.1 per cent or 20 cycles in 20,000, and heterodyne oscillators used
for reception should have as good stability.
32. Ship -to -shore Receivers. Receiving equipment for ship -to -shore
service must cover the frequency range of 500 down to 14 kc in order to
operate in the regular marine hands and also to receive broadcasts and
time signals from high -powered long -wave stations. Receivers for
shipboard use are of the autodyne type embodying a tuned antenna cir-
cuit coupled to the oscillating detector, which latter has a "tickler coil"
for regeneration control and generally two stages of a -f amplification. By
means of tapped inductances the receiver may tune from about 1,000
down to 60 kc. For the lower frequencies a set of loading inductances
is used. The chief requirements are ease of operation and rapidity of
tuning. Regeneration control allows the receiver to be operated oscillat-
ing for cw reception or non-oscillating for reception of spark, icw, or
modulated signals. Provision is made for disconnecting the receiver from
the antenna when transmitting.
Important coastal stations have separate receivers to cover the lower
and higher frequency marine bands of approximately 115 to 171 kc and
Sec. 16] CODE TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 581
375 to 500 kc, respectively. Such receivers should have but a single
tuning control and, to obtain the required selectivity, should be of the
superheterodyne type. An i -f oscillator, which can be used at will by
the operator, must be provided for cw reception. The over-all selectivity
should be such that a total band width of not more than 1 kc is passed at
80 per cent peak response.
As in long -wave reception, reduction of static and interference is
accomplished by the use of directive antennas. For the lower frequency
band the Beverage wave antenna has the advantage of relatively large
pickup, good directivity with compensation, and the ability to supply
a number of receivers operating at the same or different frequencies.
Where reception from all directions is required and for the higher fre-
quency bands where the wave antenna is unsuitable for night reception,
antennas of the flat top, inverted L, T, vertical, or loop types are
employed. The loop and vertical com-
bination, giving a cardioid directive JA' Crossed loops
diagram, can be arranged with crossed
loops and a goniometer so that the
operator can rotate his antenna recep-
tion diagram at will.
33. Short-wave receiving equipment, GO^'Oêr
Receiver
for the reception of commercial radio- To
telegraph signals, comprises two general

classes, viz., (a) point to point and (b)
mobile.
For commercial point-to -point service
the receiving equipment must deliver a
signal which is as nearly perfect as is
possible. This requires a high degree
of frequency stability, the best praet iea-
ble over-all selectivity, and means for
reducing the effects of fading to a
minimum. The receiver should have a Fca. 9.- Loop -vertical antenna
total band width such that it will pro- for directive reception.
vide an attenuation of at least 60 dli
at the frequencies of the channels adjacent to that on which recep-
tion is being carried on. In calculating selectivity requirements, the
assigned channel spacing must be reduced by twice the frequency
tolerance permitted on each channel. This gives the frequency
spacing between two signals on adjacent channels, when the fre-
quencies of the two transmitters have drifted toward each other.
Protection against all other types of interference, such as those encoun-
tered in superheterodyne receivers, should be not less than 70 db. At
the same time, the useful band width must be sufficiently great so that
no undue amount of attention will be required to keep signals fairly well
centered in the pass band of the receiver. With present -day stability of
transmitter frequencies, and of receivers, this means a useful band width
of from 1 to 4 kc depending upon the carrier frequency.
Present-day receivers, to provide the required performance, are gen-
erally of the multiple-detection, or superheterodyne, type in which one or
two i -f systems are employed. It is only by the use of a relatively low
final i.f. that the necessary selectivity and useful band widths can be
obtained. The required i -f characteristics are obtained by use of either
582 TIIE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (See. Is
a band-pass filter or a number of stages of amplification employing one

or more tuned transformers per stage. Choice of more than one band
width in the i -f system is highly desirable and often necessary.
In equipment used for high -speed automatic operation, the signal is
amplified, beat down to a lower frequency, and then rectified. The
rectified output, consisting of short and long pulses of d.c., is used to
operate a relay of either the electro.aechanical or vacuum-tube type.
The former operates into a simplex, duplexed, or quadruplexed d -c tele-
graph line to the central traffic office. The tube relay, or "keyer,"
controls the signal fed to the tone line from a local a-f source. The
receiving operator is thus supplied with an audio signal of constant
frequency and intensity regardless of any changes in the actual radio
signal which are not great enough to make it drop out of the receiver.
By means of a -f filters six or more keyed tones of this sort may be handled
over a single, two-wire tone line.
To minimize the effects of fading, receiving equipment is arranged
to take advantage of the diversity of fading existing, at a given instant,
either on slightly different frequencies at the same location or on the same
-IV+ 445- 15-
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frequency at points separated 10 wave lengths or more apart. Fre-
quency diversity, in practice, is most economically obtained by modulat-
ing the carrier with an a.f. of not higher than 1,000 cps, and preferably
of not higher than 500 cps, in order to minimize interferenc.! to signals on
adjacent channels. This results in radiation on the carrier and on an
upper and a lower frequency. If the band width of the receiver is
sufficient to pass these three frequencies and if the normal signal strength
on anv one of these frequencies is sufficient to operate the keying device,.
considerable diverse fading on the several frequencies received can be
tolerated. In spite of the fact that a lesser peak voltage can be obtained
from a modulated signal than from a pure cw signal, considerable
improvement is obtained, tinder practical conditions of fading, by its
use. Where space diversity is utilized, it pure, unniodulated signal is to
he preferred. In this case two or three separate receivers are fed from
separate directive antennas spaced 10 wave lengths or more apart. The
rectified outputs from these receivers are combined and made to operate
the keying device. Confining the radiated energy to a single frequency
means greater signal strength for a given transmitter power, and com-
bination after rectification eliminates the consideration of instantaneous
phase relations which might he such as to cancel rather than add.
34. Use of Limiting Circuits. Under conditions of high signal -noise
ratio and violent fading, the use of considerable limiting in the receiving
equipment is desirable. This should be done following the final selec-
Sec. Is! CODE TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 583
tivity and must be in a system having small enough time constants so

that the decaying transients occurring after each overload do not occupy
an appreciable portion of the interval between characters. In order to
use such limiting successfully, it is essential, as stated before, to pass up
to about the fifth harmonic of the keying frequency. If this is not done,
wide variations in mark /space ratio of the final signal will occur as the
degree of limiting varies with the signal strength.
Character formation can he maintained, in sore eases of overloaded
systems, by the use of a so- called "sliding bias" on the rectifier. The
signal may he amplified up to some 30 or 40 volts maximum value and
applied to the grid circuit of a rectifier tube which begins to take grid
current at a relatively low applied signal voltage. By proper choice of
grid- and plate- circuit resistors, and the use of a condenser across the
grid- circuit resistor to give a relatively large time constant, only the tops
of the character envelopes will he effective. In using such a system,
however, reliance must be placed upon some form of diversity reception
to prevent drop -outs, and splitting of characters, due to rapid fading.
Recent practice has been to use some system of automatically con-
trolling the gain (A.G.C.) of the r-f amplifier stages. The circuits are
similar to those used in broadcast receivers and are superior to those
which operate on the final detectors, because they minimize overloading
r -f and i-f amplifiers and first detectors.
35. Commercial Receiving -center Problems. In a large receiving
station for long-distance communication there may be from 10 to 100
individual receivers installed and intended for simultaneous operation.
To do this requires that each unit he effectively shielded and that all
battery- supply leads be well filtered for the frequencies at which the
respective units operate. High -frequency equipment must also be
protected from 1 -f voltages which might be present on the battery supply
busses, as such voltages may cause undesirable modulation of signals if
allowed to get to the tube circuits. Transmission lines, where used, must
be of a type which has negligible stray pickup and radiation. Satisfac-
tory types of line, depending upon the equipment with which it is to be
used, are (a) the balanced four -wire line, (b) the two -wire transposed
line, and (c) the concentric-pipe line. The first consists of four wires
arranged at the corners of an imaginary square, diagonally opposite wires
being connected together at both ends of the line. The four-wire and
two-wire types are used where the system is to be kept balanced with
respect to earth. Antenna systems which operate against earth generally
use the concentric -pipe line in which the outer pipe is grounded. The
two types of systems are sometimes connected together by means of
suitable tuned transformers.
To obtain the full benefits of good shielding, stray feedback through
the battery -supply leads must be eliminated by means of properly pro-
portioned, and located, filter circuits. This is of especial importance
in short-wave equipment and in medium-wave equipment for marine
coastal station use.
36. Power supply for commercial receiving equipment must be abso-
lutely reliable and not subject to interruption. Storage batteries oper-
ated on either a floating or a charge and discharge basis are used for this
service.
Charging equipment consists of motor-generator sets for filament
batteries, where relatively heavy currents are required, and either motor
generators or rectifiers for batteries of smaller rating such as used for

plate and bias supply. Where receiving antennas may be located fairly
close to the building that houses the charging equipment, this must be
located in a specially shielded room to prevent direct radiation into the
antennas. Equipment used for floating batteries that are in service must
be provided with effective filtering between it and the battery and load
bus.
Where the nature of the radio service does not warrant the expense of
installing and maintaining storage batteries, reliance may have to be
placed on the continuity and reliability of a -c power service provided
by the local power company. In such cases the most economical and
flexible arrangement for a small station is to provide each receiver with
its own filament transformer and its own plate and bias supply rectifiers.
An emergency power supply should be provided in all cases of a-c
operated equipment. Where storage batteries are installed for supplying
the receivers during power failures, additional emergency power supply
may or may not be necessary. In some cases the cheapest arrangement
may be a battery installation that will take care of normal short -period
outages and an emergency power plant to care for longer periods of
failure of the public power service.
CONTROL METHODS AND EQUIPMENT
37. Central Office. In commercial radiotelegraphic systems the trans-
mitters are controlled from a central traffic office, and received signals
are conveyed to this central office from the receiving station by land
lines. Transmitting and receiving stations are, in some cases, as much
as 500 miles distant from the central office. The tendency, however,
is to keep this distance below 100 miles to reduce initial and maintenance
costs, or rentals, of land lines. Long control and tone lines are justified
only if a distant location of the transmitter will effect a considerable
saving in the power required to obtain satisfactory service, or if the
distant receiving site is considerably superior to near-by ones in signal -
noise ratio. In long -wave transoceanic and medium-wave marine work
the use of long land lines is often well worth while. In short -wave work
the over-all results are not so dependent upon geographical location.
Suitable sites are generally available within 100 miles of the city to be
served.
38. Automatic Transmitters. In "automatic" operation of code
circuits a tough paper tape is perforated by means of a machine which
has a keyboard similar to that of standard typewriters. This tape is
then fed through the "automatic transmitter" in which two cam -operated
steel rods come up against the tape at every point where a perforation
might exist. Where one is, the rod goes on through, and a contact
operated by a lever on the lower end of the rod is closed. These two
rods controlling the "make" and "break" contacts alternate in coming
against the tape and are sufficiently offset in the direction of travel
of the tape so that perforations in the upper (make) and lower (break)
rows, when opposite the same center hole, give a dot and when opposite
adjacent center holes give a dash. (Sample tape appears below.)
e
.... .. ... .. ...
s.. .. ... .. ... s. ..
s.
.. ..
..
.. ..
...
T H I S IS A SA M P L E
The two contacts supply current, in opposite directions, to a polar

relay which, in turn, keys the control circuit going to the transmitting
station. For speeds much above 100 words per minute it is desirable
to have as few mechanical relays as possible between this main polar
relay and the keying circuit of the radio transmitter. The time required
for a relay armature to travel from one contact to the other, while short,
becomes Important when the duration of a dot is less than 0.010 sec.
Printing telegraph equipment employs a special model of automatic
tape transmitter, which is adapted to the different code used for such
systems.
In installations of multiplex equipment employing the principle of time
division, automatic tape transmitters supplying the several channels are
synchronized and phased to give the required over-all performance of the
multiplex system.
39. Tone -control Circuits. Where only a few transmitters are to be
controlled from one point, d-c double- current keying is the most eco-
nomical and satisfactory. A complete metallic circuit is to be preferred
Contorts of
Po/e Changing
Polar Relay
To Line
111111'-
/20V 1LZ0V-
Fio. 11.- Double- current control circuits.
to a single wire with ground return, although the latter is entirely satis-
factory in many cases.
In a large central -office system the number of control lines required
can be greatly reduced by the use of multiplex tone, or "voice- frequency
carrier," control. By the use of a number of different frequencies and
band-pass filters at both ends of the circuit as many as 10 channels can
be obtained on a two-wire line which will pass frequencies from 'about
400 cycles up to 2,500 cycles with approximately equal attenuation.
In one such type of equipment the a-f supply is a multifrequency induc-
tor-type alternator having a separate winding and rotor for each fre-
quency. Energy from this machine is keyed by means of either
electromechanical or vacuum -tube relays which are controlled by the
automatic tape transmitter and supply current to the control line.
Band -pass filters in the individual control channels reduce the harmonic
content of the signal supplied to the line to a low value and also round
off the corners of the square keying envelopes.
The band width required in filters for tone -control work depends (1)
upon the maximum keying speed which must be handled and (2) upon
the fidelity of envelope shape required for the particular application.
Where great fidelity is not required or where the over -all transmission
gain of line and associated equipment does not vary more than about
586 THE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDBOOK MSee. 16
20 per cent, it is sufficient to pass the second harmonic of the keying

frequency. This means a total band width of four times the keying
frequency. To obtain fairly square envelope shape, with a mark-to-
space ratio of about 60: 40, it is necessary to pass up to the third harmonic
or a total band of six times the keying frequency, at least.
For the lengths of line normally used between central offices and
outlying stations, and for present -day code keying speeds, the matter of
phase distortion due to the line is of relatively small importance.
40. Control equipment used at transmitting stations may be of either
the d -e or tone- operated type, depending upon the system used at the
central office. In a double-current d -c system the conventional polarized
telegraph relay is used as a main -line relay for speeds up to some hundred
words per minute. Where normal operating speeds run much above
100 words per minute, special high-speed relays of the polarized type
must be used. Large keying and
600 compensation relays and contactors
l00 /ner used in long-wave transmitters are
ContactsofI
RelayorKey
T Equipment controlled by the line relay or a heav-
-
l
b s_ QQO ier intermediate relay. In tube sets
R f Fi /ter -especially short -wave equipment
Fo. 12. -Spark absorber and click higher keying speeds are possible and
filter. require the use of a minimum num-
ber of mechanical relays. For d-c
control the main-line relay may operate directly into a tube keyer
incorporated in the transmitter.
In tone -control systems the equipment at the transmitting station
comprises band -pass filters and amplifier-rectifier units. The rectified
output may be used to operate either electromechanical relays or tube
keyers. Where such equipment is used at large high-poweredytransmit-
ting stations, it may have to be protected from stray fields of the trans-
mitters, transmission lines, and antennas. The amount and disposition
of shielding and filtering required by control equipment and associated
wiring depend on numerous factors such as the following: (1) lowest
frequency radio transmitter installed or contemplated, (2) highest control
frequency planned, (3) r -f field intensities, and (4) level of control signals
and voltages. It will be obvious that a high -power long-wave trans-
mitter operating on a frequency of about 20 kc will create serious problems
where it is desired to employ control channels ranging in frequency from,
say, 400 to 20,000 cps or higher.
Tube keyers, while more elaborate than the usual mechanical relays,
are capable of operating at practically any speed desired. They also
eliminate relay maintenance and adjustment. In the simpler arrange-
ments the control tone is amplified, rectified by either a two-element or
a three-element tube rectifier, then passed through a smoothing circuit
or low -pass filter. The d -c pulses thus obtained are applied to the control
elements of the keying -stage tube or tubes.
41. Received Signal Transfer. Systems for transferring signals from
the receiving station to the central office are similar to the transmitter-
control systems. In short-wave work the actual radio signal, after
heterodyne detection, is amplified and rectified and applied to a tube
keyer. This may be arranged to supply d.c., or tone, for transfer to the
traffic office. Audio-frequency filters, of the same type used for tone
control, allow a number of channels to be handled over one line.
See. 16) CODE TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 587
Where tone lines are long enough to require the use of one or more
repeaters, care must be taken that the sum of the voltages of all channels
is not high enough to cause any overloading of the repeaters. If this
takes place, intermodulation between channels will be caused, which
results in mutilated signals at the central office. With repeatered lines .
and the usual band -pass filters, it is essential that all channels be kept
at approximately the same signal level. A maximum difference of 2: I
between any two channels should not be exceeded. Large differences
in channel levels are apt to cause interference on the weaker ones.
In medium-wave and short-wave receiving stations the contacts of all
telegraph keys and relays must be prevented from sparking, and the wires
to and from the contacts must be properly filtered. If these precautions
j
are not taken, serious click interference will he experienced in the receiving
Ink feed to Pen
Pen Arm Stops
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Winding Winding
Fia. 13. -Ink recorder. Paper tape and tape guide not shown.
equipment. The same applies to commutator -type electric motors.
Circuit breakers should preferably he located in a shielded room.
TRANSCRIBING METHODS AND EQUIPMENT
42. High -speed Reception. As the average operator copies at a rate
of only about 40 words per minute, aural reception must be replaced by
some method in which a record is made of the signal, on the high -speed
circuits, the recorded signal then being copied off at a slower speed by
one or more operators. The older dictaphone and photographic methods
of recording were not entirely satisfactory. Most systems now use some
form of "ink recorder" in which the movement of a pen is controlled
by the incoming signal and makes short and long characters on a moving
paper tape.
Reception by tape has the double advantage of speed and of there
being a record to which the operator may refer or which may be looked
up later in case any question arises.
43. Ink Recorder. One commonly used type of ink recorder consists
of a small coil suspended in a strong unidirectional magnetic field sup-
plied by an electromagnet. The signal is amplified and rectified and
the d-c pulses sent through the recorder coil which, in turn, moves the
pen arm up against an upper stop. With no signal current flowing, the
pen is held against the lower stop by the spring of the pen arm and coil
suspension. To improve the action of the device at high speeds, the coil
is suspended midway between the stops, and current reversals are used, in
place of pulsating d.c., to operate the coil. This is obtained from a pole-
changing relay operated by the rectified signal, or from a special amplifier-
rectifier unit which gives an output d.c. in opposite directions for "mark"
and "space."
T H I S I S A S AM P L E
44. Printers. Where printing telegraph equipment is employed,
manual transcription of the incoming signal is eliminated. The printed
tape coming from the receiving machine is simply pasted on message
blanks. Errors may be corrected by obtaining the required correction,
from the distant radio terminal, and pasting it over the original which
contained the error.
References
AUSTIN, L. W.: Pros. I.R.E., June, 1926.
BEVERAGE. RICE, and KELLOGG: The Wave Antenna, a New Type of Highly Directive
Antenna, Proc. A.I.E.E., March, 1923.
BYRNES and COLEMAN: 20- to 40 -kw High -frequency Transmitters, Proe. I.R.E.,
March, 1930.
CARSON, JOHN R.: "Electric Circuit Theory and the Operational Calculus," McGraw -
Hill Book Company, Inc.. New York.
ESPENSCHIED, ANDERSON, and BAILEY: Transatlantic Radio Telephone Transmission,
Proc. I.R.E., February, 1926.
FULLER, L. F.: The Design of Poulsen Arc Converters for Radio Telegraphy, Proc.
I.R.E.. October, 1919.
SHEA, T. E.: "Transmission Networks and Wave Filters," D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., New York.
STEINER and MASER: Hot -cathode Mercury -vapor Rectifier Tubes, Proe. I.R.E.
January, 1930.
SECTION 17
AIRCRAFT RADIO
BY HARRY DIAMOND'
1. Importance of Radio Communication to Aircraft. The success of
any transportation system depends in a large measure upon the rigorous
maintenance of safe, scheduled operation. Probably nothing has con-
tributed more to the safety and reliability of transportation systems
than the associated communication systems. Radiotelegraph, radio-
telephone, the radio beacon, and the radio direction finder have been
important elements to such safety in both sea and air transportation.
Radio serves as a communication means between airplanes and between
airplane and ground. It furnishes the pilot with weather information,
tells him when he is on or off his course, helps him to land under conditions
of poor visibility, and is beginning to be of value in preventing collision
with other planes or with fixed objects. It provides the operations office
continuous contact with each aircraft in flight and thereby affords full
control of all flight operations to conform with existing meteorological
conditions and traffic requirements. For the airport traffic manager it
furnishes a rapid and certain means for communicating with arriving or
departing airplanes and directing their landings or take -offs in a safe and
orderly sequence. For the weather man it serves as a useful tool in the
accumulation of upper-air weather data needed in making his forecasts.
2. Organization of Civil Radio Facilities. Aviation radio facilities
may be broadly classified according to who furnishes the service: (1)
government systems; (2) transport company systems; (3) airport opera-
tor facilities. As the government system is operated for the benefit
of all fliers, the transport companies plan their systems so as to incor-
porate the service rendered by the government. The airport operators,
in turn, design their radio facilities to tie in efficiently with both the
government and the transport company systems.
1. The government, through the agency of the Civil Aeronautics Author-
ity, has constructed a network of radiotelephone broadcast stations for
the dissemination of weather information to aircraft in flight and a system
of radio range beacons supplemented by radio marker beacons for the
guidance of aircraft over the civil airways. The provision of radio -
landing aids at terminal airports to facilitate the landing of airplanes
under adverse visibility conditions has been begun. CAA also operates
an extensive system of teletype lines for the collection of weather informa-
tion to be used in the radiotelephone broadcasts and for airways traffic
control. In collecting weather information this agency has the coopera-
I Principal Radio Physicist, National Bureau of Standards.
589
tion of the U. S. Weather Bureau which maintains a large number of

weather stations at the airports and at points off the airways. Prac-
tically all these stations are on the weather teletype network. The
teletype lines interconnecting the airways traffic -control offices form a
Separate network to facilitate the control of some 20,000 military, com-
mercial, and private airplanes flying the airways.
On July 1, 1940, there were approximately 28,000 miles of lighted air-
ways in the United States, practically all of which were radio equipped.
Some 27,000 miles of teletype were in use in the weather network and
10,000 miles in the traffic control network. The radio facilities included
nearly 250 radio range beacons with voice broadcast facilities at each of
these stations, 50 l -f radio marker beacons at strategic points on the
airways, 180 u -h -f cone markers for giving positive indication of the
location of the beacon stations, and 115 fan -type markers for defining
control points along the airways at which arriving airplanes are kept (at
various altitudes) while awaiting permission to land during adverse
visibility conditions. Ten radio-landing installations were in the process
of completion to afford service tests under actual airway conditions.
2. The air transport companies have adopted and installed two-way
communication equipment at approximately 201 -mile intervals along the
airways of the nation and in all their airplanes. This system permits
continuous contact between the offices of each company and their aircraft
in flight, thereby allowing flight operations to he controlled according to
existing weather conditions and traffic requirements. The transport
companies also operate teletype circuits and point-to-point radio stations
which provide the rapid communication between operating offices which
is essential to the successful operation of high -speed passenger, mail, and
express service. The facilities of the different air transport companies
are coordinated through Aeronautical Radio Inc., an association organ-
ized for this purpose and having its headquarters in Washington, D. C.
The radio facilities already enumerated are sufficient for air transport
companies operating over the civil airways of the United States. In the
case of international routes, such as the route to South America, the
transpacific route, and the transatlantic route, the operating companies
must provide the additional facilities which are necessary for the guidance
of their aircraft.
3. Airport operators provide as standard airport equipment short -
range two-way communication equipment used in directing from a central
point all take-off and landing maneuvers of transport, military, and
private airplanes. Voice communication with arriving and departing
airplanes within a 25-mile radius is essential to the safe and efficient
operation of a busy airport.
3. Military Radio Facilities. The communication and navigational
requirements of military aircraft are naturally considerally different
than for civil airerai t. Here, the emphasis is on mobility and flexibility
of both the ground station and aircraft equipment. Operation is required
over geographical areas rather than along fixed routes. Simplicity of
r uti» equipment is paramount whereas the service conditions are gen-
erally more difficult. The research work carried on by the military
agencies to secure suitable equipment and methods exerts great influence
on the state of the art. The military radio developments are of particular'
applicability to civil air transport operation on rode.; outside the United
States, as to South America or in the transoceanic service.
Sec. 171 AIRCRAFT RADIO 591
TABLE 1.- RADIO FREQUENCIES IN CIVIL AVIATION
Service ('resent setup Proposed a -h -f setup
Radiotelephone weather 200 -400 kc (49 shared. 9 ex- 123.000 -126.000 Mc (31 ex-
broadcast and radio clusive frequencies) clusive frequencies): 126.-
range beacon 000- 127.000 Mc (10 shared
frequencies)
Airport traffic control No 278 kc 129.300. 129.780, 130.300.
130.860, 131.420, 131.480
Mc
Two-way communication 2,900 -3.500 kc (night), 140.240-143.880 Mc (28 fre-
between airplane and 4,100-6,600 kc (day) (80 quencies)
ground frequencies)
National calling and work- 3,105, 3,120 kc (night), 6.210 140.1(8) Mc
ing and itinerant service kc (day)
Instrument landing group:
Runway localiser bea-
con* 109.500, 109.900, 110.300 Mc
Landing beam* 93.500, 93.900, 94.300 Mc
Radio marker beacon* 75.000 Mc 75.000 Mc
Radio teletype 60.180-65.860 Mc (45 fre-
quencies)
Aviation instruction 33.420-39.060 Mc (4 fre-
group quencies)
Transport company 2,700-18,000 kc (28 fre-
point to point quencies)
Miscellaneous aviation
services group:
Public message traffic, Frequency requirements at
collision prevention. present unknown
radio altimeter, and
others
400-kc guard bands.

4. Radio Frequencies in Civil Aviation. The radio frequencies used
for the various radio aids are indicated in Table I. Except for the
instrument landing and radio marker hcacon groups, service at the time
of writing has been largely in the lower frequency ranges. The radio-
telephone weather broadcast stations and the radio range beacons operate
in the 200- to 400-kc band. Airport traffic- control transmitters operate
at 278 kc. The air transport company communication systems use
frequencies from 2,900 to 6,600 kc. However, it is now planned to move
the different facilities into the u-h-f region, as shown in the table. By
1945 use of the lower frequencies will probably be limited only to such
service as cannot be afforded at ultra -high frequencies. The reasons
dictating the move are as follows:
Atmospheric disturbances arising from electrical storms have con-
stituted a service limitation to reception in the 200- to 400-kc band and
to somewhat lesser degree in the 2,900- to 6,600 -kc hand. Another form
of disturbance, called precipitation static and of importance only in aircraft
reception, constitutes a second, and often even more serious, limitation to
reception at these frequencies. This form of disturbance has been found
to accompany rain, snow, and even sand storms and appears to be caused
by oscillating corona discharge from points on the airplane fuselage to the
surrounding atmosphere. Its intensity is often sufficient to paralyze the
ground-to-airplane services. Accumulated experience indicates that
reception on ultra-high frequencies is practically free from atmospheric
disturbances and is to an appreciable extent, less influenced by precipita-
tion static.
A second advantage of u -h -f propagation is the freedom from depend-
ence upon ionospheric conditions. In the present communication band
such dependence results in severely fluctuating received signal intensities
and renders these frequencies generally unsuitable for direction deter-
mination by either transmission or reception. Even in the beacon band,
ionosphere propagation (at night) tends to prove troublesome. It is to
be noted, however, that u -h-f propagation is not entirely free from
variable effects owing to variable tropospheric bending.
A third advantage of the ultra highs is the greater directivity of trans -
mission or reception possible. This is important, e.g., in the radio range-

beacon service. At low frequencies the only directive patterns available
are the figure of eight and the cardiod. In forming a course with such
patterns, considerable radiation exists in directions at large angles to the
course. The return of such radiation to the course, e.g., by reradiation
or by reflection from mountain sides, produces an interference pattern
which results in bent and multiple courses. The possibility of using
more directive patterns at ultra-high frequencies offers means for reducing
the side radiations and hence the troublesome effects described.
Finally, the rapidly expanding aviation radio facilities require an
increasing number of r-f channels which are not available in the portion
of the spectrum hitherto utilized.
5. Propagation Characteristics of Aviation Radio Frequencies. Be-
cause of the widely different radio frequencies used in aviation, a complete
discussion of their propagation characteristics would require a volume.
A few words on their more general characteristics will, however, be given
here.
The -f services, 200 to 400 kc, rely upon ground-wave propagation. Sky-
1
wave propagation, at night, sets a limit to the distance separation between

stations operating on the same or adjacent frequencies. Graph 2 of Fig. 1
shows the ground wave corresponding to a ground conductivity typical of the
plains regions, while graph 3 shows the same data corresponding to a ground
conductivity characteristic of the mountainous regions. Graph 4 shows the
estimated sky-wave intensity. The various intensities are computed along
the direction of maximum radiation (45 deg. off course). Figure 2 differs
from Fig. 1 only in the frequency of operation (371 instead of 200 kc). Based
on a minimum service field intensity of 50 µv per meter and a maximum
tolerable interfering field intensity of 12.5 µv per meter, two stations of this
type operating on the same r.f. may be spaced within 400 to 500 miles of each
other at 200 kc. At 400 kc, the minimum allowable spacing increases to
600 to 800 miles. The allowable spacing corresponding to operation on
adjacent frequencies (3 -kc separation) depends on the selectivity of the
average receiver used and varies from 200 to 400 miles depending on the
ground conductivity and the operating frequency.
Radio wave propagation in- the h -f communication band depends chiefly
on sky-wave radiation returned to earth from the ionized layers. The ground
wave is generally of negligible importance beyond distances of about 30 miles.
The transmission characteristics are therefore dependent upon highly variable
phenomena and cannot be definitely specified. An approximate idea of the
See. 171 AIRCRAFT RADIO 593
daytime propagation at these frequencies is given in Figs. 3 to 5, based on data

obtained by Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1929.
From these graphs it is seen that the higher frequency appears to be best
suited to daytime operation. This has been borne out in practical operation.
so that the daytime working frequencies throughout the country are of this
order.
Similar graphs for transmission during night, showing field strength as a
function of distance, are given in Fig. 6. It is even more difficult to generalize
from these graphs than for the case of daytime transmission, the movement of
the ionized layer involved being more erratic. The graphs do show, however,
that the lower frequencies are more reliable for nighttime transmission, the
transmission on 5,690 kc being unsatisfactory due to excessive fading.
1000
800 e (atone mi/eJ = 9.475x /0 3fe v/m from hkw
600 transmitter supplying % kw. _
fo towers at 100kc. -
400
300 Curve I. fnversedlstanee _
2. 0-=10-i3
200 J. 072x/0
150 4. lonarpherk ray -
15 100
I80
E 60
,á 40
30
20
15
`-' 10
8
6
4
3
2
1.5
o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Miles
Fia. 1.-Field -intensity attenuation of 500 -watt radio range -beacon station
at 200 kc, 125-ft. towers.
Experience has shown that the choice of day and night communication
frequencies, shown in Table I, was a wise one considering the non- avail-
ability of ultra-high frequencies at that time.
The u -h -f services depend upon ground -wave propagation. The
ground wave may be considered to consist of three components as follows:
(1) the direct wave which travels directly between the transmitting and
receiving antennas, (2) the ground -reflected wave which reaches the
receiving antenna only after reflection from the ground surface, (3) the
surface wave which is the component of the ground wave remaining
when both the transmitting and receiving antennas are at zero height -at
grazing incidence, the reflection coefficient of the ground is -1 so that the
direct and ground-reflected waves cancel.
100
80 e(a/Onem%leJ=J0.15X/0 ?av/mtrom hkw
60 ism transmitter supplying %4kw.
1t¡; /0 towers at 37/ kc.
40
3
I1
MBE Curve 1.-
2.
/nverve di3/ance
a =/O-J
__,
3. a=2x/0-14
20
MEMO= 4. /onospheriC ray
150
LM -
----
RO
..<, as_
+e-'
É 60
180
_ssa,
Q.
iINGI11
IleWilli
30
ó 20 -----
ó
s,a,es,s,.
15
u
18
=.cr=C=.=,==::
6
"II
4
3
2
1.5
600 700
Mi es
FIG. 2.- Field -intensity attenuation of 500-watt radio range-beacon station at
371 ke, 125 -ft. towers.
111.v7 =
5, I 1MMOMMINIMM
=====
Ligerald }
É
1000
500
1,000 ó
E =MU \.
mi\ol\m<fssmo<f<fo
Mt\5:111111111111111M E 100
111a.11111 50
iO4s:.
100
"I' 20
50
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 901000020 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance miles Dstance,miles
Fla. 3.- Average strength of Fta. 4.- Reception from
daytime signals received in an airplane using 50 -watt
airplane from 500 -watt station transmitter on 1,625 kc.
on 1,510 kc. (Airplane at alti- (Airplane at altitudes des-
tudes designated on graphs.) ignated on graphs.)
n't 8.
M i71i
180
.
I`
.
IRO
TD4O)BK.
.,0 ronsmiflyngPoner
2
500 Walls
E 188
k 60
120
00 i!EN
I
E
-4
40
20 , \ J0 ° 60
c`,,il,'\
Daum111
tr 40
18
6 20
4 o
20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Distinte fromTransm4ting Statan,miles Distance from Transmi fing Station miles
Fu.. 5.- -Effect of frequency Fto. ti.- -Night transmission phenomena.
on attenuation of 500 -watt
ground station.
lo ü
40 0
-: I=Frequency.SOmegacyc%s Power:lki/ocs+att
Antenna: horizonla/ half wave dipole
200
0-.:L.
Ground conshrnts l S _
10
40
D
tW (Computed forthe receiving and
/ransmittingonlennaheighk(eepe.cud
hfeellforwhKhlhecunrswe
p¡=;,;,;p¡-
2
_.B111labeKlandaneffedtie
r1hs radius cgcn/lo
\ENIt1.Ogmia.4/
I
11111\
...
i . wl.
\ \\111
.,.
S
.BEIM
O...g - ... -
.iia... IZ%
.
zi
\=1111\\
....., ...
4
o
12o, \
`
11III:.°Ih`'o
I_=___=::::_
.n.
o 1
III1J
_,.....---
a
al
12 \ÌIIIII
__
\:'o 1111a
'\Ih11 I\
o.
hih oTigramaulili
)1
''.=
.ó 1\1\111111
01111
a0
0.0
0.00
0.00
0.00
I2
11
14
_==-=o,.::::__
1111111\1
a....,-It
1 11
111 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 100 20
Miles
Flo. 7. Field -in eusity att -nu.ttion of 1 -kw 50-Mc trans! sitting station
(horizontal trunswi ling and receiving antennas at altitudes designated on
graphs).
In Fig. 7 horizontal polarization is considered, and average electrical

properties of the ground are taken. The graphs take into consideration
the spherical shape of the earth and the average decrease in dielectric
constant of the lower atmosphere with altitude (producing bending).
The graphs show the striking dependence of the received field intensity
upon the heights of the transmitting and receiving antennas. It is this
feature which renders ultra -high frequencies peculiarly adaptable to avia-
tion use.
GROUND-STATION EQUIPMENT
6. CAA Radio Range -beacon and Weather -broadcast Stations (200
to 400 kc). The most modern CAA installation, used at nearly 100
locations, employs a transmitter having two independent r-f channels
controlled by two matched A -cut quartz plates 1,020 cps apart. Com-
plete stand-by equipment with an automatic transfer relay for placing
Carrier frequency fc
and voice modulation
D
A
ooN
(a) (b)
Fia. 8. -(a) Space radiation pattern of simultaneous radio range -beacon and
weather -broadcast station; (b) range -beacon signals produced.
it in service in event of failure of the regular unit is provided. The
antenna system comprises five self-supporting base -insulated steel towers,
125 ft. high, four of which are placed on the corners of a square 300 to
500 ft. on a side and the fifth at the geometrical center of the square.
One of the r-f channels of the transmitter delivers 400 watts of carrier
power (which may be modulated 70 per cent by speech) to the central
antenna. The other delivers 275 watts of unmodulated carrier power to
a coupling system which feeds the four corner antennas. In the absence
of speech modulation, the setup forms a single side -hand system having
1,020 -cycle modulation; the carrier is radiated non -directionally by the
central radiator, whereas the side band has the characteristic radiation
of the radio range beacon (see Fig. 8a). When special modulation is
applied, the central tower radiates, in addition, the speech side bands,
which are also non -directional.
The system affords means for the simultaneous radiation of weather
broadcasts and directional guidance signals. To avoid interference
between the 1,020 -cycle beacon signals and the speech frequencies, a
hand rejection filter is inserted in the input circuit to the speech modula-
tion for eliminating the speech frequencies in the neighborhood of 1,02t
Sec. 17) AIRCRAFT RADIO 597
cycles. A combination band -pass band -rejection filter is used in the

output circuit of the aircraft receiver so that one circuit carries only the
range-beacon (1,020 -cycle) signals and the other circuit carries the speech
signals. By means of a switch the pilot may select one or the other
signal, or he may obtain reasonably satisfactory reception of both.
The four corner towers replace the two-loop antenna systems, crossed
at right angles, which are used at older -type radio range- beacon stations.
They constitute two directional antenna systems, each formed by two
opposite towers on diagonal corners of the square. These are fed in
opposite phase so that they correspond to the vertical conductors of the
older loop antennas and give the same figure -of-eight radiation charac-
teristics in the horizontal plane (see Fig. 8b). In this way radiation is
confined to the vertical antennas, and the transmission of horizontally
polarized electric-field components in the sky wave, such as from the
horizontal wires of the loop antennas, are avoided. With the loop
antennas these transverse horizontal components upon reflection from
the ionized layers produce serious and erratic errors in the indicated
beacon courses, often called night errors because they occur only at night
in the frequency range used.
The principles of operation of the radio range beacon whereby radio-marked
courses are set up are evident from Fig. 8b. The intensities of the side -band
emissions formed by the two directional antenna systems, and hence of the
detected signals produced by beating the side-band emissions with the non -
directional carrier, are equal along the lines OA, OB, OC, and OD which bisect
the angles between the two antennas. An airplane may therefore follow a
course along the bisectors referred to if means are provided for distinguishing the
'radiations from the two directional antennas. For this purpose an automatic
keying relay, connected in the coupling circuit from the side -band channel of
the transmitter to the directional antenna system, is used for keying the radio
power to one of the directional antennas in accordance with the Morse
characteristic N(-.) and to the second directional antenna in accordance
with the Morse characteristic A(. -). The coded signals are sent out in
groups and are interlocked so that along any one of the four courses they form
a long dash, or continuous monotone signal, interrupted every 24 sec. by the
station identification signal. The course signals are obtained along zones,
2 to 3 deg. wide. Off the course the monotone signals break up into the com-
ponent N and A signals, one or the other being of greater intensity depending
upon the side "off course." The pilot is thus enabled to return to the course
if the airplane should drift to one side or the other for any reason.
The coupling system between the transmitter and the directional antennas
incorporates the link- circuit relay, a goniometer, a course -shifting pad,
artificial line sections, concentric transmission lines to the tower antennas, and
antenna coupling and tuning equipment (see Fig. 9). The relay, of the polar
type, is energized by an automatic motor -driven keying device (not shown)
so as to key the r -f power to the primary windings Pi and P2 of the goniometer
in accordance with the N-A sequence indicated in the foregoing.
7. Goniometer. The goniometer is used for convenience in orienting
the beacon space pattern and consists of two primary and two secondary
tuned windings. The primary windings are crossed at 90 deg., as are
also the secondary windings, the two sets of windings being made concen-
tric. One set of windings is fixed and the other set rotatable about the
common axis. The angle between the primary and secondary windings
may therefore be varied at will. Each primary winding, acting in con-
junction with the two crossed secondary windings and the two crossed
directional antennas, sets up a system which is electrically equivalent to
a single directional antenna. The plane of this phantom antenna is

dependent upon the relative coupling of the secondary coils to the primary
coil under consideration. Since there are two primary windings, two such
phantom antennas exist, the angle between their planes being equal to
the angle between the primary windings. The two phantom antennas
may therefore be rotated in space (thus changing the position of the
equisignal zones or courses formed by their space patterns) by changing
the relative position between the primary and secondary windings.
Without the use of the goniometer it would he necessary mechanically to
rotate the directional antenna system to secure the same result. In
practice, the rotation of the beacon space pattern is convenient in the
first adjustment of the beacon, the goniometer being locked in position
after this adjustment. Actually, other conditions (to be discussed)
Antenna luring units - - -.-
,Transmission /ines.
Course - - - --
shiffing
pads Goniometer
Link circuit
re /ay J
2
Artificial lines'
Fio. 9.-Schematic diagram of radio range -beacon antenna -coupling system.
dictate that the antenna orientation be chosen so that the goniometer
may be left, preferably, at its 45 -deg. setting.
8. Course Orientation to Coincide with Airways at Arbitrary Angles.
the course-shifting pad and the artificial ,r line sections A, A2, A3, and
A4 are used for shifting the range-beacon courses from their 90 -deg. rela-
tionship in order that they may be aligned with the airways. The
course-shifting pad reduces the r-f power fed to goniometer primary
winding P, thereby reducing the relative amplitude of the corresponding
figure -of-eight radiation pattern. The resultant effect on the course
orientation is shown in Fig. 10a. The artificial line sections allow
modification of the 180-deg. phase relationship between the currents in
the two towers forming each directional antenna (1 and 3 or 2 and 4)
so that the space pattern corresponding to the N or A radiation may be
made to depart from a figure of eight. This provides for a non -reciprocal
relationship of the normally 180-deg. courses, as shown in Fig. 10b.
9. Course Stabilization. Special precautions are taken to ensure
maintenance of the space patterns so that shifting of the courses will not
exceed 1.5 deg., owing to the changes in phase or magnitude of the current
in one or more of the towers which may be produced by changes in tower
capacity under varying weather conditions, etc.
It can be shown that the two towers of each directional antenna may be
made to maintain nearly exact equality of current amplitude and 180 -deg.
phase if the condensers in series with the primary windings of the antenna
coupling transformers are adjusted so that
X1 = Zo tan O
where X1 = primary reactance (with the secondary antenna circuit open)
Zo = characteristic impedance of the transmission line
B = electrical length of the line to each antenna (including the artifi-
cial line section).
This is equivalent to tuning the transmission line to resonance. The
stabilization is affected somewhat if other than a 180 -deg. phase relationship
Course
Course Course
Course Course
Course Course
(a) (b)
Fla. 10.- Alignment of range -beacon courses with the airways: (a) course
squeezing; (b) course bending.
between the two towers is desired. Attenuation in the transmission lines
and resistance in the primary transformer windings also affect the degree of
stabilization.
With the goniometer set at zero degree (Sc coupled only to Pi and Ss to
P2, in Fig. 9) this stabilizing arrangement would still allow the relative
magnitude of one radiation pattern corresponding to one pair of towers to
vary with respect to the second pattern corresponding to the second pair of
towers. This is because of the possibility of an effective change in the load
impedance offered to the transmitter and is overcome by setting the goniom-
eter at 45 deg. so that both secondary windings of the goniometer are coupled
equally to each primary winding.
10. Ultra- high -frequency Two -course Beacon with Visual Indication
and Sector Identification. The space patterns of a radio range beacon
which is undergoing service tests on the airways for u-h -f operation is
shown in Fig. 11. This arrangement incorporates several features which
present -day knowledge and advanced flying technique have indicated as
being desirable.
Only two useful courses are provided (by the intersection of the full-
line patterns), as compared to four courses in the case of the present l -f
range beacons. This simplification materially reduces the orientation
problems which the pilot is frequently called upon to solve under special
conditions. For example, when near the station during strong winds,
with the four-course beacon, the pilot may drift into an N or A quadrant
and experience difficulty in determining which N or A quadrant he is
600 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [sea 17
in and in which direction to fly to get on the desired one of the four
courses. The orientation problems with the two-course beacon are
further simplified by the sector identification signals produced by the two
dash -line patterns shown in Fig. 11. Thus, if the main courses are
oriented east and west, the criterion for determining whether the east or
west leg of the beacon is being followed consists in ascertaining whether
the PTE or PT1V identification signal is the stronger. (Here PT is the
station identification signal and E or W the sector identification signal.)
The main patterns forming the two-beacon courses are distinguished
from each other by modulating signals, 90 and 150 cps, instead of by the
N and A coded signals in the present 1 -f range beacons. This allows the
use of a visual course indicator in the output of the beacon receiver on
the airplane and, since the two antenna systems are excited simultane-
ously, renders a-v -c reception feasible. The course indicator consists of
an electrical filter and balanced-rectifier circuit for separating the two
modulating frequencies, rectifying them, and applying the resultant
rectified signals in phase opposition through a zero-center pointer -type
microammeter. When the airplane is oncourse, the two rectified signals
Fia. 11.- Visual two -course range beacon with aural sector identification.
are equal and the pointer remains at zero, the "oncourse" position.
When the airplane deviates, say, to the 150 -cycle side of the course, the
corresponding rectified signal becomes greater and the pointer deflects
to the sector of the instrument marked 150 cycles. The pilot is thus
afforded a continuous visual indication of the position of the airplane
with respect to the desired course.
At predetermined intervals, approximately 30 sec., the identification
signals are transmitted on a modulating frequency of 1,020 cps, which, by
means of suitable filters in the aircraft receiver output, are directed to
the pilot's headphones. Besides furnishing sector identification, these
signals serve an additional purpose, in that they indicate to the pilot that
the range beacon is operating. Such information is essential when using
a zero-center -type course indicator, since an oncourse indication may be
obtained when the received signal intensity is zero.
The patterns shown in Fig. 11 are produced by five -element antenna
arrays; the directivity thereby obtained being helpful in reducing bent
and multiple courses (because of the reduced side radiation). Experi-
ments have indicated that the use of horizontally polarized waves rather
than vertically polarized waves also serves to reduce such effects, probably
because reradiation occurs moré frequently from vertical obstacles.
Hence present plans call for use in the range -beacon antenna arrays of an
antenna element which sets up only horizontally polarized waves. Such
an element is shown in Fig. 12 and is equivalent to a horizontal loop

antenna.
The use of u.h.f. does not reduce the number of frequency channels
required for a national network of range beacons, as might at first appear
in comparison with the l -f network. The reason for this is that the
ultra-modern air liner flying in the substratosphere may use every second,
third, or even fourth range beacon and thus will be interfered with by
intermediate stations unless they operate on
different frequencies.
11. Low -frequency Marker Beacons.
These stations, located at intervals along the
airways, have served two different purposes.
One is to mark the meeting points of adjacent
radio range -beacon courses or to denote a
particular locality along the airway, such as an
intermediate landing field or an abrupt change
in the elevation of the topography. For the
former, transmitters capable of transmitting t
alternately on the two frequencies of the adja-
cent radio range beacons are employed, while Fla. 12 -Ultra-high-
for the latter only single -frequency transmitters frequency loop -antenna
element
are used. Each marker beacon station has a tenna arrays for use in an-
characteristic identifying signal. Its range is horizontally producing
polarized
limited to 5 to 10 miles so that it may effectively waves.
localize the point desired.
The second purpose filled by marker beacons is one of directional
guidance as well as marking of locality. Radio marker beacons of this
type are miniature radio range beacons. These are located either at
points along the airways so as to fill in gaps between the more powerful
I radio range beacons or at intermediate landing fields to enable pilots to
locate the landing areas during adverse weather conditions. In these
applications they are hardly to he distinguished from radio range beacons
or runway localizing beacons, respectively, and their number varies as
the facilities along the airways are modernized.
12. Ultra -high- frequency Cone Markers. There exists approximately
directly over the -f type radio range beacon a small zone of zero signal
1
called the cone of silence. This zone arises from a combination of the
directive properties of the beacon -transmitting antenna system and the
receiving antenna on the airplane and has been used extensively by pilots
for obtaining a definite "fix" over the station. Because of the essentially
negative nature of the indication and because of the possibility of obtain-
ing false indications caused by momentary equipment failures, radio
transmission vagaries, etc., a cone -type marker beacon is now used at
range- beacon stations to provide positive identification of the station
location.
The cone marker consists of a 5 -watt 75-Mc crystal- controlled trans-
mitter, modulated 100 per cent at 3,000 cps and feeding a directive
antenna array which produces a conical lobe of energy radiated upward.
Its radiation pattern in the vertical plane is shown in Fig. 13. The
horizontal -plane radiation pattern is non-directional, i.e., circular.
The antenna system for obtaining the desired patterns is shown in
Fig. 14a. It is installed one- fourth wave length above a coarse (3- by
3-in.) mesh screen which in turn is erected approximately one -half wave
length above ground. The screen counterpoise provides an effective

level reflector for the antenna, yet allows snow to fall through and vegeta-
tion to grow beneath.
I The antenna and counterpoise are
Limits of located at sufficient distance from
cpe/rrlion of q°°
the central beacon tower to avoid
ht
rker/i
,
,
©,
ibi%ily
ó
8000
1000 1
6000
E 5000
pattern distortion, r -f power being
fed from the transmitter (located in
the station house) by means of a
parallel-conductor transmission line.
The latter consists of two 32 -in.
seamless copper pipes spaced 1 in.
apart and supported centrally in a
4000
Ì
/
3- by 3-in. copper shield. A short
matching stub, connected at an ap-
3000
propriate point at the antenna end
a i of the transmission line (not shown)
7000 eliminates standing waves along the
i line.
1000 ii The vertical radiation pattern is
obtained by the quarter-wave separa-
7000 4000
tion between the antenna and its
4000 2000 Station counterpoise, coupled with the direc-
Feet Feet properties of a half-wave hori-
13.- Vertical -plane radiation tive
zontal receiving antenna running fore
pattern of cone -type marker. and aft along the belly of the air-
plane. The non -directional horizontal radiation pattern: is obtained
by feeding the east -west half-wave radiating elements of the an-
West
South North
3
Down leads-
East
Transmission
line 'Shorting bar
(a)
f
2Antenna -- - Down/eads --'f - i'/ Antenna --,{
East 2 -Y- North
Shorting bar ¡
e- Transmission line
(b)
Fie. 14.- Details of antenna system for cone -type marker: (a) method of
feeding; (b) detail of 10-deg. phasing.
tenna system 90 deg. out of phase with the north -south radiatin;;
elements (see Fig. 14a). This is accomplished by making the dimen-
sion X of the transmission lines connecting antennas north and
east together and south and west together exactly one -fourth wave length
and adjusting dimension Y so that the currents in the north and east
antennas are in phase quadrature and likewise the currents in the south
and west antennas. Figure 146, which shows the north and east antennas
in a straight line with their respective down -leads, will clarify the prin-
ciples involved.
The transmitter is constructed in duplicate and includes, in addition,
a monitor unit. The latter functions to disconnect the regular channel in
event of its failure to deliver a predetermined power output and starts
up the stand -by channel, connecting it to the transmission line in place
of the regular channel.
'
13. Ultra -high- frequency Fan Marker. The procedure for aviation
traffic control, evolved as the result of many years' experience, calls for
'
the division of authority over traffic along the airways and in the vicinity
WTMirAlo.-
/70 //0 ¡VO 90 80 70 60
4-Elements
ents/30 0
14 zi
viti .
II076 40
/40
`/
0/50
`
16
180
**
11.--` , `.
z
d
Fia. 15.- Vertical -plane radiation patterns of fan -t
2o
ono-AZIIIMMII /o
O
marker: (a) in
plane transverse to range- beacon course; (b) in plane pa-allel to range- beacon
course.
of and at airports. The pilot follows a flight plan approved by the air-
ways traffic control officer until he reaches a control point marking the
beginning of the airport control zone. Up to this point, the airways
control officer has kept track of the pilot's position throughout the flight
(via the periodic contacts between the airplane and the ground stations of
the air transport companies, CAA facilities, etc.) and may alter the flight
plan to conform with traffic requirements or meteorological conditions.
During good visibility conditions, the pilot reaching this control point
communicates with the airport control officer for landing instructions and
automatically passes out of the control jurisdiction of the airways control
officer.
During adverse visibility conditions, the latter retains control authority
until the airplane comes into visual contact with the airport control
tower. Depending on traffic conditions, he may order the pilot to circle
at a specified altitude above the control point until other airplanes effect
their landings.
In either case there is seen to be a need for a radio aid which may
define the control points, generally about 25 miles from the airport
on each of the airways. The fan -type marker beacon serves this
purpose.
The fan marker consists of a 100 -watt 75-Mc crystal- controlled trans-
mitter feeding a directive antenna array. The setup produces a sheet of
energy radiated upward and transverse to the range-beacon course. The
transmitter is in duplicate, as in the case of the cone marker, with provi-
sion for putting the stand-by unit in operation in event of a predetermined
change in performance of the regular unit. A modulation frequency of
3,000 cps is used with distinctive keying to serve for identification.
Useful radiation extends up to about 20,000 ft. At 7,000 ft. the radia-
tion is about 18 miles wide and 4 miles thick. Although it appears that
sufficient precision of position indication is afforded by considering the
entering point of the radiated field, some consideration has been given to
increasing the definition by setting up crossed patterns.
The antenna system used for obtaining the pattern shown in Fig. 15
consists of four horizontal half-wave antennas located in line along the
range-beacon course and fed in phase by a transmission line from the
transmitter house. The antennas are placed one -fourth wave length
above a coarse -mesh screen counterpoise which, in turn, is approximately
one -half wave length above ground. The details of the transmission
line and of the counterpoise are substantially the same as for the cone -
type marker.
14. Ground -station Equipment for Two -way Communication Systems.
To date, two-way communication between ground and airplane as carried
out by the domestic air transport companies has been chiefly in the h -f
band, 2,900 to 6,600 kc. (Experimental use of u.h.f. is in progress.)
Communication is by voice because of the greater speed of operation; the
use of radiotelegraphy is largely confined to companies operating outside
the United States. The radio equipment used at the fixed terminal
of a typical two -way radiotelephone system has reached a remarkable
degree of refinement to meet the particularly exacting requirements
encountered in this service.
The transmitter must be capable of operation on any one of a group of
frequencies, with facilities for rapid change -over to any other frequency
in the group. This is necessary since each transport route has a day and
night frequency for communication with aircraft and also separate
frequencies for point- to-point communication. Moreover, when the
ground station is located at the junction of several routes operated by the
same company, provision must be made for communication on either
the day or the night frequency corresponding to each route. Each
frequency channel is crystal controlled, the frequency being held constant
to within 0.025 per cent. Approximately 400 watts of r-f power on each
frequency is required in the antenna to effect reliable communication
over the desired distance range; some ground- station transmitters use
up to 3 kw.
The receiving equipment must be highly selective because of the many
channels that must be accommodated within the comparatively narrow
band of frequencies allocated to this service, stations at the same airport
operated by different transport lines being frequently less than 1 per cent
apart. Extremely high sensitivity coupled with excellent a.v.c. is
required to provide substantially constant output under the varying
transmission characteristics which usually obtain in this frequency
range and because of the varying distance between the aircraft and
ground. Provisions for remote operation must be made since, in order to
secure freedom from man -made interference, the receiving equipment is
frequently located as much as 30 miles distant from the operating staff.
16. Ground-station Transmitter. Typical of the advanced
transmitting equipment required for this service is the Western type of
Electric
Type 14 transmitter. This transmitter provides crystal -controlled tele-
phone, continuous wave, or tone telegraph transmission on any one of
frequency channels within the range of 2 to 18.1 Mc. It employs 10a
crystal oscillator; two intermediate buffer-amplifier stages which function
either as amplifiers or doublers depending upon the frequency used;
a modulating amplifier preceded by two audio stages; and a power ampli-
fier. Each frequency has its own quartz plate and a set of interstage and
output coils. The set is so arranged that any one of the frequencies
desired may be selected, by single-digit operation of a telephone dial,
within about 1 sec. The transmitter can be operated with push -button,
telegraph -key, or voice-operated carrier control. The carrier is sup-
pressed automatically during unwanted periods. Provision is made for
remote frequency selection and starting and stopping of the carrier. A
set of three simple vertical antennas approximately 15, 30, and 60 ft.
high may be used to cover the entire range, or any combination of
directional and non-directional antennas. The transmitter is a-c oper-
ated, requiring approximately a 4-kva 220 -volt three-phase supply. In
a setup of this type of equipment by the Eastern Air Lines, Inc., on the
New York to Atlanta route, these transmitters provide telephone ground -
to-airplane communication, telephone point to point, continuous-wave
telegraph point to point, and RCA facsimile point to point for the
transmission of long weather sequences and long routine company busi-
ness. On the telephone point to point, provisions are made for the use
of Western Electric speech inverters so that the conversations may be of a
private nature.
One problem in the design of ground-station transmitters lies in the
suppression of overmodulation products which produce adjacent -channel
interference. An automatic constant -level speech input amplifier which
operates to prevent momentary high a -f peaks from reaching the trans-
mitter has been developed for this purpose. Its use in conjunction with
crystal -resonator preselectors in the receiver input allows successful
reception only 1,000 ft. from a 400 -watt transmitter when tuned to a
carrier only 20 kc off the transmitter frequency.
16. Remote -control Receiver. Use of remotely located receiving
installations controlled from the radio offices at the airport has become
widespread except for emergency operation. The receiver is generally
a multifrequency superheterodyne with quart z-plate control of
heterodyne oscillator. Control of the remote receiver is accomplished the by
dial impulse- generating equipment and a telephone wire line. Relay
circuits at the receiver, which respond to the transmitted impulses,
provide for frequency change, volume -control settings, etc. The receiver
output is fed back over the line and is generally amplified at the operator's
end for loud-speaker service.
One type of remote -controlled receiver incorporates a Codan
operated device, antinoise" which keeps the receiver silent while in "carrier -
position and feeds the loud -speaker only when a modulated carrierstand
-by
is being
received on its preselected frequency. This device operates reliably under
high noise conditions and does not require adjustments to compensate for
variations in the noise level. This receiver is arranged fortelephonemounting in

weatherproof cabinets which may be fastened to the same pole
which supporta the receiving antenna and is provided with an emergency -
battery power-supply system which is automatically connected to the receiver
in the event of failure of the normal a-c power supply. The set has a sensi-
tivity of 1 µv to give 50-mw output. The a.v.c. will ofhold the output level
constant within 4 db for a variation in input voltage 100 db. Cutoff of
audio frequencies below 200 and above 3,000 cps is provided to reduce noise.
Its selectivity is such that an interfering modulated carrier 10 kc away (30
per cent modulation at 400 cps) must be 20 db above the desired carrier level
to produce an interfering voltage 20 db below the desired signal voltage.
17. Radio Facilities at a Modern Airport. A brief tabulation of all
the various radio aids and facilities available at a modern airport will
serve to emphasize the important part radio has in aviation. The
facilities at La Guardia Field, New York City, are taken for example.
1. CAA Radio Room. Teletype facilities for collecting weather informa-
tion. Remote control equipment for operating radio-range beacon and
telephone transmitters and for making weather broadcasts. Receivers for
maintaining watch on national calling frequencies.
2. Air Transport Company Communications Systems. Transmitters and
remote-controlled receivers operated by each of five air-line companies for
two-way communication with aircraft and for point-to-point communication.
Direct communication facilities with CAA radio room and with airways and
airport control offices. Private teletype system.
3. Marker Beacons. Cone -type marker beacon at radio range-beacon
station. Fan-type marker beacons at control points on each of the four
incoming airways.
4. Radio Landing Aids. Four -way instrument landing facilities providing
for landing in either direction along the airport's two longest runways. Each
direction utilizes an u-h-f runway localizing beacon, a landing beam, and
two fan -type low- approach marker beacons. (A complete description of
radio landing aids is given in Art. 30.)
5. Airways Control Office. Teletype facilities for collecting information on
room, air
airways traffic conditions. Direct communication with CAA radio collecting
transport company dispatchers, and airport control towertraffic for
information on airway's traffic conditions and for directing (through
CAA, company's and airport radio-facilities).
6. Airport Control Tower. Remote-controlled airport radiotelephone
transmitter (with complete emergency stand-by unit) for directing airport
traffic. Remote and direct -controlled receivers for standing watch on
national calling frequencies, air transport companies' two-way communica-
tion frequencies, U. S. Army frequencies, and others. At the time of writing,
15 remote -controlled receivers are used, 13 for maintaining a watch on the
following frequencies and 2 in reserve. Three multifrequency direct -con-
trolled receivers provide stand -by emergency facilities.
Frequency, Kilocycles Service
3,105 Itinerant aircraft
4,495 U. S. Army
3,232.5
5,612.5 American Airlines
5,612.5
5,632.5
5,652.5
4,422.5 Eastern Air Lines
2,870 Pan American Airways
3,088 l Transcontinental & Western Air
4,937.5)
5,572.51 United Air Linea
3,182.5
Sec. 17J AIRCRAFT RADIO 607
AIRPLANE RADIO INSTALLATION

18. Special Requirements and Installation Practice. Because of the
special nature of the installation of radio equipment aboard aircraft,
special mechanical, electrical, and aerodynamic requirements are imposed.
Reliability and simplicity of operation are essential. The equipment
must be constructed to withstand continued vibration and landing shock
without change in performance and must operate under all conditions of
weather encountered in flight. Space and weight must be kept down to a
minimum. The equipment must be capable of quick removal from the
airplane for servicing or replacement. Simple but complete remote
control of the equipment, including frequency change-over, etc., is
essential. An adequate, efficient power supply is required. The
antennas must be of sound aerodynamic design. Special precautions are
needed in eliminating various electrical disturbances arising on the
airplane.
19. Airplane Antennas. An aircraft antenna must have a good effec-
tive height, must be of sound aerodynamic design, and must be con-
venient to use under varying air-transport operation conditions. The
trailing wire fulfills the first requirement but fails to meet the second and
third requirements. It is still used in modified form in some modern
installations for transmission, because of its efficiency and comparatively
greater freedom from ice formation. A typical fixed transmitting
antenna consists of a mast approximately 6-ft. high, mounted above the
fuselage and with flat-top wires extending toward the wing tips and the
vertical rudder post. In larger ships this form may be modified to
produce a front to rear, wing tip to wing tip, or V antenna. The mast
may constitute the lead-in, in which case it is insulated from the fuselage.
Lengths of antennas range from 30 to 75 ft. depending upon the antenna
form and the size of the airplane.
A whip antenna extending 4 to 6 ft. vertically above the fuselage has
an effective height of about 1 meter, sufficient for use with sensitive
receivers. Errors in course indication on the radio range beacon are
introduced unless the receiving antenna on the airplane is entirely non -
directional. This restriction limits the antenna configuration to either
the vertical-pole antennas or to a vertical antenna with flat -top loading,
the flat-top elements of which are so arranged that their horizontal effects
neutralize each other. The symmetrical, longitudinal, or transverse T
antennas with vertical lead-in are examples of the latter type. The V
antenna, mounted well forward below the fuselage with its apex leading
and the lead -in connected to this point, is another antenna of this type;
control of the angle of the V provides for a symmetrical antenna and
counterpoise system. Considerable use is made in practice of a single
wire inclined backward and upward toward the vertical rudder post.
With this arrangement the directional errors are utilized to compensate
for the tendency of a pilot to weave about the beacon course.
Antennas for transmitting and receiving at u.h.f. may consist of half-
wave dipoles, generally horizontal, with conventional transmission -line
coupling. The beacon receiving antenna may be of the form shown in
Fig. 12 mounted well above the fuselage and forward so that it will retain
its free -space characteristics.
20. Aircraft Power Equipment. Five determining factors enter into
t he choice of the power system to be adopted: (1) reliability, (2) weight,
(3) availability when the main power plant of the airplane is crippled, (4)
electrical performance, and (5) maintenance required during service.
Several distinct types of power- supply systems are available. The
receiving-set power requirements are satisfactorily provided by the com-
bination of the 12 -volt battery and dynamotor plate supply. The trans-
mitting-set plate -supply requirements, being considerably larger, have
led to the development of a number of different arrangements.
These include dynamotors driven from the aircraft storage battery, air-
plane- engine-driven generators, wind-driven generators (now practically
obsolete), and auxiliary gasoline -engine- driven generators. In compar-
ing these systems, consideration must be gi.'en to the ever -increasing
electrical load requirements on a modern transport airplane other than
radio power supply. These include lighting, motor starters, motors for
operating adjustable pitch propellers, retractable landing gear, flaps, fuel
and oil pumps, remote -controlled switches and solenoids, etc.
The most widely applied system utilizes a 14-volt d -c charging genera-
tor, driven from an airplane engine and provided with a voltage regulator
so as to maintain substantially constant generator voltage for all possible
airplane-engine speeds. The generator charges the 12 -volt airplane
storage battery, which in turn drives the necessary dynamotors for
obtaining receiver and transmitter plate power supply. Some of the
larger transport airplanes use a dual battery and generator system, each
battery being of nominal 65 amp.-hr. capacity and each generator having
a 50-amp. rating: In one arrangement, provision is made whereby the two
systems normally operate independently each carrying half the load;
when desired, the full load may he applied to either battery and both
generators may operate in parallel for charging it. In a second arrange-
ment, one system is kept as a stand -by so that a fully charged battery
will be available for emergency operation in event of failure of the airplane
engines. A 24-volt battery and charging-generator system has also
been adopted for large transport airplanes.
An alternate system suitable for airplanes having very high electrical
load requirements, employs an auxiliary gasoline engine driving an a -c
generator. The generator may be 115 volts, 800 cycles, single phase, or
it may be 115 volts, 400 cycles, three phase; the three-phase system is
somewhat more suitable when the electrical load is largely a motor load
as in military aircraft. The high generated frequencies permit the use
of very lightweight transformers and filter units in obtaining high d -c
voltages for radio plate power supply. A complete complement of radio
transmitting and receiving equipment for use with either dynamotors or
single-phase 800 -cycle supply has been designed by one radio manufac-
turer. In one a -c installation, on a DC-4 airplane, two 800-cycle auxiliary
engine- driven alternators were used, mounted in the nacelles of two of the
airplane's four engines. The rated capacity of each alternator was
7.5 kva.
21. Radio Shielding and Bonding in Aircraft. Intense electrical
disturbances are set up in the radio receiving circuits by the electrical
ignition system of the airplane engine, unless ignition shielding is pro-
vided. To obtain effective shielding, it becomes necessary to enclose the
entire electrical system of the engine ignition in a high- conductivity
metallic shield. This requires the provision of suitable metallic covers
for the magneto distributing heads, for the booster magneto, for the
ignition distributing wires running from the magnetos to the spark plugs,
for the spark plugs themselves, for the ignition switch, and for the switch
and booster magneto leads.
With the low -power ground stations in present use, it is necessary to uti-
lize field intensities not appreciably greater than the prevailing static level.
Hence very careful ignition shielding is essential. The use of u-h -f com-
munication imposes additional requirements on the shielding efficiency.
Electrical disturbances may also be set up by any of the numerous
electrical devices used in the modern airplane and by the periodic dis-
charge of static voltages accumulated on isolated metallic parts on the
airplane. The former is eliminated by direct shielding of the devices,
coupled with filtering of connecting leads. The latter is eliminated by
bonding all metallic cases, parts, and controls to the common ground
formed by the airplane fuselage.
22. Precipitation Static. Oscillating corona discharge from points on
the airplane to the surrounding atmosphere, occurring when the airplane
flies through electrically turbulent air masses, leads to what is known as
rain, snow, or precipitation static. Such static is often of sufficient
intensity at the lower frequencies to mar reception even at short distances.
The use of a shielded loop antegna (familiar in marine -radio direction
finding) for receiving reduces this type of static in a material degree,
probably because of the preponderance of electric field components in
the h -f radiation of the static near its source of origin.
A second and more effective expedient for reducing precipitation static
is to provide a discharge point well removed from the airplane antennas
and to control the discharge by means of a resistor so that oscillating
corona is minimized. This has been done by attaching a resistance cord
(approximately 0.5 megohm) and wire to the tail of the airplane. The
wire is 0.016 in. in diameter, the sharp point at its end forming a much more
effective discharge point than the projections on the airplane from which
corona discharge normally occurs.
23. Aircraft Radio Transmitters. Practically all transport airplanes
employ multifroquency, crystal-controlled transmitters, generally 50
watts or higher with 100 per cent modulation. Simplex operation is used
whereby transmission and reception is on the same frequency. The
communication receiver is normally in stand -by position. Depressing
the "press-to-talk" microphone button disconnects the receiver from the
communication antenna, connects the transmitter in its place, and starts
the transmitter dynamotor. Side tone is automatically provided.
The transmitter incorporates several pretuned crystal- oscillator and
power- amplifier circuits with remote control means for connecting each
set at will to a common set of r-f tubes and an associated modulator
system. The remote control may be by means of a flexible shaft operat-
ing a ganged switch or it may be by electrical telephone -dial selection.
Transmitters having up to 10 operating frequencies are in use. Plate
modulation is general with a speech-frequency range of 300 to 3,500
cycles, frequencies below 300 cycles being suppressed mainly to reduce
high audio interference levels set up by the propellers and engine exhausts.
Dynamotor voltages for plate power supply are generally 1,250 volts or less.
Transmitters for private aircraft are set up for one, two, or three fre-
quencies; 3,105, 3,120, and 6,210 kc; 3,105 and 6,210 kc; or 3,105 kc. For
the smaller airplanes the transmitter operates on 3,105 kc and, with a
companion range-beacon receiver, uses a dry -battery power supply sys-
tem. The equipment is generally located to allow direct control.
With the advent of u -h-f operation, some simplification in channel

requirements may be effected because of the elimination of change-over
from day to night frequencies and vice versa.
24. Aircraft Radio Receivers. With the present setup of radio fre-
quencies (see Table I), the full complement of receiving equipment on a
transport liner includes the following: a 1-f range -beacon receiver; a h -f
communication receiver; an auxiliary receiver, usually of the all-wave
type, for radio -direction finding and (primarily) for emergency use; and a
75-Mc marker- beacon receiver. These are gradually being supplemented
with u-h -f equipment for use of the u -h -f airways facilities, blind-landing
systems, etc. Itinerant aircraft generally carry only a range- beacon
receiver which provides for weather -broadcast and range- beacon recep-
tion, for messages from airport traffic -control transmitters, and emergency
messages from CAA 1 -f radiotelephone facilities.
All air-line receivers used at the present time are of the superheterodyne
type. The range-beacon receiver has a sensitivity of about 3µv and the
communication receiver of about 1µv for a signal /noise ratio of 2:1. The
marker -beacon and landing -beam receivers are of fixed -sensitivity types with
special provision for maintaining constant sensitivity under varying opera-
tional conditions. The u -h-f range-beacon and communication receivers
have a sensitivity of approximately 5 µv.
The l -f range -beacon receiver is of the continuously variable type, con-
trolled with a rotating flexible shaft which may be up to 30 ft. in length.
Manual remote volume control is also provided. The frequency control is
generally through a control crank, operated by the pilot, which is geared 4 to 1
to the flexible shaft; the latter has a ratio of 264:1 to the tuning condenser.
Gear backlash effect is thus minimized. Provision is made for quick shift-
over, generally by means of a relay and pretuned circuits, to 278 kc for use in
traffic control communication. The receiver is arranged for dual output (to
pilot and copilot) and, sometimes, for dual control.
The h-f communication receiver is of the multifrequency type with crystal
control of the heterodyne oscillator in each of the channels. Both mechanical
and electrical remote-control switching to preset frequencies are employed,
as in the case of the companion multifrequency communication transmitters.
In some cases the same control switches both the receiver and the transmitter
simultaneously. Automatic -volume-control reception is used. Dual control
and dual output for pilot and copilot are provided; the controls include provi-
sion for separate output level adjustment.
The auxiliary receiver is generally of the continuously variable tuning type
but may employ a crystal "lock -in feature" at specific company communica-
tion frequencies. Normally the copilot uses this receiver for obtaining posi-
tion checks when crossing other range -beacon courses or, in conjunction with
a loop antenna, for obtaining directional bearings on range-beacon or enter-
tainment broadcast frequencies. In emergencies this receiver may be
switched by a normally sealed control to an emergency dry -battery power
supply good for 4 hr. of continuous operation.
The marker -beacon receiver is a single- channel crystal -controlled super-
heterodyne type and is adjusted and controlled at 1.400 -µv sensitivity.
Three filters in the output are tuned, respectively, to 3,000, 1,300, and 400
cycles and feed separate, distinctively colored, lights on the airplane instru-
ment panel. The first frequency corresponds to the modulating frequency
used at cone and fan -type marker beacons; the other two correspond to the
outer and inner approach markers of radio landing aids installations.
COURSE NAVIGATION AND POSITION DETERMINATION
25. Guiding Systems. Radio systems for guiding aircraft comprise
two types: (1) aids for aircraft flying the established airways and (2) aida
for aircraft flying over independent routes. The first is the more impor-
tant in the United States. All commercial transport airplanes use fixed
airways. The government aids to air navigation are being provided with
the primary view of serving aircraft flying these airways.
An ideal system suitable for use by aircraft flying either fixed airways
or independent routes, on land or on sea, is such that
1. The system shall give the pilot information to enable him to continue
along a given route between any two points in a given service area when no
landmarks or sky are visible. If he leaves the course, it should tell him how
far off he is and to which side, should show him the way back to the course,
and should inform him when he arrives at his destination.
2. The necessary directional service shall be available at all times and
under all conditions, to all airplanes equipped to receive the service and flying
within the area service.
3. The service shall be easily, positively, and quickly available to the pilot,
with a minimum of effort on his part.
4. The radio equipment required on the airplane shall be simple, rugged,
of light weight, and relatively inexpensive.
5. The ground equipment shall be as simple as possible. The radio fre-
quencies, power, type of emission, and location of ground transmitting stations
shall be such as to serve the needs with maximum efficiency and conserva-
tion of the limited ratio channels available.
26. Direction Finder on Airplane. One system employs a fixed-coil
antenna, the plane of which is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
Fia. 16.-Effect of cross winds on path followed with direction finder.

the airplane. Zero signal is obtained in the receiving -set output as long
as the airplane is pointing to the ground transmitting station. This is
essentially a "homing" system and is subject to the limitation that a
circuitous path is followed if heavy cross winds prevail. This is illus-
trated in Fig. 16 and applies only when compensating course corrections
based on the indications of the magnetic compass are not periodically
applied. The use of the zero-signal bearings is rendered much more
flexible through the adoption of a rotating loop antenna on the airplane,
but the system still has some defects. It lacks means for giving the pilot
the sense of deviation from the course, the signal increasing from zero
whether the airplane deviates to the left or to the right. Moreover, the
use of a zero-signal indication is difficult under conditions of severe atmos-
pheric disturbances or interference from other services.
To obviate these difficulties, the Robinson direction- finding system was
developed. In this system, two crossed -coil antennes are used, one coil
having its plane along the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the second
having the plane perpendicular to this axis. The signal due to the second or
auxiliary loop antenna is alternately added to and subtracted from the signal
due to the first- or main -loop antenna. When on the course, since no voltage
is then induced in the auxiliary coil, the two signals are of equal intensities.
When off course to the left, for a given phase relationship between the two
loop antennas, the sum of the two signals is greater than the difference; when
off course to the right, their sum is less than their difference. Sharpness of
course indication is directly dependent upon the ratio of effective height of the
auxiliary loop antenna to that of the main antenna. A suitable automatic
switching sequence enables the pilot to determine the orientation of his air-
plane with respect to the true course or bearing. The system as developed
was of the fixed loop- antenna type.
In modern aircraft radio practice the Robinson direction finder has
been replaced by equipment giving visual indication of the airplane head-
ing relative to the course directed on the ground transmitting station. A
number of commercial units have been introduced and are successfully
employed for flying along independent routes and as adjuncts to the radio
range-beacon system. These are generally modifications of the Robinson
direction finder in which the main coil is replaced by a vertical antenna,
since no directivity is required of this element and the auxiliary loop is
made rotatable. Switching to the additive and subtractive positions is
accomplished electrically and is performed at a rapid rate. The output
signal of the receiving set is switched synchronously with the antenna
system, so that it passes alternately in opposite directions through an
indicating instrument of the zero- center type, thereby giving right and
left indication of the heading of the airplane with respect to the desired
course.
A circuit diagram of the earliest published arrangement, of this type
and one which is similar in most of the essential details to many of the cur-
rent commercial units is shown in Fig. 17. In this arrangement the tubes
Vi and V, are biased to cutoff by the bias battery C, passing current only
when successive half -cycles of the switching frequency alternately make the
grids less negative. The r -f voltage passed on from the coil Li (in the common
plate circuit of V, and V,) to the coil Lx (connected to the input of a con-
ventional receiving set) is thus alternately reversed. Voltage from a vertical
antenna is also fed into L, in proper phase relation so that the loop- antenna
voltage alternately adds to and subtracts from it. The amplified sum and
difference voltage is detected and amplified and then passed through the
current coil of an a -c electrodynamometer-type instrument. The field coil is
excited by the switching frequency so that the zero-center pointer is deflected
to the right, say, corresponding to the additive condition of the loop and verti-
cal antenna voltages and to the left corresponding to the subtractive condi-
tion. The polar diagram indicating the response of the antenna system for
the two conditions corresponding to varying directions of the airplane with
respect to the transmitting station is shown in Fig. 18. The intersection of
the two cardioid patterns corresponds to the zero-center or "course" position
of the indicator. Whether the airplane is flying toward or away from the
ground station is readily determined by noting whether the pointer deflects
to the right or left or vice versa as the heading of the airplane is altered to the
right or left of the course.
This type of direction finder is quite simple and may be used on any
type of ground station, such as in the broadcast hand. The same set
may be used for the reception of weather-broadcast and range-beacon
See reference to Dieckman at end of section. For a description of commercial
equipment, see Electronics, October, 1935.
Sec. 17] AIRCRAFT RADIO 613
signals. One important desirable improvement now receiving attention
is the elimination of serious and erratic errors in the bearing obtained at
night (also in daytime on the higher broadcast frequencies). A second
project on which experimental work is in progress is the connection of
Detector
and Audio
Amplifies
ToSwiirhing
frequency
Fie. 17.-Schematic circuit diagram for visual -type airplane radio direction
finder.
the course indicator to control the steering of the airplane, through use
of the automatic pilot.
To make full use of the possibilities of a direction finder aboard aircraft,
automatic indication of the direction of the tuned -in station is required.
This has been accomplished in a number of commercial units through
the use of a bidirectional motor system which drives the rotating loop
antenna. The motor system replaces the bilateral
pointer -type indicator and is arranged to drive the Course
loop antenna clockwise corresponding to one cardioid
pattern and counterclockwise corresponding to the
second cardioid pattern. A little study will show
that the system will be in stable equilibrium for only
one course, which may be arranged to correspond 1-'
to the forward direction. A hearing indicator, near \s
the pilot, is attached to the loop- antenna driving - -'
shaft by means of a flexible drive and indicates the
direction of the station correctly at all tines. Course
Automatic -volume-control reception is employed
to render the direction-finder operation fully cardioid FIG. 1.8.-Crossed
automatic. patterns for
visual -type finder.
27. Direction Finder on the Ground. One sys-
tem of navigational aids to aircraft is a direction- finding system, but with
the direction finder located on the ground. Every airplane utilizing this
system carries a radiotelephone (or radiotelegraph) transmitter and
receiver. Permanent direction -finding stations are located at ground
stations at strategic points. When an airplane desires to learn its posi-
tion, it transmits a request on the airplane transmitting set, whereupon
614 THE lIADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 17
two or more of the ground direction- finding stations each determine

the direction by observations upon the radio waves transmitted from the
airplane. Triangulation then gives the position of the airplane, which
information is transmitted to the airplane.
Five minutes is normally required between the time the request for a
bearing is transmitted from an airplane and the time the bearing, as
computed by two ground stations, is furnished the airplane. Obviously
the system is best suited to long-distance operation over routes not too
heavily congested, such as the transoceanic services.
A simple loop antenna may he used in conjunction with the receiving
set required with this system, thereby giving the pilot additional direc-
tional or "homing" service to supplement the hearings furnished by the
ground -station network. Even with this additional service, however, the
airplane is not kept strictly on a given course at all times and is therefore
not practicable where airplanes must fly over rigid airway routes. It
has definite value, however, as an adjunct to the range -beacon system
and is being used experimentally in the United States on the 2,900- to
6,600 -kc band and at ultra -high frequencies. Completely automatic
ground-station direction finders have been devised for this experimental
service.
28. Rotating Radio- beacon System. A method of furnishing naviga-
tional aid to a flyer is the rotating radio beacon developed in England.
This method employs a transmitter located at an airport, which has a
loop antenna rotating at a constant speed of 1 r.p.m. A figure -of -eight
pattern is thus rotated in space at a constant rate. A special signal
Indicates when the figure -of-eight minimum passes through north and
also when it passes through east. A pilot listening to the beacon signal
in the output of his receiving set can start a stop watch when the north
signal is received and stop it when the figure -of-eight minimum reaches
him. The number of seconds multiplied by six gives him his true direc-
tion in degrees from north. The stop watch may be calibrated directly
in degrees, so that the position of the second hand, when the minimum
signal is received, gives the bearing directly. The east signal is provided
to overcome the difficulty in receiving the north signal when the airplane
is north or south of the beacon, as on that bearing the signal strength is a
minimum.
The receiving antenna is of a non- directional type. The receiving set
may be used in the reception of weather-broadcast messages and other
communications when not employed in direction determination. The
system is capable of giving simultaneous service to any number of
airplanes in any direction. Drift may be checked by determining posi-
tions, periodically, and correction may be employed. In the form
described, the system has several inherent disadvantages. The service
is intermittent and somewhat slow, requiring at least 30 sec. for each
bearing. Since the determination of a minimum signal must be made,
the system is particularly subject to interference and atmospheric
disturbances.
Omnidirectional beacons have been developed in the United States
which are based on the general principles of the foregoing system but
which overcome its disadvantages. One installation, operating at 125
Mc, employs a five-element antenna system, either vertically or horizon-
tally polarized, with four of the elements on the corners of a square and
the fifth at the geometric center. A 125 -Me carrier, modulated 75 per
See. 17] AIRCRAFT RADIO 615
cent by a 10-kc modulation which in turn carries 60-cycle modulation, is
applied to the central element; the radiation from this element is non -
directional. Carrier power of the same frequency is fed to a small
goniometer, which in turn feeds the four corner elements forming the
directional antenna system. This will be seen to be quite similar to the
simultaneous range- beacon and weather- broadcast system described in
Art. 6, except that (since the goniometer primary windings are not keyed
alternately) a single figure -of-eight radiation pattern is produced by the
four corner antenna elements.
This figure -of-eight pattern is rotated in space 60 times per second
by mechanical rotation of the small goniometer at this rate, and thus
produces (at any point in space) a 60 -cycle modulation of the non- direc-
tional carrier. The power fed to the four corner elements is adjusted so
that the percentage 60 -cycle modulation is 20 per cent. The phase of
this modulation with respect to the 60 -cycle modulation carried by the
10-kc subcarrier on the central radiation will obviously depend upon the
direction from the transmitter and will go through 360 deg. as an airplane
circles the transmitter.
Hence, in order to determine the bearing of the airplane with respect
to the transmitter at any point in space, it is necessary to measure the
phase difference between the variable- and fixed -phase 60 -cycle modula-
tion. This is done in one arrangement by separating them in the output
of the receiving set (by 60 -cycle and 10-kc filters) and applying them
respectively to the field and armature windings of an electrodynamom-
eter -type instrument such as is shown in Fig. 17. The pointer indicator
of this instrument will read zero when the phase difference is 90 deg. A
phase shifter connected between one filter unit and the corresponding
instrument winding is used to adjust the actual phase to this value, its
setting being then a direct measure of the station bearing. The indicat-
ing instrument then becomes a right -left indicator which enables the
pilot to follow this fixed bearing to the station regardless of wind drift.
29. Radio Range -beacon System. Radio range beacons with aural
and visual course indication have already been described in previous
articles. Visual indication is more in keeping with airplane instrument
practice, provides sharper course indication, eliminates the personal
element in ascertaining the position of the airplane with respect to the
course, and allows the use of a -v -c reception. The high level of atmos-
pherics prevalent in the l-f range- beacon band led to the development of
special mechanical -reed filter units to make visual course indicators
practicable. The change-over to u-h -f operation renders the use of less
selective electrical filters feasible. Several arrangements for obtaining
visual course indication on aural-beacon signals have been tried but
proved impractical.
The radio range beacon requires only a simple receiver aboard the
airplane for its reception. The same receiving equipment is useful for
other purposes, for example, receiving voice weather broadcasts, voice
communication, etc. The system is simple to use by the pilot and per-
mits him to fly along the established airways where all other aids to avia-
tion are provided. Errors in course indication such as "night effects,"
bent and multiple courses, etc., which have been associated with the
range beacons are present in all other systems but are, in general, not as
easily recognized nor eliminated. The range -beacon system lends itself
most readily to airways traffic control.
RADIO AIDS TO BLIND LANDING OF AIRCRAFT

30. Functions of an Instrument Landing System. The primary func-
tion of an instrument landing system is to provide continuous, positive
three-dimensional guidance, whereby an airplane flying the airways under
adverse visibility conditions (even zero ceiling, zero visibility) can find the
proper runway on the airport and land safely on it. A secondary and, at
present, more practical function is to expedite the landing maneuvers dur-
ing poor visibility conditions so that more airplanes can land at an airport
in a given time. The present practice of "stacking" airplanes over a
control point limits the number of landings at even the largest airport to
about 4 per hour. With the aid of an instrument landing system, this
figure is expected to increase to about 10 per hour.
31. National Bureau of Standards System of Radio Landing Aids.
The basic concepts of nearly all present radio landing systems were
Fie. 19. -Radio landing system at Newark airport: (a) runway localizing
beacon; (b) landing beam; (c) approach marker; (d) boundary marker; (e)
spatial landing path followed by landing airplane.
demonstrated by the National Bureau of Standards at College Park, Md.,
in 1931 and at the Newark, N. J., municipal airport in 1933. The
system included three elements to indicate the position of the landing
airplane as it approached and reached the point of landing. Lateral
position, given for the purpose of keeping the airplane directed to and
over the desired landing -field runway, was secured by a small l-f (278-kc)
visual -type radio range beacon. Approximate distance from this trans-
mitter was given by a distance indicator operating from the automatic
volume control in the beacon receiving set. Exact longitudinal position
was given by two h-f .(10 -Mc) fan -type marker beacons located 1,500
ft. from the approach boundary of the airport and at the boundary.
Vertical guidance was given by an. u -h-f (91 -Mc) landing beam which
producedta curved gliding path for the landing airplane.
The runway- beacon course extended some 15.miles along the projection
of the runway só that the pilot could orient himself along it from a
convenient point on the main range- beacon course or after passing over
the main range -beacon tower. Two low modulating frequencies were
used for distinguishing the overlapping radiation patterns of the runway
beacon, and the airplane course indicator was designed to separate these
frequencies by reed filters, to rectify them, and to apply the rectified
voltages in phase opposition to a zero-center pointer -type iuicroammeter.
The marker beacons were of a type somewhat different from the present
fan markers but produced essentially the same vertical sheet of radiated
energy; the approach marker beacon was modulated by a h -f note and
the boundary marker beacon by a -f note. These were heard in the
1
pilot's headphones.
32. Radio Landing Beacon. The method by which the suitable indica-
tion of absolute height above ground was obtained will be evident from
BUREAU OF STANDARDS RADIO SYSTEM FOR BLIND LANDING OF AIRCRAFT.
COMBINED LANDING INSTRUMENT INDICATIONS
Airplane fo left of Airplane over the Airplane to right of
runway and above the runway and on fhe runway and below the
proper landing path proper landing path proper landing path
A= Landing beam and runway /ocalizer beacon

FIG. 20.-Combined- instrument indications for radio landing system.
Fig. 20, which shows the space radiation pattern in the vertical plane of
the u -h -f radio landing beans. The polar pattern in the horizontal plane
is of somewhat lower directivity. The airplane is therefore readily
directed approximately along the horizontal axis of the beam by means
of the course indications from the runway localizing beacon. It does
not, however, fly along the inclined axis of the beam, but on a curved
path whose curvature diminishes as the ground is approached. This
path is a line of equal intensity of received signal below the inclined axis
of the beam. The diminution of intensity as he airplane drops below
the inclined axis is compensated by the increase of intensity due to
approaching the beam transmitter. 'l'hus, by flying the airplane along
such a path as to keep constant the received signal intensity, as observed
on a microammeter on the instrument board, the pilot comes down to
ground on a curved line suitable for landing. If the airplane rises above
this line of equal intensity of received signal, the microammeter deflection

increases, while if it drops below this line the microammeter deflection
decreases.
The landing-beam antenna system consists of a conventional directive
antenna array. The vertical directive characteristic produced by the
array operating in free space would be symmetrical about the horizontal
plane, maximum radiation occurring in this plane. However, the
presence of the ground, which acts as a perfect dielectric at these fre-
quencies (91 Mc), modifies the vertical characteristic. At grazing
incidence, i.e., along the ground surface, the wave reflected from the
ground cancels the direct wave to the receiving point, resulting in zero
radiation. As the angle of elevation of the receiving point increases,
there is an increasing difference in the distance traveled by the direct and
reflected waves to reach the receiving point. The resultant phase differ-
ence produces increasing field intensity with increasing angle of elevation.
period the angle of maximum
When the phase difference is equal to half a period,
radiation is reached. It thus becomes evident the landing beam
shown in Fig. 20 is obtained.
Actually, there are a large number of lines of constant field intensity in the
beam. It can be shown that the equation for these lines for the very low
angles of elevation involved during a landing (less than 3 deg.) is a parabola.
The particular parabola chosen to fit a given airport is a function of the
transmitter power and the receiver sensitivity. Once chosen, it is essential
that the position of this path in space does not vary. Horizontally polarized
waves are used for the landing beam for this reason, since it has been deter-
mined that changes in the ground constants due to different weather condi-
tions will have least effect on the landing path for this type of polarization.
Also both the transmitter and receiver are designed to be of extreme simplic-
ity to preclude the possibility of variation in the power output of the trans-
mitter or in the receiver sensitivity.
33. Airplane Instrument. To simplify the indications used by the
pilot, a combined instrument is employed for giving the runway- beacon
and glide-path course indications. Two perpendicular reference lines
are provided on the face of the combined instrument, the vertical refer-
ence line corresponding to the position of the runway and the horizontal
reference line to the proper landing path. The pointers of the runway-
course indicator and the landing-path indicator are arranged so that they
cross each other, the former moving to the right or left of the vertical
reference line and the latter above or below the horizontal reference line.
The position of the point of intersection of the two pointers thus gives,
through a single reading, the position of the airplane with respect to the
runway and proper landing path. The instrument indications for several
arbitrary positions of the airplane are given in Fig. 20. At 1 the airplane
is to the left of the runway course and too high. At 2 the airplane is on
the runway course and on the proper landing path. At 3 the airplane is
to the right of the runway course and too low.
34. Modifications of System. There have been a number of modifica-
tions of this system which utilize the same basic principles. The Lorenz
system, which is in extensive use abroad, utilizes a single transmitting
set and antenna system for producing both the runway- beacon space
pattern and the landing path. The antenna system comprises a vertical
dipole radiator and two vertical reflector dipoles. The reflector dipoles
are keyed, one to dashes and the second to dots, thereby producing two
See. 17] AIRCRAFT RADIO 619
corresponding space patterns which intersect in the horizontal plane and
produce two beacon courses. The dashes and dots are interlocked pro-
ducing a type of signal which may be converted for visual indication.
Since ultra-high frequencies are employed, the effect of the ground is
to produce a vertical radiation pattern in which, for low angles of eleva-
tion, the field intensity is directly proportional to the angle of elevation
starting from zero at the ground surface. A series of lines of constant
field intensity having the shape of parabolas thus exists, as in the case of
the regular landing beam, and may be used as landing paths.
Summarizing: the plot follows a line of constant field intensity in the
plane of intersection of the two beacon space patterns. On the airplane
a single u -h -f receiv ng set is sufficient for reception of both the runway -
course and landing-path indications.
The Bendix system, in this country, also employs a combined runway
beacon and landing beam but with horizontally polarized waves. The
Air Track system, developed by Washington Institute of Technology,
houses the runway-beacon and landing -beam transmitters and antennas
in a trailer and the marker -beacon transmitters on motor cycles so that
the complete system becomes portable and may be moved readily to
provide service upon any airport runway as determined by the ,existing
wind condition.
35. CAA Indianapolis System. As a result of extensive tests of experi-
mental installations of the various modifications described, the CAA
through its Radio Technical Committee for Aeronautics set down detailed
specifications on performance requirements for a radio landing system.
These related to course sharpness of the runway -localizing beacon, free-
dom from bends, marker- beacon directivity patterns, landing-path
shape, instrumentation, conventions as to instrument pointer deflections
etc., and were based on the combined experience among the represented
agencies of over 3,000 blind landings. A four-way installation was set up
at Indianapolis which conformed with these specifications, and 10 similar
installations are how undergoing service tests at 10 principal airports of
the United States.
Figure 21 shows the installation of facilities at Indianapolis. The runway
localizing beacons are of the two-course type (without sector identification),
described in Art. 10, and operate on a frequency of 109.9 Mc. The rated
power output is 300 watts. Because of the sharp radiation patterns used,
the course is very sharp and maintains its direction within 0.1 deg. Bends in
the course, which make it difficult for the pilot to maintain his orientation,
are reduced to less than 0.15 deg., of negligible order. The marker beacons
are of the fan type and operate on 75 Mc, the rated power output of the
marker beacon transmitter is 5 watts. The landing -beam transmitters
operate on 93.9 Mc and are of 300 watts rated power output. A complete
monitoring system is provided so that an operator in the airport control
tower can start up all the equipment corresponding to each landing direction
and, from indicating instruments, may obtain information on the correctness
of operation of the various units.
36. Control of Shape of Glide Path. An outstanding contribution of
the Indianapolis setup consists of the control provided over the shape of
the glide path. Pilot experience indicated that the glide path should be
essentially straight from an altitude of 1,500 ft. at about 5 miles from the
airport up to the airport boundary; from this point it is desirable that the
path become slightly parabolic in shape, intersecting the runway surface
620 TILE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. IT
at approximately 1 deg. This path allows the use of a constant rate of

descent during landing but flares off toward the end, thereby eliminating
excessive shock at the instant of contact.
The method of obtaining the desired path shape is indicated in Fig. 22.
The landing-beam transmitting antenna is located at a considerable
distance to one side of the runway and forward along the runway (see
also Fig. 21), and its horizontal directive pattern is so adjusted that the
mmiles fo oufer marker
used for NEapproach
2miles to outer marker
used forSEpproach
. LocahiCrfransmdlersfahbn
G/ide path fransmiflersla/ion
Inner marker beacon s/ce/hn Aeronau/ics Authority
rimen/al station
Station designations refer to
approach direc /ion served
r /SE N .
2mi/es fo oulermarker Control 2mi/es lo ou/ermarker

used forNWapproach lower used for SWapproach
Fio. 21.- Indianapolis airport and instrument landing layout.
Horizonaa/directive pattern
Landing beam ,of /anding beam
transmitter Intersects
projection
of runway
at 6 miles
Airport runway Point of contact

Fta. 22.- Method of controlling shape of glide path by horizontal directivity
of landing -beam radiation pattern.
radiation to different points along the runway (and its projection) are
of predetermined relative intensities. In this way the lines of constant
field intensity in the vertical plane containing the runway may be made
to have any desired shape.
37. The CAA -MIT Microwave System. This system employs very
high frequencies, of the order of 750 to 3,000 Mc, for producing the
runway-beacon, landing -beam, and marker- beacon patterns. Velocity-
modulated transmitting tubes and horn -type radiators are employed.
By virtue of the highly directive patterns afforded, the glide path is of

the equisignal type, being obtained by the overlapping of two patterns
in the vertical plane so that a course making an angle of 3 deg. with the
airport surface is produced.
The indicating system on the airplane combines the indications of the
airplane bank, climb, and turn instruments with the indications afforded
by the radio landing facilities. The indications are combined in a
LOCALIZER
RECEIVER
left -right
location INDICATING
INSTRUMENT
GLIDE -PATH
RECEIVER
up -down
location
COMBINING
UNIT
BANK AND
CLIMB GYRO
rollandpitch
orientation
DIRECTIONAL
GYROAND
RADIOCOMDASS
Turn
orientation
(a)
Reference Light
Runway landing path-
_ de angle of
_j landing airplane
Light Light Center line ofrunway
Fla. 23.-CA A-MIT microwave landing system: (a) combination of radio

and airplane instrument indications; (b) three -light system on airport which
gives equivalent visual indications.
cathode-ray indicator showing three spots; the central spot being con-
trolled to the left-right or up -down by the radio aids and the other two
spots by the gyro instruments (see Fig. 23a). The whole effect is to give
exactly the same indications as when trying to fly a straight path visually
by following three lights on a landing field oriented as shown in Fig. 23b.
The indicating system may be applied to any three -element radio landing
system and is similar in a number of respects to the Sperry "Flightray"
developed at about the same time.
38. Army Landing System. A system of radio landing aids developed
by the U. S. Army Air Corps utilizes a visual-type radio direction finder
622 TILE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDBOOK [Sec. 17
for lateral guidance of the landing airplane along the airport runway, two
u-h -f marker beacons for longitudinal guidance, and a sensitive-type
barometric altimeter in combination with these other elements for
vertical guidance. The marker beacons now used in the CAA Indian-
apolis system are based on the type developed by the Army for its landing
system.
® Diagrammatic radio compass

needle indications appear as
viewed in direction of flight
e Radio transmitting station
---
1 I w8Ó0ft '
I50ît.-Ta
` t a Tr0utside Station B Inside SlatiovrA
A
\ ----- - 2Mi/es
(b)
s
(e)
Fla. 24. -Army Air Corps radio landing aid.
The operation of this system is best understood by reference to Fig. 24.
A and B are ground transmitting stations located along the projection of the
center line of the airport runway. They send out tone-modulated trans-
missions suitable for use of the radio compass on the airplane. The power
rating of these transmitters is approximately 50 watts, and the antennas
used are vertical masts approximately 30 ft. high. Station A is placed
approximately 1,500 ft. from the approach end of the landing field and
station B about 2 miles from it. At each of the stations there is also located
a low -power marker beacon operating on a frequency of about 60 Mc and
using a half-wave transmitting antenna oriented along the direction of
approach of the landing airplane.
Upon reaching the general vicinity of the airport through the use of the
main radio range beacon, the pilot tunes his radio direction -finder receiver to
station A and, upon reaching it, tunes to station B. He flies back and forth
between these two stations as many times as is necessary to establish his
course along the projection of the airport runway, setting his directional
gyroscopic compass to the value found for that course. The necessity for
this maneuver is apparent from a study of Fig. 16 in Art. 26. To compen-
sate for possible departure from the true course due to cross winds, it is
essential that the pilot determine exactly the required angle of crabbing of the
airplane into the wind. This is particularly important in the case of narrow
approaches to the airport with hazards located alongside of the approaches.
Upon establishing the proper course, the pilot makes a final approach to the
landing field. The sensitive barometric altimeter is corrected to the haro-
metric pressure obtaining on the ground, as determined by radio information,
and is then relied upon in combination with the other flight instrumenta to
maintain the airplane in a glide such that the altitude is approximately 800
ft. over station B and 150 ft. over station A. Continuation of this glide
results in contacting the airport surface.
The exact point of contact is not so definite as with the first system
described, depending upon the usual errors in the barometric altimeter, errors
in determining the angle of glide of the airplane under varying load and air
conditions, and errors in estimating the magnitude of the component of the
existing wind along the runway. For this reason the system is safely appli-
cable only to the larger airports and may be used only as an approach system
at small airports. Advancements in the art have improved the practicability
of this system. A dual automatic direction finder incorporating two loop
antennas tuned to stations A and B, respectively, has been developed by
Lear Developments, Inc., to provide automatic simultaneous indication of
the bearings to the two stations. This simplifies the approach procedure.
The accuracy of the vertical guidance may also be improved through the use
of a radio altimeter indicating absolute height above ground. With these
devices the system becomes quite accurate and easy to follow.
39. Dingley Induction -type Landing System. This is a non-radio
system utilizing the magnetic field surrounding two horizontal multi -
conductor cables to establish in space a path of constant electromagnetic
field intensity which coincides with the desired landing path. The cables
are laid on or below the ground surface on either side of the airport run-
way and its extension. A large loop formed by grounded cables is excited
by a 500-cycle alternator in given phase, and smaller loops, formed by
cables grounded at other points, are excited by the same alternator in
opposite phase. In this way it is possible to control the intensity of the
magnetic field so that up to a point, when approaching the airport, a line
of constant intensity is parallel to the ground, while beyond this point it
assumes any desired angle contacting the runway surface.
The system provides lateral and vertical guidance of the airplane. The
equipment required on the airplane includes two collecting coils perpendicular
to each other and forming angles of 45 deg. with the horizontal when the
airplane is in normal flight, two tuned 500 -cycle amplifiers, and a crossed -
pointer instrument. With this arrangement it is possible for the pilot to
determine his lateral position with respect to the runway as well as his vertical
position with respect to the glide path.
The system is outstanding in the simplicity of ground and airplane equip-
ment required. Its installation at a modern airport. in the form described,
involves such practical considerations as right of way for the cables, cost of
installation, etc. It has been tried successfully at the Naval Air Station,
Lakehurst, N. J., using a length of cable of 9,000 ft. with a glide path angle of
about 5.5 deg.; the course indications from a radio range beacon were used
in the initial orientation of the airplane to enable it to get on to the landing
path.
624 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. IT
ABSOLUTE ALTIMETERS
One of the most important navigational factors in aviation is that of
altitude. Both in point -to-point flight and during landing, reliance
upon altitude with reference to sea level has proved a continuous burden.
Altimeters for indicating the absolute height above ground fall into three
classifications; the sonic altimeter, the capacity altimeter, and the reflec-
tion altimeter. Of these only the reflection altimeter has proved success-
ful enough to warrant commercial sale.
40. Sonic Altimeter. In this method the time taken by sound to
reach the ground and return to the airplane is measured. Knowing the
velocity of sound, the height of the airplane above ground may be
determined. In a model developed by the General Electric Co., two
horns are employed: one, driven by an electric trip relay and plunger,
sends down the sound wave, and the other receives it back again after
reflection from the ground. An instrument, which is started by the
emitted wave and stopped by the reflected wave, records all heights above
50 ft., while below 50 ft. the pilot uses his headphones. At 50 ft., the
echo comes back Ho sec. after the emitted sound is sent out, at 5 ft. it
comes back %00 sec. later. A sound-delay filter is used in the output
of the receiving horn so that the whistle and the echo do not blend into
one sound until the airplane is at some point below 5 ft. This indication
may be used effectively by the pilot during a landing.
An experimental unit based on this principle and developed by the Bell
Telephone Laboratories, Inc., provides visual indication of the height above
ground down to a few inches. In this system the received signal automati- of the
cally starts the transmitted signal, so that the frequency of occurrence
emitted sound increases with decreasing altitude. An arrangement of neon
lights is used for obtaining the visual indication.
41. In the capacity altimeter the distance from the ground is measured
by detecting the change in the electrical capacity between two plates
on the airplane as the airplane approaches the ground. In one arrange-
ment this capacity is made a part of a resonant circuit, coupled to an
extremely stable r-f oscillator. A vacuum -tube voltmeter records the
voltage developed across a portion of the resonant circuit. The circuit
is adjusted so that the voltmeter- indicating instrument reads zero when
the airplane is at any height above 100 ft. The gradual increase in
capacity as the airplane approaches the ground serves to bring the
resonant circuit into closer tune with the oscillator frequency, the volt-
meter indication increasing accordingly. The indicating instrument,
once calibrated, serves to indicate true height above ground. Since
the capacity between the two plates is practically unchanged at altitudes
greater than of the order of 100 ft., the field of usefulness of the capacity
altimeter is limited to landing operations only.
42. Reflection Altimeter. In the reflection altimeter, altitude above
ground is indicated by sending a radio wave to the ground andairplane timing
the interval required for it to reach the ground and return to the used com-
after it has been reflected from the ground. The equipmentoperating a
a transmitter, a receiver, and a frequency meter
prises -clearance" meter. The transmitter is varied in frequency from
"terrain
420 to 445 Mc and return at the rate of 60 times per second by means of
a small condenser in the oscillator circuit (see Fig. 25). The rate of
change of frequency is thus 3 X 109 cps. The transmitter output is
radiated downward by a half -wave horizontal doublet mounted on one
of the lower surfaces of the airplane, and the receiver is connected to a
second half-wave horizontal antenna similarly mounted and arranged
for minimum coupling to the transmitting antenna. The direct and
reflected waves picked up by the receiving antenna are fed to the detector
and the detector output is amplified and fed to an electronic frequency
meter. It will be evident that the frequency of the signal output from
the detector is equal to the instantaneous frequency difference existing
between the direct and reflected waves and is directly proportional to the
, 445.0- .\ frequency of ware
i'
'
1
432.5 / No- reflectedfro
aground
f
_d
420.0 -
Frequency of iransmiNer
I oscillator and wave
Transmitted Io ground
Time
Fia. 25.- Principles of operation of Western Electric reflection altimeter.
height above the ground. Thus the frequency meter may be calibrated
directly in feet.
For any altitude H, the frequency difference fa is given by the expression
!a =3X109X C
where C is the velocity of light in the same units as H. Thus assume that
H is 0.5 mile; the frequency difference is then 16,200 cps. This amounts to
approximately 6 cycles per foot.
The upper range of the "terrain- clearance" indicator is arbitrarily limited
to 5,000 ft. although the frequency meter is capable of responding to fre-
quencies corresponding to about 15,000 ft. The reason for the upper limit is
to obtain reasonable sensitivity of indication within the most useful range.
If desired, a range- change switch could be used to provide indications over
such altitude ranges as 0 to 500, 0 to 1,000, 0 to 5,000, and 0 to 15,000 ft.
As the radiation toward the ground is directed over a rather large area,
the altitude above ground indicated will be the average of the elevation
covered by a cone of about 30 deg. Thus buildings and other small obstacles
will affect the readings only at low altitudes. Clouds will have negligible
effect on the readings since the reflection coefficient of radio waves from
clouds is only about 0.01 per cent of that from land.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
43. Radio aids of the future will probably include radio control of
airplanes, radio weather teletype, and radio aids for collision prevention.
By radio control of airplanes is meant the harnessing of the various radio
indicating instruments to the automatic pilot so that the airplane will
automatically follow a predetermined course and the pilot's duties will
correspond more nearly to that of the captain of a gyro-controlled ocean
liner. The various instrumentalities for accomplishing this are available
and have already been tested in isolated experiments.
Radio weather teletype would provide the pilot with printed weather
reports and other messages which would facilitate operations and furnish
reference records. The CAA has demonstrated such a service to be
practicable and will probably begin experimental operation in the near
future.
Radio aids to furnish the pilot information on the presence in his
vicinity of other airplanes or of obstacles (such as mountains) would
be of inestimable value. Very little has been done toward the provision
of such aids, partly because of the complexity of the problem.
References
Books:
FASSRENDER, H.: " High- frequency Technique in Aircraft," Verlag Julius Springer,
Berlin, 1932.
MORGAN, H. K.: "Aircraft Radio," Pitman Publishing Corporation, New York, 1939.
REDPATH, P. H., and J. M. COBURN: "Airline Navigation," Pitman Publishing Corpora-
tion (in preparation).
Publications:
Aero Digest, aircraft radio number. September, 1939.
ALFORD, A.. and A. G. KANDOCAN: Ultra-high -frequency Loop Antennas, A.I.E.E.
Tech. Paper 40-45, January, 1940.
BOWLER, E. L., W. L. BARROW, W. M. HALL, F. D. LEWIS: The CAA -MIT Microwave
Instrument Landing System, A.I.E.E. Tech. Paper 40-44, January, 1940.
DELLINGER, J. H.: Applications of Radio in Air Navigation, Meek. Eng., 49, 29 -32,
January, 1927. -beacon
DIAMOND, H.: The Cause and Elimination of Night Effects in Radio (fange
Reception, Bur. Stand. Jour. Research, Research Paper 513. 10, 7 -34, 1933; Proc.
I.R.E., 21, 808 -832, 1933. Aids, Bur. Stand. Jour. Research,
: Performance Tests of Radio System of Landing
Research Paper 602, 11 463 -490, October, 1933.
and G. L. DAVIES: rCharacteristics of Airplane Antennas20,
for Radio Range Beacon
February. 1932.
Reception, Bur. Stand. Research, May, 1931; Proc. I.R.E.. System Blind Landing
and F. W. DUNMORE: A Radio Beacon and Receiving 238, 5,for897, 1930; Proc.
of Aircraft, Bur. Standards Jour. Research, Research Paper
I.R.E., 19, 585, April, 1931. Ultra- high- frequency Antennas for
and : Experiments with Underground
Airplane Landing Beam, Bur. Standards Jour. Research, Proc. I.R.E., December,
1937.
and F. G. GARDNER: Engine Ignition Shielding for Radio Reception on Aircraft,
Bur. Stand. Jour. Research, Research Paper 158, 4, 415-424, March, 1930; Proc.
I.R.E., 18, 840-861, May, 1930.
W. S. HINMAN, JR., F. W. DUNMORE, and E. G. LAPHAM: Upper -air Weather
Soundings by Radio. A.I.E.E. Tech. Paper 40-47, December, 1939.
DIECIMAN, M.: Report on the Status of a Direct -indicating Airplane Radio Direction
Finder, July, 1927, Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt, Berlin. 18, 7, June, 1938.
DINOLEV, E. N.: An Instrument Landing System, Communications, 20, 5-6, 35. January,
: A True Omnidirectional Radio Beacon, Communications,
1940. Visual Radio Range -
DUNMORE, F. W.: A Course Indicator of Pointer Type for the 7, 147 -170, 1931:
beacon System, Bur. Stand. Jour. Research, Research Paper 336, Course and Quadrant
Proc. I.R.E., 19, 1579 -1605, 1931; A Method of Providing
Identification with the Radio Range-beacon System, Bur. Stand. Jour. Research,
Research Paper 593, 11, 309 -325, 1933. Its Applica-
ENGEL, F. H., and F. W. Daimons: A Directive Type of Radiobeacon and
tion to Navigation, Bur. Stand. Sri. Paper 840, 1923. Indicator. Bell System
ERPENCHIED, L., and R. C. NEWHOUSE: A Terrain Clearance
Tech. Jour., 18, 222, January, 1939. Systems, Proc.
FISCHER, H. B.: Remotely Controlled Receiver for Radio Telephone
I.R.E.. 27, 264 -269, April, 1939. Transmitters and Their Applica-
GILL, T. H., and N. F. S. HECHT: Rotating -loop Radio
tion to Direction Finding and Navigation, Jour. I.E.E. (London), 66, March. 1928. April,
HALLER. G. L.: Constants of Fixed Antennas on Aircraft, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 415,
1938. Operating on the
HARRISON, A. E.: Geographical Separation of Radio Range Stations
Same or Adjacent Frequencies in the 200 -400 Kc Band, Report 4, Safety and Plan-
ning Division, CAA, January, 1938.
HINMAN, W. S., Ja.: A Radio Direction Finder for Use on Aircraft, Bur. Stand. Jour.
Research. Research Paper 621, 11, 733-741, 1933.
HocLOMAN, G. V.: Automatically Controlled Blind Landing, S.A.E. Jour., 42, 13, June,
1938.
HUME, H. M.: Snow Static Effects on Aircraft, Communication and Broadcasting Eng.,
4, 7, July, 1937; Proc. I.R.E., 27, 301, April, 1939.
JAcesoN, W. E., A. ALFORD, P. F. BYRNE, and H. B. FISCHER: Development of the
CAA Instrument Landing System at Indianapolis, A.I.E.E. Tech. Paper 4013,
December. 1939.
and H. I. METZ: Development, Adjustment and Application of the Cone -type
(Z) Marker, Report 16, Safety and Planning Division, CAA, July, 1938.
, and D. M. STUART: Simultaneous Radio-range and Telephone Transmission.
Proc. I.R.E., 25 314, March, 1937.
KEAR, F. G.: Phase áSynchronization in Directive Antenna Arrays with Particular Appli-
cation to the Radio Range Beacon, Bur. Stand. Jour. Research. Research Paper 581,
11,123 -139. 1933.
HEAR, F. G., and G. H. WINTERMUTE: A Simultaneous Radiotelephone and Visual
Range -Beacon for the Airways, Bur. Stand. Jour. Research, Research Paper 341, 7,
261 -287, 1931; Proc. I.R.E., 20, 478 -515, 1932.
KRAMAR, E.: A New Field of Application for Ultra -short Waves, Proc. I.R.E., 21, 1519-
1531, 1933.
IiRAMAa, E.: Rotary Radio Beacons, Aero Digest, April, 1938, p. 38.
, and W. HAHNEMANN: Ultra-short -wave Guide- ray-beacon and Its Application,
Proc. I.R.E., 28, 17-44, January, 1938.
McKEEL, P. D., J. M. LEE, and H. I. METZ: Development of an Improved U -h -f Radio
Fan Marker, Report 14, Safety and Planning Division, CAA, July, 1938.
MURPHY, W. H.: Space Characteristics of Antennae, Jour. Franklin Inst., 201, 411,1926;
208, 289, 1927.
, and L. M. WOLFE: Stationary and Rotating Equi- signal Beacons, Jour. S.A.E.,
19, 209, September. 1926.
NANCE, H. H.: Wire Communication Aids to Air Transportation, Bell System Tech.
Jour., 11, 462 -476, July, 1932; Elec. Eng., 51, 492 -496, July, 1932.
NELSON, E. L., and F. M. RYAN: Provision of Radio Facilities for Aircraft Communica-
tions, S.A.E. preprint (St. Louis meeting), February, 1930. See also numerous
papers in Bell Lab. Rec. and Bell System Teck. Jour. by these and other authors.
NORTON, K. A.: Summary of statement before the FCC Television Hearing, Jan. 15,
1940.
PRATT, H.: Apparent Night Variations with Crossed-coil Radio Beacons, Proc. I.R.E.,
16, 625, May, 1928.
RETTENMEYER, F. X.: Some Problems of Aviation Radio, R.C.A. Rev., 1, 113, April,
1937.
SANDRETTO, P. C.: Some Principles in Aeronautical Ground -radio Station Design, Proc.
I.R.E., 27 5-11, January, 1939.
SMITH, S. B.: The Night Performance of Marconi -Adcock Direction Finder, Marconi
Rev., No. 50. September-October, 1934.
Sarre -Rose, R. L.: Radio Direction Finding by Transmission and Reception, Proc.
I.R.E., 17 425-478, March, 1929.
STUART, D. M.: Circuit Design of Low- frequency Radio-ranges, Report 8, Technical
Development Division, CAA, November, 1939.
SECTION 18
ANTENNAS
BY EDMUND A. LAPORT'
INTRODUCTION
The transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves used for radio
communication are accomplished by radiators and collectors exposed in
space and known as antennas. An antenna is a device composed of a
system of one or more linear conductors, usually of large electrical
dimensions, from a fraction to several wave lengths, which is used to
couple a h-f a -c generator or receiver to space. Between the transmitting
and the receiving antenna there is a combination of earth, water, air,
and ionospheres which constitute the mediums in which electromagnetic
waves are propagated. The action of the waves in traversing these
mediums is very complex at best, being dependent upon many known
and other unknown factors. Prominent among the known factors are
the transmitting frequency, the radiation characteristics of the transmit-
ting antenna, the orientation of the path of transmission in the earth's
magnetic field, the time of day and the conditions of daylight and dark-
ness along the path, the season of the year, solar activity, the electrical
characteristics of soil or water in the immediate vicinity of the antenna
as well as along the path of the surface waves, the immediate conditions
of ionization of the atmosphere at various levels, the distance between
transmitter and receiver, and the characteristics of the receiving antenna.
1. Antenna Terminology. The following terms are used in this work.
1. Meter- amperes. In general, this means f i dl, where i is the r -m -s current
in an elementary length of the antenna, dl. The integration is performed
over the entire length of the exposed (radiating) parts of the radiator. Viewed
geometrically, this is the area of a plot of r-in-s antenna currentdirections
in amperes
against distance along the antenna measured in meters. The of
the currents must be considered. con-
2. Doublet. A differential of antenna length, short enough to be
sidered to have uniform current throughout its length.
3. Dipole. A linear conductor with a full half wave of in-phase currents
distributed throughout its length. A half -wave oscillating element.
4. Self-impedance. The impedance of a single radiating element in the
absence of any influences from other radiators, as measured at a current
antinode. The ratio of the impressed voltage and the antinode current.
5. Mutual Impedance. The circuital equivalent of radiation coupling.
Mathematically expressed, it is the negative ratio of the induced potential at
the base (or the current antinode) of a second radiator to the base current
(or antinode current) of the first radiator.
6. Harmonic. Any natural frequency of oscillation of a system expressed
as a number which is the multiple of the fundamental frequency. Not to be
confused with overtones.
RCA Victor Co. Ltd., Montreal, Que.
628
Sec. 1111 ANTENNAS 629
7. Antenna Tuning. The act of resonating an antenna system to some
frequency other than a natural frequency by means of reactive devices.
S. Antenna Loading. Lumped reactances connected in the antenna system
for the purpose of antenna tuning.
9. Distributed Loading. Units of reactance added at small electrical
intervals along a conductor for the purpose of smoothly modifying the
natural distributed constants of the system. Pupinization.
10. Node, or Nodal Point. In a standing wave system, the points of either
zero or minimum potential or current.
11. Antinode. In a standing wave system, the points of maximum potential
or current.
12. Vertical Polarization. A wave orientation such that all the lines of
electric force lie in planes perpendicular to the ground plane.
13. Horizontal Polarization. A wave orientation such that the lines of
electric force are parallel to the ground plane.
14. Elliptical Polarization. A field of force having both vertically and
horizontally polarized components.
15. Reflector. Conductor or conductors so disposed with respect to a
radiator as to react upon the latter in a manner which transforms the radi-
ation pattern by suppressing radiation in its direction while reinforcing it in
the opposite direction.
16. Antenna Array. A multiplicity of radiating elements disposed in any
manner whatsoever for the purpose of molding the space characteristic in
some desired fashion.
17. Space Characteristic. A means for describing the over-all radiation
characteristics of an antenna system. Usually refers to a geometrical solid
in spherical coordinates with distance from the origin proportional to the
radiation intensity in any direction. Radius vectors may be proportional to
field intensity or to power. Power flow by radiation in any direction is
proportional to the square of field intensity.
18. Fundamental Frequency. The frequency at which the impedance
of an antenna at a current antinode is minimum. The lowest frequency
of oscillation of an antenna.
19. Fundamental Wave Length. The length of the space wave emitted by
an antenna oscillating at its fundamental frequency.
20. Mode of Operation. The ratio of the operating wave length to the
fundamental wave length; also, the ratio of the fundamental frequency to the
operating frequency.
21. Electrical Length. The length of a standing wave in any linear system
expressed in degrees or radians. The electrical length of a wire is its actual
length in terms of wave lengths and fractions thereof multiplied by 360 deg.
Valid only in systems with sinusoidal current distribution.
22. Effective Height. The height h obtained from the following equation:
ed
h = 1.25j1
where h = effective height in meters
e = measured field intensity in microvolts per meter
d = distance in kilometers from the antenna to the point where e is
measured
I = antenna current at the point where the antenna is energised.
NOTE. d must be small enough so that the effect of attenuation is absent, and great
enough to be beyond the limits of the induction field.
23. Antenna Resistance. The total dissipative component of the antenna
impedance measured at the point where power is introduced.
24. Radiation Resistance. The ratio of the total power radiated by
an antenna and the square of the current at some reference point in the
system, usually the point where power is introduced, or a current antinode.
630 THE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDBOOK [Sec. 18
25. Oscillating Wire. A linear conductor containing a standing wave of

oscillatory energy.
2. Radiation from Linear Conductors. 'l'he existence of a field of
force in either electromagnetic or electrostatic form represents a storage
of energy in space. Faraday originated the descriptive method of pictur-
ing a field in terms of lines of force and lines of equal intensity which
formed the basis for subsequent curvilinear geometry which is now more
or less familiar to electrical engineers. In ordinary electrical engineering
it is customary to concentrate a field as much as possible and to prevent
stray lines of force, known as leakage flux, from reaching any considerable
distance from an electrical device. In antenna design, however, the
opposite case is desired. Here as much as possible of the energy of the
field is made to be stored in space which is far removed from the con-
ductor. The linear straight conductor is the most satisfactory practical
device for producing distant fields.
In ordinary electrical devices the energy of the electric or magnetic
field is returned to the parent circuit when the charge or current that
produced it is removed. The field collapses. It takes time for a field to
be propagated from one point to another in space, so that its formation
or disappearance at any point is not coincident with the events in the
conductor which produce it. The finite rate of propagation of electric
and magnetic fields, 3 X 108 meters per second, causes events in the field
of force to lag behind the events in the parent circuit by a time dependent
upon the distance from the circuit. This fact is of no great interest ordi-
narily, but in connection with antennas it is of primary importance and
forms the basis of all radiation phenomena. Assume for simplicity a
straight wire which is charged. The electric field has been established
out to a very great distance. If the charge be removed suddenly, the
collapse of the field will return the stored energy to the circuit after a
suitable time interval. If, on the other hand, the charge on the wire be
instantly reversed, a field of the opposite polarity forms near the wire
before the energy stored in space for the previous charge can return to
give up its energy to the wire. The original field becomes detached and
manifests itself as a free wave of electric energy traveling in space.
When, instead of an instantaneous reversal of the charge on the wire,
there is a gradual reversal at a rapid rate under the stimulus of a h -f
generator, some of the energy of the field very near to the wire returns
to the circuit before the charge reverses, but a large amount of energy
in the more distant fields is unable to return before reversal occurs and
becomes a detached field of force, an electromagnetic wave. That por-
tion of the field which returns its energy to the circuit is known as the
induction field and the detached portion as the radiation field. The energy
lost by radiation is represented in the impedance of the circuit by the
radiation resistance.
Radiation of energy takes place from linear conductors which are
electrically unbalanced. When it is desired to prevent radiation, two
parallel conductors are placed very close together electrically and equal
and opposite charges are distributed identically along the conductors.
To produce radiation, the spacing between conductors is increased and
the balance of charges upset more and more. The ultimate in this
direction is that of the familiar simple antenna, a single, straight wire
which is completely unbalanced.
3. Fundamental Radiation Formula.' Dellinger's derivation of the

fundamental radiation formula for an antenna is of the following forni:
lidl
- - iftidl cos w(t - c) - iodz sin co(t - d)
ar
He -
where He = instantaneous magnetic field intensity in gilberts per centimeter

e,e = 2r times frequency of oscillating current in the wire
i = instantaneous current at any point in the wire
l = length of the wire in centimeters
time in seconds
t =
velocity of propagation of light (3 X 1010 cm per second)
c =
distance front the wire in centimeters perpendicular to the wire.
d =
The first term is known as the radiation -field term, and the second as the
induction-field term. These two terms are of equal magnitude where d = X '2w.
After converting the radiation term into the most practical units for
engineering usages, we have
f1 I dl
Ed =377ad
(for free space transmission)
where Ed = millivolts per meter (field intensity)
I = r -m-s current in amperes in each elementary length dl
X = wave length in meters
d = distance from antenna (in normal direction) in kilometers
rl
I d1 = total meter-amperes of system.
eel
For a half -wave dipole in free space, with sinusoidal current distribution,
Ed =
ßT
(for free space transmission)
where Ed = volts per centimeter (field intensity)
I = r-m -s current at the antinode
d = distance in centimeters.
The field intensities in directions other than normal to the wire depend
upon the length of the wire and the distribution of currents in it.
4. Current and Potential Distribution in Straight Wires. The action
of an oscillating wire as an antenna depends upon the current and
potential distribution in the wire. These distributions in turn are
dependent upon the manner in which charges are propagated in the
wire under various conditions of excitation by a h -f generator. If an
uncharged wire be connected to a source of h-f energy, charges move
from the generator into the wire, travel along the wire, and, after an
interval of time depending upon the length of the wire and the velocity
of propagation of the charges, arrive at the distant end. If the end of
the wire is an open circuit, as most antennas are, there will be a trans-
formation of energy at the end which causes the potential there to double
and the current to become zero. The high potential at the end, due to
the accumulation of charges which continue to be supplied by the genera-
tor, causes another wave of energy to he propagated from the open end
back to the generator.
The mechanism of the production of standing waves of current and
potential on a linear conductor may be studied analytically by referring
i DELLINGER, J. H.. Principles of Transmission and Reception with Antenna and Coil
Aerials, Bur. Standards Sei. Paper 354, 1919.
632 TIIE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. 1s
to any good text on reflections in transmission lines. A very elementary

introduction is given here, however, to establish a physical picture of
this important phenomenon. Consider Fig. 1, which is a wire which
may he connecter[ to ground through a battery B by closing the switch
S. At first the switch is open, and the wire is at zero potential. Upon
closing the switch, a current flows from the hattery into the wire, and the
wire becomes charged. The charging process is not instantaneous,
because time is required for charges to travel the full length of the wire.
'l'he current flow from the battery into the wire persists, not only for the
duration of the movement of charges to the end of the wire, but until the
wave of charges is reflected from the open end hack to the battery. Dur-
ing this interval the battery supplies charges as it would to a line of
infinite length. It is only when the reflected wave of charges arrives at
the battery that the very finite length of the wire is manifest, at which
time the excess charge on the entire length of the wire gives it a potential
higher than that of the battery. When the wire is finally charged to
battery potential, the total energy of the addi-
, tional charges which compose the reflected wave
C++¡ T++mil must be eliminated from the system. After
i+ +1 + ±a
11-_,*
reflection, the wire is positive with respect to the
r-447
±
471
+-Li battery, so that it may be said the battery is
+ + ±+ negative with respect to the wire and that it now
i
+i 1 i+ + -1 starts to charge the wire with negative charges.

Ft +T 1 The same process repeats itself until the origi-
1
±]
+i ±++ _i nal positive charges are neutralized and the
;
I
1 + + ¡++1 wire is charged negatively. This continues

1
/s
++
jJ
+ +_1
is
" cyclically. Owing to circuit losses, radiation,
J etc., there is a gradual consumption of the
excess energy of the system, and each reflection
=+8 is weaker than the one preceding. When the
excess energy is consumed completely, the wire
77777. reaches steady state with a uniform potential
Fie. 1.- Charged wire. throughout its length equal to that of the
battery.
When an a -c generator is used to energize the wire, the same process
takes place, but, when the wire is "tuned" to the generator frequency,
the reflected energy arrives at the generator when it is reversing its
polarity, in which case the energy of the reflected wave is absorbed by
the generator and is not re- reflected. Thus, in the typical antenna prob-
lem, the characteristic current and potential distribution is the result
of a simple reflection -a
wave of charges moving from the generator
toward the end of the wire, and the reflection from the end back to the
generator.
In the steady state both potential and current vary harmonically in
time, but their maximum values vary with their position in the wire. In
the simple straight -wire antenna the variation of potential and of current
along the wire is very nearly cosinusoidal and sinusoidal, respectively,
when measured from the open end of the wire.
There are important relationships between the potential and current
distribution, on which the impedance of the antenna depends. By solv-
ing the case of a simple reflection in a wire, for example, a wire one-third
wave length (or 120 deg.) long, on the assumption that there is no energy
dissipated in the system during the propagation of the initial wave of
See. 1111 ANTENNAS 633
energy imparted to the wire from the generator and during its reflection
from the open end, we obtain the vector relationships between current
and voltage for several equidistant points along the wire as shown in
Fig. 2. If electrical degrees are measured from the open end, it is seen
that, up to a distance of 90 deg., the current vectors are in advance of
the voltage vectors and the impedance of the antenna for lengths less
than one -quarter wave length is a pure capacitive reactance. When
the wire is longer than one -quarter wave length, as in the example, the
wire impedance becomes a pure inductive reactance. If this were
,
,.ft:
1
,
``¡
sEf°
R.Ì;tóW"W
00 .
,' :Ai. r=`
so
w;re
,,'~ 1
'
30
40
W /
i,q
Po>enr;ai
skibul;on
J¡so urrent
--
tmjdistribution
176°0
0 met
6,_:,.,130/imro
Fia. 2.- Vector relations between current and voltage in a wire 120 deg. long.
continued for several quarter -wave lengths, it would be seen that for odd
quarter -wave lengths the impedance of the antenna would be capacitive
reactance, and for even quarter -wave lengths it would be inductive
reactance. At exactly 90 deg. and odd multiples of 90 deg. (potential
nodes) the impedance would be zero, while for even multiples of 90 (leg.
(current nodes) the impedance would he infinite. By plotting out the
current and potential vectors against their position along the wire, in
two -dimensional rectangular coordinates, it is found that the potential
varies cosinusoidally and the current sinusoidally.
Now there cannot exist in nature a dissipationless system. Waves of
charges propagated in a wire suffer some attenuation. We know there
are Joulian losses in the wire as well as loss of energy through radiation,
especially in an antenna wire which is an efficient radiator. Working
out the case of a simple reflection in a 120 -deg. antenna wire on the basis
of a considerable power loss in the wire, we get the vector diagram of
currents and voltages shown in Fig. 3. Between 0 and 90 deg. of length
the current vectors lead those of potential, but there is now a component
of potential in phase with the current, so that the impedance in this range
is resistance and capacitive reactance. At 90 deg. the potential vector is
in phase with the current vector, at which point the antenna impedance
is pure resistance. Beyond the 90 -deg. (quarter-wave) point the voltage
vectors swing into a leading position, and the antenna impedance becomes
resistance and inductive reactance. This continues up to the half-wave
point (not shown in our example), at which place the current vectors
come into phase with the voltage. Here again the antenna impedance
becomes a finite pure resistance, but of a very high value. In Fig. 3
Fta. 3.-Currents and voltages inlossa occurs.

wire of 120 deg. when appreciable power
the several vectors are plotted in rectangular coordinates against their

position along the wire. It can be seen plainly that the potential dis-
tribution is not cosinusoidal, especially in the vicinity of the node.
Voltage passes through a minimum, accompanied by a rapid change of
phase, but does not become zero as in Fig. 2. If the wire were made a
half-wave length long, so that the current would pass through its node, it
would be seen that the current also passes through a minimum value, but
not zero. The example of Fig. 3 is greatly exaggerated so as to clearly
show the problem. In antenna systems the energy lost is so small with
respect to the energy stored in them (very low attenuation of the traveling
waves in the wire) that the current distribution is very nearly sinusoidal.
The radiating characteristics of an antenna depend upon the current

distribution. When calculating radiation patterns for simple wire
antennas, the assumption of sinusoidal current distribution is fully
justified. The complex circuital impedance of an antenna, however,
is the result of the true current and potential distributions which are not
simple harmonic functions of distance along the wire.
5. Current and Potential Distributions in Linear Conductors with
Attenuation.,
Et = E,V/sinh= al + cos' ßl /tan -' (tan ßI tanh al)
I¡ = Zö t/sinh2 al + sin2 ßl /tan t (tanh II
E, and It are the voltage and current, respectively, at any point in the
antenna wire which has the distance l from the open end. E, is the
voltage at the open end. al is the attenuation constant in nepers (hyper-
bolic radians) per unit length, and ßl is the wavelength constant in
circular radians per unit length of the wire. Z. is the characteristic
impedance of the wire. In an antenna this factor has no true scientific
significance, but for many practical purposes a value can be placed upon
it which has engineering significance. r
6. Current Distribution in Antennas of Various
Practical Forms. Radiation phenomena are usually
studied in terms of the electromagnetic field, which is ; `1
associated with the antenna currents. In matters
involving space characteristics, field intensities, etc.,
the basis of reference is usually the current distribution. ? ii
In many forms of antennas to be found in practice, I
there are numerous departures from the simple con- t

ditions which produce sinusoidal current distribution.
In a single-wire T, current along the vertical portion i
is distributed as a partial sinusoid and can be calculated
as a real part of the equivalent vertical wire. The Flo. 4.-Cu r-
current in the fiat-top sections is linear, very nearly, rent in simple T
antenna.
if each branch is less than 30 deg. long. The current
at the top of the vertical is divided equally between the two branches and
tapers to zero, or nearly zero, at the ends of the T branches (see Fig. 4).
The current distribution in a single-wire inverted L has also been
shown to be nearly sinusoidal, as was assumed from theory.2
Non-sinusoidal distributions occur in systems that have non-uniform
constants per unit length, such as fan, um. brella, and many other forms
of multiwire antennas. Irregularities in the distributed L and C of the
antenna are sources of reflections and lead to very complicated distribu-
tions. With the gradual disappearance of such systems, however, no
particular attention need be directed to the matter here.
Large capacities at the end of a wire, such as insulator caps, rain shields,
corona shields, outriggers, are equivalent, in their effect upon the current
distribution, to an elongation of the wire.
Evearrr, W. L., "Communication Engineering," Chap. VI, McGraw -Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York. 1932.
= WILuorra, R. M., Distribution of Current in Transmitting Antennas. Jour. I.E.E.
(London), June 1928; PIERCE, G. W., "Electric Oscillations and Electric Waves,
McGraw -Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1920.
431i THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 18
7. Antenna Potential and Potential Distribution. In the design of

antenna insulation, potential magnitude and distribution must be cal-
culated. Potential distribution can be calculated under the same condi-
tions that current distribution can be, which is principally those cases
where the distribution is very nearly cosinusoidal. The actual voltage
at the feed point is the product of the antenna current and the antenna
impedance. The potentials at other points in the system are obtained
from the potential distribution with respect to the potential at the feed
point for a given power input.
S. Reactances of Linear Conductors. The reactance of a linear conductor
is given by the following formula:,
cot wlVLC = -Zu cot G
X =
- V
where X = reactance in ohms, either positive or negative, depending upon
angle wv/LC
G and (' = microhenries and microfarads per 't length of wire. (For
calculating, refer to footnotesJ2)
w = 2a X frequency
Z. = characteristic impedance. (Values range from approx. 750 ohms
for vertical wire antennas to as low as 200 ohms for uniform cross -
section tower radiators.)
G = electrical length of conductor.
Nora: This fo la, based on sinusoidal current distribution, is unreliable for values
of G close to 90 deg. and its multiples, and the error increases as O becomes very large.
9. Radiation Resistance. Useful data are shown in Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8.

RESISTANCE OF STRAIGHT VERTICAL ANTENNA FOR DIFFERENT VALUES
OF WAVE LENGTH OBTAINED BY INDUCTANCE AT THE BASE
A/1òratio of wave length O, deg. R, radiation

ohms
resistance,
to natural wave length
1.00 90 36.57
1.12 80.4 26.40
1.21 74.4 21.70
1.31 68.8 17.65
1.43 64 14.28
1.57 57.3 11.62
1.74 51.7 9.10
1.97 45.7 6.92
2.24 40 5.19
2.62 34.4 3.78
3.14 28.7 2.58
3.93 23 1.65
5.26 17.1 0.90
7.85 11.5 0.30
15.70 5.73 0.082
31.42 2.87 0.01
Radio Instrument and Measurement, Bur. Standards Cire. 74.

2 GROV aR, F. W., Methods, Formulas and Tables for Calculation of Antenna Capacity,
Bur. Standards Paper 568.

For the theory and calculation of radiation resistance, see:
PISTOLEERS, A. A., The Radiation Resistance of Beam Antennas, Proc. 14R.E., March,
1929.
BECHMANN, R., On the Calculation of Radiation Resistance of Antennas and Antenna
Combinations, Proc. I.R.E., August, 1931.
HANSEN, W. W., and J. G. BECEERLEY, Concerning New Methods of Calculating Radi-
ation Resistance, Either with or without Ground, Proc. I.R.E., December, 1936.
20
-MEWElig. 1
t
19
18 i
Straight Ver/icof Hire with 1
17 1- Its Lower End Very Near a

)- Perfectly .. HIIf1lt
Conducting Ground
Ell
É 16
E '
III,
ó
freespoHMI
15 I '
-o
oc 141 t
Wire m
á 13i
r
Isala ed_...1111H
1 1
1 '
L., 121
, ..//111111Hg11 ' NH
3 01/!21BL1ql1INilf11N NU
MÍ11INpHll11B11filrfit
ii
110
80
10
ÁA11111 r
pf1111111111111s'H'H1=21111ii
ll
Ir
60 111111.11HISKII_
50
40
1
d
30
Harmonic Order
Ftu. 5.-
Radiation resistances referred to a current antinode for straight
wire in free space and for straight vertical wire with lower end close to perfect
earth.,
ALFORD, A Discussion of Methods Employed in Calculations of Electromagnetic Fields
of Radiating Conductors. Electrical Communication, July. 1936.
PIERCE, G. W., "Electrical Oscillations and Electric Waves," Chap. IX, McGraw -Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1920.
SCNELEUNOFr, S. A.. A General Radiation Formula. Proc. I.R.E., October, 1939.
SIEGEL, E., and J. LARDS, Feldverteilung and Energieemission von Richtantennen, Hoch-
frequenz Technik and Elektroakustik, Band 38, Heft 6, 1932.
10. Self- impedance of an Antenna. The impedance of an antenna, as
seen from the point where power is introduced, is usually complex. The
resistive component is made up of the radiation resistance referred to
I LEVIN, S. A. and C. J. YODNG, Field Distribution and Radiation Resistance of a
Straight Vertical Unloaded Antenna Radiating at One of Its Harmonics. Proc. I.R.E..
May, 1926.
638 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK ISec.18
24 1200
22 1100
20 1000
X18 11111111,' 900

óI6 800
ú 100
L
14
111.,1112, 600 `
pr
É 12
g10 500E4
á 8 400
-
E
6
n- Number o>è%menfs
300
4 200
2 100
o o
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
n
Flo. 6. -Radiation resistance at current antinode and field intensity at 1
mile radiated for a vertical array of colinear cophased dipoles.,

13 Jo
4S 12 o
fl_
C
II 11 0
á Rr
0.)
10 I 00 ofo
c
oy
L
9 Og
w
8 8 0 C
o, 7 70
c
o F
-86 60 .á
v
v
5 5 0n -á
E
40 óo
ñ4 F
42 3
o
30 c
_> o
E
2
,I ME I
tk;
ME MN,
00 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
A,electrical length, deg.
Flo. 7.- Radiation resistance and field intensity from simple vertical antenna
over perfect earth.'
BROWN, G. H., ACritical Study of the Characteristics of Broadcast Antennas as
Affected by Antenna Current Distribution, Proc. I.R.E.. January, 1936.
See. >leI ANTENNAS 639
the feed point, the conductor resistance, and the ground resistance. The
reactive component is determined by the characteristic impedance of
the antenna, the electrical length, and the influence of any top, distributed
or base loading. Any distributed capacitance due to base insulators,
protective gaps, drain coils, and any other devices that attach to the
system near the feed point transform the true antenna impedance to a
100
90
80
70
Resistance of
infinite height
60
N
r 50
o
40
30
20
10
0
0 04 08 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
Height above ground,wavelengths
Fta. 8.- Radiation resistance at current antinode for horizontal dipole over
perfectly conducting earth.'
new impedance which is the load actually seen by the generator at that
point. We may call this point
L = /t ± ,jX
The power input to the system is
W = /.2R0
and the potential across the load is
E (volts) =
' CARTER, P. 8., Circuit Relations in Itndintine Synteom and Their Application to
Antenna Problems, Proc. 1.R.E., June, 1932:.
90
160
80
120
70
80
60
50 a
LE
40 O
30
80
20
120
10
160
0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7
Spacing in Wavelengths
FIG. 9.- Mutual impedance for parallel c ipoles.
40
35
30
25
in 20
E
ó 15
G=9O°
á3 10
C 5
a 0
5
-10
15
-20
0 01 02 03 04 0.5 06 07 0.8 09
dA
Fla. 10.- Resistive and reactive components of mutual impedance between
two quarter -wire vertical radiators.
12
110
100
90
80
ro 70
60
ihiiL
o,
M 40
50
ill. OE\>o°
o,
1'I si,°
-
-
30
20
10
0
sC`60°
_ Ç_,70°
T__ --
...
-
-
0 01 02 0.3 04 0.5 06 0.7 08 0.9 1.0
d/A
(a)
160
`.
12
rn
v
. 80 -\ .
1:5
v
A
-`-G
-sm nd/80° a90 `
°' 0 ç=2.30° -`
á-40 \\_ N, w1
G=270°
-80 r
-120
G-0°
G-30
' .1,
,,I
-160
\\
NI',
0 0I 02 03 0.4 05 06 07 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2
d/A
(b)
lia and 6.- Magnitude and phase angle of mutual impedance vector for
identical vertical radiators.
11. Mutual Impedance. Whenever two conductors are disposed in

space so that there is appreciable interchange of energy through radiation
coupling, the circuital conception of mutual impedance is introduced
to enable this reaction to be predicted and manipulated by the convenient
methods of ordinary network theory. Mutual impedance is a vector
quantity which may appear in any of the four quadrants. It is derived
through the Maxwell field equations by an extension of a method of
Kliatzkin and Pistolkors where the Poynting vector is integrated over the
surfaces of the radiators. Mutual impedance must be reckoned with
quantitatively in all directive antennas. There are reproduced in Figs. 9
16
/ III
PhaseAngk,` //
of Current l,
ik
I\
-es 120 V''
a i, P
I 80
/
N
ry\
qSL,
c.
li\ù/
40
0
ow
I , /
loó
11!_-\.I' i
° 40 I c
13
80
120
,WI-,
1ry
IIIIIIIMIIM
I
_
NM C,.,
/ /
Radiation
Resistance
1.1
80
60
40
u
c°3
160 20 á
200 0
0 06 0.8
0.2 0.4 1.0 12 1.4
Spacing in Wavelengths
Fca. 12.- Conditions for array of parallel dipoles.
to 11 the data df most frequent practical value. For further information,
consult the literature.,
12. Radiation of Electromagnetic Waves from Antennas. Effective
application of antennas to practical communication problems makes use
of special radiation characteristics made possible by the disposition of
radiators, their length, current distribution, current phase, and amplitude
relations. The radiation characteristics are so intimately associated
with the physical and statistical conditions of wave propagation that the
whole subject of propagation belongs with the subject of antennas. In
all antenna applications maximum effectiveness requires objective control
of the distribution of energy radiated into space.
CARTER, P. S., Circuit Relations in Radiating Systems and Their Application to
Antenna Problems, Proc. I.R.E.. June, 1932; Baowx, G. H., Directive Antennas, Proc.
I.R.E., January. 1937; PcsroL:oas, A. A., The Radiation Resistance of Beam Antenna.
Proc. I.R.E., March, 1929.
ANTENNAS 643
All radiation control is due to wave interference, and the space charac-
teristics of antennas and arrays result from interferences between the
fields produced by all the infinitesimal portions of all the radiators when
1st. Harmonic 3rd. Harmonic 5th. Harmonic 7th Harmonic
NOTE: All Lobes have a common vertical tangent
rI
10
`
'
I 1 I
I` /
/
1 - I
I 1 1
/
I I
I 1
1
1
1
1.
2nd. Harmonic 4th. Harmonic 6th. Harmonic 8th. Harmonic

Fra. 13. -Polar diagrams of relative field strength distribution for straight
wire antennas in free space with standing waves of current as shown, corre-
sponding to the operation at various harmonics of the fundamental frequency
of the antenna.
currents flow in them. For grounded antennas interferences result from
wave reflections from the ground (image radiations), and for this reason
the electrical constants of the earth have an important influence on the
radiation patterns.
644 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. 1$
In dealing with radiation patterns it is customary for reasons of prac-

ticality to employ plots of relative or absolute field intensities, in con-
venient units, to depict the magnetic field distribution at various points
on the surface of a hypothetical sphere or hemisphere when the antenna
is located at its center. Three dimensions are thus required to specify
90
E,A
80 1110. 1NWIM:
70 1111161112051E MA
60 1lli, llettiMMAL4
N 11\ ,R'gB_RaVg_
\s
u :N
/4°3o
IICIMESHIíZ
30
20
-Maximum
SEA 1111_..
10 --zero
0 I 1
2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9 10 11 12
IH
of Wire in Wavelengths
Length
FIG. 14.- Angles at which nulls and maxima occur for the various patterns of
Fig. 13.1
rr J
JJ, 1..
Fundamental Second Harmonic
1 1
Third Harmonic
I
Fifth Harmonic
..nl,.
Seventh Harmonic
l''I13. 15. -Polar patterns of field strength distribution from vertical grounded
antennas with current distributions as shown.
space characteristics except in those cases where there is axial symmetry,
when two -dimensional figures suffice. Three -dimensional data are shown
as paper or plaster models, or as a family of two-dimensional curves.
Figures 13 through 18 show various basic forms of radiation patterns
which are employed singly or in combination for radiation control.
I CARTER, HANBELL, and LINDENBLAD, Development of Directive Transmitting
Antennas for RCA Communications, Inc., Proc. I.R.E., October. 1931.
Sec. 18j ANTENNAS 645
(e) (f)
Fia. 16. -Polar patterns of the field strength distribution for vertical
antenna over perfect earth when the currents in successive dipole sections are
cophased. Note that minor lobes never exceed the horizontal tangent to the
major lobe.
Grounded Antennas
Ungrounded Antennas
Y,i,%,/%A //,//,i1 v,i,',WV) v,i,/nn v,i,,,,,,
n
Ii 11)
' }w
Fla. 17.- Electrical images of antennas.,
TsaILAN, F. E., "Radio Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
646
Flo.
.4` 0.6
:213
t
cc
18.- Vertical
0.4
0.2
0.2
-0.4
0 10
Ima
20
\
`
THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
13. Calculation of Vertical Radiation Patterns from Vertical Antennas

above Perfectly Conducting Ground. A vertical doublet of infinitesimal
length in free space produces a field which has a magnitude proportional
to the aine of the angle 0 from the doublet axis. In a vertical quarter -
wave antenna with sinusoidal current distribution, integration of the
influences of all the doublets throughout its length gives a distribution
1.0
0.8
30
`,'.
1110.0-
111111111W
40
'gill
50 60
Angle to Horizon,deg.
l0 80
field strength distribution for vertical antennas over per-

fectly conducting earth, for various electrical heights G.1
only slightly flattened with respect to that for a doublet, and it has the
equation
f(e) =
cos (90° cos
Î(e)
sin 0
For a vertical dipole above perfect earth,
9)
- cos (90° cos sin0) cos (H cos 0)

90
[Sec. 18
where H is the height of the current antinode in degrees above the reflect-
ing surface.
For any vertical grounded antenna with sinusoidal current distribution,
having a total electrical height G,
= cos (G cos 0) cos G -
e(0) sin 0 (1 - cos G)
14. Directivity Diagrams in the Horizontal Plane for Two Identical
Vertical Radiators. Two radiators, synchronously excited with equal
currents, produce interference patterns which vary with the separation
of the radiators and the relative phase of the radiator currents. Fur-
thermore, owing to the influence of the mutual impedance upon the two
radiators, the field intensities obtained will at some points exceed, and at
other points be less than, for the sanie power input to one radiator alone.
1
BROWN, G, H., Inc. cit.
,1
155
"CS
b
The directivity patterns obtained for spacings and phasings over all
values of practical importance, drawn to a scale which shows the relative
field intensity obtained with the same power in a single radiator, are of
great importance in antenna calculations. Figure 19 shows such direc-
tivity patterns.
15. Calculation of Directivity Patterns. For two radiators having equal
currents, in terms of parameters AX and BT, where T = time phase
f(a) = [cos (2rA cos d + TB)]
For identical radiators with unequal currents, the resulting pattern in terms
Y
T
E I
ta is -in Quadrant I
ep is 1- inQuadrantll
Posiiion ofA taken osO.1,OT
(a)
/.0 kau(t2f0)
7
tzf0
k ' ksinft2+m1
asd/t2"¢/
(b)
Fla. 20a and b. Data used in calculating directivity diagrams.
of relative field intensities can be obtained from Fig. 20 and from
¡(a) = 1 +k cos (t: +4,) +jksin (t2 +4,)
where a angle from the axis of the radiators
k current ratio for identical radiators or the horizontal field ratios
for dissimilar radiators
is = angular difference in path length which
= -S cos a
S = radiator separation in electrical degrees
= phase difference of Is with respect to I,.
All such patterns are symmetrical with respect to the axis of the array.
See. 15J ANTENNA.' 649
Where three or more radiators are used with arbitrary spacings, phasings.
and current ratios, the combinations become so great that formulation must
usually be worked out for the particular case at hand.
16. Three -dimensional Radiation Patterns for Array of Two Identical
Radiators. Frequently two-element arrays are employed for directional
transmission, in which case it becomes necessary to know the space
characteristics. A rough preliminary investigation of the three-dimen-
sional distribution of field intensities in the horizontal plane, the vertical
plane through the radiators, and the vertical plane broadside to the
radiators may be quickly made in the following manner: From the
patterns of Fig. 19 select the horizontal pattern corresponding to
the separation and phase difference to he used. From this pattern the
z
Portion of
Hemisphere
of radius d
X
Fra. 21.-Geometry for calculating space characteristic of two-element array.
vertical-plane distribution through the radiators may be found by multiply -
ing the upper half of the pattern (which lies above the X-axis) by the
polar characteristic in the vertical plane for one of the antennas. When
the radiators are grounded quarter -wave elements, it is merely necessary
to multiply the radius vector at any angle by the cosine of the angle.
(Perform this for the entire 180 deg.) Familiarity with this method
enables one to estimate the vertical-plane distribution immediately by
inspection of the horizontal pattern. For the vertical plane broadside
to the array, the distribution is the same as for a single antenna. Thus
we have the following:
1. The distribution in the plane through the radiators is the saine as for
the upper half of the horizontal pattern multiplied by the characteristic for
one radiator.
2. The broadside plane distribution is the same as the vertical pattern for
one radiator.
3. Where there is suppression of radiation in line with the radiators in the

horizontal pattern, there will be one or more lobes of high -angle radiation in
that direction in the vertical pattern. The shape of the high-angle lobes will
depend upon the vertical -plane pattern for one antenna.
4. Where suppression of radiation occurs broadside to the array in the
horizontal pattern, there will be proportionate suppression at all vertical
angles.
5. Where there is a maximum of radiation in line with the radiators in the
horizontal plane, there will be a flattening of the pattern over that of a single
radiator, in the vertical plane.
6. When the ratio of currents in the two radiators is other than unity, the
angles of maxima and minima occur at the same place, but the nulls and peaks
are less pronounced. As the current ratio approaches zero, the pattern
approaches that of a single antenna.
To determine the entire space characteristic, it is best first to calculate
the horizontal pattern as described above and then to calculate a series of
vertical-plane patterns at various angles to the array axis. As the
horizontal pattern is symmetrical with respect to the axis x-x', so the
space characteristic is symmetrical with respect to the X-Z plane through
the radiators. Furthermore, the space characteristic in the half space
above the X -Y plane is symmetrical with that in the half space below
the X -Y plane. The geometry for use with the following formula for the
space characteristic in the upper half space, for grounded antennas and
perfectly conducting ground, is given in Fig. 21.
Hob = [1 + k cos (Li + 0) + jk sin (Li +.)I.
[1 + cos ti +j sin til[ cos (90° sin 6)

coz b J
(Multiply only the scalar values of each factor.)
In this equation H = field intensity in arbitrary units at an angle (a)
measured horizontally with respect to the line
through the radiators and the angle (b) above the
horizon
k = current ratio (equal to or less than unity)
ti = total phase difference, in degrees, between radiations
from A and B in the direction (a) (b)
ti = ((S' cos a cos b)l
and (a' is the spacing between radiators in electrical
degrees)
ti = -2h sin b, where h is the height of the current anti -
node above ground, in electrical degrees
= initial phase difference between Is with respect to IA.
NOTE. When the radiators are exact quarter -wave elements, the second factor
becomes constant and can be ignored. When the radiators are considerably less than
one -quarter wave length in height, the second factor can be ignored and the third
factor simplified to cos b.
The above equation is restricted to those cases where the physical length of
the radiators does not exceed one-half wave length, though the height of
radiators above ground is not restricted.
To obtain the vertical distribution pattern for one radiator, ignore the
first factor and use only the second and third.
17. General Solution for the Space Characteristics for Any Array of
Antennas Disposed in Any Manner in Three Dimensions. In view of
the special nature of the general solution for extended antenna arrays, we
shall not attempt to condense this important subject in this work but shall
merely refer the interested reader to the references below.' Extended

antenna arrays are extensively applied in h -f directive transmission and
are of great engineering importance at the present day.
BROADCAST ANTENNAS, 660 TO 2,000 KC
18. Prevailing Types of Broadcast Antennas. The old -fashioned
forms of antenna construction, familiar for many years, are still largely
used but deserve no particular attention from present -day engineers
because they are rapidly being replaced by more efficient radiators.
Broadcast antennas may be classified as follows:
1. The high vertical single -wire antenna, suspended from a triatic between
self-supporting steel towers (widely spaced), and having a fundamental
frequency lower than the operating frequency.
2. The high single -wire T antenna, being similar to A, but with a relatively
short T flat top, and operating above its fundamental frequency.
3. The guyed cantilever steel tower, having a height somewhat greater
than one -half wave length, the tower itself forming the antenna conductor.
4. The self- supporting (slender) steel tower, having a height from one-
quarter to more than one -half wave length, the tower itself being the antenna
conductor.
5. The single -wire vertical antenna suspended along the axis of a self -
supporting treated -wood tower, and operating, in general, at a frequency
much higher than its fundamental.2
6. Directive antenna arrays of two or more vertical elements, designed
either to get more advantageous coverage where population distribution is
irregular, or to reduce interference in the directions of other stations that may
be on the same channel.
19. Progress in Antenna Improvements. The low multiwire with a
large L or T fat top was the ordinary form of radio antenna for many
years and was used until recently for broadcasting. Since 1927 there has
been a rapid development in broadcast antennas, and their form has been
greatly modified.3 The results sought are reduction of high -angle
radiation for the reduction of fading and greater efficiency giving larger
service areas for a given power input. The present commercial impor-
tance of broadcasting justifies a considerable investment in an improved
radiator.
In terms of their characteristic current distributions and relative linear
dimensions several types of broadcast antennas are represented in Fig. 22.
As the height of the antenna increases, the position of the current anti -
node is raised above ground, which causes the high -angle radiation to
decrease and the low -angle radiation to increase. The effect of antenna
height (in terms of electrical degrees) on the relative distribution of field
intensity for five different antenna lengths is demonstrated in Fig. 18,
where these data are plotted in rectangular instead of the more usual polar
I FOSTER, R. M., Directive Diagrams for Antenna Arrays, Bell System Tech. Jour.,
April, 1926; SIEGEL, E., and J. LAnus, Feldverteilung and Energieemission von Riehtan-
tennen, Hochfrequenz Technik and Elektroakustik. Band 38, Heft 6, 1932; SOGrHWORTR,
G. E., Certain Factors Affecting the Gain of Directive Antennas, Proc. J.R.E., Septem-
ber, 1930; BAeMLER, M., K. KROGER. H. PENDL, and W. PFITZER, Radiation Measure-
ments of a Short -wave Directive Antenna at the Nauen High -power Radio Station,
Proc. J.R.E., May, 1931.
2 EPPEN, F.,
and A. GOTRE, Über die Schwundvermindernde Antenne des Rundfunk-
senders Breslau, E.N.T., Hand 10, Heft 4, 1933.
BROWN, G. H., and H. E. GIBBING, General Considerations of Tower Antennas for
Broadcast Use, Proc. J.R.E., April, 1935; CHAMBERLAIN, A. B., and W. B. LODGE,
The Broadcast Antenna, Proc. Radio Club Amer., November, 1934; LAPORT, E. A.,
Improved Efficiency with Tower Antennas, Electronics, August, 1934.
652 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. is
coordinates. The portions of the curves shown as negative field inten-

sities indicate radiations in a secondary (high -angle) lobe in which the
direction of the electric field is reversed. For a straight vertical antenna,
it is seen that, when the height of the current antinode exceeds one -
quarter wave length above ground, the high -angle lobe forms rapidly and
soon assumes a value unsatisfactory for broadcasting use because of fad-
ing. For this type of antenna the 190-deg. length is about the maximum
permissible.
Since the previous edition of this handbook, tower radiators have been
thoroughly proved in, but this involved a change from the original
cantilever guyed structures, through the trial of broad -based self-support-
ing towers, and finally to the uniform cross- section guyed or self-support-
ing radiators. The latter have reached the stage of optimum electrical
performance, reliable mechanical design, and moderate cost. During
this period most stations have constructed modern radiators and have
retired the supported-wire antennas, and many have installed directive
arrays of two to three radiators for minimizing interference and better
covering of local areas. Where airline routes have limited antenna
4
tAA
-
i ?Ié I t
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Fla. 22. -Types of broadcast antennas.
heights, top -loaded and sectionalized antennas have been employed to
attain high efficiency and fading reduction.'
In the United States and Canada antenna heights have been specified
by regulations, the heights being worked out in harmony with the general
objectives of allocation and efficient utilization of facilities.
20. Ground Systems for Antennas. The importance of the ground
terminal for a radiating system cannot be overemphasized. If there
existed such a thing as a perfectly conducting earth, any sort of a firm
connection to the earth would suffice for a terminal. Soils, and even
salt -water marsh, at best are poor conductors at radio frequencies. The
ground system used with an antenna must make the best possible contact
with existing ground substances as found at a station site. A few years
ago it was thought that a ground system had only to extend outward as
far as the limits of the induction field of the antenna. The major func-
tion of the ground system as a reflecting surface for the down-coming
waves from the antenna is now generally recognized, and for this purpose
a ground system must extend outward for a considerable distance. There
I BROWN, G. H., A Critical Study of the Characteristics of Broadcast
Antennas as
Affected by Current Distribution, Proc. I.R.E., January. 1938; BROWN and LEITCR, The
Fading Characteristics of the Top-loaded WCAU Antenna, Proc. I.R.E., May, 1937;
BROWN, G. H., A Consideration of the Radio-frequency Voltages Encountered by the
Insulating Material of Broadcast Tower Antennas, Proc. I.R.E., September, 1939;
MORRISON and SMITH, The Shunt- Excited Antenna, Proc. I.R.E., June, 1937; GUT,
R. F., Notes on Broadcast Antenna Developments, RCA Rev., April, 1937; FITCH and
DUTTSaA, Measurement of Broadcast Coverage and Antenna Performance, RCA Rev.,
April and July, 1938, and April, 1939.
See. lei ANTENNAS 653
have been many temporary theories and practices regarding the con-
figuration of the conductors in the ground system, but there is now,
broadly speaking, a convergence of preference for the radial system with
an effective earth termination for each wire. Recent studies have further
proved the need for a large number of very long radials. The more
nearly a system of wires approaches a continuous metallic sheet of great
extent, the better it is as a ground system.
The work of Browns on the theoretical and experimental study of
ground systems has established definite criteria for their design. Broadly
summarized, a radial system of 120 radial wires approximately one -half
wave length long approaches very nearly the characteristics of an ideal
ground terminal, as shown by Figs. 23 and 24.
240
220
Number
I
ofia/s=n
Length olfradlia/s-(35ft (0.4/2A)
k
È
200
180 =113
éfi
The á/--_-_-.--
n,60 -
É 160 1
1
n.15
=30
---
E 140 -1
c
o 120
I /. -2
__-
/ ///
Ñ
100
I /
C 80 t/
-a
v
60
40
1
Ili
if/
i )
20
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Antenna height, deg.
Fra. 23.-Variation of field intensity with antenna height and number of
0.412 wave length radials.
21. The Counterpoise. Where a buried ground system cannot be
employed, a counterpoise is frequently required as a high- capacity
ground terminal. In general the same considerations which apply to
radial ground systems apply also to counterpoises. Where extremely
high electric fields exist near the hase of a radiator, a small counterpoise
will help to reduce the potential gradients in imperfect dielectrics, such
as soil or wood, and thus decrease losses. Where ground systems of
adequate length are impractical, such as in l-f radio range antenna
systems, relatively small radial counterpoises provide a stable ground
terminal and consequently stable radio range courses. Roof antenna
I BROWN. G. H., Ground Systems as a Factor in Antenna Efficiency, Proc. J.R.E.
June, 1937.
654 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. le
installations which employ counterpoises of adequate area and which

clear other small structures usually found on the roofs of such buildings
have shown good performance.
For certain u-h -f antennas elevated counterpoises employing a surface
of 4-in. mesh wire screen on a metallic framework have been extensively
used. Typical applications are for fan marker, cone -of- silence marker,
and u -h-f four-course radio range antennas for use on the airways.
22. Antenna Measurements. Antenna measurements are theoreti-
cally simple, but skill and experience are required, together with good
instruments, to attain accurate results. It is for this reason that the
240
Number ofradials= 113
220 Length ofradia /s =L/f1.1
200
1
,í33
Theoreticá/
k180 L°
>
E 160
140
( L_45
g 120
á
100
//
45 80
Ts 60
Q)
6- 40 /1"
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 10 80 90 100
Antenna height, deg.
Fie. 24.- Variation of field intensity with antenna height and length of radials
in a 113-wire ground system.
FCC specifies that such measurements, to be submitted to it for approval,

known
must be made by a qualified person with approved instruments of
accuracy. The practical difficulties of measurement increase with the
frequency.
Resistance. Approved methods of measuring antenna resistance are
described in Radio Instruments and Measurements, Bull. 74, of the U. S.
Bureau of Standards. (This may be obtained from the Superintendent
of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.) For
low-impedance antennas ordinary precautions may suffice, but for high -
impedance antennas of the order of several hundred ohms extreme care
and occasionally special methods are employed for reliable results. It
is well to repeat measurements two or three times with new setups before
certifying the accuracy of the data.
Radio -frequency bridges are now available and, with proper manipula-
tion, lend themselves well to antenna measurements. Resistance and
reactance can both be measured directly. For low- impedance antennas,
straight bridge methods are useful. For moderately high impedances a
substitution method, where the unknown impedance is connected in
parallel with one arm of a balanced bridge, is required. One serious
drawback to bridge measurements in antenna circuits is the susceptibility
to inaccurate balances when static levels are high and when there is
interference from other stations in the locality. In the latter case power
methods of measurement are essential.
A simple method for measuring antenna resistance and reactance of a
very high -impedance antenna is the following: Using an ordinary wave-
meter of the precision- absorption type equipped with a thermoammeter
and a calibrated condenser, adjust the wavemeter to the desired frequency
and bring the oscillator into tune at this saine frequency. Couple the
wavemeter to the oscillator until full scale deflection of the ammeter
results. One side of the wave-
meter (the shield side) should be High Impedance
grounded to the regular antenna Antenna
ground system. Note the setting o Absorption Precision
of the variable condenser and the ' Wavemefer
exact meter reading at resonance.
Then connect the antenna down- Calibrated
lead to the ungrounded side of the Condenser
wavemeter as shown in Fig. 25
and retune the wavemeter for Wavemeter
maximum current. Note the Resistance
condenser setting and the new Fin. 25.- Antenna measuring circuit.
meter reading for this condition.
The lower the antenna resistance, the lower will be the ammeter reading
with the antenna attached. Also, if the antenna has an inductive
reactance at the particular frequency, the capacitance of the wavemeter
will have to be increased to restore resonance, and vice versa.
By substitution, known standard values of resistance and reactance
in series are connected in parallel with the wavemeter to reproduce the
same series of adjustments and readings as observed, first with the wave-
meter alone and then with antenna attached to it. The resistance and
reactance values which reproduce the antenna values precisely are equal
to those of the antenna.
The precautions to be observed in using this method are as follows: The
oscillator must be of sufficient power output and regulation as to be unaf-
fected by the presence of the wavemeter; the standards of impedance
used for substitution must be essentially free from stray capacitance when
arranged for use, for small values of stray capacitance can seriously
disturb the accuracy of the results; the readings and adjustments before
and after adding the shunt impedance must exactly duplicate those
observed in the process of measuring the antenna.
If the wavemeter resistance is accurately known, the unknown antenna
impedance, in terms of resistance and reactance, can be calculated.
It is customary, in view of certain difficulties in making antenna
measurements, to ensure greater accuracy by making a series of such
measurements over a considerable range of frequencies. Individual
errors are averaged out by drawing a smooth curve through the values
656 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. le
as plotted out in graphical form. Antenna resistance and reactance
measurements over a wide band of frequencies are often invaluable in
analyzing the action of an antenna, as well as for predetermining the
proper circuit constants to be used for tuning it or matching its impedance
to a given transmission line.
Reactance. When not measured directly with an r -f impedance bridge,
antenna reactance can be measured by resonating the antenna at the
desired frequency, using a calibrated inductor or capacitor. At reso-
nance, the antenna reactance is equal and opposite in sign to that of the
tuning device.
Fundamental Frequency. Connect the antenna directly to ground
through an r -f current instrument of adequate sensitivity, and couple a
variable -frequency oscillator lightly to the system by proximity only.
Search for the lowest frequency at which resonance is indicated by a
maximum current.
Direct Power Input Measurement. This measurement is dependent
upon an accurate measurement of antenna resistance and the use of an
Radia/orA Radiator Radia/orA ' RadiaforB,

-10 Zin open ( Znz I grounded
1
Fna. 26.- Equivalent circuit of two radiators coupled by radiation.
ammeter of suitable accuracy located at the point where resistance was
measured. The power is the product of the antenna resistance and the
square of the entering current. In all probability direct- reading r-f
wattmeters will be commercially available during 1941.
Mutual Impedance. Mutual impedance can be measured only indi-
rectly. Where conditions permit, the method is to measure the self-
impedance Z11 of one radiator (assuming both radiators to be identical)
with the second radiator first open- circuited, and again Zc when the
latter has been grounded. From these two impedance measurements
the mutual impedance is calculated. Where more than two radiators
are employed, such a measurement is required for every combination of
radiators taken two at a time, with the other radiators open -circuited
so that they do not affect the pair under measurement by reradiation.
The equivalent circuit of two radiators coupled by radiation is shown in
Fig. 26. From this figure
Z.. = VZu° ZIZn-
The accuracy of this method is enhanced by tuning out the self- reactance of
each radiator before measuring Z1 in terms of R1 + jXc. When this is done
Z1 = RI +jXc =
R112 -
R,.= + X,. .2R,.X,.
Ru j Ru
With Ric, RI, and XI measured, the two terms above can be solved simultane-
susly for R., and X.,.
23. Vertical Radiator Self- impedances. Resistance and reactance
measurements on a 400 -ft. vertical uniform cross -section tower having a
hase insulator capacitance of 30 µµf are shown in Fig. 27. The resistance
and reactance of a slender tubular steel mast are shown in Fig. 28.
100
80
60 hvA
50
40 ured ,'y,
E
resstance Average}
ó 300
Ala`' -
chamcierisfi
ai
(e' 200
----- - '61..5
'-
im edance
-
d
100 Di1=11it
aes>.rcllIssi_IIIN
IS 80 MIMI.I
Measure,
:1360
reactance
á 50
e
-
1
.Ñ 40 d
,
;t t r
I
r
°) 30 r 1 t
, o i
t i t i
20 ¡
Ji' t
10 a
Ib
-Sa
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 040 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 075
ii
q i
Antenna height h/A wave lengths

Ftc. 27.- Resistance, reactance, and characteristic impedance for WWJ uni-
form cross- section 400-ft. tower.
24. Coupling and Feeder Circuits Used for Broadcasting. Antennas
are either fed directly from the transmitter, or at a distance from the
transmitter by using some form of radio-frequency transmission line.
The following types of lines are used, listed roughly in order of their
numbers in service:
Approxi-
Type mate Zo
4 -wire open line with 2 opposite wires grounded 235
Concentric tubular lines 70
2 -wire open balanced line 000
3 -wire open balanced line ( ' idle wire grounded) 600
4 -wire balanced line 315
1 -wire open line with ground return 500
Transmission lines require equipment, suitably adjusted, to he capable
of transforming the antenna impedance to the characteristic impedance
line. A line, terminated in its characteristic impedance Zo, provides an
unidirectional flow of power from the transmitter to the antenna without
the losses due to reflections of energy in the system. For single -end
transmission lines, simple T, Pi, or, more usually, L networks of reactive
658 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. IS
elements are used to match the antenna impedance to the line impedance.
Where balanced lines are used, the balanced to single -end impedance
matching transformation is usually accomplished by inductivitv coupled
circuits. In any case the adjustment of the terminal network for ter-
mination of the line is another case where skill and proper instruments
are needed.
Figure 29 shows the simplest coupling circuits, their theory for feeding
single radiators, and where the phase shift through the network is immate-
rial. In directive antennas where a given impedance match must be
made with a specified phase shift, a three -element network is required.
1200
1100
1000
Resistance
ff`
s
É 900
°° 800
á 700
á 600 Reactance - Reactance
"AU"
E (inductive) (capacitive)
500
c
v 400
Ñ 300
v 200
cc
100
` Reactance
---(capacitive
`
o .. u.
150 160 110 180 190 20
50 60 10 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Height G, deg.
Fla. 28.- Measured resistance and reactance of 150 -ft. vertical tubular mast
antenna having a base insulator capacitance of 85 µµf.
The values of the circuit elements are calculated after the antenna
impedance and the characteristic impedance of the line have been meas-
ured. The required reactances are then set to specified values, and minor
corrective adjustments are made to obtain a perfect match. A r -f
impedance bridge is very convenient for this purpose.
For the balanced line, an impedance bridge, being a grounded device
for one of the unknown terminals, is less useful. The following method
of adjusting terminal impedances for balanced lines is simple, accurate,
and rapid and requires a minimum of equipment.
Calculate or measure Zo. Calculate the line current for any given
power from Io = Or/4,
and the voltage across the termination under
this same condition from Eo = VW °. If a tank-circuit termination
is used, with inductive coupling to the antenna circuit, choose a value
of capacitance across the line which has a reactance of the order of half
Sec. 1!l ANTENNAS 859
that of the value of Zo (arbitrary) at the operating frequency. This

capacitance must be accurately known so that its reactance can be
determined and used to find the proper current through this condenser at
resonance when the termination is correct. 1, = E0/X,.
Knowing now the values of Io and we can take their ratio, I, /Io.
Now, by inserting matched ammeters in series with the line at the
entrance to the termination and in series with the capacitance leg of the
EL
T. L. Zo= (resis/ivel
Ant. ZA= (usually compkx)

AA
10 Where RA< Z0
EL
T.L. Zo= (resistive/
Ant. Z4= E`4 (usual/y complex)
02 Where RA >Zo
FIG. 29.- Coupling circuits and vector relations.
tank circuit, we know that, when the proper termination has been
reached, the ratio Io /Io, previously calculated, must prevail. To obtain a
termination that has unity power factor, the tank circuit must be close
to an antiresonant adjustment. After inserting the ammeters in circuit
as shown in Fig. 30, apply power (the amount is unimportant at this stage,
because the ratio IQ /Io is independent of power) and adjust the primary
inductance until the line current 10 is minimum, at which time the values
to and 1, are observed and the ratio calculated. If the ratio is too high,
the coupling is too loose or the impedance of the antenna circuit is too
high. If the former, add more coupling turns or otherwise tighten

coupling between tank and antenna circuits; if the latter, decrease the
reactance of the antenna circuit by increasing inductance for a capacitive
antenna or decreasing capacitance for an inductive antenna (both assum-
ing that the antenna is not resonant). Retune the tank circuit and
again measure the ratio of currents. If the ratio of currents is too low,
the opposite procedure is followed, i.e., the coupling is reduced or the
antenna impedance increased, or both. By discrete steps and by careful
adjustments, the exact ratio Ir /lo is quickly
attained. The final test of correctness is to
measure simultaneously the current in both
ends of the line. These currents should be
equal.
25. Adjustment of a Directive Antenna
Array for Broadcasting. The proper design of
a directive array includes the calculation of
the desired radiation pattern in terms of real-
izable field intensities, which in turn depends
upon the amplitude and phase relations be-
tween the radiator currents, the self- and
Flu. 30.- Antenna ad- mutual impedances, and the power input. The
justment. input impedance to each radiator must then
be calculated from the operating conditions
of the array, which permits the division of power between the radiators
to be found.
The next step is the design of the transmission lines and their coupling
networks which effect the energy transfer at each radiator and which
match the radiator input impedance to that of the line with the exact
phase shift which, with that due to the time of propagation over the line,
will bring each radiator current to its precise amplitude and phase. This
is done as a preliminary step only.
The adjustment of such a system to realize a specified performance
requires that the above sequence of conditions be reproduced physically.
Thus the first step is to measure the self- and mutual impedances after the
radiators are constructed from the design data and to recalculate the
input impedances to the radiators from these data. Then the exact
coupling networks are synthesized and constructed,' and adjustments
made to the previously calculated values instrumentally, with utmost
accuracy. The performance of the system is then verified by measuring
the currents and their phases= and finally by measurement of the radiation
which consists usually of a plot of a number of field- intensity measure-
ments made on the mile circle. Here is a fascinating problem requiring
the finest technique of theoretical calculation and physical measurements.
MARINE TRANSMITTING ANTENNAS
26. Limitations to Shipboard Antennas. There has been little change
in the design and construction of shipboard antennas for the reason that
there is little choice available. The limited space and the presence of
stacks, derricks, etc., place severe limitations on the mechanical arrange..
I LAPORT, E. A., Graphical Network Synthesis, Broadcast News, January, June. 1939;
BROWN, G. H., Directive Antennas, Proc. I.R.S., January, 1937.
MORRISON, J. F., Simple Method of Observing the Current Amplitude and Phase
Relations in Antenna Arrays, Proc. I.R.E., October, 1937.
See. 1!l ANTENNAS 661
ment of the antenna. For that reason, shipboard antennas have been but
slightly modified in many years. The outstanding change is the gradual
abandonment of multiwire forms for the single wire.
Large vessels in the passenger business now have several transmitters
in their radio rooms. For long -wave ship traffic at moderately high
powers the ship's antenna has a very short electrical length, which gives
a nearly uniform distribution of voltage throughout its length. Such
antennas must he insulated equally at all points.
For intermediate -wave operation, ship antennas have fairly good char-
acteristics and efficiency. The antennas on the larger ships have funda-
mental wave lengths somewhere near the intermediate marine band, so
that they operate essentially as quarter -wave systems. For h -f telegraph
.- 7n
Mainmast 250' /70' s To
Fremast
Main(Alter Section) 6' Ma it? (Forward I
Emergency Antenna 0
tack ' - lac -Loop
No .2 No. /
HP Receiving
Antenna
Individual Break-1n
Emergency Relays el each
200W. Transmif/er(EfceptNt')
Fin. 31.- Marine antennas (SS. "Washington ' and SS. "Manhattan ").
operation it is now quite the usual practice to use the main ship antenna,
operating it at or near one of its harmonics.
A system used on some of the best-known American ships is that shown
in Fig. 31. This not only permits utilizing the main antenna for all the
marine frequencies but provides a convenient means for simultaneously
operating the short -wave and intermediate-wave transmitters. For
long-wave operation both halves of the antenna are connected in parallel.
Ships having commercial telephone services usually employ separate
half-wave dipole antennas fed by terminated transmission lines. These
are mounted anywhere on the ship where there is space, frequently using
the stacks for support, and often suspended by means of insulator strings
from the triatic of the main antenna. Where a half-wave dipole antenna
is used, it is necessary to have a different antenna for each operating
frequency.
2. Antenna Characteristics. Shipboard -antenna characteristics vary
over extremely wide ranges because of differences in mechanical forms
and dimensions, the effects of other conductors in the field on the antenna,
the nearness of stacks, etc. For example, antenna resistances in the
intermediate- and long -wave bands range from 3 to 10 ohms. Static
capacitances range from 400 to 1,200 paf. Fundamental wave lengths
range from 200 to 500 meters. It is difficult to specify typical antenna
characteristics beyond these figures.
28. Construction of Ship Antennas. The essential mechanical require-
ments for an antenna design are extreme ruggedness and reliability under
all the severe weather conditions met at sea. Heavy phosphor -bronze
stranded cable is employed for the triatic, preferably for the entire
antenna. The use of an inverted L or a T is principally determined by
the layout of the ship and the location of the radio room with respect .
to the antenna. Regular ship -rigging construction is employed. The

antenna must be easily lowered and raised. On some ships the antenna
must be lowered to permit operating the derricks.
The essential electrical requirements are as follows:
1. A maximum of antenna size for a given available space.
2. Maximum possible clearance of ship's rigging, bridge, stacks, etc., to
reduce losses by induction.
3. Liberal high-voltage insulation throughout the length of the antenna,
including the deck insulator.
4. Avoidance of sharp points, broken strands, or V-bends which would
become corona discharge points.
5. Positive firm electrical connections between different sections of the
antenna and at the entrance bushings.
6. The use of a single -wire system.
7. The avoidance of the use of hemp guys and stays at points of high -
potential gradients near the antenna wire and insulators where rapid deterio-
ration due to burning would result.
29. Shipboard Receiving Antennas. A separate wire receiving antenna
is now common practice on shipboard for short-wave reception. For
intermediate- and long -wave reception the main transmitting antenna is
quite generally used, connection of the receiver to the antenna being
made through a break -in keying relay when the transmitter is not actually
transmitting, and to ground when the transmitter is exciting the antenna.
The sense antenna used in conjunction with the direction finder is a
separate wire and used only for that purpose.
Broadcast receiving antennas may occupy any remaining space avail-
able on the ship.
NON -DIRECTIVE ANTENNAS FOR H -F TRANSMISSION
30. Types of Antennas in Current Use. Antennas for the circular
diffusion of energy at high frequencies approach very nearly the funda-
mental ideal forms. For a given form of antenna for a given performance,
the mechanical size is proportional to the transmitting wave length;
and when this becomes comparatively short, the mechanical aspects of
the problem become very simple.
1. A fundamental and widely applied form of h-f transmitting antenna is
the half -wave dipole. It can be employed in a variety of ways by changing
its orientation in apace and its position with respect to ground. When located
in hypothetical free space, its electrical values are constant; but, when located
within a few wave lengths of real earth, as in practice, they are influenced by
orientation and position.
When placed vertically with respect to the surface of the earth, a half -wave
dipole transmits vertically polarized fields in every direction. When mounted
horizontally, the radiated field is horizontally polarized in any direction per-
pendicular to the antenna wire, while it is vertically polarized in the directions
of the wire. In intermediate directions the fields will have both vertically
and horizontally polarized components, a state called elliptical polarization.
These conditions have a bearing upon the propagation characteristics of
radiation in different directions.
2. A second fundamental type of h -f transmitting antenna is a straight wire
operated at one of its harmonics. Where one antenna is used for both l -f and
h-f transmission, as on shipboard, we have a case where, at high frequencies,
the antenna may be several times the length of a half wave. If such an
antenna is vertical, the radiation is uniform in all horizontal directions but of
rapidly varying intensity in the vertical plane. The general characteristics
were discussed and described in a preceding section.
3. A third important type of non -directional antenna for h-f transmission is
the vertical wire with the current in adjacent dipole sections cophased.
Instead of the current-distribution characteristic of the antenna operating
at a natural harmonic, where the current in each successive half-wave section
is reversed in direction, this antenna has currents all flowing in the same
direction. This is achieved by using antiresonant coils or networks at each
current node in the system except the extreme ends. A vertical antenna of
this type produces a high degree of radiation concentration at angles close
to the horizontal, a characteristic of great value in efficient long-distance
transmission.
31. Feed Methods for H -f Antennas. 1. Pure Current Feed. A
balanced current -feed system for energizing a divided half -wave dipole
,
( b)
None: Dolkdfinesrepresent
current dltlribulion on
antenna and feed lines.
FIG. 32.- Current feed
for half-wave dipole. (a) For balanced line; (b) for
balanced terminated line.
is shown in Fig. 32 in two forms, where (a) is for the use of a balanced
oscillating transmission line throughout and (b) is for a balanced ter-
minated transmission -line system, the termination being made by means
of connections to proper points on a balanced quarter-wave transforma-
tion section.
2. Pure Voltage feed System. Three forms of the pure voltage -feed
system are shown in Fig. 33, where (a) is the balanced system using
resonant line feeder, (b) the unbalanced system using resonant line feeder,
and (c) a balanced system with balanced terminated transmission line,
the antenna impedance being matched to that of the line by means of a
resonant line transformer. In the case (b) the feed line can be a concen-
tric tubular system, the antenna being connected to the inner conductor.
3. Voltage Feed front Terminated Concentric Transmission Line. A
method of voltage feeding a half -wave dipole from a terminated concen-
tric transmission line is represented schematically in Fig. 34. Here
the concentric line is made to have a characteristic impedance equal
to the radiation resistance of the antenna at the current antinode (73.2
664 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK ISec i.
ohms, if the antenna is several wave lengths above ground). A wire,
one -quarter wave length long, projects beyond the end of the outer
conductor parallel and close to the extension of the inner conductor which
continues on to become the antenna. If there is essentially zero- radiation
resistance due to the opposed quarter-wave sections, these act as a trans-
former to transfer the radiation resistance at the current antinode of the
O-.
tat No7E: Dotted lines represent

(b) Icl
potential distribution on
antenna and feeders.
Fla. 33.-Voltage -feed systems (see text p. 663).
antenna to across the end of the concentric line, thus effectively terminat-
ing the latter.
4. Terminated Transmission Feed. At high frequencies it is possible
to obtain a satisfactory termination of an open- balanced transmission
line by connecting the extremities of the line directly to the antenna wire
as shown in Fig. 35. The connections are made symmetrically to those
points on the antenna which show an impedance as nearly as possible
Iike that of the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. In
spreading the wires of the feed line to bridge the
proper impedance in the antenna, there results a
Antenna-1 , change in the characteristic impedance of the line
Jt'a in that portion which makes a perfect termination
O ----- .
I
r
A
--r a
Ic
Concentric
Transmission
Line
FIG. 34. -- Use of Fla. 35.- Method of con -

quarter-wave wire as fleeting line to radiator.
matching trans-
former.
theoretically impossible, though satisfactory practical adjustments are
obtained. For optimum line balance, exact symmetry of connection is
required. The location of the connection points is critical. The adjust-
ment is dependent upon the location of the antenna with respect to
ground and other conductors, the effects of insulator caps, etc.
5. Other Methods of Terminating Open-wire Transmission Lines in
Antennas by Means of Networks. There remain several methods for
terminating a balanced transmission line in an antenna by means of

networks of inductance and capacitance. The antenna has a certain
complex impedance when viewed from any given feed point. To match
this impedance to the line impedance, a suitable transforming network is
designed.
DIRECTIVE H -F TRANSMITTING ANTENNAS
In this branch of engineering we find the antenna art at its best.
Unhampered by serious mechanical obstacles, full advantage may he
taken of electrically long radiators, and extended arrays of many such
radiators, for obtaining a very high degree of radiation concentration in
a desired direction. Present -day h -f directive antennas project a beam
of electromagnetic energy which is analogous in fact to the beam of a
searchlight.
Out of the unlimited variety of possible forms of antenna arrays which
are suitable for use in directive radio transmission, experience has brought
about a selection of a few types which have exceptional electrical per-
formance and which at the same time have other advantages such as
low initial and maintenance costs, ease and stability of adjustment, and
physical ruggedness. It seems that each of the major commercial radio
engineering organizations of the world has evolved a system of its own.
We find such distinctive systems as the Marconi- Franklin beam, the
Telefunken "pine-tree" antenna, the SFR- Chireix -Mesny diamond -grid
radiator, the A.T. & T. Co.- Sterba antenna curtain, and the RCA broad-
side, and harmonic-wire end-fire projectors.
The principles of modern directive antenna arrays are easily grasped,
once the mechanics of wave interference are understood. However,
the detailed design of any one of these systems is an engineering task of
formidable proportions. Final adjustments and corrections after erec-
tion must be kept to a minimum, because of the great difficulties of mak-
ing even minor changes once the rigging is complete. In design work of
this sort experience plays a prominent part. The theoretical aspects
of design have been discussed in a number of papers, of which some are
listed in the bibliography.
32. Gain of Directive Antennas. When the radiant energy (which,
with a simple antenna, would he widely diffused in space in every direc-
tion) is collected and focused into a narrow unidirectional beam by a
directive array, there is a gain in effective power of transmission in the
favored direction. Gain is usually reckoned in comparison with the
field intensity from a single half -wave dipole located at the mean height
of the array. On this basis some present -day directive arrays have
gains as high as 22 db or a power gain of 158. Increases in gain result
from increases in the radiation area of a broadside array, and with the
length of a harmonic wire array.
33. Typical H -f Directive Antennas. The following description of
typical directional antennas does not exhaust the various types but is
representative:
1. The RCA Model A Broadside Anlenna.1 The schematic electrical
circuits are shown in Fig. 36. The system consists of a large number of
vertical pairs of colinear wires arranged in a plane and energized from a
feed bus (transmission line) running through the middle. 'she feed bus
CARTER. HANMELL, and LINDENRLAD, Development of Directive Transmitting
Antennas for RCA Communications, Inc., Proe. I.R.E., October, 1931.
666 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (s«. ie
has the series inductance and the parallel capacitance neutralized so as
to have the characteristics of infinite phase velocity. All the radiators
are thus energized in the same phase, and the direction of maximum
transmission is normal to the plane of the radiators. In this system the
over-all length of the radiators is 0.225 wave length, the spacing between
ransmitter
F1 n. 36. --RCA model A broadside antenna

radiators is 0.125 wave length, the maximum length of bus on each side
of a feed point is 1.5 wave length, and the volt -ampere ratio between
bus and radiators is 5. Such a system can have any desired length with
progressive improvements in gain and directivity. Another identical
aqfi6,1
of Radiation
pjreCfi 12.5°
416a "Horizontal Plane 17.5°
0.4 6A
-------------
-- k--0./J//,1
(a) -Wires in Vertical Plane
(b) -Wires in Horizontal Plane

Fta. 37. -RCA model B and C harmonic wire antennas.
array in a second plane can be used as the reflector for unidirectional
transmission. Gain with one bay with directly energized reflector is
approximately 10 db.
2. RCA Models B and C Harmonic Wire Antennas. The geometry of
these antennas is shown in Fig. 37. It was seen in Fig. 14 how the ampli-
See. 1!1 ANTENNAS 667
tude and direction of the major radiation lobe changed as the length of
the wire was increased. In this system, where each radiating wire is
8 wave lengths long, the major lobe has an angle of 17.5 deg. to the wire,
and all secondary lobes are of relatively low amplitude. By using another
radiator parallel to it, spaced 0.872 wave length and energized in opposite
Fla. 38. -RCA model D antenna.

phase, one side of the forward and one side of the backward radiation
lobe are eliminated. By adding two more such wires as reflectors (mak-
ing now four parallel radiators spaced 0.436 wave length and staggered
0.131 wave length), the backward lobe is eliminated and the radiation
Fia. 39.- Pattern of Fig. 38.

concentrated in one very sharp forward lobe. In the model B the wires
lie in a plane vertical with respect to the ground and transmit vertically
polarized waves. In the model C the wires lie in a horizontal plane and
radiate horizontally polarized waves. With these antennas the gains over
a single half -wave dipole are approximately 12 and 12.4 db, respectively.
668 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. 1$
3. RCA Model D Antenna) The layout of the model D projector

(one bay) is shown in Fig. 39. In this system, two major radiation lobes
(one from each side of the V) have a common direction and reinforce
each other while the other two lobes are canceled, as in Fig. 39. By add-
ing another V to the rear as a reflector, the backward lobe of Fig. 39 is
removed, giving a very sharp unidirectional beam of radiation. It has
a gain of 16 db for one bay. With two sections the gain increases to
approximately 19, with three to nearly 21, and with 4 to approximately
22 db. The last figure is a power ratio of 156 over that for a single half-
wave dipole. In practice the point of the beam is focused at approxi-
mately 14 deg. above the horizon.
The reference' contains a complete engineering and theoretical treat-
ment of the development of these antennas.
Fla. 40.- Telefunken directional antenna.

4. The Telefunken Directional Antenna. '['he arrangement of this
antenna is shown in Fig. 40.2 It consists of 64 horizontal dipoles in two
vertical planes of 32 each. In each of the two planes there are four lines
of eight dipoles end to end. The two planes are separated one -quarter
wave length, and the second (reflector) is energized by radiation from the
first. The dipoles are voltage fed from the potential antinodes of
balanced resonant transmission lines, uniphasing being obtained by
attaching each successive pair of dipoles to alternate wires of the trans-
mission line. As with all horizontally polarized wave systems, there is
zero electric intensity along the ground, but the beam peaks in the vicinity
of 10 deg. above the horizontal, with a secondary lobe of 25 per cent peak
intensity maximum at 45 deg. The horizontal pattern as measured is
shown in Fig. 41.
5. T. Walmsley Antenna of the British Post Office. In Fig. 42 are
shown the elements of the Walmsley beam antenna. The radiators
'Ibid.
BATE/MAR, Kaoasa, PENDL, and PPITZER, Prue. I.R.R., May, 1931.
See. 1$J ANTENNAS 669
arranged as shown produce a bidirectional beam broadside to the array,

which usually consists of 48 energized vertical pairs. As a reflector
a curtain of insulated half-wave dipoles is placed one -quarter wave length
behind the array, excited by the backward radiation. A unidirectional
beam is obtained in this manner. Owing to the lower current amplitudes
in the reflectors as compared with those in the directly energized radiators,
South North South
i 1.0
i t0.8
0.6
Ñ i
LLo.4
f
á$0.2 I
30 200 720 240 260 250 300 370 340 360 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 181
Azimuth,deg.
Fia. 41.- Horizonta pattern of Fig. 40.
there is not a complete suppression of backward radiation, and there is a
backward lobe with an intensity 22 per cent of that of the forward
beam.
6. Marconi- Franklin Beam Antenna. This antenna system, one of the
first employed for high -speed short-wave point- to-point communication,
consists of a front curtain of vertical radiators, each consisting of several
Fia. 42.-Walmaley beam antenna of British Poet Office.

cophased dipoles in series, and another curtain of reflecting wires of the
same construction situated one- quarter wave length to the rear. There
are twice as many reflectors as radiators. The reflectors are radiation
excited. In plan view, two reflectors and one radiator form the points
of an equilateral triangle. Cophasing of successive radiating dipoles is
obtained. by winding the intermediate half-wave sections (wherein the
currents are reversed) into a small non -radiating coil or web. Reflectors
are energized by radiation from the front radiator curtain. A two-bay
array has a gain of approximately 18 db.
7. Chireix- .lfesny (French) Beam. Another early type of directive
antenna for short waves is that used in France, shown schematically in
Fig. 43. Each dipole section
Parasitic Radiator forms one side of a square. The
currents in all the diagonals
Primary Radiator have cophased vertical and
horizontal components. A sim-
ilar reflecting sheet is placed
Radiator one- quarter wave length behind
the radiator sheet and is ener-
gized by radiation to give an
essentially unidirectional pat-
To Transmitter tern broadside to the plane of
FiG. 43.-Chireix -Mesny beam.
the radiators.
8. Bell System-Sterbe Direc-
tive Antenna Array. This system, used for some time in the trans-
atlantic telephone service on short waves, is a barrage antenna
employing a front curtain of several vertical radiators spaced one -
half wave length, with uniphased currents, and a similar reflector
curtain directly excited by transmission lines. One arrangement of
an antenna of this type is shown in Fig. 44, together with trans-
-Reflector Curtain- ----- ';n------ Radiator Curtain,
Phase Shifter
'Beam Deflector
-Parallel Wave Suppressor
To RadioTransmit/er
Fro. 44.- Barrage antenna of vertical radiators.
mission lines, phasing devices, protective items, and sleet -melting circuits.
The unit element in this array, as shown, is a panel 1.5 wave lengths high
and 0.5 wave length wide. The current distribution for one type of panel
is shown in Fig. 45. The crossovers constitute balanced non -radiating
lines, while currents in all the verticals are uniphased. Radiation from
the unbalanced horizontal wires at top and bottom is reduced to negligible

proportions by having equal and reversed current areas, the rirrent nodes
occuring in the middle of these horizontals. In the typical design (two
bays supported by three steel towers),
gains of approximately 20 to 23 db are r----- 2
-A---+1
achieved.
34. Loop -type Directive Transmitting
Antennas. The principal use of loop -
transmitting antennas has been in con- /
I
nection with radio beacons for guiding /

ships and aircraft. Some applications
are described in Section 17 of this 41
handbook.'
35. Mechanical Design of Directive An-
tenna Arrays. The mechanical design of a
/-
directive array for high gains is as remark-
able as the electrical design. Dimensions 2A
of electrical portions must be rigorously I
correct and must remain so, even under

conditions of severe wind and ice loading.
High -gain broadside projectors are corn E-_.
plicated webs of conductors and supporting
wires, and rigging them is a specialty
cultivated only by experience. The long - 1 r l
wire projectors are simpler, mechanically, I
and therefore cost less for a given gain. Z I
Self- supporting steel towers and also I

1
guyed wood masts are used for support. /

General practice is to locate the active por- /
tions of the antenna at a mean height of
the order of 1 wave length or more.
Antennas employing vertical radiators com-
posed of several collnear half-wave sections
require towers sometimes approaching in
height those used for broadcasting applica-
tions. Tower designs often include a cross
arm of sufficient length to permit hanging
the radiator curtain from one end and the
reflector curtain from the other.
The rigging is always made up of wires,
the supporting wires being broken into very
short electrical lengths by insulators so
To Transmitter
that they have negligible electrical influence.
Main supporting wires, usually in the form Fta. 45.- Current distri-
of catenaries, are under great tension and bution in barrage antenna
are so maintained by counterweights and panel.
anchors. Means for equalizing tensions in all parts of the rigging are
important.
DIAMOND, 11., and F. G. KEAR, A Twelve -course Radio Range for Guiding Aircraft
with Tuned -reed Visual Indication, Proc. I.R.E., June, 1930; Pam, H., Field -intensity
Characteristics of Double- modulation Tyne of Directive Radio Beacon, Proc. LR.E..
May. 1929; CHINN, H. A., A Radio Range Beacon Free from Night Effects, Proc. I.R.E..
June, 1933; DIAMOND, H., On the Solution of the Problem of Night Effects with the
Radio-range Beacon System, Proc. I.R.E., June, 1933.
672 TIIE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. 11$
Insulation of the radiators with tension -type low- capacity insulators

without metallic caps is practical with modern ceramic materials. Com-
pression- type insulators assembled in strings have been used widely for
this purpose also. Breakup insulators in the rigging are usually of the
compression type. The voltage at the potential antipodes of the radia-
tors depends upon the power transmitted, and the number of radiators
depends upon the power transmitted and the number of radiators in
the array. Liberal insulation tolerances are necessary.
Ice accumulation on the array is minimized by sleet -melting pro-
visions, whereby large currents at commercial frequency are circulated
through the conductors whenever there are ice- forming conditions. To
pass heating currents through the wires when the antenna is in service
requires by -pass circuits of very high impedance to the high frequencies
and very low impedance to 60 cycles. Antiresonant networks or the
equivalent transmission -line stub circuit fulfill this requirement.
S¡
P4 .4-- From TitansmitÆr

Fto. 46.- Transformer made up of transmission -line section.
The orientation of an antenna of high directivity is a matter of precise
surveying. The peak of the beam is pointed along a great circle to the
reception point. By adjusting the relative phases of various bays of an
array, the direction of the beam can be controlled within a few degrees.
Transmission lines for transferring power to the antennas are of both
concentric and open -wire types. The latter are cheaper and are exten-
sively used. Transmission -line sections are also employed as trans-
formers for obtaining proper relative phases and amplitudes of currents in
the various conductors. An example of such a transformer circuit is
shown in Fig. 46.1 With the several types of antennas, switching means
are often provided whereby the reflector and radiator screens may be
interchanged electrically, thus reversing the beam 180 deg.
36. Horizontal Rhombic Antenna Used for Transmission. The
rhombic antenna (see Art. 46) has been successfully applied for transmis-
sion. As a bidirective radiator, with its distant end open, it performs
much in the manner of the RCA Model D (V) antenna. When ter-
m CANTOR. HANBELL. and LINDENBLAD, Op. Cit.
minated in its characteristic impedance, the terminal resistance absorbs

the energy of one directional lobe (50 per cent of antenna power), making
the system unidirectional with broad frequency response, hence desirable
for many applications. Its low cost is a further advantage.'
ULTRA- HIGH -FREQUENCY ANTENNAS
Antenna design technique for u -h -f applications is an art of its own.
The dimensions involved are such as to permit the construction of rigid
1/80°
270°
From-4-
` Lfaj - Line impedanc
;
/ransmdler ma/chings/ubs.
4-Element horizontal
turnstile antenna
3-Element vertical
turnstile antenna
FIG. 47. FIG. 48.
Fla. 47.-Arrangement of the horizontal turnstile antenna for ultra-high
frequencies.
FIG. 48.- Arrangement of the vertical turnstile antenna for ultra-high
frequencies.
structures, and one finds rod and pipe used instead of wires for the
radiators and feeders. The multitudinous and rapidly growing applica-
tions of ultra-high frequencies to communication and broadcasting,
including television, have proved a fertile field for ingenious electrical
and mechanical designs for radiating systems. In this field we also find
the frequent necessity to employ the principles of directive antenna design
to obtain non -directive transmission from a number of radiators, func-
tioning cooperatively. In general u -h -f antennas are located at points
' FOSTER, D., Radiation from Rhombic Antennas, Prot. J.R.E., October, 1937.
674 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK 'See. 1$
of maximum accessible height, such as the top of a tower, high building, or

mountain, and many design problems are imposed by the situation.
37. Turnstile Antenna. The turnstile antenna of Brown' is one widely
used for non -directive transmission with relatively high gains due to
low-angle concentration of energy. Arrangements of this type antenna
for both horizontally and vertically polarized transmission are shown in
Figs. 47 and 48. A mechanical advantage offered by the turnstile antenna
is its all- metallic construction. Conductor potentials and radiated field
intensities are nil at the vertical axis which permits the use of a metal pipe
; Vertica /section
of the radiation
pattern
Horizontal
section of
radiation
pattern
-t- Az,
s- Ìh Thj Xd0
4 counterpoise
Fib. 49.- Schematic ar- Fia. 50. -CAA cone -of-silence marker
rangement of wide-band tele- antenna system.
vision antenna developed for
the Empire State Building.
as a central supporting member. A circular field is produced by exciting
opposite radiators in opposite phase and the quadrature conductors in
quarter phase. The phasing is done by the feeders which form a part of
the system design.
38. Horizontal Turnstile Antenna Using Ellipsoidal Radiators for
Wide -band Television Transmission. A single -stage horizontal turn-
stile antenna employing ellipsoidal radiators of proper proportions was
developed for high-definition television transmission from the Empire
State Building in New York City.' This requires the essentially uniform
transmission of side frequencies having a band width of more than 10
I BROWN, G. H., The Turnstile Antenna, Electronics, April, 1936.
2 LINDENSLAD, N. E., The Television Transmitting Antenna for Empire State Building,
RCA Rev.. April, 1939.

per cent with respect to the carrier frequency. Of still greater impor-
tance was the requirement that the input impedance to the antenna
transmission line be substantially constant at all the frequencies within
the video spectrum of the transmitter. The basic arrangement for this
purpose is shown in Fig. 49.
39.. Cone -of-silence Marker Antenna. For the purpose of providing
a positive indication when an airplane passes over a radio range station
instead of the negative one obtained by the cone -of-silence of the four-
course l -f radio range antenna, there was developed another application
of a single -stage horizontal turnstile antenna for the transmission of a
vertical beam of energy at 75 Mc. The antenna is located one -quarter
wave length above a horizontal metal counterpoise composed of 4-in.
Vertical radiation pattern
across the course
t
/eriica /radiabbn
pattern in ,
oncourse"direc/ion
il
/
a/2 L. a/2
---/
-
a/2 ia/4
Stub ?O X4Oi3
counterpoise
T. L.
Fra. 51. -CAA fan -marker antenna system.

square mesh wire on a structural steel framework. The counterpoise,
acting as a reflecting screen of permanent electrical characteristics
reinforces the vertical transmission of energy from the antenna system.
Figure 50 shows the arrangement of the cone-of- silence marker antennas
as currently used on the airways in the United States.' This is already
being superseded by improved designs giving greater vertical directivity.
40. Fan -marker Antenna. For use in determining fixed points of
location and course identification in conjunction with navigation with
l -f four-course radio ranges, directive antennas are used to transmit a
thin fan of radio energy at 75 Mc, through which a plane flies and identi-
fies his position. In this system as currently used in the United States
and Canada, four cophased dipoles are disposed horizontally in the
direction of the radio range course on which it is located, over a counter -
' JACKSON and Mars, Development. Adjustment and Application of the Z- Marker.
Report 16, Bureau of Air Commerce, July, 1938.
s
676 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (See. 1!
poise similar to that used for the cone -of- silence marker beacon antenna.
This system is shown in Fig. 51.'
41. Ultra -high-frequency Four -course Radio Range Antennas. The
application of four-course u-h -f radio ranges to the airways continued
under development in 1940 and is classed as one of the most important
projects for the immediate future for airways use. Improved course
stability and very much lower cost for antenna and equipment are the
principal gains expected.
Interlocked figure -of -eight patterns produce the four courses by the
familiar A -N keying. The ease of orienting the antenna makes the use
of a goniometer unnecessary for course alignment. Course squeezing
and bending, however, are not yet achieved at this writing but are capable
of development as the need arises. Waves of one polarization only are
essential for this purpose. Current developments employ pure horizontal
polarization, so that horizontal loop radiators are employed with every
effort made to avoid any leakage radiation which is vertically polarized.
The trend is also toward the development of two-course u-h -f radio
ranges with aural course identification.
ANTENNAS FOR RECEPTION OF ELECTRIC WAVES
42. Non -directional General- purpose Receiving Antennas. The
ordinary receiving antenna for general purposes is a single wire, of length
more or less proportional to the wave lengths to be received but usually
only a small fraction of these wave lengths in physical length. It takes
all the conventional forms, inverted L, T, or vertical. In some cases the
antenna is resonated for reception of a particular wave length, but more
commonly it is aperiodic by being terminated at the point where receiving
apparatus is located in a resistance. One or more receivers of high-input
impedance are bridged across the terminating resistance, and selectivity
is obtained in the receiving apparatus.
For optimum reception for waves arriving from some preferred direc-
tion, account must be taken of the wave tilt and the wire must be so
oriented as to bridge the greatest potential difference in space which gives
a maximum voltage across the terminating resistance. It is well known
that any antenna that is not a simple vertical has some inherent directiv-
ity, though it may be very small. Where absolute non -directivity is
unessential, advantage should be taken of the various simple means fot
obtaining optimum response to waves coming from preferred directions.
Of these, one is to incline the wire at an angle normal to the wave tilt in
the vicinity of the receiving site, and another is to locate the wire above
any other wires or metallic structures in the vicinity. Field- intensity
measurements have shown that the field intensity under or near overhead
wires and metallic structures falls to a small fraction of its free -space
value when these conductors form apertures which are smaller than a
wave length in dimensions. However, local electrical noise is not simi-
larly influenced. To obtain a favorable signal /noise ratio, it becomes
important to have the antenna high above any other parasitic conductors
in the vicinity.
43. Directive Receiving Antennas. Except for mobile stations and
home -broadcast reception, there are few cases where some degree of
directive discrimination at the receiver is not desirable or even necessary.
' Development of an Improved UHF Radio Fan Marker, Report 14, Bureau of Air
Commerce, July, 1938.
In the fixed point -to-point services, highly directive receiving antennas

are used for both long- and short -wave reception.
There are four main types of relatively high directivity receiving
antennas, as follows:
1. The loop (frame) antenna which can be rotated, or the fixed crossed -loop
system with rotating radio goniometer. With these the directivity is adjust-
able by the operator. They are usually employed as direction finders.,
2. The directive antenna array which is the saine as that used for directive
transmission. Used for the fixed services, on high frequencies.
3. The long folded -wire types of which the Bell System -Bruce rhombic
antenna is an example. Used for high frequencies in the fixed services.
4. The long -wire transmission -line type of antenna known as the Beverage,
or wave, antenna. Used for l -f and h-f reception in the fixed services.
44. Loop Antennas. This form of antenna is well known to the art
and is described and explained in almost every publication on elementary
radio. Its response is of a very low order, requiring a very high gain
receiver. Its small mechanical dimensions make it a useful device for
some portable applications, such as military field sets and field -intensity
meters. Its constant electrical characteristics and its independence of
ground have special value in the latter application. However, its prin-
cipal application is in direction- finding apparatus, which is discussed else-
where in this handbook.
The response in the maximum directions is very broad, but the minima
are very sharp. When used in direction finders, the signal is adjusted
for a minimum which can be determined with great accuracy, especially
when the loop is balanced to ground. A loop, in conjunction with a
vertical wire antenna, produces a unidirectional response which enables
one to determine the exact direction of the arriving waves. Without this
auxiliary vertical "sense" antenna, the loop has two responsive directions
180 deg. apart and can therefore give errors of this order in cases where
there might be some doubt concerning the relative geographical positions
of transmitter and receiver, as with ships at sea.
45. Directive Transmitting Antennas Used for Reception. In certain
communication systems, such as the Telefunken, Marconi, and Société
Radio Française, the receiving antenna is a duplicate of that used for
transmission. With extended arrays there results a directional dis-
crimination comparable with that at the transmitter. Thus static and
interfering signals or disturbances originating in unfavored directions are
essentially eliminated from the receiver. Extended arrays also give a
limited measure of diversity effect (discussed more fully under its proper
title) which tends to level out fading variations. Any of the directive
arrays already described could be used for reception, provided they are
properly oriented and polarized.
Some of the special problems in connection with reception may be
briefly outlined as follows:
1. The arrival of a multiplicity of waves from the saine transmitter, which
have definite time differences as well as different angles of arrival.
2. All the components of a wave group have individual variations in inten-
sity and relative phase, so that their group influence is highly variable. Th.
t SMITH -RoeE, R. L., Radio Direction Finding by Transmission and Reception (with
extensive bibliography), Prix. I.R.E., March, 1929; PALMER L. S., and L. L. K. HuNEx-
BALL, The Action of Short -wave Frame Aerials, Prot'. I.R.E., August, 1932.
result is familiarly known as fading, which may be uniform for a small band
of frequencies (such as those composing a modulated signal), or non -uniform.
The latter, called selective jading, produces serious distortion of telephonic
signals.
3. It has been discovered that signals which fade do not fade in exactly
the same manner or at exactly the saine time at different geographical posi-
tions. This latter, now known as the diversity effect, has been ultilized in the
RCA system of diversity reception, to be described.
4. Atmospheric disturbances, as well as interfering signals, are reduced
in the same degree as the directivity is increased in a favored direction,
thus providing improved signal /noise ratios. This advantage falls down,
however, when the disturbances originate in the direction of the desired
signals.
5. High gain is often required to override receiver noise.
It is plain that these problems are peculiar to the reception end of a
communication circuit. Adapting a transmitting array to reception
may partially satisfy problem 1 if its horizontal and vertical directivities
are high enough to give a sensible reduction of those minor components
of the wave group which are more harmful than useful. A transmitting
array seldom is of sufficient geographical extent to give much space
equalization of signal by diversity. Furthermore phase differences con-
tinue to exist between the currents in the system due to the various wave
components, so that comparatively little improvement in fading is
obtained in this manner. From the standpoint of gain, the transmitting
type of antenna is perhaps equal to the special types developed for recep-
tion purposes. Transmitting antennas, being generally of the resonant
conductor type, suffer rather high reradiation losses when used for
reception.
46. Folded -wire Receiving Antennas., A very simple and effective
type of receiving antenna has been developed by Bruce and his coworkers
of the Bell System, known as the rhombic antenna. This antenna has
several useful intermediate forms between an electrically long vertical
wire and the horizontal rhomboid, or diamond. Among these are the
tilted wire, the vertical inverted V, and the vertical diamond. The
application of any one of these forms must take into account the polariza-
tion of the incoming waves, the direction and the wave tilt, the frequency
range to be covered with one antenna, and the available space.
Three forms of this antenna are shown in Fig. 52. In (a) is a vertical
inverted V which has bidirectional response. In (b) is the same antenna
equipped to absorb completely in a terminating resistance all energy
received from a backward direction, giving unidirectional response at
the receiver. Both (a) and (b) are vertically polarized. In (c), for hori-
zontally polarized waves, terminated to give unidirectional response,
there are in effect two opposed V sections of the type of (a) and (b). For
any wave direction, there exists a wire length I which will give maximum
response. This occurs when the wire length is one -half wave length
greater than its projection upon the line representing the wave direction
in the plane of the antenna. The horizontal rhombic antenna (c) has
zero response along the ground, and the peak of the directive pattern
can be focused at the vertical angle which corresponds to the incoming
wave direction by suitably proportioning the antenna dimensions.
Bauca, E., Developments in Short -wave Directive Antennas, Proe. I.R.E., August,
1931; Bauca, E., A. C. Baca, and L. R. Lowar, Horizontal Rhombic Antennas, Proc.
I.R.S., January, 1935.
In the design of a horizontal rhombic antenna there are three variables,

the length of a side 1, the angle m, and the height above ground H. The
Incoming Wove Incoming Wave

Direclion/BacAl Direction (Front)
Receiver
(a)
0-.11.4
Incoming Mere
I
Direction
RZo
,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,J,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,i
I
Receiver
(b)
Horizonha/
Plan View Component
of Wave Direction
`, Qa
Termination L
To Receiver Vertical
Component
of N(m Dirodion
*To
Qo
Side Elevation
(c)
Fia. 52.- Rhombic antennae of Bruce.
lowest practical height is when
X
H
4 sin A
The value of the angle 0 is obtained when
sin 0 a cos A
For maximum gain the value of l is found from the equation
X
l
2 sine A
With this value of 1 the peak of the major directivity lobe may not fall
at the desired angle corresponding to the wave direction. Where the

received wave direction is unstable or where maximum signal to noise
discrimination is sought, the length is adjusted to focus the point of the
beam in the wave direction. This occurs when the length is shortened to
0.371
l
sin= 0
The greater the length, the greater the range of frequencies which can
he efficiently received on one antenna.
The main axis of this antenna is oriented in the great-circle direction
of the associated transmitting station.
The proper value of the terminating resistance for back-wave suppres-
sion is determined experimentally. Impedance measurements of the
antenna are made at the receiver end with trial values of resistance at
the termination. The proper termination is that which gives the flattest
impedance-frequency characteristic. One might make a preliminary
determination of the order of the terminal resistance by making a rough
calculation of the characteristic impedance of the antenna as a transmis-
sion line of parallel wires.
Finally the output terminals of the antenna are connected through a
termination network to a transmission line running to the receivers. The
terminal impedance is matched to that of the transmission line. Accu-
rate balance to ground must be maintained in the antenna system, as
well as in the transmission line, if it be of the open -wire type.
47. Multiple -unit Steerable Antenna.' The receiving rhombic
antenna can be made directive in the vertical plane by altering its length -
width proportions. The angle of arrival of waves changes from time to
time; and there are groups of waves arriving simultaneously with different
angles of incidence, any one of which may be of dominant magnitude.
To take advantage of selecting the dominant wave group for optimum
reception, experiments were carried out with rhombic antennas which
were mechanically adjustable in length and width so as to obtain a "steer -
able" antenna, responsive to various angles of arrival as desired.
The same ends were later obtained by electrical steering in the multiple -
unit steerable antenna system. The multiple -unit steerable antenna
(known as MUSA) is part of the multiple-unit steerable antenna system
of short-wave reception, an elaborate and highly developed method of
selecting and combining in proper phase the ever -changing multiple wave
groups arriving at the receiving location. The antenna comprises a
multiplicity of rhombic antennas, arranged in line on the great circle
bearing to the transmitting station. Each antenna is a directively
responsive device which feeds its energy into a concentric transmission
line where it is brought back to the receivers. A long line of such
antennas provides extreme space diversity, and the cumulative energy
collected over a continuous expanse of as much as 2 miles of
antennas, properly phased out, reaches large values. In this system
the dominant wave group is selected and the others rejected. By
virtue of space diversity, sharp directional characteristics due to the
antennas, together with the selective phasing of the multiple wave
' Fans and FELDMAN, A Multiple Unit Steerable Antenna for Short -wave Reception,
Proc. I.R.E.. July, 1937.
Sec. 181 ANTENNA,' 681
groups in the receivers, unusual signal /noise ratios are obtained, and
fading is effectively equalized.
In this system the receiver plays as important a part as the antenna
array in obtaining the desired performance. It is through the medium
of the phasing of the various individual lines from the antenna elements
and wain through the phasing of the branches of the receiver that the
array is given its continuously variable control of the two or more vertical
directional lobes. In its commercial form this phasing is accomplished
automatically. The entire vertical plane is explored continuously, and
automatic phasing causes the antenna response pattern to follow that
of the angle of arrival of the dominant wave groups from moment to
moment. It is the complete receiving system, then, and not the antenna
alone, which achieves directional steering.
48. The Beverage (Wave) Antenna.' This type of antenna, one of
the earliest effective directive receiving systems to be used commercially,
is a long transmission line. It is named after its inventor, H. H. Bever-
age but is also called the wave antenna. A long open -wire transmission
line pointed in the direction of a down -coming wave, has a high degree
of exposure to the horizontal component of the wave front, which induces
in the line a continuous series of e.m.fs. that are propagated along the
wires in the form of a traveling wave. A wave front sets up a wave in
the wire which starts at the distant extremity (in the direction of the
arrival of the space wave) which is propagated toward the home end
where a receiver is situated. In addition, the entire wire receives energy
from the down-coming wave, so that the effects are cumulative at the
receiver and a relatively large amount of energy is extracted from the
space wave for energizing the receiver. The antenna functions only
where there is an angular difference between the direction of the wire and
the incidental direction of the space wave. This condition is suitably
stet in practice due to natural conditions, since finite earth conductivity
causes a wave traveling in space near the surface to be tilted forward
at a considerable angle. Thus a long transmission line parallel to tl;-
surface of the ground has a workable inclination with respect to the wave
front. This applies to vertical polarization.
'l'he Beverage antenna has many useful forms which are specially
adapted to long -wave reception, to short -wave reception, to bidirectional
and unidirectional selectivity, for vertical and horizontal polarization, etc.
A thorough treatment of these is impossible here, and detailed data must
be obtained from the original and subsequent papers on the subject.
For long waves the antenna construction is very similar to ordinary
open -wire telephone lines. The antennas may be located at a considera-
ble distance from the station and coupled to the receivers by transmission
lines. The Beverage antenna is directive in the line of its orientation
and is made unidirectional by terminating the distant end in a resistance
equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. Thus energy collected
from a wave in the backward direction is completely dissipated without
producing any influence in the receiver. Directivity may be sharpened
by using two or more antennas in an array. This has been done in the
system shown in Fig. 53 which is used for transatlantic telephone recep-
i BEVERAGE, H. H., C. W. RICE, and E. W. KELLOGG, The Wave Antenna, Trans.
A.I.E.E., February, 1923; BEVERAGE, H. H., and H. O. PETERSON, Diversity Receiving
System of RCA Communications, Inc., for Radio Telegraphy, Prue. I.R.E., April, 1931;
BAILEY, AUSTIN, S. W. DEAN, and W. T. WINTRINGRAM, Receiving System for Long-
wave Transatlantic Radio Telephony, Prue. I.R.E., December, 1928.
682 THE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDBOOK [Sec. 1$
"..
tion on long waves. One of the several forms of the antenna which is
used in this application is that which couples the receiver to the end of
the antenna that is nearest the transmitting station. A two-wire line is
used to achieve this in the following manner: Waves arriving from the
.,
preferred direction act upon the two wires in parallel to ground, and the
Ea
Induced wave of energy in the wire travels to the distant end where it
1.0
Solid Curve
:L0.8 El mOásrrírd /ues(0-B0
44.IkKyh1 =O.Aá9A'a
v
WEE! Antenna
ác
.le.
0.6 ity-rc60Kc.=NS6°7'E
Attenuot/on=O.B/db.perKm.
o
Yekcity Ratio =0.880
E 0.4 Cuasl-Ti%tA k=C20428Radiirns
Compensated fora Nu//Poiniat/6/.4 °
i
0.2
0 EMI IIIIII 111
o Ililalli11 Ili ' MSS!! 140 160 180
360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 180
Angle of Incidence,O,deg.
Fia. 53.- Directivity of Beverage antenna.
Direction of Signa/
Propagation
n e ot C b a
T T T
3..
L 01
Receiver
e' c' b' a'
F' Beverage antenna.
F'54.- High-frequency
Fia.
encounters a reactive network called a reflection transformer. This device

reverses the phase of the wave in one of the wires and reflects the energy
from the end back to the receiver the reflected wave of energy now
traveling in the two wires balanced to ground. The receiver coupling
network terminates the line and absorbs all the wave energy in actuating
the receiver. A wave entering the system from the reverse direction
travels along the two wires in parallel against ground, producing no
potential difference across the balanced termination and therefore has
no influence on the receiver. Instead, the circuit to ground is terminated

in the characteristic impedance of the parallel -grounded system, and
the unwanted wave is completely dissipated in a resistor.
In its very simplest form the Beverage antenna is a single straight
horizontal wire a few feet above grade level, the length being anywhere
from one to several wave lengths. The characteristic impedance of this
wire unbalanced to ground is roughly calculable by using the image as
the second conductor in a parallel wire system. The receiver is coupled
in at one end of the line, and the other end is terminated in a resistance
equal to the characteristic impedance. Stable ground systems are neces-
sary at both ends.
A form of the Beverage antenna used at high frequencies (horizontally
polarized exposure) is shown in Fig. 54. This is a plan view of the con-
ductors. The side wires extract from the traveling waves energy which
is coupled into the central transmission line which is balanced to ground.
Direction of Propagation
Fla. 55.- Double broadside Beverage antenna.

The side wires act as distributed loading of the transmission line, modify-
ing (reducing) its phase velocity of propagation and its characteristic
impedance. The branches with their coupling condensers have a capaci-
tive effect on the line within the desired frequency range, and they
must be close enough together to produce the effect of continuous loadings
(maximum separation three-eighths wave length at the shortest wave
length to be received).
A practical form of the antenna, where two are used in broadside for
higher directivity, is shown in Fig. 55. This also indicates the method
of rigging it, the location of insulators, etc. With antennas of this type,
the signal /noise ratio is reduced from 24 to 39 db over that obtained
with a single dipole, when the static directions are not in the line of
maximum response.
49. Diversity Reception. The fading of h -f radio signals has always
been a major problem. Antenna design, in the phases treated in this
work, is at best only moderately effective in reducing it. Diversity
reception has proved a long step forward in combating signal fading.
In this system three separate receiving equipments are employed, the
antennas for them being located at different geographical points. The
distance between antennas is arbitrary, being in practice sometimes a
mile or more. For obvious reasons the three antennas are not in any
straight line but disposed somewhat as shown in Fig. 56. Diversity
of fading with geographical separations of this sort produces an average
cumulative effect which is quite constant. To eliminate the effect of
phase relations when the outputs from the three systems are mixed,
this function is achieved after
detection.
Any type of receiving antenna
may be employed, but in the
RCA Diversity Receiving Sys-
tem, the Beverage- Peterson an-
tenna shown in Fig. 56 is used as
the unit.
BROADCAST RECEIVING
ANTENNAS'
50. All-wave Receiving An-
tennas. The all -wave receiver
is now more or less standardized,
and contains usually three fre-
quency bands: the broadcast
band of 550 to 1,600 kc; the
"police" band, from 1,600 to
6,000 kc; and the "short- wave"
band from 6 to 22 Mc. These
limits sometimes are slightly
changed, and one of the two
higher frequency bands is omit-
ted in some sets.
In general, an ordinary Mar-
coni open -wire antenna about 50
to 100 ft. in length gives satis-
factory signal voltage, but on
Fla. 56.- Antennas arranged for di- account of "man -made static,"
versity reception. or interference produced by
electrical apparatus generating
transient currents having components in the bands above mentioned, the
simple open -wire antenna is not satisfactory, particularly in metropolitan
areas.
With the advent of television and u-h -f broadcasting it is necessary
more than ever to provide special types of antennas, having very directive
characteristics, and transmission lines between the antenna proper and
the receiver, incapable of picking up interference.
51. Types of Antennas. All the antenna structures commonly used in
broadcast reception may he classified into doublet- and Marconi -type
antennas according to whether they act by virtue of phase differences
within the antenna wire, or as elevated capacities with respect to the
surrounding medium, called ground, which may be the metallic structure
of a building, the piping, or even the power line. The choice of proper
ground makes a lot of difference in the signal /noise ratio.
The doublets consist of two arms, usually of nearly equal length (Fig.
57), and called simple doublets; or they may contain several pairs of arms
By J. G. Aceven, Amy, Aceves & King.
Sec. 1!l ANTENNAS 685
interconnected at the common gap (Fig. 58). Each pair of arms is made
approximately of one -half wave length for the mean frequency of the
band intended to be covered, although with a transmission line that
matches the impedance of the doublet, either directly or through a
matching device, the resonance is not critical.
For television work it is necessary to receive signals from only one
direction to avoid the formation of secondary images called ghosts, which
originate from reflected waves arriving with a certain phase retardation.
This requires the use of reflectors to make the doublet unidirectional as
Transmission
/ine
Flo. 57.- Simple doublet antenna. Fla. 58.- Doublet antennas for
noise reduction.
far as possible. In some cases a double doublet of the saine length for
the two units and with a double reflector may help considerably in boost-
ing the pickup of the structure in the desired direction. Figure 59 shows
a typical television antenna.
The Marconi-type antennas act, as stated above, as capacitative
generators below their natural period. This is normally the case in the
standard broadcast band. However, they may be used for frequencies
considerably higher, in fact sometimes so high that several wave lengths
may be developed in the long -wire structure. In such cases they present
alternately capacitive reaction and then
resistive l
capcit vel reaction; andtithe cycle gwill }pr blet 0°1
repeat itself indefinitely, according to the e{lam 00
number of one- quarter wave lengths. R pPp1 t,
This is true in general, but, when the 11W'-
transmission line introduces directly or le,
o2
through a coupling device a large resist- bl l
ance reaction, the long wires begin to show ill
Not
less and less peaks in their voltage versus or
frequency characteristics. oefle
The Marconi antennas can be easily
changed into very directive structures,
when they are several wave lengths long,
by terminating them in a suitable resist-
ance at the far end, and by proper selec- 59.- Television receiving
tion of the reflected impedance at the antenna and reflection.
transmission -line end.
Combination of two such structures may become a "diamond" or
rhombic antenna with very directive properties but structures of this
and other complicated types, including arrays of doublets or half doublets
are seldom used for broadcast purposes, except for demonstration in
stores and in localities far away from the stations (mostly for television),
and where a number of receivers are to be operated from one antenna
structure. Foreign reception by large commercial companies uses a
number of these highly directive structures.
52. Elimination of Interference. The vast majority of radio receivers

have enough sensitivity to permit reception with a very poor signal
energy pickup, as can be readily seen in the typical example of automobile
radios. Therefore the main problem is not so much to increase the
signal energy pickup by means of an antenna system very well designed
as it is to reduce the amount of interference which is inevitably present
even in isolated houses where other electrical apparatus containing
current interrupters of one kind or another are always found. Hence
it is very important in passing judgment on the merits of a given antenna
to examine it first of all from the advantage secured by its use in signal/
noise ratio. Of course, in "dead" spots, signal energy requirements may
be of paramount importance.
For interference waves to assert themselves, they must contain com-
ponents within the hand to be received. It follows that it is possible to
reduce the interference by broadcasting in the region where those com-
ponents are a minimum or not present at all. It is well known that above
40 Mc these components are usually very weak and "natural" static is
practically absent. For this reason the sound channels of television
stations are remarkably free from noise.
An additional step in noise reduction is obtained by the use of f.m.
instead of a.m., thereby permitting the use of a limiter (see Sec. 10)
which forms part of special receivers for frequency modulated broadcast
signals.
In television reception the elimination of interference is still more
necessary, and, although there are comparatively weak components in
the neighborhood of 50 Mc, they are sufficiently strong to make them-
selves obnoxious in visual reception. They originate mostly from
diathermy apparatus and internal- combustion engine ignition systems.
53. Noise -reduction Methods. Interference enters a radio receiver
1. Through the antenna.

2. By down -lead or transmission line pickup.
3. By direct pickup of the receiver.
4. By common coupling between the signal pickup circuit and the noise -
producing circuits.
The fourth mode of entry gives the greatest amount of trouble and
will be treated more at length.
1. Antenna pickup can be reduced only by placing the antenna in a
field which is strong for the signals but weak for the interference.
With a low-loss transmission line it is possible to place the antenna at a
very great distance from the receiver. For example, this was done near
a very powerful hydroelectric plant in the West where the line was nearly
iz mile long. From almost impossible broadcast reception it became
possible to listen to distant stations after the installation of the noise-
reducing system and after moving the antenna far away from the outdoor
power network into the side of a hill.
2. The down-lead pickup is eliminated simply by eliminating the open
down-lead and replacing it by a transmission line, which may be of the
balanced type or of the concentric or shielded type. A well -balanced
shielded line seldom gives the expected increase in signal /noise ratio
over the open type, provided the terminating couplers are of the correct
design.
3. Direct Pickup. Modern receivers are fairly well shielded, especially

those for use in motor vehicles. Only the inexpensive household radio
sets are likely to pick up much interference by themselves when provided
with a good noise -reducing antenna system.
The exception is the loop set, which can overcome interference only
by turning the loop to a minimum pickup direction with respect to the
noise, whenever this is possible without also eliminating the signal.
When there is more than one source of interference, this expedient fails.
Loop sets have the advantage that they are considerably less affected by
noise currents via the power-line connection.
The internal noise of radio receivers due to shot effect and thermal
agitation has not been mentioned because the signal level is usually much
higher than 30 or 40 db below the standard 1 my input voltage, but in
a Radio
i receiver
I
IC
.l.
F,f Y Chassis
Signa/
e.m.f %nierf.
e.m.f.
Ground
Fio. 60. -Noise circuits in Fla. 61.-Circuit im-
radio receiver. mune from power -line
interference.
loop sets this does not hold as a rule, particularly if the receiver is not near
a window or other free space unshadowed by metallic structures.
4. Common Coupling between Signal and Noise Circuits. Figure 60
illustrates schematically the principle involved in this type of interfer-
ence. Let E be a source of interference in series with the lamp -cord
connection of the radio set. It will force a current through the chassis
of the receiver g, through the primary p of the input transformer, and
through the down-lead and antenna a and its equivalent capacity C to
ground. Obviously a secondary voltage will be developed and applied
to the input of the tube of the receiver. Now consider Fig. 61. Every-
thing is the same except the input- circuit connections of the receiver.
Here the signal voltage, represented by a source E', will send a current
through the effective capacity of the antenna C, through the antenna and
down -lead wire a, the primary p, and back to ground through a conductor
k, not common to the path of the current from the source of interference
E, which meets a "dead end" at the chassis of the radio receiver and
therefore is incapable of delivering an e.m.f. to the input of the first tube
of the receiver.
While the antenna and down-lead, in the above illustration, are open
to attack from radiated interference, the system of Fig. 61 is immune to
power-line interference. The capacity between the
Antenna windings of the input transformer should be small.
This is essential to keep in mind when designing
transformer a noise -reducing antenna or radio -set transformer.
Otherwise appreciable current will flow through this
capacity and reach the antenna.
To eliminate radiated interference, as well as
"conductive" due to common paths of noise and
Radio signal currents, a complete system, such as is
receiver illustrated in Fig. 62, will increase the signal /noise
a ratio by as much as 20 to 30 db. The simple sys-
tem shown in Fig. 62 may be extended to a plurality
of hands by the use of a number of transformers cov-
Set tmnsf. ering the various selections. Figure 63 illustrates
a complete antenna system for the broadcast band,
short-wave band, and television or f-m reception,
Fie. 62.- Simple with full noise -reduction design in all the bands. In
system for improv- this particular illustration the antenna structure
ing signal /noise acts as a Marconi antenna for the broadcast band
ratio.
and as a doublet for the higher frequency bands.
54. Master Antenna Systems. The receiving system of Fig. 63 is
suitable for the operation of a number of radio receivers, by using a
SWand UHF
fransf.
Broadcast
band transf.
Radio receiver
U/tra high
II ° frequency
'r
input
S/andardand
European(Sw)
II broadcast
"bands input
Fie. 63.- System for operating several broadcast receivers.
plurality of receiver couplers across a line terminated in its surge resist-
ance, provided that the receiver couplers have a suitable ratio of trans-
Sec. lall ANTENNAS 689
formation that will prevent not only excessive attenuation by overloading

the transmission line but likewise undue reactions between the various
receivers themselves.
In this case the maximum of noise reduction is to be sought and full
isolation used, i.e., nothing but inductive couplings and complete separa-
tion from power -line interference circuits and the signal channels. When
the signal strength is too weak to operate an unduly large number of
receivers, an amplifier between the antenna and the transmission-line
networks is sometimes employed to increase the signal voltage available
at the outlets without amplifying interference except that which the
antenna itself picks up.
In places where noise is not severe and the cost of installation is a prime
consideration, it is satisfactory to provide an isolation transformer at the
antenna and some form of conductive receiver couplers. For example,
+50
+40
+30
+20
+10
M-=
II
IfSkl
M:\ 2
MOWN:M=`M
6
ó
0
IO
20
-30
' -- AI
%Noise
MIEN
1111111181119
'
-40
0:4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Megacyc es
Fla. 64. -A, signal as received with ordinary antenna equipment; C, advan-
tage secured by noise- reducing equipment.
couplers consisting of series condensers and resistors may be used or
resistors or a combination thereof, mostly to minimize reactions between
receivers.
References
General Properties of Radiating Systems:
BARROW, W. L.: On the Impedance of a Vertical Half -wave Antenna above an Earth
of Finite Conductivity, Proc. I.R.E., February, 1935.
BARHENOFF, V. I., and N. A. MJABOEDOFF: Effective Height of Closed Aerials. Proc.
I.R.E., June, 1931.
BECHMANN, R.: Calculation of Electric and Magnetic Field Strengths of Any Oscil-
lating Straight Conductors, Prot. I.R.E., March, 1931.
: On the Calculation of Radiation Resistance of Antennas and Antenna
Combina-
tions, Proc. I.R.E., August, 1931.
DELLINOER. J. H.: Principles of Transmission and Reception with Antenna and Coil
Aerials, Bur. Standards Sci. Paper 3.54, 1919.
HANSEN W. W., and J. G. BECEERLEY: Concerning New Methods of Calculating Radi-
ation Resistance with or without Ground, Proc. I.R.E., December, 1936.
. and J. R. WOODYARD: New Principle in Directional Antenna Design, Proc.
I.R.E., March. 1938.
HUND, A.: "Phenomena in High -Frequency Systems," McGraw -Hill Book Company,
MURRAY, F. H.: The Mutual Impedance of Two Skew Antennas, Proc. I.R.E., January,
1933.
NORTON, K. A.: Physical Reality of Space and Surface Waves in the Radiation Field of
Radio Antennas. Proc. I.R.E., September. 1937.
PIBTOLEORs, A. A.: The Radiation Resistance of Beam Antennas, Proc. I.R.E., March.
1929.
RAMSEY, R. R., and R. DREISBACK: Radiation and Induction, Prot. I.R.E., August, 1928.
STRATTON, J. A., and H. A. CHINN: The Radiation Characteristics of a Vertical Half.
wave Antenna, Proc. I.R.E., December, 1932.
UDA. S.: High -angle Radiation of Short Electric Waves, Proc. I.R.E., May. 1927.
NELLS, N.: Aerial Resistance and Aerial Termination, Marconi Rev., April, 1934.
Antenna Measurements:
BROWN, G. H., and R. KING: High-frequency Models in Antenna Investigations,
Proc. I.R.E., April, 1934.
The Problem of Auto-Radio Antennas, Electronics. February, 1935.
CLAPP, J. K.: Antenna Measuring Equipment, Proc. I.R.E., April, 1930.
TAYLOR, A. H., and H. F. HASTINGS: Determination of Power in the Antenna at High
Frequencies, Proc. I.R.E., August, 1931.
Radio Instruments and Measurements, Bur. Standards Circ. 74.
Directive Antennas for H -f Transmission and Reception:
MEISSNER, A.: Directional Radiation with Horizontal Antennas, Proc. I.R.E., Novem-
ber, 1927.
STERBA, E. J.: Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Directional Transmitting Systems,
Proc. I.R.E., July, 1931.
and C. B. FELDMAN: Transmission Lines for Short -wave Radio Systems, Prot.
I.R.E.. July, 1932.
STONE, J. S.: Directive Antenna Array, U.S. Patent 1643323, Sept. 27, 1927.
YAGt, H.: Beam Transmission of Ultra-short Waves, Proc. I.R.E., June, 1928.
Broadcast Antennas:
BALLANTINE, S.: High -quality Broadcast Transmission and Reception, Proc. I.R.E.,
May, 1934.
CHAMBERLAIN A. B., and W. B. LODGE: The Broadcast Antenna. Prot. I.R.E., January,
1936.
HARBICH. H., and W. HAHNEMANN: Wirksame Bekampfung des Nahschwundes im
Rundfunksendeantennengebilde bestimmter Form, E.N.T., October, 1932.
HARMON, RALPH: Some Comments on Broadcast Antennas, Proc. I.R.E., January, 1936.
HAYES and MACLARTY: The Empire Series Broadcast Station at Daventry, Jour. I.E.E.
(London), September, 1939.
RICKARD: Graphical Method for Determining the Fundamental Wave Length of a
Broadcast Antenna, Marconi Rev., November, 1933.
RODER, H.: Broadcast Antennas, Broadcast News (RCA), July, 1932.
SMITH, CARL: A Critical Study of Two Broadcast Antennas, Proc. I.R.E., October, 1936.
Aircraft Antennas:
DIAMOND. H., and G. L. DAVIES: Characteristics of Airplane Antennas for Radio Range
Beacon Reception, Proc. I.R.E., February, 1932.
HALLER, G. L.: Constants of Fixed Antennas on Aircraft, Prot. I.R.E., April, 1938.
HYLAND, L. A.: Constants of Trailing Wire Antennas, Proc. I.R.E., December, 1929.
SECTION 19
TELEVISION
BY DONALD G. FINK'
1. Definition. Television is the electrical transmission of transient
visual images. Cathode -ray television makes use of electron beams or
electron images in the camera tube (pickup device) and in the picture
tube (reproducing device). A television system is considered to possess
facilities for transmitting sound synchronously with visual images.
2. Elements of a Television System. The elements of a typical
vision system are shown in Fig. 1. The sound system consists tele- of a
PICTURE PICTURE-SOUND
TRANSMITTING : RECEIVING
ANTENNA ANTENNA
PICTURE
TUBE
RF ANDFF PICTURE VIDEO
AMPLIFIERS AMPLIFIE
MONITOR
PICTURE
TUBE
71 SYNC AND
6CANNING
ANIMA
FCARRI
SOURCE
SOURCE
,MICROPHONE
\ SOUND AUDIO"
OF SOUND
11)
I
III LINE tlDOLAIIN(
FAMPLIFIEIi ANPIIFIER
MODULATE
R 4,0
H/SOUND
TRANSMITTING
ANTENNA
MODULAAR AMPUNER
LOUDSPEAKER
IKONITOR MONITOR
PLIRFR LOUDSPEAKER
T R A N S M I T T E R R E C E V E R
Fta. 1.- Elements of a television system. I
conventional= transmitter and receiver operating on a carrier frequency

in the u -h -f range and is separate from the picture system, except that
common antennas may be employed at the transmitter and receiver and a
common r -f amplifier and first detector may be used in the receiver. The
picture transmitter includes the camera and synchronization circuits,
((video signal generator), video amplifiers, a-h -f carrier source and r-f
amplifiers, the modulator, a filter for suppressing part of one of the side -
band regions in the carrier output, and the radiator. The picture
receiver consists of r-f amplifier or antenna circuits, first detector and i -f
amplifiers (the latter two in superheterodyne receivers), a second detector,
Managing Editor, Electronics: author, "Principles Television Engineering."
The National Television System Committee hasofrecommended (in 1941) the use
of frequency modulation, with ±75 Ice maximum deviation, for television sound
transmission.
691
one or more video amplifiers, picture tube, synchronizing signal separator

circuits, scanning generators, and power supplies.
SCANNING AND IMAGE ANALYSIS

S. Linear Scanning. The method of analyzing and synthesizing visual
images employed in modern television systems is known as linear scan-
ning. As applied to the transmission of images, linear scanning involves
the exploration of the image to be transmitted by an elemental spot of
small area, known as the scanning agent, which traverses the area of the
image in a series of horizontal lines, moving over every point in the image
at constant speed and discovering the degree of brightness at each point
in succession. The camera tube, which includes the scanning agent,
generates a succession of electrical impulses which correspond with the
successive values of brightness discovered by the scanning agent.
At the receiver the scanning process involves setting up an elemental
luminous spot of small area which moves synchronously with the scanning
agent in the camera tube. The brightness of this luminous spot is con-
trolled by the electrical impulses transmitted from the camera tube to
the receiver. The values of brightness present in the original image are
thereby reproduced in their proper positions. The scanning process
must be rapid enough so that all the elements of the received image are
perceived simultaneously by the eye. This requirement is met if the
scanning of the image is completed within the duration of persistence of
vision, so that the first element of brightness persists in the eye during
the production of all the succeeding elements in the image.
4. Aspect Ratio. The ratio of width (w) to the height (h) of the rec-
tangle actively employed in reproducing the image is known as the aspect
ratio. In accordance with the standard adopted for motion pictures, in
the United States this ratio is given the value
w 4
á 3
NOTE: Those relationships marked with an asterisk ( *) are recommended standards

of the Radio Manufacturers Association (R.M.A.), which were used in 1940 for public
television transmissions in the United States. In 1941 the National Television System
Committee (N.T.S.C.) recommended standards identical to those of the R.M.A. except
in the syn-
(1) frequency modulation for sound transmissions, (2) minor differences
chronization wave form, (3) a higher modulation capability in the picture transmitter,
(4) an increase in the number of lines from 441 to 525, and (5) the possible use of fre-
quency modulation for synchronization.
These standards were adopted by F.C.C. for commercial television

effective July 1, 1941.
5. Total Number of Lines per Frame. The total number of lines over
which the scanning agent passes from the beginning of one complete
image to the beginning of the next is known as the total number of lines
per frame, n.
The number of lines determines the degree of detail which may be
accommodated in the reproduced picture. in the vertical dimension.
Hence this number sets an upper limit to the amount of pictorial detail
which may be accommodated in that direction. The number in modern
8.c. if) TELEVISION 693
systems is set usually between 400 and 600 lines. According to the
N.T.S.C. standards, n has the value
n = 525 (2)
The reason for the exact number 525 (see Arts. 6 and 31 of this section)
is that it is an odd number composed of simple odd factors
(525 = 3 X 5 X 5 X 7).
6. Interlaced Scanning. To reduce flicker in the reproduced image,
a scanning technique known as interlacing is customarily employed,
whereby the image is scanned in two or more groups of lines. The scan-
ning motion in "two -to-one odd -line" interlaced scanning (the method
now universally adopted) is shown in Fig. 2. The scanning agent
traverses the area in two series of lines alternately, passing downward
(at left in Fig. 2) from point A to point 13 in the light solid line, following
the back-and -forth motions shown by the arrows. The scanning spot
then moves upward from point B to point C (at right), thence downward
again from point C to point D on the heavy line, finally upward again
s
from point D to the starting point A, where the motion repeats itself.
v¡+
khvA
C A
vh
kherh
--
r,.J.-
-_C
-_,r
1,k0vb
D D B
Active fields Inactive fields
(downward) (upward)
Fia. 2.- Scanning pattern for two-to -one odd-line interlaced scanning.
The scanning agent is active in discovering or reproducing the picture
information while traveling over the lines shown solid and is inactive
while traveling over the lines shown dashed. The total number of back -
and -forth motions made in traversing both series of lines is n. The total
number of active lines (shown solid) is n °. The inactive lines (n
are those made by the scanning agent in traveling from the bottom to
°) -n
the top of the picture area (the motions shown at the right). Practical
values of the numbest of active lines, n
for a 525 -line image lie between
the limits 483 and 488, representing 42 and 37 inactive lines, respectively.
The general expression for the number of active lines is
n
n° - (3)
1+k>
where k,, the vertical retrace ratio, is the ratio between the upward scan-
ning velocity and the downward scanning velocity, as defined in Art. 7,
on the next page.
7. Scanning Velocities and Retrace Ratios. The scanning agent is

caused to traverse the picture area in the interlaced pattern (Fig. 2) by
imparting to it horizontal and vertical motions. The spot is displaced
horizontally from left to right at a speed vh, and simultaneously it is
displaced vertically downward at a slower speed v,.. The two motions
cause the spot to move slightly downward and to the right until it reaches
the right -hand edge of the area. Then the spot is reversed rapidly and is
moved to the left at a faster speed khvh (kh times as fast as it moves to the
right), forming the retrace motion to the left-hand edge of the area.
The downward velocity persists at the value vr during the succession of
hack- and-forth motions until the spot reaches the bottom of the area.
Thereupon the downward motion is reversed, and the spot is moved
upward at a faster velocity k,v, (k, times as fast as it moved downward),
until it reaches the top of the pattern. During the upward motion,
several back- and -forth motions are executed, since the horizontal veloci-
ties vh and khvh are maintained.
The horizontal retrace ratio kh is the ratio of the backward (to the left)
scanning velocity to the forward (to the right) scanning velocity. Prac-
tical values of kh range from about 6 upward to 15. The N.T.S.C. stand-
ards set a lower limit to this ratio of 6.3. The vertical retrace ratio k,,
between the upward and downward velocities, ranges from about 10 to
15 times. The N.T.S.C. standards set a lower limit to this ratio of 12.3.
8. Interlaced Fields. One set of the two sets of lines in the interlaced
pattern is known as an interlaced field. Since the total number of lines
in the complete frame is an odd number (525), the number of lines per
field is a whole number plus one -half (262). This accounts for the
fact that at the end of the first field (Fig. 2) the spot, at point C, has
formed but one -half of the horizontal motion. The half-line displace-
ment causes the lines in the second field to be displaced vertically from
those in the first field by the width of one line. Consequently the lines
of one field fall directly between the lines of the preceding field. If the
scanning motion is not accurately timed and if the amplitudes of the
vertical and horizontal motions are not constant, this interlaced relation-
ship is not maintained, and the lines of one field tend to overlap the lines
of the preceding field. This defect is known as pairing of the fields. Its
effect is to reduce the detail of the reproduced picture in the vertical
dimension.
9. Vertical Resolution. The vertical resolution re of the scanning
pattern is measured by the number of pictorial details or picture elements
which may be accommodated in the vertical height of the picture area.
Each active scanning line is capable of reproducing one such picture
element in the vertical direction, but, since the picture elements in the
image to be transmitted may not fall directly on tjle scanning lines, the
actual number of picture elements which may be accommodated verti-
cally is less than the number of active scanning lines. The vertical
resolution r, is accordingly the number of active scanning lines multiplied
by a factor less than one, here called the utilization ratio k. The vertical
resolution is accordingly
r, = kn, elements per picture height (4)
Practical values of utilization ratio, depending on the method of measure-
ment and the perfection of interlacing, range from about 0.6 to 0.9.
With n, = 485, r, accordingly varies from 290 to 440 elements per picture
,
Sec. lel TELEVISION 695
height. The value r,. = 400 is commonly reached in properly operated

equipment.
10. Horizontal Resolution. The horizontal resolution r, of the scan-
ning pattern is measured by the number of picture elements which may be
accommodated in the horizontal direction, measured in a width equal to
the picture height. The picture height is used as the basis to make the
horizontal resolution directly comparable with the vertical resolution.
The total number of picture elements accommodated in the picture width
is the horizontal resolution multiplied by the aspect ratio.
The value of rh does not depend on the dimensions of the scanning
pattern but rather on the electrical performance of the television system
in reproducing rapid changes of voltage whereby the reproducing scanning
agent is changed in brilliance as it moves across each line. In terms of
the maximum frequency fm. in the video range (see Art. 16), the horizon-
tal resolution is approximately
rh = 84fm.. elements per picture height (5)
where fm.,, is expressed in megacycles. This expression assumes trans-
mission at a rate of 30 frames per second and 525 lines. At 441 lines the
expression is rh = l00fm.,.
600
-E 500
IN .
,.
r
° 1400
.£
s
Pr 087
alrklnilia
bies,fork w
70- 300 k a75
-
f=30persec
_1
200 44/ lires
kh=7hines
100
-E
10 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 1.0

Maximum video frequency. Mc
Fro. 3.- Relationship between horizontal resolution and maximum video
frequency (441 -line image).
11. Resolution Ratio. The ratio of the horizontal resolution to the
vertical resolution is the resolution ratio m:
m =
rh 84f,,.,
(6)
r, kn,
Unity resolution ratio (equal resolution in vertical and horizontal direc-
tions) is not essential for good reproduction, inasmuch as the resolution
in one direction may exceed that in the other by 50 per cent or more
without wasting the detail in the direction of higher resolution. In
present practice the resolution ratio approaches 0.95, depending on the
maximum frequency in the video range. For values of f,,., = 4 Mc,

n. = 485 lines, and k = 0.75, the resolution ratio is 0.925 times.
12. Total Number of Reproducible Picture Elements. A significant
figure of merit of the television system is the total number N of picture
elements which may be accommodated in the picture area, i.e., the product
of the number of elements vertically ro, times the number horizontally
(w /h)rh:
N = ( )rero = (.1-12 )(f)(kna) (7)
h/
= (w)mk:n.2
For values of (w /h) _ = 4.0 Mc, n,, = 485 lines, and k = 0.75
(m = 0.925), the total number is N = 165,000 picture elements. Assum-
ing unity utilization ratio (k = 1.0), we obtain the maximum number
available with a 4.0 Mc video range, viz., N = 220,000 picture elements.
Performance above 200,000 picture elements is exceptional in the present
state of the art.
13. Viewing -distance Relationships. The desirable viewing distance
of a television image depends on the resolution available. If we assume
/Number active scanning lines = Zia

¿,_Number active picture elements
in picture height =krta
a = /minute Observer
een -
do
6876h
kna
Critical viewing distance,dc - - -- -
Fia. 4.- Critical viewing distance in terms of the dimensions of the scanning
pattern.
a visual acuity of 1 minute of arc (typical of most normal eyes), two dark
picture elements separated by a bright element (Fig. 4) may be barely
resolved by the eye at a distance d..
d, - 6,876h
kn,
and the corresponding ratio of critical viewing distance to picture height
is
6,876
(9)
h kn,.
For a vertical resolution rD = kn, of 400 elements per picture height, the
foregoing ratio is 17 times. This is the maximum viewing distance (17
times the picture height), beyond which the eye is unable to resolve the
detail actually present in a stationary image.
The minimum viewing distance is determined by the tolerance of the
viewer toward the structure of the picture, which becomes increasingly
Sec. isl TELEVISION 697
evident as the viewing distance is decreased. Viewing distances shorter

than 3 times the picture height are seldom considered satisfactory. A
ratio of 5:1 seems to be typical of viewer habits. Figure 5 shows Eq. (9)
for various numbers of scan - 20
ping lines.
-t
14. Frame -repetition Rate.
The rate at which the frames .Ft is
are repeated (frame -repetition .t 7,
rate) depends (1) upon the '
v on
duration of the persistence of $ b to 1111kfilaased
vision of the eye and (2) upon 5
the necessity of reproducing ö
motion in the image in a smooth
manner. In motion pictures z s Ba on.
the standard rate is 24 frames
per second, with each frame
erpeninenbt
findings
`.1
o
projected twice, making 48 pro- 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
jection intervals per second. na,Numberec+ive scanning lines
Similar values serve for tele- Fia. 5.- Relationsh'p of viewing d's-
vision. However, since the tance to number of scanning lines, in
power - supply frequency for terms of the picture height. (Experi-
most areas in this country is 60 mental findings after Engstrom.)
cps, it is desirable to use a frame-repetition rate f which is a submultiple
of the power frequency, e.g., 30 per second (field repetition rate f' of 60
per second). The N.fi.S.C. recommended standards for these items are
accordingly
f = 30 frames per second 10
f' = 60 fields per second 11)
16. Rate of Scanning Picture Elements. The maximum rate of scan-
ning picture elements along each line depends on the number of elements
in the line and the speed with which the line is scanned. These quantities
in turn depend on the horizontal resolution (Art. 10) and on the number
of lines per frame (Art. 5) and the rate of frame repetition (Art. 14).
The general expression for the maximum rate of scanning picture elements
R is
R = wmfkn'(1 + /kh)
h (1 + 11 /k,) elements per second (12)
where the quantities have been defined in the preceding sections. For
aspect ratio w/h = 3i resolution ratio m = 0.925, frame- repetition rate
f = 30 per second, utilization ratio k = 0.75, number of lines per frame
n = 525, horizontal retrace ratio ka = 7 times, and vertical retrace ratio
k, = 15 times, the rate of scanning picture elements is approximately
R = 8,300,000 elements per second, which is approximately the upper
limit of performance of present -day equipment.
16. Maximum Frequency in Video Range. The maximum video
frequency generated by the television camera is directly proportional
to the rate at which the picture elements are scanned along each line. In
deducing a relationship between the scanning rate R (Art. 15) and the
maximum video frequency (v.f.), it is customary to assume that the
picture elements are arranged as alternate black and white squares along
the scanning line. An ideal scanning agent, scanning such a line, will
698 THE RADIO E1vulNEERINO HANDBOOK (Sec. 19
produce a square wave, as shown in Fig. 6. The upper portion of each

square wave represents a black element, the lower portion an adjacent
white element. Hence there are two elements per cycle of the wave.
The fundamental frequency of the square wave is accordingly one-half
as great as the rate of scanning picture elements. The maximum v.f. is
then derived from Eq. (12), as
s (w/h)mfkn2 (1 1 /kt)
2 (1
(13)
+ 1 /k,)
For the conditions cited in Art. 15, J,..: is 4.15 Mc. Table I gives other
typical values. It should be noted that this frequency is the funda-
mental of the square wave. The reproducing equipment cannot repro-
D,reclron of scanning .One row of
1 checkerboard
pa/tern
áu Idea/ camera sgna/

> 3.
Time -->
$
> ú
Time
Fio. 6. -Wave forms resulting from scanning a checkerboard image. The
ideal square wave becomes a sine wave when only the fundamental frequency
is transmitted.
duce a square wave of this frequency. Instead a sine-wave distribution
of light is reproduced. This sine wave (Fig. 6) establishes the basic
structure of the reproduced image.
TABLE I.- MAXIMUM VIDEO FREQUENCIES FOR DIFFERENT SCANNING
PATTERNS
Maximum v.f. for Maximum v.f. for

horizontal reso-
Number of
Number of
frames per equal vertical and forlotion 0.9 X-
scanning lines n
second J
horizontal resolution vertical resolution
(m = 1.00), cps
(m = 0.9), cps
20 16 3,360 3.020
60 16 30,200 27.250
120 24 81.500 163,000
180 24 410,000 369,000
240 24 727,000 653.000
343 (7 X 7 X 7) 30 1,860.000 1,670.000
441 (3 X 3 X 7 X T) 30 3,060.000 2.800,000
525 (5 X 5 X 7 X 3) 30 4.350,000 3,920,000-
1029 (3 X 7 X 7 X 7) 30 16,650,000 14,800,000
NOTE: Calculation based on uv/h - YX, k,. - 7, k, - 12, k - 0.75.

See. 1111 TELEVISION 699
17. Scanning Wave Forms. The deflecting forces necessary to pro-

duce the linear scanning motions shown in Fig. 2 are saw-tooth waves, as
shown plotted against time in Fig. 7. The forward motion in the hori-
zontal direction is produced by a deflecting force linear with time, and
the retrace motion by a force which need not be linear but which must
E^
Adve loachve
scanning relroce
:-- y - --.i Time --

tp- Period ofcompkte cycle
sec, for horizontalscanning
tp `13,730
=
60
sec., f vertical interlaced scanning
Fia. 7.-Saw-toothwaves of deflecting force used to produce the scanning
pattern (441 -line image).
have a rate of change high compared with that of the forward force.
The ratio of the slopes is equal to the horizontal retrace ratio kk (Art. 7).
The same conditions apply to the deflecting force in the vertical direc-
tion, and the ratio of the retrace slope to the forward slope of this wave
equals the vertical retrace ratio, ko,
The scanning wave forms have fundamental frequencies determined by
the number of fields per second and by the number of lines per second. In
LÇ/brmoniics
r
Time -'
Fia. 8. -Ideal saw -tooth wave (k), = 6.66) and approximations resulting from
inclusion of 5 and 15 harmonics.
the vertical direction the scanning force must repeat itself at the field
repetition rate, f' = 60 cps. In the horizontal direction the deflecting
force must repeat itself at the line- scanning frequency (525 lines per
frame, 30 frames per second), which is the product
of = 525 X 30 = 15,750 cps
These values of scanning frequency are the fundamentals of the saw-
tooth wave. From 5 to 20 harmonics should be present if the wave form
700 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (see. 16
is to approximate the saw -tooth shape sufficiently accurately for scanning

purposes. Figure 8 shows the degree of approximation for a saw -tooth
wave having a slope ratio of 6.66 times (retrace ratio) when 5 and 15
harmonics are included. The fifteenth harmonic extends the range up
to 900 cps for the vertical scanning system, and up to 250,000 cps for
the horizontal scanning system. Practical scanning generators are
discussed in Art. 67.
References
Scanning and Image Analysis:
BEDFORD, A. V.: Figure of Merit for Television Performance, R.M.A. Eng., 2, No. 1, 5,
November, 1937; also RCA Rev., 3, No. 1, 36, July, 1938.
ENaaraox, E. W.: A Study of Television Image Characteristics, Proc. I.R.E., Part 1,
21, 1631, December, 1933; I'art II, 23, 295. April, 1935.
JIMMY and Wixcn: Television Images- Analysis of Their Essential Qualities, Jour.
Tel Soc., 2, 316, December, 1937.
KELL., BEDFORD, and TRAINER: Scanning Sequence and Repetition Rate of Television
Images, Proc. I.R.E., 24, 559, April, 1936.
MERTZ and GRAY: Theory of Scanning and Its Relation to the Transmitted Signal in
Telephotography and Television, Bell System Tech. Jour., 13, 464, July, 1934.
SOMERS, F. J.: Scanning in Television Receivers, Electronics, 10, No. 10, 18, October,
1937.
VON ARDENNE, M.: Distortion of Saw-tooth Waveforms, Electronics. 10, No. 11, 36,
November, 1937.
WHEELER and Lotionnas: The Fine Structure of Television Images, Proc. I.R.E., 36,
540, May, 1938.
WILSON, J. C.: "Television Engineering," Chap. III, p. 46, and Chap. IV, p. 73, Sir
Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, 1937; extensive bibliography to periodicals and
patents.
THE VIDEO- SIGNAL WAVE FORM
18. Video Signal. The video signal (or "composite video signal ")
is the succession of electrical impulses transmitted through the television
system to convey the information from the scanning agent in the camera
to the scanning agent in the receiver. Three direct functions are carried
out through the video signal: (1) the transmission of impulses correspond-
ing to the brightnesses of the scanned picture elements, conveyed by the
camera signal; (2) the blanking of the scanning agent at the receiver dur-
ing the retrace motions, by the blanking level or pedestal; and (3) the
synchronization of the scanning agents, by the vertical and horizontal
synchronization signals. The first item of the video signal is generated in
the camera, the second two in the synchronization signal generator. The
three items are combined in the video mixing amplifier.
19. Envelope of the Modulated Picture- carrier Signal. When the
video signal is imposed on a carrier wave, the envelope of the modulated
carrier wave constitutes the video-signal wave form. Such a modulated
picture carrier and the details of the envelope are shown in Fig. 9. The
particular form of video signal shown is that recommended in the stand-
ards of the R.M.A. (practically identical to the N.T.S.C. proposal).
In the R.M.A. standard video signal (Fig. 9) the carrier amplitude is
divided by the black level (blanking level or pedestal) at a value from
75 to 80 per cent (75 ± 2.5 per cent according to the N.T.S.C. recom-
mendation) of the maximum amplitude. The amplitude region above
the black level is called the infra-black region and is occupied by the
synchronizing signals. Signal levels in this region do not produce
light in the received image. The synchronizing signals are of two types,
horizontal signals (Fig. 9) for initiating the motion of the scanning agent
along each horizontal line and vertical signals (Fig. 12) for initiating the
Sec. 191 TELEVISION 701
motion of the scanning agent vertically at the beginning of each field.

The peak amplitude of the wave, the height of the synchronizing pulses,
and the black-level amplitude are maintained constant throughout each
broadcast at the values shown in Fig. 9.
Sync pu /se (amera signa/
1.0 <- .Maximum carrier /eve/ (fixed)
AL <-- B/ankirg /eve/(fixed)
Vt.; JII JL lW kAk 'AL Average of camera signal(ver/abk)

0
fV" W 1><^ vY Time
11V VIP
Maximum
level
Horizontalsync i (lOOpercent)
f signal
- -t Infra -black
region
75 Camera `_B%anking '...Black level
impulses. signal ()5MB0percent)
-- -Camera signal region
1,25 !4wmum white kyel

...(2.5percent or less)
3 00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.82.02.22.42.6 2.83.0 Time°
t/H H-I/13,130íh second
Fta. 9. -Top, modulated television carrier signal. Bottom, details of
modulation envelope, according to R.M.A. recommended standard. Accord-
ing to the N.T.S.C. recommendations the black level is 75 ± 2.5 per cent
and the maximum white level 15 per cent or lesa.
20. Camera Signal. The portion of the carrier envelope extending
below the black level is called the camera signal. The polarity of trans-
mission in the N.T.S.C. standards is negative, i.e., an increase in the light
on the camera plate results in a decrease in the carrier amplitude, as
shown in Fig. 9. The maximum white level is 2.& per cent or less (15 per
cent or less according to the N.T.S.C. recommendation) of the maximum
carrier amplitude. Intermediate gray tones exist between the maximum
white level and the black level.
The camera signal has two components (Fig. 10): an a-c component,
which describes the variations in brightness from the average brightness
and the d-c component, averaged over the frame-scanning Interval
(3áo sec.), which represents the average or background brightness of the
picture. The a -c and d-c components must be capable of being varied
independently of each other, so that the same detail may be presented
either on a dark background or on a bright background. Variation of
the d -c component also permits the screen brightness to be "faded in"
or "faded out" at the will of the studio operator. In order that the d -c
component be independent of the a -c component, regardless of the

changes in wave form, it is necessary that the black level be constant in
the carrier envelope, and furthermore that the black level be maintained
constant at the control grid of the picture tube (see Art. 61).
Camera signa/
, h -
Black level (fixed rerence)
D -c componentofsigna/
}L ¡
ò
, Average ofcamera signa/
is
_V i ----Added d-c component
%-Camera signal with
ú added d-c corn..nent
Time
Fla. 10. -Both d -c and a -c components of the modulation envelope. The
dashed line represents an increase in the background brightness without
change in detail.
21. Frequency Range in the Video Signal. The maximum frequency
in the video range (Art. 16) results from scanning the finest detail in
the image, i.e., from the scanning of adjacent picture elements. The
value of fm.: [Eq. (13)] depends on the rate at which adjacent picture
elements are scanned; values up to 4 or 5 Mc are commonly employed
in present equipment.
d 1.0 s Toco
>
60.5
0'60 0 0.64 0.84
0.24 0.4fe 10f0 Life
Frequency
To °°
,EA108
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02f0 04fe 0.6f0 0.84 1.0fe 1.24
Frequency
Fla. 11.-Ideal
amplitude and phase transmission characteristics.
The lowest frequency in the video range, fmin, depends on the rate at
which the background brightness of the scene changes. Brightness
changes which take longer than the duration of a single frame to complete
themselves are usually introduced by changes in the d-c component of
the signal. Changes that take less than the duration of a single frame are
accommodated by video frequencies extending downward to 30 cps (corre-
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sponding to the frame -repetition rate of 30 per second). Consequently

significant frequency range in the video signal, based on the N.T.S.C.
standards, is from 30 cps to 4 or 5 Mc.
Degrees of picture detail intermediate between the whole frame area
and the area of a single picture element are reproduced by frequencies
intermediate between 30 cps and 4 or 5 Mc. Since such intermediate
degrees of detail may be present in any scene, the video-signal transmission
system must be equally responsive to all frequencies within these limits.
22. Requirements for Transmission of the Video Wave Form. Fourier
analysis of wave forms reveals that any wave form encountered in prac-
tice is composed of a number of sine -wave components having specified
relative amplitudes and specified relative phases. If the wave form is to
be reproduced accurately, the transmission system must be capable of
transmitting all such sine -wave components, throughout the v-f range,
without altering the relative amplitudes and phases of the components.
This requirement is met if the amplitude-versus -frequency response curve
of the transmission system is a horizontal straight line over the v-f range,
and if the phase-versus- frequency curve of the transmission system is an
oblique straight line passing through the zero -frequency point and
extending over the v -f range. The ideal characteristics are shown in
Fig. 11.
If the amplitude transmission characteristic is not ideal, the wave
form is distorted symmetrically about a vertical axis. If the phase
transmission characteristic is not ideal, the wave form is distorted
asymmetrically about a vertical axis. Inadequate h -f response produces
improper reproduction of steep vertical changes in the wave form.
Inadequate l -f response produces improper reproduction of the flat top
Demodu %aced portions of the wave which ex-
=ii output
p
tend over intervals comparable
with the period of the low
Io C//pping frequencies.
7
1
, 1-
,
Detector /eve/ 23. Dimensions of Synchro-

characterabc A I nizing Pulses. The dimensions
of the sync pulses in the R.M.A.
recommended standard wave
form are shown in Fig. 12. There
A are three distinct types of sync
pulse. The horizontal sync pulse
exists on the blanking pulse
Modulated r- firavuf between the scanning of each
line and occupies a duration of
Fia. 13.- Demodulation of the modu- 8 per cent of the duration of the
lated picture carrier by a diode detector, line-scanning interval. The ver-
showing clipping level which separates
the camera signal from the synchro- tical sync pulse exists on the
nizing pulses. blanking impulse between the
scanning of successive fields, and
extends for 3 times the duration of the line -scanning interval. The
equalizing sync pulses exist immediately before and after the vertical sync
pulse in two groups of six pulses each. The frequency of the equalizing
pulses is twice that of the horizontal sync pulses.
The horizontal scanning generators at transmitter and receiver are
usually synchronized by the leading edge of the horizontal pulses. Since
the synchronizing action must be precise, the leading edge must be sharp.
The rise of this edge must complete itself in one-half of 1 per cent of the
line -scanning interval.
The vertical scanning generators at transmitter and receiver are
usually synchronized by the integrated effect of the equalizing and ver-
tical sync pulses which are used to charge a condenser. The leading edge
of the condenser charge curve (Fig. 51) acts as the synchronizing agent.
This leading edge must have precisely the same shape for each vertical
pulse. The equalizing pulses are inserted to ensure that this condition is
met equally for fields ending on a half line and for fields ending on a
whole line.
GENERATION OF THE VIDEO- SIGNAL WAVE FORM
24. Video -signal Generator. The video -signal generator consists of
three essential parts: (1) the camera and its auxiliaries, which generate
the camera signal component; (2) the synchronizing signal generator,
which times and shapes the vertical and horizontal synchronizing signals
and the blanking signals; and (3) the control amplifier which mixes the
camera signals with the synchronizing signals and the blanking signals,
forming the composite video signal.
25. Television Cameras. The television camera consists of a light -
tight housing fitted with an adjustable camera lens which focuses the
scene on the photosensitive plate of the camera tube enclosed within the
housing. Also enclosed in the housing is a preamplifier which raises
the level of the camera signal (usually to about 0.1 volt peak to peak)
so that it can be transmitted over coaxial cable without interference.
One or more scanning generators or scanning amplifiers may also be
included in the caillera housing. The camera is ordinarily mounted on a
flexible standard so that it may be moved readily, and a universal mount-
ing is provided so that the camera may be directed at any angle. Some
form of auxiliary optical system is also provided to enable the operator
to keep the image in focus.
At present, there are four important types of electronic camera tubes:
(1) the iconoscope; (2) the orthiconoscope (orthicon); (3) the image
iconoscope (iconotron or superernitron); and (4) the image dissector.
The first three employ the storage principle whereby the effect of the
incident light is stored as charge across a capacitance element. The
image dissector is an instantaneous device, using only that light present
on each picture element at the instant it is scanned. The storage devices
display a luminous sensitivity from 10,000 to 100,000 times that of the
instantaneous devices, depending on the storage and photoelectrical
efficiencies and the number of reproducible picture elements (Art. 12).
26. The Iconoscope. A typical iconoscope is shown in Fig. 14 together
with its optical and electrical auxiliaries. The image is focused on the
mosaic plate, which is a mica sheet coated with several million globules
of photosensitized silver, insulated from each other and from a graphite
coating on the reverse side of the plate. The optical image releases elec-
trons from the mosaic, thereby charging the plate positively with a charge
distribution corresponding point for point with the distribution of light
in the image. The insulation prevents redistribution of this charge and
permits the charge image to increase in magnitude for as long as the light
falls on the mosaic.
The mosaic is scanned by a beam of electrons generated in the electron
gun in the side arm of the tube. The beam, impinging on the mosaic,
releases secondary electrons. The number of secondary electrons

released from a given point of the mosaic depends on the potential of
that point, which in turn depends on the previous photoelectric emission
from that point. Consequently, as the scanning agent passes over the
mosaic, it generates a secondary emission current which corresponds to
the successive values of brightness in the picture elements. The second-
ary emission is small for brightly illuminated portions of the mosaic;
,";;
Electron
scanning beam,
PhohPhotosensitive
mosaicp /ale
Image of
object îöcusaed
t,<Q Optical /ens
_ -
Object lobe
televised
'
f/orizon/al scanning cods
-Verbcal scanning coils
on mosaic _'
Signal terminals
1
, i '
`
`' Electron gun
Co'fecivr eki+ode
(wall coaling)
Secondary electrons
returning to mosaic Co/lector anode
Secondary electron
collected by
collector anode
Scanning beam
Amplif/ed
tfal Curren
I ofcolkc
secondary
electrons
camera 1IuI1lIIii
signal +1000 v
(accelerating
potential)
Flo. 14.- Optical (top) and electrical (bottom) arrangements used with the
iconoscope camera tube.
consequently the output current is "negative" with respect to the
illumination responsible for it.
The secondary emission is collected by a collector anode, and conducted
through an external coupling resistor back to the graphite signal plate
on the back of the mosaic support. The series circuit through which
the electron current passes is accordingly composed of the ohmic resist-
ance of the secondary emission path, the coupling resistance, and the
capacitance between the signal plate and the group of globules under
the scanning agent. No d.c. can flow through the capacitance; hence
the output consists simply of the a-c component of the camera signal.
The d -c component must be evaluated either by visual observation or by a
Sec. lf] TELEVISION 707
phototube which integrates the light on the scene. A d -c voltage derived

from a manual control (or from the phototube in the second case) is
inserted in series with the output of the iconoscope.
Since the mosaic is insulated the current flowing toward or away from
it must be zero, when averaged over any extended period of time. The
average d -c value of the collected secondary emission must accordingly
be replaced by electrons from the scanning beam.
Only a part of the secondary emission is collected from the mosaic.
The remainder, falling back on the mosaic, sets up a distribution of charge
which, when scanned, produces a spurious signal whose effect is to pro-
duce an unevenness in the background shading of the reproduced picture.
This spurious signal ( "dark -spot signal ") must be compensated by a
shading- correction signal generator (Art. 35).
The color response of the typical iconoscope mosaic (when the mosaic
has been silver sensitized) is very similar to that of the usual panchroma-
tic negative -film emulsion used in motion pictures.
The sensitivity of modern iconoscopes under optimum conditions varies
from about 1 my per millilumen per square centimeter illumination on
Coil producing
f axial magnehc field Transparent
yiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuii lk Iwo-sided mosaic
Electron, ;Lens
gun
Collector'
ekcirode ! s
I
'Image on mosaic
Object
--Scanning beam hi/s

mosaic perpcndieu/ar /y
Signal
output
Horizontal deflecting Ver/Eat deflecting
plates cods
Fia. 15.- Structure of the orthiconoscope ( "orthicon ").
the mosaic surface (low values of illumination) to about 0.25 my (at
higher illumination). The curve between input illumination and output
voltage of the typical iconoscope is characteristized by a gamma (Art. 72)
of about 0.7, i.e., the curve is of the saturating variety. The output
voltages may he increased by increasing the current used in the scanning
beam, as well as by illuminating the interior of the tube envelope by a
bias light.
27. The Orthiconoscope. The orthiconoscope (Fig. 15) operates
similarly to the iconoscope except that low- velocity electrons are used
for scanning. Consequently no observable secondary emission effects
arise, and no spurious "dark-spot" signal is generated. The scanning
electrons themselves are collected and passed through the coupling
resistor back to the mosaic. A two-sided mosaic is used.
The photoelectric emission from the mosaic is saturated in the orth-
iconoscope; consequently the relationship between input illumination
and output voltage is linear (the gamma is unity). The sensitivity of
current models is about 2 my per millilumen per square centimeter on
the mosaic, although theoretical sensitivities as high as 10 my are possible.
To use low-velocity electrons for scanning without incurring defocusing

of the beam, it is necessary that the scanning heaun impinge perpendicu-
larly on the mosaic at all points in the scanning pattern. This require-
ment is met by a rather unorthodox deflection technique which employs a
combination of axial magnetic field and transverse electric field for
horizontal scanning and a transverse magnetic field for vertical scanning.
The high sensitivity, freedom from dark -spot signal, and convenient
optical arrangement of the orthiconoscope have made it a serious com-
petitor of the iconoscope in current broadcasting practice.
Electron image
Translucent
paths.
paths., on mosaic surface
photocathode
'Lens -Signal
plate
Object
Signal
output
Op ¡cal imagé
on pho%ocalhode
Sawing
beam
111I1I1
Electron gun1l
FIG. 16.- Structure of the image iconoscope.
28. Image Iconoscope. The image iconoscope has not found wide
use in this country but has been used in Great Britain. An American
version is shown in Fig. 16. The scene is focused on a photocathode
which releases an electron image of the scene. The electron image is
conveyed down the tube and brought to focus at the surface of a second-
ary emission surface that acts also as a storage mosaic. The high
secondary emission ratio of this surface produces a correspondingly high
value of charge stored on its surface, and the charge increases throughout
the frame-scanning interval. A conventional scanning beam is used
which induces further secondary emission in a manner exactly analagous
to that in the iconoscope. The
Mu /tip//er
initial secondary emission ,result-
hoes/ng
Ca Mode .. ing from the arrival of the elec-
A pKluir trop image, produces a higher
value of stored charge than in the
:Segments iconoscope and the sensitivity is
proportionately increased. Val-
Anode (Ni wall coaling) I ues of sensitivity as high as 5
Flo. 17.- Structure of the image my per millilumen per square
dissector. centimeter have been found in
typical tubes.
29. Image Dissector. The image dissector (Fig. 17) is used principally
for the televising of motion- picture film, where the light source may be
brilliant and highly concentrated. For general pickup work, the low
sensitivity of the device is a disadvantage when compared with storage
pickup tubes.
The image dissector consists of a cylindrical envelope with an optical
window at one end through which the image is admitted to the photocathode
Sec. 1!l TELEVISION 709
at the opposite end. Here an electron image is generated and drawn to the
opposite end of the tube where it is focused in the plane of the scanning
aperture. The aperture is fixed on the end of a finger support. The image
is moved past the scanning aperture by transverse magnetic fields applied
from coils external to the tube. Inside the finger an electron multiplier
structure is employed to increase the sensitivity of the device before the signal
current (composed of the electrons entering the aperture) is applied to the
coupling resistor. With this amplification, the signal /noise ratio of the out-
put current is 10:1 when the mosaic illumination is 200 foot -candles. The
sensitivity, when used with a 11 -stage multiplier is about 50 µv per milli -
lumen per square centimeter on the photocathode, at a signaljnoise ratio of
5:1. No secondary emission effects are observed. The output-input curve
is linear (gamma unity). Also the output current contains a d -c component
which is directly proportional to the average brightness of the scene. Hence
no auxiliary evaluation of the d -c component is necessary.
0.25pf
Bf0002pf 4000
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Flo. 18.- Circuitdiagram of an iconoscope preamplifier. (After Barco.)
30. Preamplifier. A typical preamplifier for use with an iconoácope
is shown in Fig. 18. To preserve a high signal /noise ratio in the first
stage, an effective value of about 300,000 ohms is used as the coupling
resistance, with a shunt capacitance of about 8 µµf. The poor h -f
response incident to this combination is compensated in the third stage,
which employs a hifilar winding (L2) to remove the effect of the imped-
ance in the power supply. The second and fourth stages are conventional
video-amplifier stages (Art. 38) with flat response to 5 Mc. The output
stage is a cathode -coupled stage having less than unity gain and present-
ing an output impedance which matches the characteristic impedance
(65 ohms) of the coaxial cable. The camera signal is sent over this cable
to the control amplifier for mixing with the synchronization impulses.
710 TIIE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. 19
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The output of the shading-correction generator (Art. 35) is inserted

directly in series with the signal plate of the mosaic.
31. Synchronization Signal Generator. Timing Unit. The sync
pulses (Fig. 12, Art. 23) must be properly timed and properly shaped.
The timing function is carried out in a timing unit, a typical example of
which is shown in Fig. 19. The unit produces two outputs at 60 cps and
The 60 cps output
at 13,320 cps (for the R.M.A. standard video signal).frequency
is derived from the basic 13,230 cps oscillation by multiplica-
four steps
tion and division; multiplication to 26,460 cps and division60incps).
of 7 (to 3,780 cps), 7 (to 540 cps), 3 (to 180 cps), and 3 (to
Fre-
quency multiplication is carried out in a frequency converter tube, the
divisions in multivibrators isolated by buffer stages. the 60 cps
The locally generated 60 cps signal is then compared with
voltage of the power system by feeding the two sources to a discriminator
diode which develops a d -c voltage proportional to the amount and
direction of the phase difference between the two sources. This d -c is
used in an a -f -c circuit to correct the frequency of the basic 13,230 cps
oscillator from which the locally generated 60 cps is derived. In this
rela-
way the 13,230 and 60 cps outputs are maintained in synchronous
tionship with each other and with the frequency of the power system.
/3,230cps
b ico,osccee driving
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KEYING S/6N4LS FROM
VERTICAL SRMAfA611117
Fra. horizontal shaping unit of a synchronization signal gener-

20.-Typical
ator (441-line image). (After Deal.)
32. Synchronization Signal Generator. Horizontal Shaping
Unit.
Figure 20 shows one portion of the shaping unit of the synchronizing
unit accepts the
signal generator, the horizontal shaping unit. Thisfrom it the several
13,230 cps output of the timing unit and produces 12, Art. 23).
wave forms required for the R.M.A. standard signal (Fig.
sync pulses at 13,230
The upper chain of tubes produces the horizontal the
cps, the successive tubes being employed to obtain required duration,
shape, and steepness of front required for these pulses. The middle
chain of tubes produces the serrated vertical sync pulses continuously
at 26,460 cps. The bottom chain produces equalizing pulses at 26,460
cps. All three types of pulse are produced continuously in this portion
of the generator. They are interspersed in the proper order (Fig. 12)
by the action of keying signals in the 6F7 tubes at the right of each chain.
The interspersed signal (composite synchronizing signal) is then ampli-
fied by the stages at the extreme right and is applied to the control
amplifier for mixing with the camera signal.
33. Synchronization Signal Generator. Vertical Shaping Unit. The
vertical shaping unit (typical example shown in Fig. 21) has the function
.,
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Fie. 21.- Typical vertical shaping unit of a synchronization signal generator
(441 -line image). (After Deal.)
of producing so-called keying signals at a frequency of 60 cps. These
keying signals are applied to the screen grids of the keying tubes in the
horizontal shaping unit. The action of the keying signals is to allow to
pass, or to block, the synchronizing signals passing through the keying
tubes. Thus á negative keying signal is required to block the passage
of the horizontal synchronizing signals during the vertical blanking period
(Fig. 12); a positive keying signal is required to allow the serrated vertical
sync pulse to pass at the proper time during the field blanking interval;
and a two-part positive keying signal is needed to allow the equalizing
pulses to pass immediately before and after the vertical sync pulses. The
shape of the keying signals and the synthesis of the composite synchroniz-
Sec. 19] TELEVISION 713
ing signal are shown in Fig. 22. The vertical shaping unit accepts the
60 cps output of the timing unit and forms the required keying signals
by several chains of shaping tubes which introduce the necessary wave
shaping and delaying actions.
The vertical shaping unit also provides blanking signals which are
applied to the control amplifier to introduce the black level during the
retrace periods. Two sets of blanking signals are generated: one for the
composite video signal and another, of somewhat shorter duration, for
the control of the scanning beam in the camera tube. Each group of
blanking signals consists of horizontal and vertical square waves recurring
at 13,230 and 60 cps, respectively.
The camera -tube scanning generators are controlled by vertical and
horizontal driving impulses, which are somewhat narrower and sharper
than the corresponding sync pulses in the composite video signal. These
S
Horizontal sync signals
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4
Fie. 22.- Function

Time -
of the keying signals in interspersing the components of
Composite sync signal
the composite synchronization signal.

driving pulses are formed from 13,230 and 60 cps signals derived from
the horizontal and vertical shaping units, respectively.
34. Mixing Amplifier. The mixing amplifier (Fig. 23) has three input
terminals which accept the camera signal from the camera preamplifier,
the blanking signals from the synchronizing generator, and the composite
synchronizing signals from the synchronizing generator. The camera
signal and blanking signals are first combined by means of two amplifier
tubes feeding a common load resistor, across which the "semicomposite"
signal appears. The d -c component of the video signal is controlled by
varying the bias on the blanking signal amplifier tube, thus controlling
the amplitude relationship between the average of the camera -signal
component and the blanking level.
The composite synchronizing signal is similarly added to the camera
and blanking components in two amplifier stages feeding a common load
resistor, across which the composite video signal appears. Bias controls
across these tubes control the relative amplitude of the camera and syn-
chronizing signal amplitudes, thus allow the establishment of the 75-25
per cent relationship demanded by the standard signal.
35. Shading -correction Generator. The shading -correction generator

is a device for producing wave shapes of saw -tooth, sine, and parabolic
Blanking Sync
Input T Input
T
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-250
Fia. 23.- Typical mixing video amplifier for combining camera signal, blank-
ing signals, and composite synchronization signals. (After Barco.)
Sync
control
LiNonzonlol
sowioo+h -
generator
13.230 cps
7o shaoh.ng ienninol
of iconoscooe
preornp /iFier
Sync
Conlro/ T4í I---
Vertical
- sawtooth
generator
60 cps - `'a B+ B+ B+
Power line
60 cps
ll0v
R
6
B+
Fia. 24.- Typical shading- correction signal generator. (After Bedford.)
shape at vertical scanning and horizontal scanning rates (60 and 13,230
cps, respectively) in synchronism with the scanning motion. These
wave shapes; controlled as to amplitude, phase, and polarity, are intro-
Rec. 16) TELEVISION 715
duced in the preamplifier (Fig. 18) to compensate the spurious shading

signal generated in the iconoscope. A form of shading- correction
generator is shown in Fig. 24. The horizontal saw-tooth generator used
to deflect the beam in the iconoscope tube is used directly to produce saw
tooths of controlled amplitude and polarity, as well as 13,230 and 26,460
cps sine waves of controllable amplitude, phase, and polarity. Similarly
the output of the vertical saw -tooth generators is used to produce similar
signals. Reversal of polarity is provided by an amplifier stage. The
switches control the polarity, resistors RI, Rs, Rs, R5, Rs, and R10 control
amplitude, and resistors R2, R4, R7, and R9 control the phase. Methods
of producing saw-tooth waves of controllable phase are also available,
using "clipped -off " portions of the basic saw -tooth waves. The shad-
ing- correction generator controls are manipulated manually to correct for
the observed defects of shading in the image as viewed on the monitor
picture tube.
References
The Video Signal and Its Generation, Including Camera Tubes:
BARCO, A. A.: Iconoscope Preamplifier Report LB -448 of the RCA License Laboratory.
Information made available by special permission. See also: RCA Rev., 4, No. 1,
89, July, 1939.
BORNErr, C. E.: The Monoscope, RCA, Rev., 2, No. 4, 414, April, 1938.
FARNSWORTH, P. T.: Television by Electron Image Scanning, Jour. Franklin Inst., 216,
411, October, 1934.
Image Amplifier Pick -up Tubes (delivered before the Rochester section, I.R.E.,
Nov. 14, 1938). Described briefly in Electronics, 11, No. 12, 8 -9, December, 1938.
FINKS. H. A.: A Television l'ick-up Tube, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 144, February, 1939.
IAMB, JANES, and Htcxos: The Brightness of Outdoor Scenes and Its Relation to Tele-
vision Transmission, Proc. I.R.E., 25, 1034, August, 1937.
IAMB MORTON, and ZWORYKIN: The Image Iconoscope (presented before the Annual
I.R.E. Convention, June 17, 1938). Described briefly in Electronics, 11, No. 12,
July, 1938.
IAMB, MORTON, and ZWORYKIN: The Image Iconoscope, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 541, September,
1939.
IAMB and RosE: Television Pick -up Tubes Employing Cathode -ray Beam Scanning,
Proc. I.R.E., 26, 1048. August, 1937.
and : A New Television Pickup Tube (presented before the New York
Section, I.R.E. June 7, 1939). Described in "The Orthicon," Electronics, 12, No.
7, 11, July, 1939.
and : Television Pickup Tubes Using Low -velocity Electron Beam Scan-
ning. Prot.I.R.E.. 27, 547, September, 1939.
JANES and Melton: Recent Improvements in the Design and Characteristics of the
Iconoscope, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 535, September, 1939.
LARsON and GARDNER: Th- Image -dissector, Electronics, 12, No. 10, 24, October, 1939.
Lgwts, H. M.: Standards in Television, Electronics, 10, No, 7, 10, July, 1937.
McII.wAtN, Knox: Survey of Television Pickup Devices, J. Applied Phys., 10, 432,
July, 1939.
MAt.ore, I. G.: Gamma and Range in Television, RCA Rev., 3, No. 4, 409, April, 1939.
MURRAY, A. F.: R.M.A. Television Standards, R.M.A. Eng.. 1, No. 2, November, 1936.
. R.M.A. Completes Television Standards, Electronics, 11, No. 7, 28, July, 1938.
ROBE and IAMB: The Orthicon, Television Pickup Tube, RCA Rev., 4, No. 2, 186,
October. 1939.
ZWORYKIN, V. K.: The Iconoscope, a New Version of the Electric Eye, Proc. I.R.E., 22,
16, January, 1934.
: iconoscopes and Kinescopes in Television, RCA Rev., 1 No. 1, 60, July, 1936.
, MORTON, and FLORY: Theory and Performance of the iconoscope, Proc. I.R.E.,
25, 1071, August, 1937.
VIDEO AMPLIFICATION
36. Requirements for Video Amplification. The transmission system
must transmit all sine-wave components within the video range (e.g., 30
cps to 4 Mc) without amplitude discrimination and without phase
discrimination. The gain G of a pentode amplifier stage (plate resistance

large compared with the load resistance) is
G = g.,Z (14)
where g,,, is the grid -plate transconductance of the tube, and Zo is the
output impedance of the coupling connection between the stage and the
following transducer. Over the video range g,, is independent of fre-
quency; hence the amplitude and phase responses of the amplifier are
determined solely by Zo.
In video amplifiers, Zo consists of R, L, and C components so propor-
tioned as to display a constant magnitude of impedance and a phase
angle proportional to frequency over the video range. The lower fre-
quency limit over which these conditions may be met is determined by
the series impedance of the coupling capacitor, whereas the h -f limit is
determined by the shunt impedance of the capacitance existing in shunt
across the coupling connection. The value of gain within these limits
depends on g,,, and on the value of the load resistor, since this is the
t f
principal component of Z,, within the video range.
37. High- frequency Compensation. To minimize the effect of the
shunt capacitance, it is usual in video amplifiers to insert a small induct -
ance either in series with the load resis-
tor (shunt peaking), in series with the
coupling connection (series eaking), or
a combination of the two (shunt- series
peaking). The inductance is used to
form a resonant circuit with the shunt
capacitance at a frequency above the
upper limit of the required v-f range, and
the rising resonance characteristic is used
to counteract the falling off of the Z,,
value at the upper frequency limit.
High frequencies
The load resistor must similarly be
Low frequencies
chosen in terms of the total shunt ca. pac-
B C itance, so that the gain in the mid -
F i o . 25.- High -frequency frequency range (where reactive effects
compensation by the shunt- are not prominent) will he the same as
peaking method, with equiva- at the upper limit (where reactive effects
lent circuits for high and low are predominant).
frequencies. In all cases of h -f compensation the
basic factor is the total shunt capacitance C, associated with the cou-
pling connection
C, = Co, + Cnt + Can(G + 1) + C.trw (15)
where Co = output tube capacitance
Co = input capacitance of the following tube
= grid -plate capacitance of the following tube
C, = stage gain of the following stage
= total shunt capacitance due to wiring, tube sockets, ter-
minals, etc.
In pentode amplifiers C,,, may ordinarily be neglected.
38. Shunt -peaking Compensation. The most widely used h -f compensa-
tion scheme (Fig. 25) is known as shunt peaking, because the resonating
(peaking) inductance Lo is in shunt across the shunt capacitance C,. The

design values of Lo and Ro (the load resistor) are based on the shunt capaci-
tance C,, on the maximum required frequency in the video range j,,,.o and on
two design constants kL and kH which relate the impedance of Lo and Ro,
respectively, to the impedance of C, at the maximum frequency f, .
Ro
lee = (16)
(2Ajm.[C,)
27rfm.:Lo
kt = (17)
1
/(2wrfm. :G)
The values of ka range from 0.8 to 1.0; most designs are based on kH = 1, i.e.,
the load resistance is made equal to the impedance of C, at the maximum v.f.
The values of k,. range from 0.3 to 0.7, but most designs are based on kL = 0.5,
i.e.. impedance of the inductance Lo is made one -half as great as the impedance
1.2
!.Il6
1
LO
II
c 0.8
- 2nCeRo
f 1II!I&ÌIf
rn
Imam.. in
Ik(/°fi#2/k.if¡*: Mil
0.6
L° ks`R° : , II III
0.4
G_ 9mRoV
(f%mnr) 4kir/d.l-/% III-`1, ill
0.2
\
0
0.001 0.01 01 10
f/fx, Relatwe frequency
Fia. 26. -Gain of a shunt -compensated video amplifier.
of at Am:. This is equivalent to making the resonant frequency between
Cs,
Lo and C, equal to 1.41 times ',RR:.
On the assumption that km = 1.0, the expression for the gain of the shunt -
compensated video amplifier is
-
g.Roll jIkL °(j /Jm. :)° + (1 kL)(11Jm.:)1) -
G
° + IkLU /Jmu)°
1]° -
(18)
where G is the gain at frequency j, and the other quantities have been defined.
The absolute magnitude of this equation is plotted in Fig. 26, and its phase
angle in Fig. 27, for several values of kL.
The simplified design equations for shunt peaking (ks = 1 and kL = 0.5)
are as follows:
Ro = 1 (19)
2,rjm.:C,
Lo = 0.5C,Ro2 (20)
Typical values of Ro are 2,000 to 4,000 ohms and of Lo are 50 to 100 µh.
39. Series -peaking Compensation. The compensation in Fig. 28 has an
advantage over the shunt -peaking system in that the inductance L, isolates
the effects of the output and input capacitances Co and Ci; whereas in the
,
shunt -peaking systems, Co and C. are directly additive. Since Co is less than
C,, for a given h-f limit Ro may he made correspondingly larger; hence the
90
1 13 1 1
80 ga=fañ(áLp x(l-kiFf )
_-.-ak3
70
Es60
.; 50
Ts
6 40
if 30
kil a L.--
kb ;0---
./.
IS-I kL=05
L=0.7
-0.20
IO
1"/>/
iroxa.--
0
04 06 0.8
0 0.2 14
1.0 1.2 16 1.8 2.0
f/fma,r, Relative frequency
FIa. 27. -Phase angle introduced by a shunt- compensated video amplifier.
gain of the stage is increased. On the assumption that C; /Co = 2 (usually
assumed condition), the design
Lc Cc equations for Ro and L. are as
follows:
1.5
Ro (21)
2aj(Co + C:)
L. = 0.67C,Ro' (22)
. With these values the gain is uni-
Fla. 28. -The series- peaking system of form up to jm.,, and its value is 50
high -frequency compensation. per cent greater than the gain of
the shunt -compensated stage with
the same values of Co, C,, and C,, provided C. /Co = 2.
40. Shunt- series -peaking Compensation. The combination of shunt and
series peaking (shown in Fig. 29) allows still higher gain by combining the
a _, +
Fia. 29.-Combined shunt- and series- peaking system of high- frequency

compensation.
virtues of both connections. Assuming C: /Co = 2, the design equations are
1.8
Ro = (23)
2xjm.,C,
Lo = 0.12C,Ro' (24)
L. = 0.52CRo' (25)
See. 19] TELEVISION 719
The stage displays up to fm.: uniform gain, which is 80 per cent greater than
that of the simple shunt- peaking stage. The are relative merits and design
factors of the three methods of h -f compensation shown in Table II.
TABLE II.- HIGH -FREQUENCY COMPENSATION SYSTEMS
Rela- Variation in
L. tive time delay,
Type Ro Lo gain seconds up
at hunt to 1..: cps
Uncompensated 1 /(211msaC,) 0.707 0.035 /fmu

Shunt /(2r/msvC8) 0.5C,Ro' 1.0 0.023//m.
0.0113 //ma:
1
Series (C; /Co - 2) 1.5 /(2r/mazC,) 0.67C,R,' 1.5
Shunt -series 1.8 0.015 //m.:
(C¡ /Co m 2) 1.8 /(2r/m. :C,) O.12C,R.' 0.52C,Ro'
41. Low -frequency Compensation. The amplitude response of con-

ventional resistance -capacitance-coupled amplifier stages at low fre-
_ IlII,
Flo. 30.- Resistance- capacitance method of low-frequency compensation.
,I
I.
a e
II
II
/. 0A
ii1i11/Ii/.íliIIIENIII
j/5rll/11111
0> 1
. 21rfg,nRo
11111
All
e
,a%
, 4
OQAG.
Vr2ç
ti I FmRe
I11111 'AM
0. 2
I_:::1idl_I
iIIIII%11II
I!iII/211IIr
` (r):I
=2nCFRf
,
at I.0 10 100 1000

f, cps
Fla. 31.- Amplitude response of low- frequency compensation system.
quencies is usually satisfactory, but the phase response at the low
frequencies is troublesome.
The phase angle introduced by the coupling connection C. and the grid
resistor R, of the following stage is sufficient to prevent proper reproduction of
720 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (See. 1$
square waves of 30 or 60 cps fundamental frequency, unless very large values

of C. and R. are employed. Large values of C, introduce shunt capacitance to
ground, and large values of R, introduce grid- current difficulties in the follow-
ing stage. Large values of C,R, may induce relaxation oscillations. Accord-
N
90
iiiii1111 M111111III1111 arfRr.0
V10
v 60
°'S
á 4°
30
111111111111111
2nRFCF /
2fR,.C-0./ 2nR,C '-11
1,,.-IIII,,.1I_I -OOI
.
'120 1111111111II11111L111111111M1I
1IMIN`1111111111,1111111_1111
10
Ó .I
iip _u_ I
I :l
1000
f, cps
Fro. 32. -Phase response of low- frequency compensation system.
ingly it is usual to compensate the effect of the time constant C.R, by the
introduction of a filter RpC, shown in Fig. 30.
The design equation is
CrRoRr
(26)
+ Rr = C.R,
Ro
When this condition is met, the gain at low frequencies is
G =
(1./fr)g.Ro
where G = the gain at frequency f

(f /f, í)- (27)
fr = 1 / (2s CrRr)
=1/ -1.
The amplitude and phase of Eq. (27) are shown in Figs. 31 and 32. Values
of RrCr from 0.15 to 0.5 should be used to keep the point of sero -phase shift
below 30 cps, as indicated in Fig. 32.
42. Cathode -coupled Stage. For many purposes a video -amplifier
stage displaying low output impedance is necessary
(to match the impedance of coaxial cables and to
permit the stage to feed many high impedance
4; sources at once). The cathode-coupled stage (Fig.
33) is commonly used for this purpose. The gain
e of this stage is less than unity, and its output
° impedance can he designed readily for values as low
as 50 ohms. The amplifier, being degenerative,
Fzo. 33.- Funds- has lower values of input capacitance, is freer from
mental cathode- amplitude distortion, and is less affected by changes
coupled stage. in supply voltages than is the conventional ampli-
fier stage.
The gain of the cathode-coupled stage is
µRk
G = (28)
r, +R.(k +1)
where µ = amplification factor of the tube

ro = its internal plate resistance
Rk = value of the cathode resistor.
The effective output impedance Zo is
Rkr /(s + 1)
Zo - Rk + ry /(!i + 1) (29)
An important practical advantage of the cathode -coupled stage is that it may
be coupled to the following transducer without the intervention of a coupling
capacitor, so that the d -c as well as a -c components of the video signal are
transmitted. No pains need be taken to preserve the h-f response, since the
low value of impedance makes the shunting effect'of the output capacitance
negligibly small.
43. Transient Response of Video Amplifiers. The response of a video
amplifier to the Heaviside unit pulse of voltage is a general criterion of
200
§,.160
ì) 120
v 80
40
°.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t= Time in secs. t/to
to- 2nRC
K=RCAW A
240 32 Stages 64 Stages
/6 Stages
$ 200
, : K=14/ K=14/
K-1.41 .
-K=15/ K-/.S/
g160 K/.S/._` ,X=/.6/ Kl6/
11._ -
t
a
120
8
40
0
un it-:
pulse
mmifir _
-40
5 6 7 8 9 10
t/to
B
Fia. 34.- Transient
response of single and multistage compensated video
amplifiers. (After Bedford and Fredenhall.)
video-amplifier response. The response to a single unit pulse is difficult
to measure experimentally, but a square wave may be used as the exciting
voltage, provided that the period of the wave is long compared with the
duration of the transient response. Responses calculated on this assump-
tion are shown in Fig. 34, for a single stage and for several multistage
amplifiers. Simple shunt peaking is assumed, for various values of the
parameter K = RC/ LC,, i.e., the ratio of the load resistor Ro to the
impedance of the shunt capacitance C, at the frequency at which Lo and
C, are resonant. The case for K = 1.41 is equivalent to the cases of
kR = 1 and k,. = 0.5 (Art. 38).
44. Noise Limitations to Video Amplification. One of the principal

limitations to proper video amplification is inadequate signal /noise
i
200
1111111_M
loo ___..u-r_--....
_=E=:5°_=:::=:
n1-----.s,u
11111
1111
-- %...n
---... w. w.s ..rSá11111
IMIONNuuM=1
.[6000.
000 dlll:íl
--
111. ;I''illlll OOpCPs
---
!:íl .....
.4,000"
_=__::
iMi:ií1' sl0c °i.wnm
{{
{, OOOC
° s
3
2
IIIII
MMEMi011
.IIII .{
il111111
MIniiÍl.111IIIlI1111IIII
,Z 50_.1í11111111
T=300°K.
=27°C.
1111
1111
!'
1100
000 10,000 100000
Z, ohms
FIG. 35.- Thermal agitation voltage generated in wide -band circuits.
2000 I 1 I 1 1 f
e,.o,,f5.64x10-"Z !(f,-f, w/h
rwMtf.i.
wwwwi.
1;42
iw'IMN11 III
=4,OOQ000cps
ÌÌ
g 500 i1.w111MMIIIMM111
-E_
po
Ú 200 ti:11/OI.IÍ
IMs/ °iil1111111
i11I
á
1111C.11 tis
1
g
17- 300iII 211111
prmm111 tiÍ111
ai11
30 11111111M111 1111
20 IIRi111I 2is, iIIII
;111ji_
111
1111
10
2 3 4 6 810 20 40 60 80100
Plate current, I, ma.
Fin. 36.- Shot-effect noise generated in wide -band circuits.
ratio. The two sources of circuit noise, thermal agitation and shot
sffect, are evaluated in Figs. 35 and 36 for a transmission system respon-
sive to the video range. Values of 50 to 100 µv are common. For a

signal /noise ratio of 10: 1, commonly assumed as the minimum acceptable
for entertainment purposes, the desired signal must accordingly have an
r -m -s amplitude of from 0.5 to 1.0 inv.
References
Video Amplification:
BARCO, A. A.: Measurement of Phase Shift in Television Amplifiers, RCA Rev., 3, No. 4,
441, April, 1939.
BARBER, A. W.: Video Amplifier Design, Communications. 18, No. 6. 13. June, 1938.
BEDFORD and FREDENHALL: Transient Response of Multistage Video Amplifiers, Proc.
I.R.E., 27, 277, April, 1939.
BUILDER, G.: The Amplification of Transients, Wireless Eng., Exp. Wireless, 246, May,
1935.
CARNAHAN, C. W.: The Steady -state Response of a Network to a Periodic Driving Force
of Arbitrary Shape. and Its Applications to Television Circuits, Prot. I.R.E., 23,
1393, November, 1935.
EVEREST, E. A.: Wideband Television Amplifiers, Electronics, 11, No. 1, 16, January,
. 1938; 11, No. 3, 24, May, 1938.
FREEMAN and SCHANTZ: Video Amplifier Design, Electronics, 10, No. 8, 22. August, 1937.
HEROLD. E. W.: High- frequency Correction in Resistance- coupled Amplifiers, Com-
munications. 18, No. 8, 11. August, 1938.
KAUZMANN, A. I'.: New Television Amplifier Receiving Tubes, RCA Rev., 3, 3, 271.
January, 1939.
KEALL, O. F.: Correction Circuits for Amplifiers, Marconi Rev., 54, 15, May, 1935.
LANE, H. 111.: Resistance- capacitance Amplifier in Television, Proc. I.R.E., 20, 722,
April. 1932.
MCLACHLAN, H. W.: Reproduction of Transients by Television Amplifiers, Wireless Eng.,
13, 519. October, 1936.
NAGY, P.: The Design of Vision-frequency Amplifiers, Television, 10, No. 160, 220, 279,
March, April, May, 1937.
OAKEY, C. W.: Distortionless Amplification of Electrical Transients, Wireless Eng.
Exp. Wireless, 245, May, 1931.
POLLACK, DALE: Choice of Tubes for Wide -band Amplifiers, Electronics, 12, 3, 38, April,
1939.
PREISMAN, A.: Some Notes on Video Amplifier Design, RCA Rev., 2, No. 4, 421, April,
1938.
POCKLE, O. S.: Transient Aspect of Wideband Amplifiers, (Vireless Eng., 12, 251, May,
1935.
RoBINsoN, G. D.: Theoretical Notes of Certain Features of Television Receiving Cir-
cuits, Proc. I.R.E., 21, 833, June, 1933.
SEELEY and KIMBALL: Analysis and Design of Video Amplifiers, RCA Rev., 2, No. 2, 171,
October, 1937; 3, No. 3, 290, January, 1939.
SHIFFENBAUER, R. G.: Phase Distortion in Television, Wireless Eng., 13, 21, January,
1936.
Swirr, G.: Amplifier Testing by Means of Square Waves, Communications, 14, No. 2,
22, February, 1939.
WHEELER. H. A.: The Interpretation of Amplitude and Phase Distortion in Terms of
l'aired Echoes, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 359, June, 1939.
: Wideband Amplifiers for Television, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 429, July, 1939.
WILSON, J. C.: "Television Engineering," Chap. VI, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd.,
London, 1937.
MODULATION, R -F AND I -F AMPLIFICATION, DETECTION

45. Video Modulation. Video modulation is based on the same con-
siderations as audio modulation, with certain specialized requirements.
One of the limitations is the small amount of video signal voltage which
may be generated in currently available tubes and circuits. The high
capacitance to ground of large water- cooled tubes requires the use of
very low values of load resistance to maintain response over the v -f
range. The voltage which can be developed across the load resistance
depends on the emission current. At present it is difficult to generate
more than the 1,500 or 2,000 volts, peak-to -peak over the video range
724 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. It
from 30 cps to 4.5 Mc. When high -level modulation is used, therefore, it
is usually considered expedient to use grid- circuit modulation, rather
than plate-circuit modulation, since the voltage requirements for grid
modulation are less by the amplification factor of the modulated stage.
Low-level modulation is not similarly restricted but has not proved
popular because of the very low efficiency of the modulated r-f amplifiers
which follow the modulator and also because of the difficulty of maintain-
ing the characteristics of vestigial side-band transmission (Art. 46) unless
the r-4 amplifiers are highly linear.
The second unusual requirement in video modulation is the necessity
for maintaining two levels in the modulation envelope at constant
amplitudes. These levels are (1) the tips of the sync pulses, i.e., the
maximum amplitude of the envelope; and (2) the blanking level or
pedestal. Since these levels must remain constant regardless of any
changes in the wave form of the camera -signal component, it is necessary
to couple the modulating amplifier conductively to the modulated ampli-
fier. This makes necessary a separate power supply for each stage. A
Modukihng video Modulated
amplifier r- ( amplifier
rTo sideband
filter
R-f excitation
(carriersource)
Fia. 37.- Fundamental circuit of video modulator.
typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 37. Here the modulating video
amplified is coupled conductively to the grids of the r-f amplifier. The
B supply for the modulating amplifier is in series with the cathode.
At the grid of the modulating amplifier, it is necessary that the blanking
level and sync -pulse tip level be constant. The latter levels are caused
to assume fixed values by passing the video wave form through a diode
rectifier whose cathode is connected to the modulating video-amplifier
grid. The load circuit values are chosen so that the rectified d -c poten-
tial across the diode assumes a level at the tips of the sync pulses, or
just below the tips (the difference being required to supply the diode
current). The voltage across the diode forms a part of the fixed bias
of the modulating amplifier. The composite wave form, extending
more positively than the tips of the sync pulses, causes the modulating
amplifier output voltage to extend more negatively than the sync pulses.
This output voltage, applied to control the amplitude of the modulated
r-f amplifier, causes the sync -pulse tips to assume the peak position in the
envelope, while the blanking level and camera-signal components extend
to lower levels in the envelope. The sync pulses and blanking level
maintain constant amplitudes, whereas the average on the camera -signal
component changes with the background illumination of the scene (see

Fig. 10, Art. 19).
46. Vestigial Side -band Transmission. The side bands of the modu-
lated r-f signal, assuming a maximum video modulating frequency of
4.5 Mc, extend over a total region of 9 Mc. To conserve space in the
ether and at the same time to secure greater efficiency from r-f and i-f
amplifiers, the N.T.S.C. recommended standards specify vestigial side-
band transmission (sesqui -side-band, selective side-band, or "single"
side -band transmission). In this system a part of the lower frequency
side band is completely attenuated. By this means the upper side band
can be transmitted completely with 4.0 to 4.5 Mc width, within the
6-Mc channel assigned by the FCC. A portion of the lower side band,
within 1.25 Mc of the carrier frequency, is also transmitted.
The channel composition for vestigial side -band transmission is shown in
Fig. 38, at the top. The lower figure shows the corresponding characteristic
w12SMe-+(4 4.5 Mc t«Q2.5*
Upper sideband
Approximately 401tic. >i
--Picture /Sound
signal signa/
Carrier carrier
51 52 53 54 55 56
Frequency Mc.
Linear attenuation
region
-50 per cent response
at carrier frequency
'Picture carrier
50 51 52 53 54 55 56
Frequency Mc.
Fte. 38. -Top, output characteristic of television transmitter. Bottom,
corresponding input response characteristic of receiver.
of the receiver. In the receiver characteristic the picture signal- carrier
voltage is attenuated to 50 per cent of its original level, and the curve of
attenuation is linear over a range of 2.5 Mc. This arrangement develops
50 per cent modulation in those portions of the carrier which receive double -
side-band treatment (within 1.25 Mc of the carrier). The modulation of the
components further removed from the carrier in the upper side band are
inherently 50 per cent modulated, so all portions of the signal, when presented
to the detector, produce an equal amplitude in the detector output.
To form a transmitted signal of the character shown at the top in Fig. 38,
a filter having sharp cutoff characteristics is required. In Fig. 39 the desired
upper side band is passed through a capacitor to the antenna, whereas the
undesired lower side band is passed through an inductance to an absorbing
resistor. Filter structures for this purpose, when employed for high -level
modulation, are customarily formed from sections of coaxial transmission
lines. In addition to the filter shown, a sharply tuned "notching filter" is

usually used to provide additional attenuation at the sound-carrier frequency
of the adjacent channel.
47. Allocation of Television Channels. Figure 40 shows the allocation
of 18 six -megacycle channels for television in the region between 44 and
300 Mc allocated by the FCC. The five channels lowest in frequency are
currently considered most useful for public service, because of the greater
transmitter and receiver efficiencies in the lower frequencies. Fre-
quencies from 150 to 500 Mc have
Anienna been employed for relaying televi-
Inpui from Co sion signals between stations.
Input 48. Wide -band R -f Amplification.
The gain of a wide -band r-f pen-
tode amplifier is equal to the prod-
uct of the tube transconductance pm
by the load impedance Zo. For
maximum gain per stage both g,, and
the absolute value of Zo must be
as large as possible. To maintain
the proper band -pass characteris-
Le Absa bbn tics, Zo must be designed to have
resistor as nearly constant amplitude and as
C2= nearly linear phase as possible over
Fro. 39.- Elements of a vestigial the desired operating range and to
have nearly zero impedance outside
side-band filter.
these limits. The design of the
optimum Zo to meet these conditions is best attacked from the standpoint
of band-pass filter theory, as indicated in Sec. 6 of this handbook.
Some general considerations are revealed simply in the analysis of the
single loaded tuned circuit, shown in Fig. 41. At the resonant frequency f,,
the impedance of the circuit is equal to the value of the shunting resistor. At
4450
ii: :i'
75
. :'i ii :ti
100
1
125
Frequency ,Mc
i
150
IL
175
A
6 ...`..
1
200
it
.
Fia. 40.- Allocation of frequencies from 30 to 300 Mc, according to regulations

C
225
1
: ¿':
250
... i..
275
...
300
of the Federal Communications Commission.

frequencies removed from resonance, the impedance is less by the amount
shown, and the degree of attenuation depends on the ratio of the resistance to
the impedance of the inductance at the resonant frequency. The general
relationships between the impedance and resistance are shown in Fig. 41.
The corresponding phase relationships are shown in Fig. 42.
The design of the single loaded tuned circuit is based on the necessity of
(1) obtaining resonance at or near the carrier frequency and (2) loading the
circuit to present nearly uniform response over the aide -band regions. In
particular, if it is desired that the circuit display an impedance at the edge
of the side -band regions equal to 0.707 times the impedance at resonance, the
value of the resistance required is
Sec: 191 TELEVISION 727
(30)
where f, = resonant frequency

Aj = total frequency width of the region within which the response is
desired within unity and 0.707
R = maximum value of impedance which the tuned circuit impedance
7.o may have.
For maximum gain the L/C ratio should be as high as possible. It is usual to
employ as C only the stray and distributed capacitance present in the circuit
and to bring this capacitance to resonance by employing u variable value of L.
The loading is determinedlrom Eq. (30).
_R
1.0
-E. 0.8
>
ce
0.6
k 04 _Ammo
0.2
Aa i.
Z
MIMI
Z.
,.,R
fr
1
_I__ '-
Íi,jÔIÌì
Jr
-
R
vl+4111 I
Xrl2nfrL
0 " I
080 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20

f/ft., Relative frequency
Fto. 41.- Impedance characteristics (absolute magnitude) of the single
loaded tuned circuit (inset).
Since the single -tuned circuit cannot display a uniform impedance over an
extended band width, it is usually desirable to employ coupled circuitsa
(coupled capacitively, self-inductively, or mutually inductively) to obtain
flat -top response curve. In coupled circuits the impedance is a complicated
function, but in general its value is independent of the carrier frequency,
proportional to the hand width, and directly proportional to the L/C
ratio of the tuned circuits.
The phase response of a wide-band r -f amplifier should be as linear as
possible over the band -pass region. Such linearity is associated with symme-
try in the amplitude characteristic; hence it is unwise to allow an amplifier
to be unsymmetrical in one stage and to compensate with an antisymmetrical
characteristic in the next stage, since poor phase response will usually result.
49. Picture I -f Amplification. The design of i -f amplifier circuits for
television i -f signals is similar to the design of wide -band r-f circuits,
except that lower carrier frequencies are used. Also, since most of the
gain in a television receiver resides in t i -f amplifier stages, the problem
of selectivity against interference from adjacent channels must be con-
tended with.
The band -pass characteristic of an ideal picture i -f amplifier is shown in
Fig. 43. The values of carrier frequencies are those recommended by the
R.M.A. Committee on Television, i.e., 8.25 Mc for the sound carrier and
12.75 Mc for the picture. The adjacent carrier frequencies are 14.25 Mc for
the adjacent sound channel, and 6.75 Mc for the picture carrier of the oppo-
sitely adjacent channel. Ordinarily the picture i -f circuit need be designed
to display selectivity against the two sound channels only, at 8.25 Mc against
the associated sound channel and at 14.25 Mc against the adjacent -channel
sound carrier. The usual values of attenuation are 40 db at 8.25 Mc and
60 db at 14.25 Mc.
= l0
8
6
I
rIMO
'i AMMON__
Li-, 40
20
6 0
-20
ó
á
à
40
,
''
f)
iR /f -c
Vi
-60
fr fr f
dt tan
'F
Xr
r
O0
80
.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 LOO 1.05 1.10 I. 5 1.20

f/fr, Relative frequency
FIG. 42. -Phase angle of impedance of single loaded tuned circuit.
Associated Pie/ure Adjacent
sound carrier carrier sound carrier
8.25 Mc /275 Mc /425 Mc
s? I.
a
0.5
T.)
0
8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 140
Frequency, Mc
Fta. 43.- Response curve of typical television intermediate frequency ampli-
fier, according to R.M.A. recommended practice.
To produce the recommended standard i.f. of 8.25 and 12.75 Mc, the
frequency of the local oscillator must be 8 Mc higher in frequency than
the upper frequency limit of the channel under consideration, i.e., 64 Mc for
the 50- to 56-Mc channel.
The gain per stage in picture i -f amplifiers depends directly on the band
width passed. Stage gains of 10 are possible when accepting the full band
width of 4 Mc shown in Fig. 43. For a band width of 2.5 Mc, typical in
receivers using a 5-in. cathode -ray tube, the gain per stage may rise to 15 per
stage. A total i -f gain of 10,000 is usually considered sufficient. The effec-

tive tube and circuit noise at the input to the first i -f stage is usually 100 µv
V. V2 VS v4
CONVERTER ! F. I.E /.E
1852
1852 1853 185.7
4300v 4300v 4300v
C1;0.01 R/;1000 C8:00 4;17170 C11;0.02 "WOO C14;001
82;3000
C2;400 271;7500- R17;7500, 223:5070-
TJ
PICTURE
vlOm
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~Ur 615;4000
CHANNEL
C3;0.006
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224;6000
.
Arg 321;64000
4300 4300ÌN
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4300v
R.N;N1o0
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CN;001
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SOUND I. F
6LAC CHANNEL
L_
ORCEN ALL CAPACITORS ARE
C/6;400' $ 77;001 00/pf RIM THE
1P7K;104000' F011001740 EXCEP710WS:
76;S.Opf C2- 400p/d
R27104004.
µál1;0O
b;
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~ 7257;2000
',..235:50,000
03-0006 MICA
cis-400pp!
NOOv 4J00v RJB.%f7K9 C2J-JOp/.d
AvC NC AUDIO C24SOp,Uf
(SOUND) Cf0UN0V /' ''.
C15,0o2/af 'RJ6: 1127M
VC C25.0-02/tr
1853 1853 65107 C26 - S.O1d
I. F. I.F DEE.
v6 Vj Vs
F1c. 44.- Connection diagram of typical picture i -f amplifier.

110
100
90
he. ''k' ;
ú
80 IT
ó70 0
I
v 60 á
50
1
40 cñ
á3Ø
4
:
Y
20
10
ñ
0
6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 150
Frequency, Mc
Flo. 45.- Response curve of picture i -f amplifier shown in Fig. 44.
or more. With a gain of 10,000 the noise voltage applied to the detector
would be 1 volt, which is sufficient to make it plainly visible in the cathode
tube. Sensitivity greater than this is clearly not necessary. Total i -f gain
as low as 2,000 may be used in low -priced receivers, intended for use with
input r -f signals of 1,000 pv or more.
50. Video Detection. The diode detector is used almost universally
for video demodulation in current receivers. The important considera-
tions are (1) the amplitude and phase responses of the load circuit of
the detector over the video range, (2) the discrimination of this circuit
against components of carrier frequency, (3) the loading exerted by this
circuit on the i -f coupling circuit which feeds the detector, and (4) the
polarity of the detected voltage output.
Video
sync
From i-f To
circuits
amplifier
amplifier
L
Detector
261: C
Detector
load R
Fie. 46.-Typical video detector circuit with filter load circuit.
In designing the detector load circuit, the important factors are the capaci-
tance to ground of the detector output and the input capacitance of the follow-
ing video amplifier. The circuit usually used is very similar to the series -
peaking circuit, (Art. 39), and the expressions for Ro and L, Eqs. (21) and (22)1
can be used, under the assumption that C; /Co = 2. The values of Ro, an
determined, usually range from 2,000 to 5,000 ohms.
The simple series- peaking circuit possesses sufficient discrimination against
carrier -frequency components when the detection occurs at radio frequencies
f input
;Video output ;Video output
(increased ! (increased
b positive negative
voltage as voltage as
carrier carrier
amplitude + amplitude
increases) increases)
A B
Fie. 47.- Detector polarities: A, cathode-ahove- ground connection; B,
anode-above -ground connection.
(above 40 Mc). But when i -f detection is considered (carrier frequencies
from 8.5 to 13.0 Mc), it is preferable to design the detector load circuit in the
form of a low -pass filter having a sharp cutoff above the v -f limit (5 Mc). A
typical constant -k filter section of this type is shown in Fig. 46.
The loading of the detector load circuit on the preceding i-f circuit is
calculated from
Retf = (31)
where Rift -
effective load resistance on the i -f amplifier
R = actual value of the detector load resistor
v = detection efficiency (very close to unity in most practical cases).
See. lei TELEVISION 731
The polarity of the detected voltage output is important because it deter-

mines the number of video-amplifier stages required between the detector
and the picture tube control grid to produce a picture having positive tone
values. The two possible detector polarities are shown in Fig. 47. The
cathode-above -ground connection produces an increased voltage output as
the initial light in the studio decreases (assuming negative modulation, see
Art. 20). Consequently one phase reversal is necessary between the detector
and the picture tube. Any odd number of video-amplifier stages suffices
(usually one stage is used). In the anode- above -ground connection the
reverse polarity exists and an even number (usually two) of stages is required
between the detector and picture tube. The same polarity considerations
govern the number of amplifier stages required between the detector and the
synchronizing input terminals of the scanning generators. With scanning
generators synchronized by positive pulses (usual type) the cathode- above-
ground connection shown at A requires an even number of interve g stages,
whereas the anode -above -ground connection B requires an odd number of
stages.
It is usual to operate video detectors with a maximum peak -to-peak input
i -f voltage of 10 volts. Assuming full modulation, the peak-to-peak output
voltage (with detector internal resistance and load resistance values equal)
will be 5 volts, three -quarters of which constitutes the camera signal. A
single video stage having a gain of 12 is consequently capable of delivering
5.0 X 0.75 X 12 = 45 volts, peak to peak, in the picture tube grid. This
value is sufficient to operate the usual picture tube over its entire control
range.
References
j
Modulation, R-f and I Amplification, Detection:
BENHAM, W. E.: Aerial Coupling System for Television, Wireless Eng., 15, 555, October,
1938.
: Asymetric Sideband Phase Distortion, Wirelaa Eng., 15, 616, November. 1938.
CARTER, P. S.: Simple Television .Antennas, RCA Rev., 4, No. 2, 168, October, 1939.
COCKING, W. T.: Television I -f Amplifiers, Wireless Eng., 15, 358. July, 1938.
Coax and PAwsEY: Aerial Feeders for Television, Tel 12, 282, May, 1939.
ENGSTROM and BuRRILL: Frequency Assignments for Television, RCA Rev.. 1, No. 3, 88,
January, 1937.
HOLLYWOOD, J. M.: Single Side -band Filter Theory with Television Applications, Proc.
I.R.E., 27 457, July, 1939.
LINDENBLAD, Ñ.: Television Transmitting Antenna for Empire State Building, RCA Rev..
3, No. 4, 387, April. 1939.
LYMAN, H. T.: Television Radio Frequency Input Circuits, R.M.A. Eng., 3, No. 1, 3,
November, 1938.
MoUNTJOY, GARRARD: Television Signal -frequency Circuit Considerations, RCA Rev.,
4, No. 2. 204, October, 1939.
PARKER, W. N.: A Unique Method of Modulation for High -fidelity Television Trans-
mitters, Prot. I.R.E., 26, 946, August, 1938.
Poca and EPSTEIN: Partial Suppression of One Sideband in Television Reception. RCA
Rev., 1, No. 3, 19, July. 1937.
and : Partial Suppression of One Sideband in Television Reception, RCA
Rev., 1, No. 3, 19, January, 1937.
RODER, HANS: Analysis of Load- impedance Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 386, June.
1939.
SEELEY: Effect of Receiving Antenna on Television Reception Fidelity. RCA Rev., 2,
No. 4, 433, April, 1938.
STRUrr. M. J. O.: High Frequency Mixing and Detector Stages in Television Receivers,
Wireless Eng., 16, 174, April, 1939.
SEPARATION OF THE SYNCHRONIZING SIGNALS
51. Amplitude Separation. The separation of the composite synchro-
nizing signal from the camera signal is performed after the composite video
signal has been developed by the second detector. The composite video
signal (Fig. 48) is applied to a "clipper" tube, which is a tube that cuts
off all current beyond a certain negative amplitude limit. A triode
clipper tube and characteristic are shown in Fig. 48. In Fig. 49 a diode
clipper arrangement is shown in conjunction with the second detector. It
is necessary, of course, that the clipping level be maintained continuously
110
C/leper Ei
characteristic. -11111 1:¡II
IO EC"; /-f
P,
--- - -a- 7k- -Az. Sync
input
JL .'J
pu/ses
:-.
Composite Time constant

video signal = 0.1 second
Fia. 48.- Clipper circuit and char- FIG. 49.- Combined second de-
acteristic, used to separate composite tector and sync amplitude separator
sync signals from camera signals. (clipper).
at the blanking level to ensure that the camera signal does not affect
synchronization, on the one hand, and to ensure that the maximum
amplitude of sync pulses is developed, on the other.
52. Wave -form Separation. After the composite synchronizing signal
C has been separated from the video signal, it is
necessary to develop the horizontal sync pulses
e independently of the vertical sync pulses. The
Sync Impulse j¿ E=C-cfe- latter separation is carried out by a method
,oi+oge
dt known as wave-form separation, since the two
sets of pulses cannot be distinguished by ampli-
tude means. Essentially wave-form separation
depends on circuits which respond to the rela-
tive frequency content of the two sets of pulses.
The horizontal sync pulses that are of short
t duration occur 13,230 times per second and
have a predominance of h -f components, where-
as the vertical pulses that are of long duration
and occur 60 times per second have a predom-
inance of l -f components. The ratio of the
frequencies of the two sets of pulses 13,230/60 =
220yß is the index of the degree of frequency
difference on which the separator circuits may
Fia. 50.- Differenti- operate.
ator circuit (top) and 53. Differentiator Circuit for Horizontal Sync
action on sync pulses Pulses. The differentiator circuit shown in
(bottom). Fig. 50 is used to develop the h -f components of
the composite synchronizing signal, i.e., the horizontal sync pulses. The
series capacitance passes the high frequencies associated with the leading
edge of the sync pulse, while retarding all lower frequency components.
Sec. ifj TELEVISION 733
The RC product (time constant) of the combination is made short com-

pared with the frame-repetition interval (y(i sec.) and long compared
with the line scanning interval (1/13,230 sec.). The leading edge of
the differentiated wave forms is applied, in the proper polarity, to the
synchronizing terminal of the horizontal scanning generator.
Sync impulse
current
6 +
R --o
C
./ C
T
Time->-
í .&ne control level

Fie. 51.- Integrator circuit
Time -
(top) and action on vertical sync pulse (bottom).
Differentiator
circuits
High frequency
output
Mired
frequency
input Low frequency
I
output
.... Integrator=
circuits
Fia. 52.- Combined differentiator and integrator circuits for wave -form
separation.
54. Integrator Circuit for Vertical Sync Pulses. The integrator
circuit shown in Fig. 51 develops a sync pulse from the serrated vertical
pulse and equalizing pulses. The wave forms of input and output are
shown. It will be noted that the initial portion of the integrated output
pulse is not so sharply rising as that of the differentiated horizontal
pulse, and consequently the intersection with the synchronizing control

level is not so precisely marked. This fact makes it necessary to have
the wave shape of each successive integrated pulse precisely the same.
The function of the equalizing in this respect has been pointed out in
Art. 23. In addition it is necessary that all traces of the horizontal sync
pulses be completely removed from the integrating circuit.
Several differentiating and integrating circuits may he used in cascade
to improve the degree of separation. The cascaded circuits may be
connected directly together (usually done with integrator circuits); or
they may occur in the grid and plate circuits of a sync separator amplifier
tube. A typical synchronizing amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 52.
PICTURE TUBES AND ASSOCIATED CIRCUITS
55. Picture Tubes. The conventional cathode -ray picture tube is a
funnel -shaped evacuated structure containing an electron gun which
forms an electron beam, and a fluorescent screen on which the beam
Horizontal Vera c,t Electron
scanning coil scanning coi/ scanning beam
Luminous
spot
-,
Ekclron%
...:ß:Jì -P/dure ama
, -Luminescent
gun Beam screen am
deflected ° /4 inner surface
Vert/cal'
t`Horiz on/al of tube
scanning coil
soanningco//
Wall coating
Flo. 53.- Structure of a typical picture tube.
impinges. The beam is deflected by the application of transverse electric
or magnetic fields which cause the end of the beam to trace out the inter-
laced scanning pattern over the fluorescent screen. The current in the
'beam is capable of variation from zero (cutoff) to a maximum of several
hundred microamperes, under the control of the signal potential applied
between the cathode and the control electrode of the electron gun.
The beam is deflected synchronously with the scanning agent in the
camera tube, and the beam current is controlled by the camera signal.
The variations in the beam current produce corresponding variations
in the brightness of the fluorescent spot, and the picture is thereby
reproduced.
The operating characteristics of picture tubes depend on the design of
the electron gun and on the physical and chemical properties of the
fluorescent screen. The electron gun requires a power supply to form the
electron beam. Finally the deflection fields must be provided by scan-
ning generators and these generators must operate under the control
of the synchronizing signals of the video signal.
Picture tubes are classified according to (1) the type of focusing
employed (electrostatic or magnetostatic) in the electron gun, (2) the
type of- deflection (electric or magnetic), (3) the type of phosphor (sul-
phide and non -sulphide), and (4) the color of the light produced (usually
white).
56. Characteristics of Electron Guns. Electrostatically focused elec-
tron guns are characterized (1) by the ratio of the voltages applied to
the second anode and the first anode. In present designs this ratio
varies from 4 to 6. In addition the guns are characterized (2) by the
control electrode characteristic which specifies the relation between
control electrode voltage and beam current (second -anode current) for
different values of second -anode
voltage. A typical control char- 700
acteristic of an electrostatically
focused gun employed in the
12AP4 tube is shown in Fig. 54.
Curves of this shape are typical a 600
of all types of electron guns, E
whether electrostatically or mag- E
netostatically focused. g
500
An important characteristic of -É
electron gun is the degree of fine-
ness of focus, i.e., the size of the
ç
fluorescent spot formed on the 400
screen. Guns of good design are o
capable of forming a fluorescent o
spot about 0.005 in. in diameter,
but production tubes usually 300
have spots from 0.01 to 0.015 in. 15,
in diameter. The latter spot
size permits a picture resolution
of 350 lines when the picture 200
height, is 6 in. or more (picture 4
width 8 in. or more). For ó
smaller tubes the spot size sets
the upper limit of picture resolu- 100
tion at a figure lower than 350
lines. In 5-in. tubes, for exam-
ple, resolution of 200 to 250 lines
is typical performance of cur- 040 -30 ß0 -b 0
rent tubes. Control electrode (grid no.l).vol+s
57. Characteristics of Phos- Fla. 54.- Electron -gun control char -
phors. The important operating acteristic. A. 7,000 -volt; B, 6,000-volt
characteristic of the phosphors second anode voltage.
(fluorescent materials) employed
in picture tubes is the relationship between the light produced, the beam
current (second-anode current), and the second -anode potential. Figure
55 shows a typical family of such curves, taken for the "P4" white -light
phosphor employed in the 5AP4, 5BP4, 7ÁP4, 9ÁP4, and 12AP4 tubes.
58. Transfer Characteristic of Picture Tube. The transfer character-
istic of a transducer in a television system is the relationship between
the significant variational input quantity and the significant variational
output quantity. In picture tubes the significant input is the control-
electrode voltage, and the significant output is the corresponding light
produced on the screen. The transfer characteristic of the 12AP4 tube
is shown in Fig. 56. Note that the relationship is not linear but has the
736 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (See. 11I
_
"antisaturation" shape, corresponding to a gamma greater than unity.
This characteristic tends to enhance the apparent contrast of the picture
(see Art. 72).
varn. 1
08
c,:,
).035
0,
l..,.,
0.030 4,..,
"
j,.-
0.025
OA20
0.015
).010
0.005
0
:!,=
I
%%ire
2000
t500
/200
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
High-voltage electrode (anode no.2),microamperes per sq.cm.
Fm. 55.- Phosphor light-output characteristic (type P4 phosphor).
69. Contrast in Picture Tubes. The ratio of the brightness of the
brightest portion of an image to the brightness of the darkest portion
0.0150
is called the brightness-contrast ratio.
Type 12AP4 Owing to the effects of light spreading
Second anode (halation) within the glass envelope
voltage = 6000v. of the tube the maximum contrast
0025
Scanned area ratio of current picture tubes is about
=400sq.cm. 50:1. Between closely adjacent por-
0.0100 tions of the image, halation reduces
the maximum obtainable contrast to
7C
'2 about 10:1.

3
0.0015 a. 60. Dynamic Action of Picture-
tube Control Circuit. The dynamic
.E
action of the picture -tube circuit is
represented by applying the video
IDDMis signal wave form to the transfer char-
acteristic (Fig. 57). The video wave
0.0025,5 form is applied so that the blanking
level corresponds to the zero light
(cutoff) point on the transfer char-
-40
0
() acteristic as shown. This bias level
Control electrode volts
must remain fixed at all times. Then
56.-Typical transfer char- the camera signal extending to the
acteristic of a picture tube, derived right of the blanking level produces
from Figs. 54 and 55. light on the screen in accordance
with the camera signal, whereas the
synchronizing signals to the left of the blanking level are in the infra-
black region (beyond cutoff) and do not produce light. The total excur-
sion of the camera signal should be limited so that the control -electrode
voltage never becomes positive; usually the control electrode does not go
beyond the -5 or -10 volts mark. The average of the picture signal
component, taken over the frame interval, establishes the background
brightness of the scene, provided the blanking level remains fixed at the
light cutoff point.
61. Direct -current Restoration Circuits. Two typical circuits used to
maintain the blanking level constant at the picture-tube control electrode
7.0
6.0
N
5.0 v
4.0 ó+ Maximum white

Picture tube
ironsfer
characteristic
-0
3.0 v
L
,ktit e
2.0,y,
1.0
Black
0 -,r
-40 =30 -20 10 0 Time-->
Confrol grid volts
?
Blanking__ I
level v
E
Fie. 57.- Dynamic action of video signal in picture -tube control circuit.
are shown in Fig. 58. The proportions of C. and R. are chosen to have
a time constant long compared with the line-scanning interval but short
compared to the duration of the changes in background light. In the
upper diagram the grid and cathode of the video-amplifier tube act as a
diode, whereas in the lower case a separate diode is employed. The
diode, acting in conjunction with C.,R develops a bias equal to the peak
of the video signal. This peak value remains fixed (assuming no change
in signal strength), consequently the remainder of the video signal (the
camera -signal components) act in series with a fixed bias. This fixed
bias is coupled conductively (either through the amplifier tube at the
top, or directly, at the bottom) and forms a part of the control -electrode
bias. By this means the blanking level remains fixed, and, if the total
control-electrode bias is fixed so that the blanking level coincides with
the light cutoff point, the background brightness of the scene depends
only on the average of the camera -signal component, as is required.
62. Picture -tube Power Supplies. The picture -tube power supply
consists of (1) a source of high voltage for the first and second anodes,
which act to draw the electrons from the gun and (in the case of electro-
statically focused tubes) bring the beam to focus; (2) a source of heater
Cc
Compose ite
video R9
signet
Compas 1e
video
signal
B+
= B =
FIG. 58.- Direct -cure 'nt restoration circuits: top, using the video amplifier
grid current for rectification; bottom, using a separate diode.
current for the cathode of the electron gun; and (3) a source of focusing
coil current (in the case of magnetostatically focused tubes).
A typical high -voltage power supply is shown in Fig. 59. It consists of a
single- winding transformer of r-uc -s output voltage equal to approximately
Vd. /1.4, where Vd< is the desired output d-c voltage; two capacitors of roughly
0.03 to 0.05 of; a series filter resistor of roughly 100.000 to 500,000 ohms; and
a tapped bleeder resistor of about 5 megohms. A resistor is also connected in
series with the second -anode output tap to limit the total output current to a
2V3G
s0,000n . 500000n sg000n
2nd Anode
Id Anode
o Screen Grid
Cathode
I.Confro/Grid
Fca. 59.- Typical anode voltage supply for a picture tube.

safe value in case of accidental contact by the operator. The taps required
for the various electrodes of an electrostatically focused electron gun are
shown.
The current required for the focusing coil of a magnetostatically focused
gun depends on the focus-coil design. A typical value is 100 ma at 25 volts,
which may be obtained from the current drain of the receiver proper at the
sacrifice of 25 volts in the low -voltage power supply for the receiver.
The heater currents have usually one of two r -m -s a -c values: 2.5 volts at
2.1 amp. or 6.3 volts at 0.6 amp.
Sec. 19J TELEVISION 739
DEFLECTION OF ELECTRON BEAMS

63. Electron -beam Velocity. The amount of deflection suffered by
an electron scanning beam depends on the velocity with which the elec-
trons in the beam move. This velocity y is expressed by
=3 X 1010 (2 cm per second (32)
y 1
X 1019E + 1)
where E is the accelerating voltage in volts (approximately equal to the
second -anode voltage). This expression takes into account the change
in electron mass with velocity. The values of y vary from 2.66 X 109 cm
per second at 2,000 volts to 4.93 X 109 cm per seconds at 7,000 volts.
64. Electric Deflection. The deflection d, in centimeters, of the scan-
ning beam across the screen of a picture tube caused by passage between
parallel deflecting plates is given by
d - 1.77 X 101"Eal(D - %1) cm
8V2
(33)
where Ed = voltage in volts applied to the deflection plates

V = electron beam velocity in centimeters per second
l = length of the deflection plates in centimeters
s = separation between them in centimeters
D = distance from the screen end of the deflection plates to the
center of the screen measured along the axis of the tube in
centimeters.
Typical electrically deflected tubes have deflection sensitivities of from
0.15 to 0.35 mm deflection per volt applied to the deflecting plates, when
operated at maximum rated second -anode voltage.
65. Magnetic Deflection. The deflection d, in centimeters, across the
screen of a picture tube, caused by passage through a uniform magnetic
field is given by
1.77 X 107B1D
d = cm (34)
where B = flux density of the field in gauss

l = its length in centimeters
D = field- to-screen distance in centimeters
v = electron -beam velocity in centimeters per second.
66. Ion Spot. Negative ions liberated from the cathode of the electron
gun are focused and deflected in much the same manner as the electrons.
In electric deflection the deflection is independent of the charge /mass
ratio of the particles; hence the ions and electrons are equally deflected.
In magnetic deflection, however, the deflection depends on the square
root of the change /mass ratio. Since the ions have masses several
thousand times that of the electron, they suffer correspondingly small
deflection. The lack of deflection subjects the center of the scanned area
to continual bombardment by the ions, and this eventually results in
the formation of a black or yellowish spot. The ion spot is characteristic
of the combination of electrostatic focusing and magnetic deflection.
Specialized electrode structure have been devised, however, which
intercept the ions before they reaeh the screen.
When magnetostatic focusing is employed, the heavy ions are not

brought to focus by the same value of magnetic field as are the electrons;
consequently the bombardment by ions is spread over a larger area of
the surface. Accordingly the combination of magnetostatic focusing
and magnetic deflection is comparatively free from the ion -spot difficulty.
SCANNING AND SYNCHRONIZATION
67. Saw-tooth Generators. The saw -tooth wave form (Fig. 7) is
generated for scanning purposes by the periodic charging and discharging
of a capacitor. The charge -time curve is used to produce the active
scanning motion, and the discharge curve forms the retrace. To main -
B/ockin Discharge
oscillator R t
Saw/ooth
Sync vo/toge ou/put
input
Fia.
-+
60.-Blocking -oscillator
î
type of impulse generator.
tain a linear charge curve, it is customary to restrict the charge time to
about 0.4 time the RC product of the circuit, or less, and also to make
use of the non -linear dynamic characteristic of the following amplifier to
introduce a compensating non-linearity. Certain forms of multivibrator
circuits may be used to produce saw -tooth waves directly.
Usually a separate discharge tube is used to discharge the capacitor.
The discharge current is passed through a high-vacuum triode whose grid
controls the timing of the discharge. The impulses applied to the grid
of the discharge tube are usually derived from an impulse generator,
although they may consist of
Sync
control
`.
li li
. Pu /se
the synchronizing signal itself,
properly amplified.
Impulse generators used to
control the discharge tube in
ou /put scanning generators take one of
two forms, the multivibrator or
Fio. 61.--Multivibrator type of impulse t h e blocking oscillator. T h e
generator. blocking oscillator (Fig. 60) con-
sists of a grid -plate coupled oscil-
lator whose grid is driven negative by the passage of grid current,
thus blocking the oscillations suddenly. As the charge leaks off the
grid through the grid resistor, the oscillations recommence, to be
followed by the sudden blocking of the grid circuit. The sharp impulses
appearing between the grid and ground are used to control the discharge
tube as shown.
A multivibrator type of saw -tooth generator is shown in Fig. 61.
This circuit operates by virtue of the connection between the plate circuit
of the output tube and the grid circuit of the input tube. The alternate
charge and discharge of the coupling capacitor can be used to produce
either impulses or saw -tooth waves, depending on the circuit constants.
See. ill TELEVISION 741
68. Production of Current Saw -tooth Waves. Saw -tooth waves of

voltage produced by saw-tooth generators suffice to deflect the beam of
an electrically deflected tube, which is a voltage-operated device, provided
only that the peak-to-peak value of the saw-tooth wave is great enough
to produce full deflection. In magnetically deflected tubes the deflection
is proportional to the current in the deflection coils; hence saw -tooth
waves of current are required. The voltage wave form required to
produce saw -tooth waves of current depends on the inductance and
resistance present in the scanning -coil windings. An "impulse" voltage
wave is required for coils exhibiting a large inductance-resistance ratio.
For lower L/R ratios the voltage wave form is a combination of impulse
and saw -tooth waves. The several voltage and current wave forms for
these cases are shown in Fig. 62.
Series inductancp2l
Resistance (R) Inductance (L) and resistance (R)
V=IR V=Ldt V= IR -)L df
t-
t
A B C
Fin. 62. -Saw -tooth waves of current and corresponding voltage waveforms
in circuits of R, L, and L -R.
The part- impulse part -saw -tooth wave form may be produced simply
by applying a saw -tooth wave to a series RC combination. The saw -
tooth component develops across the resistance, while the impulse portion
develops across the capacitance.
The presence of distributed capacitance in the scanning-coil windings
gives rise to resonance oscillations when the impulse voltage wave form
is applied. These residual oscillations may be damped out by connecting
a rectifier tube and a shunt RC circuit in series across the scanning -coil
terminals.
69. Amplification of Scanning Wave Forms. The preservation of the
scanning wave form in the amplifier subsequent to the scanning generator
is based on the considerations for video amplifiers. Usually it is desirable
to pass the fundamental and 20 harmonics, which makes the range 60 to
1,200 cps for the vertical scanning amplifier and 15,750 to 315,000 cps
for the horizontal amplifier. The phase and amplitude characteristics
must be linear over these ranges.
For electric deflection it is essential that the scanning-generator output
be disposed symmetrically with respect to the deflection plates, and this
is carried out by employing push -pull amplification. The center point
of the push -pull output is connected through a high resistance to the
second -anode terminal of the picture tube. Care must be taken to allow
the necessary peak-to -peak voltage to develop across the amplifier output
without breakdown of insulation and excessive stress in the tube struc-
tures. The necessity for high scanning voltages has limited application
of electric deflection to tubes operating below 3,000 or 4,000 volts, second -
anode voltage.
In magnetic deflection, heavy current rather than high voltage is
required to secure full deflection. To secure the current, it is customary
to employ a voltage step -down transformer in the output of the scanning
amplifier. This transformer must meet the amplitude- and phase-fre-
quency characteristics of the amplifier itself. High voltage develops
across the primary of this transformer as a result of the rapid changes of
current in the secondary. The amplifier tubes and other components
must he capable of withstanding these voltage peaks, which often attain
several thousand volts amplitude.
Fta. 63.-Construction of a typical scanning yoke (magnetic-deflection coil

system).
70. Scanning Yokes. The set of deflection coils required for magnetic
deflection is ca (41 a scanning yoke. It consists of two sets of coils. One,
arranged about a vertical axis transverse to the tube axis, produces the
horizontal deflection, and another set of coils, arranged on a horizontal
axis transversely to the tube axis, produces the vertical deflection.
Among the factors on which the yoke design depends are (1) the angle
of deflection required (which determines the required number of ampere-
turns as well as the allowable physical length of the yoke); (2) the neces-
sity of providing a uniform field, to avoid defocusing the spot and
distorting the orthogonal shape of the scanning pattern; and (3) the
proportioning of the L/R ratio to secure linear deflection with a given
deflection amplifier and output transformer.
CONTRAST AND GRADATION OF TELEVISION IMAGES
71. Over-all Brightness Transfer Characteristic. The ability of the
television system to reproduce brightness contrasts and tonal gradations
is expressed by the over-all brightness transfer characteristic (Fig. 64).

The ordinates give the range of brightness in the reproduced image
(image brightness) corresponding to the range of brightness in the original
object (object brightness) plotted in the abscissas.
The actual shape of this curve depends on the transfer characteristic
(input-output relationship) of each item of equipment in the transmission
system. In general the actual characteristics cannot be expressed in simple
analytib form. However, if an idealization is made, the curves may be
expressed in the following form:
B, = koBolo (35)
where B, is the image brightness corresponding to the object brightness Bo,
ko is the proportionality factor relating the image brightness scale to the
object brightness scale, and the exponent ye (gamma) determines the extent
and direction of the curvature of the characteristics. For unity gamma
1200 .3.5
3il000 3.0
*Bo Bi -yiogBofloyk
x
r/
2.5
.4 800
3 4. 2.0 t0
G 600 m
°, 1.5
ia
1400
1.0
1A
áE
200 as II,'
41
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0

ARM 2.5 3.0
Bo,Object brightness,candles persq.ft. Log Bo
Fia.64.-Brightness transfer characteristics of a television system.
(yo = 1) the relationship between B, and Bo is linear. For gamma greater
than unity the curve has an "antisaturation shape; for gamma values below
unity the curve has a "saturation" shape.
The value of gamma determines the subjective contrast of the image as
viewed by the observer, since the sensation of light in the mind is approxi-
mately proportional to the logarithm of the brightness. When Eq. (35) is
expressed in logarithmic form
log Bi = log ko yo log Bo (36)
all the relationships between log B; and log Bo become linear and the slope
of the lines is directly proportional to the gamma value. In consequence
high contrast is produced by correspondingly high values of gamma.
72. Subsidiary Transfer Characteristics. The input-output characteris-
tics of each subsidiary item of equipment in the system can be expressed by a
similar relationship
(Output) = k (input)~
where k relates the scales of the input and output quantities and y is the
gamma exponent describing the curvature of the characteristics. By com-
bining each curve in the transmission system successively, equating the out-
put of one device to the input of the succeeding device, it can be shown that
the over-all gamma of the system is equal to the product of all the subsidiary
gammas. In consequence, the effect of one item of equipment whose gamma
is lower than unity may be compensated by that of another whose gamma
is the inverse of the first. The gamma of iconoscope tubes, for example,
lies at about 0.7, whereas that of picture tubes is about 2.0. Assuming that
the subsidiary amplifiers, modulators, and demodulators are linear (gamma
unity), the over-all gamma is then 0.7 X 2.0 = 1.4, i.e., the gamma is some-
what above unity. The orthicon camera, on the other hand, has a gamma of
unity, and the over-all gamma in this case would be 2.0, producing a consider-
ably more contrasty reproduced image. The desirable value of over-all
gamma, following motion -picture practice, is between 1.2 and 1.7. The high
v wk$ Y
ó4 a9
Bo -Object brightness Eao Amplifier
output voltage -. Eá-Detector
input voltage. --
Ec;_o- Amplifier
output voltage-.
--
Emi -Modulator
nput voltage
Fto. 85.-Transfer of object brightness
E,.o RI amplifier
output voltage 4-
to image brightness through sub-
sidiary transfer characteristics of the elements of a television system.
EttPicture tube
control voltage -
value of gamma aids in restoring color contrasts lost through the monochro-
matic nature of the reproduction. It should be noted that high contrasts are
limited by picture tube performance.
The values of the subsidary gammas also bear on the signal /noise
ratio of the system. If a transmitter gamma less than unity is employed,
most of the picture information consists of signal excursions having
amplitudes high on the dynamic characteristic, above the noise. A
compensating higher value of gamma in the receiver may be used to
produce an over -all value within the desirable range of 1.2 to 1.7.
References
Picture Tubes and Image Reproduction:
BACHMAN and CARNAHAN: Negative Ion Componente in the Cathode Ray Beam, Prue.
I.R.E., 26, 529, May, 1938.
BIIRNAP. R. S.: Television Cathode -ray Tubes for the Amateur, RCA Rey., 2, No. 3, 297,
January, 1938.
BoRNEr-r, C. E.: A Circuit for Studying Kinescope Resolution, Pros. I.R.E., 25, 992,
August, 1937.
Characteristics of Phosphors for Cathode -ray Tubes, Electronics, 11, No. 12, 31, Decem-
ber, 1938.
EPSTEIN: Electron Optical System of Two Cylinders as Applied to Cathode -ray Tubes,
Prot. I.R.E., 24 1095, August, 1936.
IAMB, H.: A Fixed locus Electron Gun for Cathode-ray Tubes, Pros. I.R.E., 27, 103,
February, 1939.
JOHNSON, J. B.: The Cathode -ray Oseillograph, Bell System Tech. Jour., 11, 1, January,
1932.
LANOMUIR, D. B.: Theoretical Limitations of Cathode -ray Tubes, Proc. I.R.E., 25,
977, August, 1937.
LAW, R. R.: High Current Electron Gun for Projection Kinescopes, Proc. I.R.E., 25,
954, August, 1937.
: Contrast in Kinescopes, Proc. I.R.E., 27, 496, July, 1939.
LEVERENZ, H. W.: Problems concerning the Production of Cathode -ray Screens, Jour.
Opt. Soc. Am., 27, 25, January, 1937.
and SEITZ: Luminescent Materials, J. Applied Pkys., 10 479, 3017, 1939.
LEVYand WEST: Fluorescent Screens for Cathode -ray Tubes for and Other
Purposes, Jour. I.E.E., (London), 79, 11. July, 1936.
and : Luminescence and Its Application to Television, Jour. Telco. Soc., 2,
337, March, 1938.
McGEE and LUBBZYNeai: E. M. I., Cathode-ray Television Tubes, Television, 12, 78,
February, 1939.
MALOFF, I. G.: The Cathode -ray Tube in Television Reception, "Television," Vol. 1.
--:p. 337, RCA Institutes Technical Press, New York. 1936.

Direct-viewing Type Cathode-ray Tube for Large Television Images, RCA Rev..
2, No. 3, 289, January, 1938.
and
and -:
: Gamma and Range in Television, RCA Rev., 3 No. 4, 409, April, 1939.
and EPSTEIN: Theory of the Electron Gun, Pro& I.R.E., 22, 1386, December,
1934.
Luminescent Screens for Cathode-ray Tubes, Electronics, 10, No.
November, 1937.
11, 31,
: "Electron Optics in Television," Chap. XII, McGraw -Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1938.
NorrinanAM, W. B.: Electrical and Luminescent Properties of Willemite under Electron
Bombardment, J. Applied Phys., 8, 762. November, 1937.
SCHMIDLINO, G. T.: Fluorescent Materials for Television Tubes. Communications, 14,
No. 4. 30, April, 1939.
WALLER, L. C.: Kinescopes for Television Receivers, Communications, 14, No. 4, 20,
April, 1939.
WitsoN, J. C.: "Television Engineering," Chap. VIII, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd.,
London, 1937.
ZWORYKIN, V. K.: Iconoscopes and Kinescopes in Television, RCA Rev., 1, No. 1, 60,
July, 1936.
and PAINTER: Development of the Projection Kinescope, Proc. I.R.E., 26, 937,
August, 1937.
General Bibliography
General -Books:
FINS, D. G.: "Principles of Television Engineering," McGraw -Hill Book Company,
LOHR, L. R.: "Television Broadcasting," McGraw -Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1940.
MALOFF and EPSTEIN: "Electron Optics in Television," McGraw -Hill Book Company,
WILSON, J. C.: "Television Engineering" Sir Isaac Pitman & Son, Ltd., London, 1937.
ZWORYKIN and MORTON: "Television,' John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1940.
Periodicals:
ASHBRIDOE, N.: Television in Great Britain, Prot. I.R.E., 25,708, June, 1937.
BEAL, R. R.: Equipment Used in the Current RCA Television Field Tests, RCA Reo.,
1, No. 3, 36, January, 1937.
BEERS, ENDSTROM, and MALOFF: Some Television Problems from the Motion Picture
Viewpoint, Jour. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., 32, 18, January, 1939.
BROLLY, A. H.: Television by Electronic Methods, Trans. A.I.E.E., 53, 1153, August,
1934.
CONKLIN and GIHRINO: Television Transmitters Operating at High Powers and Ultra-
high Frequencies, RCA Rev., 2, No. 1, 30, July, 1937.
EDDY, W. C.: Television Studio Considerations, Communication and Broadcast Eng.,
4, No. 4, 12, April; 5, 14, May; 5, 20, June; 7, 17, July. 1937.
Television Lighting, Jour. Sot. Mot. Pict. Eng., 33, 41, July. 1939.
ENDSTROM, Beans, and BEDFORD: Application of Motion Picture Film to Television,
Jour. Soc. Mot. Piet. Eng., 33, 3, July, 1939; see also RCA Rev., 4, No. 1. 48, July,
1939.
ENDSTROM and Homers: Television Receivers, a series of six articles: Part I, Antenna
and R -f Circuits, Electronics, 11, No. 4, 28, April, 1938; Part II, Television I -f
Amplifiers, ibid., 11, No. 6, 20 (June, 1938); Part III. Television V -f Circuits, ibid.,
11, No. 8, 18, August, 1938; Part IV, Television Synchronisation, ibid., 11, No. 11,
18, November, 1938; Part V, Television Deflection Circuits, ibid., 12, No. 1, 19,
January, 1939; l'art VI, Power for Television Receivers, ibid., 12, No. 4, 22, April,
1939.
KELL, BEDFORD, TRAINER, HOLMES, CARLSON, and TOLSON: An Experimental
Television System, Proc. I.R.E., 22 1241, 1246, 1266, November, 1934.
FINK, D. G.: A Laboratory Television Receiver (in six parts) Electronics, Part I, ibid.,
11, No. 7, 16 July, 1938; Part II, ibid., 11, No. 8, 26, August, 1938; Part III, ibid.,
11, No. 9, 22, September, 1938; l'art IV, ibid., 11 No. 10, 16, October, 1938; Part V,
ibid., 11, No. 11, 26, November, 1938; Part VI, ibid., 11, No. 12, 16, December,
1938.
: A Television Receiver for the Home, Electronics, 12, No. 9, 16, September, 1939.
GANNETT und GREEN: Wire Transmission System for Television, Bell System Tech.
Jour., 6, 616, October, 1927.
GOLDMARK, P. C.: A Continuous Type Television Film Scanner, Jour. Soc. Mot. Pict.
Eng., 33, 18, July, 1939.
: Problems of Television Transmission, J. Applied Phys., 10, 447, July, 1939.
GOLDSMITH, A. N.: Television Economics, Communications, 14, No. 2, 18, February;
Nb. 3, 17, March; No. 4, 26, April, 1939.
GRAY, HORTON, and MATHES: The Production and Utilization of Television Signals, Bell.
System Tech. Jour., 8, 560, October, 1927.
HANsoN, O. B : Experimental Studio Facilities for Television, RCA Rev., 1, No. 4, 3,
April, 1937.
Ivxs, I1. E.: Television, Bell System Tech. Jour., 6, 551, October, 1927.
: Transmission of Motion Pictures over a Coaxial Cable, Jour. Soc. Mot. Pict.
Eng. 31 256, September, 1938.
KAAR, I. J.: The Road Ahead for Television, Jour. Soc. Mot. Pia. Eng., 32, 18, January,
1939.
LoecEE, H. R.: An Introduction to Television Production, Jour. Soc. Mot. Pia. Eng., 33,
54, July, 1939.
MORRIS and SHELBY: Television Studio Design, RCA Rev.. 2, No. 1. 14, July, 1937.
I'ROTZMAN, A. W.: Television Studio Technic, Jour. Soc. Mot. Piet. Eng., 33, 26, July,
1939.
SEELEY and KIMBALL: Transmission Lines as Coupling Elements in Television Equip-
ment, RCA, Rev., 3, No. 4, 418, April, 1939.
STRIERY, M. E.: Coaxial Cable System for Television Transmission, Bell System Tech.
Jour., 17, 438, July, 1938.
Television Transmitters, Electronics, 12, No. 3, 26 March, 1939.
WILSON, J. C.: Trichromatic Reproduction in Television, Jour. Roy. Soc. Arts, 82,
841, July, 1934.
ZWORYEIN, V. K.: The Iconoscope, a Modern Version of the Electric Eye, Proc. I.R.E.,
22, 16, January, 1934.
Television, Jour. Franklin Ind., 217, 1, January, 1934.
:
KALLMAN, H. E.: The Gradation of Television Pictures, Proc. I.R.E., 28, 170, April,
1940.
ROSENTHAL, A. H.: A System of Large- Screen Television Reception Based on Certain
Electron Phenomena in Crystals, Proc. I.R.E., 28, 203, May, 1940.
GOLDMARK and DYER: Quality in Television Pictures, Proc. I.R.E., 28, 343, August,
1940.
BALDWIN, M. W.: The Subjective Sharpness of Simulated Television Images, Proc.
I.R.E., 28, 458, October, 1940.
SECTION 20
FACSIMILE
BY R. E. MATHES,t B.S.
1. General Considerations. 'l'he term facsimile has been applied to
that branch of the science of graphic electrical communication which
endeavors to convey the physical form, and even the light shadings of the
original subject matter. Such information cannot be instantaneously
or simultaneously transmitted, and it is thus necessary to do so bit by bit
sequentially. The manner of doing this is to divide effectively the
original into a large number of elemental areas and to transmit signals
to indicate the relative light shades of these areas. Such shades are then
reproduced more or less accurately at the receiver. The elemental areas
are recorded in the same sequence, thus
building up the record similar to the
building of a brick wall. I: Illf
The accuracy of reproduction depends
upon the number of these elemental
areas in the picture. It makes no dif- ~worn
ference as to the size of the finished rec-
ord; the resolving power is entirely a Pendulum
matter of the number of elemental areas hnfo.l
satisfactorily transmitted. It takes just Shellac
as many tiny areas to represent a face P.cture
well on a postage stamp as it does to
represent a face well in larger areas on a
10-ft. enlargement. ;deed
To transmit sequentially and to rec- Brush
ord these areas with necessary fidelity
requires highly accurate mechanisms. $kro.h Lne
svncJ,ronizing means, communication ¡AM!!
circuits, amplifier circuits, and scanning
and recording devices. Such means have
I.-
Alexander Bain's origi-
been the subject of intensive develop - 17mn nal picture apparatus.
ment efforts for manyy years.
Because of the close similarity of requirements and equipment for both
landline and radio facsimile transmissions, it has seemed best to treat the
subject of facsimile in all its phases.
2. Historical. In 1842 Alexander Bain proposed a facsimile system
which had in it all the pertinent functions included in the most modern
derivations. Figure 1, a copy of his original system, shows these clearly.
Synchronous action was afforded by the pendulums at transmitter and
receiver, line advance by moving the message plates upward a short
t RCA Communications, Inc.
747
distance at the end of each swing of the pendulum, and elemental area
scanning by the contact of the metal brushes. Caselli produced an
improved system in 1865, Korn another in 1902, Belin in 1920. The
American Telephone and Telegraph Company opened a public service in
the United States in 1925, and the Radio Corporation of America inaugu-
rated public service with London in 1926. An excellent bibliography
covering this growth is given by J. L. Callahan.'
3. Transmission. The functions necessary to transmit a facsimile
record are as follows:
(
Path ofscanning spot
Light spot focussed
on subject matter
lecfive lens --
Ob
Aperture --
a. _X
SX- 4
lens -.
mounted on drum
Condenser"'"_ . Phofofube
lens *046n
Lamp of9ofj0-T
Fla. 2.- Depicting necessary elements for scanning.
1. A scanning system to explore the elemental areas of the subject and
identify their individual light shadings in terms of an electrical current.
2. A modulation circuit to provide this fluctuating current in a form suit-
able for transmission over the communication system available.
/
3. A mechanism to provide an
Light spot orderly exploration of these areas
,Subject matter by the scanning system.
I 4. An electrical drive system
to run the mechanism at a uni-
form, predetermined rate, within
a -v-Motion of spot close tolerances.
t
-moo
4. Scanning. Modern meth-
ods invariably use an elemental
area of intense light, either
b !
transmitted through or re-
`*n fleeted from the original subject
c and picked up by a phototuhe.
Motion of spot The diaphragm is sometimes
Fla. 3.- Distorting effect of finite width placed at point X -X after the
of the scanning light spot or aperture. (a) pickup lens rather than at the
and (b) spot width = three -fourths width condenser lens. The effective
of narrowest line to be scanned. (c) and light of the scanning system is
(d) spot width = one -fourth width of proportional to the product of
narrowest line to be scanned. the intrinsic intensity of the
light source and the solid angle subtended by the objective lens at the
surface of the subject.
CALLABAN, J. L.. A Narrative Bibliography of Radio Facsimile, " Radio Facsimile,"
RCA Institutes Technical Press, 1938.
Sec. 101 FACSIMILE 749
Ideally, the elemental area will be of infinitesimal width. This cannot

be realized practically, and therefore all scanners have an effective light
spot of finite width. This gives rise to a distortion known as the aperture
distortion which modifies the electrical signals so they are not a true
representation of the instantaneous changes of the shadings or tonal
values of the subject.
In Fig. 3 a light spot of a width nearly as great as that of the finest
vertical bars is shown at a and the resultant electrical response at b.
Such relatively great finite width
of the spot produces a trapezoidal
wave form which becomes tri-
angular as the spot width becomes .y. Li
1.3
12
Mil
;Re/alive rcr/ue of
fundamenta/ components
just equal to that of the vertical e5i 10
lines of the subject. On the other ó Peak value of waveshapes
hand, a narrower spot, such as c, a 0.9
will produce a wave form d which, ó 0.8
although still trapezoidal, ap- ,"
roaches a true rectangular or o 07
"square" wave shape as the spot I) 0.6
width approaches zero. ias
The narrow spot will permit the
interpretation of more detail of the ._> 0.4
subject but will result in an elec- ú 0.3
trical wave form which has perti- 0 0.2
nent and necessary component
frequencies (harmonics) consider- 0.1
ably higher than those produced 0
by the wider spot. In other 3 5 7 9 II 13 15 Il 19
1
words, the aperture distortion has Harmonic numbers

an action approximately equiva- content Fie. 4.- Relative value of harmonic
of signal produced by various
lent to that of a low-pass filter width apertures: (a) for square wave
having a perfect phase character- shape from aperture of infinitesimal
istic. Figure 4 shows the manner width; (b) for trapezoidal wave shape
in which the amplitude of the from aperture two-thirds width of
harmonic components decreases narrowest line; (c) for triangular
for three different apertures. The wave shape from aperture width equal
L
curve for the rectangle corresponds to narrowest line. Also note relative
to an aperture of infinitesimal value of fundamental component for
width; that for the trapezoid cor- each.
responds to an aperture whose width is two-thirds that of the vertical line
to be scanned (Fig. 3); that for the triangle corresponds to an aperture
whose width is equal to that of the vertical line. It will he seen that
both the triangle and trapezoid components drop to a negligible value very
quickly, whereas the value of rectangular components does not drop to 2
per cent until about the twenty -ninth harmonic. The peak amplitude
of these shapes were all taken as 1.0.
The practical determination of the detail required depends upon the
use to be made of the record. However, commercial experience to date
teaches that, for an ultimate enlargement of the recording by not more
than 4 to 1 over the original, a texture of 100 to 120 scanning lines per
inch is ample. One system in extensive operation uses a texture of 200
1Jouar, L. B. W., "Alternating Current Rectification," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1928.
750 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. !0
lines per inch and this, of course, permits of still greater enlargement of
the recording. If detail is set as equal in both dimensions, a minimum
width of vertical lines is indicated as about 0.008 in. It is therefore
necessary merely to produce a sufficiently accurate representation of a
line of this width on the record. Practically, considerable inaccuracy
may be permitted because the minimum detail the average eye can
differentiate is that area which subtends an angle at the eye of 0.00065
to 0.00070 radian (approximately 2 minutes). It is found that a rectan-
gular aperture 0.006 in. wide is a practical compromise, which reduces
the pertinent frequency components as much as is permissible while
preserving a sufficient detail in the record.
Red -violet
Violet
Violet -blue !
Blue
Blue -green
Green
IIN
':phofotue =_
_'Caesium phofofube
(Rubidium.
Green-yellow
giM-1,
InelaMil
m.,amt
Yel low
Yellow- orange
Weston ce//with
w'sua/ fitter '.
Orange
Orange -red EN MM M
En CM N
Red
Red-violet
0
MOM
20 40
MEE 60 80 100 120
Response fo white, per cent
Fio. 5.-Showing spectral characteristic of standard caesium oxide and
rubidium phototubes. Curve of Weston cell with visual filter -shown for
comparison-is very close to the stimulus of various colors on the normal eye.
Another phase of scanning is the spectral distribution of the light
reflected from the surface of the subject, as referred to the distribution
of the phototube sensitivity. Figure 5 shows curves of such distributions.
It will be seen that the curve for the rubidium tube fairly closely follows
that of the eye, viz., it is about equally panchromatic. Use of this type
tube will give a black and white recording in which the various colors, as
well as the tonal values, are given a weighting closely approximating that
assigned by the eye and results in a more effective reproduction, even
though the original was in color. This is of importance for facsimile
service because the system should be capable of handling any type of
subject matter that may be submitted. Unfortunately, the sensitivity
of rubidium is low, and this type tube can be used only where there is an
excess of light available to the phototube. Therefore the caesium-sur-
faced phototube is the type more generally used.
The scanning system usually includes the phototube and its immedi-
ately associated amplifiers. The light intensity available at the photo-
tube is very low-on the order of 0.001 to 0.005 lumen -and the voltage
output of this tube is likewise low. It can be increased by increasing
the load resistance, and this has sometimes been made as high as 10 to
See. 101 FACSIMILE 751
25 megohms. However, the interelectrode capacitance of the tube

becomes serious when shunted across such high value, even though these
capacitances are of the order of 1 to 2.51Aµf. The effect is that of a low -pass
filter to limit the higher frequency components and thus limit the possible
scanning speed of the facsimile equipment.
Use of lower phototube load resistance -St to 1 megohm -to
permit
of sufficiently high frequency response for higher speed operation makes it
difficult to amplify the weak output. The simplest way would be to use
direct resistance-coupled amplifiers. However, the variations in voltages,
emission, and contact potential are of the same order of magnitude as the
desired signal and in such amplifiers are superposed on the signal. One
-Lamp
chopper
-chopper
g Modu/afed
òutput
B
Unmodu /afed
tone input
output
B
Fia. 6.-Typical scanner amplifier circuits: (above) a -c amplifier for use
with light chopper in the optical system; (below) modulator amplifier for use
with d -c output of phototube.
solution for this difficulty is to modulate the light beam at an a.f. and
use conventional a -c amplification. The modulation can be applied
directly to the lamp in the case of a gaseous light source, such as neon,
helium, or mercury vapor, or it may be accomplished by cutting the beam
by a mechanical chopper, such as a string galvanometer, vibrating reed,
chopper disk, etc.
Another solution is to apply the phototube output to a sensitive modu-
lator, such as a balanced bridge circuit, etc., and to amplify the resulting
modulated tone. Figure 6 (above) shows a typical arrangement of the
first type and Fig. 6 (below) that of the second type.
In either of these types it is essential that the audio tone which acts
as the carrier for the facsimile modulation be of a high enough frequency
that the shortest signal to be sent (e.g., a line 0.008 in. wide) be composed
of enough tone cycles to form a sufficiently accurate envelope.
752 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. f0
5. Modulation. The signals produced by the scanner may be trans-

mitted over different types of communication systems, and there are
numerous ways in which the signals may be applied as modulation for
these systems. Those of present commercial importance will be outlined
briefly.
1. For Radio Circuits:
a. "CFVD" type of time modulation.
b. Subcarrier f.m.
c. Amplitude modulation on u-h-f circuits.
2. For Landlines:
a. Double side -band a.m.
b. Single side-band a.m.
3. For Oceanic Cables:
a. Direct -current transmission.
For radio circuits the CFVD (constant frequency variable dot) system
has been extensively used since 1931 on long -distance short -wave circuits
and at centers such as New York, San Francisco, Buenos Aires, London,
Controlled by
frequency
standard
III I.
III
'I Ill p III I
Subject Synchronized I
I
Line
screen r' carrier
frequency frequency
11111111111M
tÎ - - - --
t-
11111
tine c. f. Line
I
Recifier ke er
Scanner JJ_LL!
carrier -
I
frequency
enW....__ I . Án n nnn mr
Controlled
Dotted lines indicate component
frequency
q standard parts of the CFVD converter
Fia. 7. -Block diagram of CFVD system for radiotelegraphic transmission
of half tones.
Berlin, Melbourne, etc. The system comprises synthesizing the tonal
values of the subject by means of dots sent at a constant frequency (about
100 cycles) but of varying length. These are transmitted telegraphically
by means of full 100 per cent keying of the r -f carrier and are recorded
directly as dots. The recorded copy then has very much the appearance
of a screened half -tone picture in a newspaper. To obtain the screen, it
is necessary to choose the screen frequency such that
J, n
N 2
where f. = screen frequency in cycles per second

N = number of complete lines scanned per second
n = any odd integer.
Such limitation of the screen frequency may be avoided by providing
a earn and contacts at the scanner to reverse the phase of the screen input
Sec. $01 FACSI MILE 753
to the modulator at the end of each line scanned. However, it is also
best to choose the frequency such that the number of dots per inch of
scanning line equals one -half the number of scanning lines per inch;
measured perpendicularly to the direction of scanning. Figure 7 is a
chart showing the functioning of this scheme, and Fig. 8 is the funda-
mental diagram of the CFVD converter.
Suggestions for improvement over this system have been elicited by
the streaking in the recordings caused by fading and multipath variations
inherent on long -distance radio circuits. One thought advanced is to
transmit the mark and space intervals on different radio frequencies, using
the start of each new signal to trigger off the recorder. Another thought
is to transmit very short pulses (12 to 2 millisec.) for the start of each
'w
mark interval and to utilize interspersed locally generated pulses at the
recording office to start the spacing intervals.
Triangular shaped
"screen-frequency
,:41
,,!,,
Output
Modulated tone
from scanner Carrier tone
input
Fla. 8.-Schematic diagram of transmitting converter for CFVD.
Recently some of the long- distance commercial circuits have adopted
subcarrier frequency modulation' in lieu of the CFVD system. The input
from the scanner is rectified and applied to a push-pull triode, which in
turn acts as a variable resistance in series with balanced trimmer con-
densers connected across the tank circuit of an i -f oscillator. The
variation in resistance of the triode varies the effectiveness of the trimmer
condenser on the natural period of the tank circuit, and thus provides
f.m. in accordance with the light variations of the scanned subject matter.
Another i -f oscillator of fixed frequency is heat against the first one and
the difference in frequency taken to the output as in the conventional
beat -frequency oscillator. The result is an audio output which is fre-
quency- modulated over a relatively large percentage of the audio mid -
frequency. This output is applied to a radio telephonic transmitter as
a.m.
The principle of f.m. can, of course, be applied directly to the r-f carrier
instead of through the medium of a subcarrier, but this requires special-
MATHES, R. E.. and J. N. WHITAKER, Radio Facsimile by Subcarrier Frequency
]
Modulation, RCA Rev., October, 1939, pp. 131 -153.

ized equipment at both the radio transmitter and radio receiver, which
is not required in the above scheme. Furthermore, it does not overcome
any variations in the audio equipment or on the control lines as does the
subcarrier method. Phase modulation can also be used if the radio
propagation conditions permit.
For landlines the standard procedure is to transmit the amplitude -
modulated subcarrier tone, viz., the signal output of the scanner. Neces-
sary amplifiers are used to provide the desired level, and impedance
matches to the telephone lines which are used as the transmission circuits.
Most systems now couple to the lines directly through standard repeat
coils.
Both double and single side-hand transmission is extensively used.
In both cases care is taken not to utilize the frequencies below about
1,000 cycles because of the inherent poor phase characteristic of wire
Mixer
Output
Similar oscillators +B
Tank trimmer condensers;z
Variable impedance
tModu/afed - B
tone from scanner
Fla. 9.- Schematic diagram of transmitting converter for subcarrier f-m
method.
lines at the low frequencies. In the case of single side band it is usually
the upper side band that is suppressed. The frequency of the cycles. carrier
tone used varies in different systems from about 1,800 to 5,000
The exact value chosen is usually dependent upon the h-f characteristics
of the line or channel to be used. It is made as high as is possibly con-
sistent therewith.
For Oceanic Cable. A new method for the transmission of pictures on
the transoceanic cables was put into service in 1939. This system is the
only practical system which transmits the picture signals directly without
any intermediary modulation or carrier. The phototube current is
built up by d -c amplifiers and applied to the cable in that form.
6. Mechanisms. In order that the elemental areas be scanned sequen-
tially, it is necessary that mechanical means be provided to move the
that
scanning light spot relative to the subject matter in such a mannerorder.
the entire area to be transmitted is covered in a predetermined
Many different sequences have been proposed in the past, e..g., scanning
alternate lines, diagonal and crisscross patterns, etc. with However, the
simple uniform scanning across the width of the subject, line-by -line
advance along the length of the subject is the easiest and the most readily
adaptable to various mechanisms. The relative motion may be obtained

by moving either the light spot or the subject, or both. The latter is
the more usual, in which the light spot is moved along one dimension
of the subject and the subject itself is moved along its other dimension.
Figure 10 shows the most popular scheme, in which the subject is
wrapped around a drum which re-
volves relatively rapidly in front of
an optical and phototube pickup
assembly. This assembly is carried
on a track and caused by a lead screw
to move along parallel to the axis of
the drum at a relatively slow rate.
This rate is so chosen by proper gear
ratios that it will travel axially exactly
the width of one scanning line for
each revolution of the drum. In
some designs the optical and pickup Flo. 10.-Drum type of machine.
system is mounted in a fixed position,
and the drum is slowly advanced along its axis as well as being
revolved rapidly.
Figure 11 Indicates a different arrangement in which the optical system
is comprised of two, three, or four identical lens systems for projecting the
light spot on to the subject matter and for picking up the reflected light.
These are mounted concentrically like spokes of a wheel and are revolved
rapidly. The subject matter is applied face down to a one -half, one-
Feeding ..c/rap-
(message frce down
on %4 cylinder
i
Slit in cylinder
for scanning spot-. Orve'for
Quarter message
cylinder feedbelt
Phololube
J .Trajectory of
light spots
Lamp
4 Optical systems
rotating at % scanning
line rate
Flo. 11.- Quarter-cylinder type of continuous feed machine.
third, or one -fourth section of cylindrical tubing which is mounted
concentric with the optical system. The subject is moved slowly along
the cylinder by a belt or other device. This scheme has the great advan-
tage that it can handle any size or thickness of subject matter so long as
but one dimension does not exceed the peripheral length of the cylindrical
section. Also successive subjects can be fed to the machine without
need for stopping the machine or, alternatively, providing removable
drums and rather complicated clutch mechanisms to prevent loss of
synchronism. However, it has the severe handicap -yet to be fully
overcome -of requiring an ultrafine degree of mechanical precision
because all the optical systems must be exactly equal in optical efficiency
as well as track perfectly.
Figure 12 illustrates a scheme of reciprocating motion in which a single

optical system is swept across the inner face of a cylindrical section and is
then swept back in the reverse direction. Again high precision is required
so that the alternate sweeps will line up exactly at each point. This
has been overcome in some systems for home recording by using only
one direction of sweep, with the other
being idle. This, of course, is quite
inefficient and can be considered only
,Paper for certain limited applications, as
where simplicity and cost are predom-
inating factors.
Recording The precision of the mechanisms
% gate must be of high order in any good
facsimile system, but the exact
requirement is practically dependent
upon the definition of which the re-
cording system is capable. The pho-
tographic method is the best from
this standpoint, and in this case an
Contact Ca flh ' instantaneous hunting, as between
cam'- - cam successive lines, of more than 0.08
Sian' slop Fraction clutch deg. of drum rotation is a serious error.
paw/ j Likewise, inaccuracies in the lead
Motor screw, such as spacing variations
Fro. 12. -One type of start- between successive lines of 0.001 in.
-
stop recorder used for home are quite noticeable in the record
reception. particularly if the variations are of
a periodic nature occurring every 2 to
IO or so lines. Gear ripples, dynamic unbalance of the drum or motor,
minute eccentricities, voltage fluctuations, all must be carefully guarded
against.
Often cam and contact devices are applied and lined up with the
interval on the drum between the trailing and leading edges of the subject,
Toothed wheel DCMotor
genenqtor :
Contrat
,
frequency
To120yaC
Fia. 13.- Schematic
diagram of "Hammond brake" speed control for d -c
motors.
or "phasing line." These are used for special functions such as sending a
synchronizing or level -control signal or for reversing polarity as in the
CFVD system. They are usually carried on either the drum or driving
shaft.
Many commercial or military applications require a portable trans-
mitter. Particularly is this true for news picture work where the source
See. 101 FACSIMILE 757
of the subject matter may he anywhere at any time. Several designs

of portable equipment have been produced for mounting small, compara-
tively light units in carrying cases. However, it is most difficult to get
and retain the same precision as in equipment permanently installed.
7. Electrical -drive Systems. The mechanism may be variously driven
by controlled d -c motors, 60 -cycle synchronous motors, low -speed phonic
wheels, and, lately, by the Alnico type of toothed wheel which operates
directly at some 75 r.p.m. from 60 cycles, 120 volts a.c., or they may be
designed to operate at a speed such as 100 r.p.m. from a drive frequency of
160 cycles. These may he driven from ordinary vacuum -tube power
amplifiers. Some use one large motor to drive both the transmitting
mechanism and a local monitor recorder, and others use two small motors,
one for the drum and the other for the lead screw. One scheme of con-
trolling a d -c motor which has been used for years is the Hammond brake
Tuned to
output
frequency
480 -$
input
4
Motor
B
Fia. diagram of controlled thyratron inverter for driving
14.- Schematic
synchronous motors.
scheme, shown in Fig. 13, and a scheme for driving a standard fractional -
horsepower synchronous motor is a push -pull thyratron inverter circuit,
such as shown in Fig. 14.
RECEPTION
For purposes of reception there must be the following:
1. A recording system which will translate the signals into visual markings.
2. A sensitive surface to receive such markings.
3. A mechanism to provide an orderly relative motion of the record surface.
4. Necessary filters, amplifiers, rectifiers, etc.
5. Synchronizing means to maintain the mechanism in instantaneous phra3
with the transmitter.
8. Photographic Recorders. The system most used records photo-
graphically on film. It has the advantages of giving the best detail and
quality of definition and also readily provides a negative from which
further processing, such as newspaper reproduction, can best be accom-
plished. It is usual to employ a thin base film that can be easily handled
on a drum. The sensitive emulsion should be chosen for linearity of
light response rather than extreme contrast. It should develop rapidly,
and specihl films have been made which can be developed, fixed, and dried
quickly so the picture can be used as soon after reception as possible.
Recorders take many forms. Glow tubes of neon, argon, helium, or a
mixture of gases are formed so the glow takes place in a crater, thus
758 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. so
confining the glow and giving essentially a point source of light of fair
intrinsic brilliance. In this tube the light intensity follows directly
the modulation of the signal.
Other schemes use a local light source of fixed amplitude, such as
filament or arc lamps of various types. The light is then passed through
a modulating device before it strikes the film. One method sometimes
used in Europe is the Kerr cell coupled with Nicol prisms to polarize the
light.
ague%
poles
Light tunnel
lhroughpolepiece
Lens
Lamp LightspOt
Q.; Aperture on drum
Lens '' Signal
carrying ribbon
no. 15.- Schematic of optical system using the light valve.
0 g
L¡miting
aperture A
+.- Penumbra
mask -B
ecording ¿
spot
(image ofC) Mirror`
galvanomete%y
fine slit of Image ofA

record¡ with penumbra
r --C
Aperture shadow superposed
Fio. 16.- Elements of optical system with mirror galvanometer and linear
penumbra mask.
Another scheme is the light valve depicted in Fig. 15, in which a con-
ducting ribbon is suspended in a strong magnetic field. Signal passed
through it causes the ribbon to move at right angles to the field. This
ribbon is placed in the path of the light, and its movement acts as a
shutter to widen or narrow the slit of light passed through. If the
ribbon is mounted parallel to the axis of the drum, this results in "vari-
able- density" recording. If mounted perpendicular to the axis, it results
in "variable- width" recording. Both methods are similar to those used
in recording sound on film in the motion-picture field. For facsimile
the former is by far the better.
A fourth scheme utilizes a D'Arsonval galvanometer or some modifica-
tion. In this case a small mirror is mounted on the signal -carrying wires
or coil set in the magnetic field. The signal causes an angular movement
of the mirror and so changes the orientation of the reflected light on a
TABLE I.-TYPICAL DIMENSIONS OF RECORDERS FOR FACSIMILE

BROADCAST RECEPTION
System A System E System C
1. Type of scanning Reciprocating Rotating drum Reciprocating

2. Scanning lines per
minute 60 75 100
3. Total length of scan-
ning line 4 ;1. in. 8j4 in. 6 in.
4. Scanning lines per
inch 100 125 100
5. Synchronizing Transmission of a Connection to corn- Connection to corn -
method. separate subcarrier mon power system mon power system
q. Tone -carrier fre-
quency 2,000 cycles 3,000 cycles 3,200 cycles
fixed aperture. This is diagramed in Fig. 16, which also shows a linear
penumbra which permits of variable- density recording without critical
adjustments of the galvanometer or signal level.
9. "Direct" Recording. Various schemes have been worked out for
methods of "direct" recording in which the record appears almost
instantaneously and need not he developed and fixed as with a photo-
graphic film.
Hot air has been used to discolor a presensitized paper, or to evaporate
an opaque coating to permit the color of the paper base to show through.
The air stream was keyed or triggered by the signal. An alcohol ink has
been vaporized and blown on a glossy paper on the drum. It was keyed
by a shutter on a signal relay. This has been used considerably for
monitoring CFVD transmissions.
Loudspeaker Carbon paper
units actuating,
recording bar _takeup reel
_ Recorded
message
,While
' paper
Spiral wire ón
drum underneath
papers Carbon paper
Fla. 17.- Elements of
bar -and-spiral type recorder with carbon recording.
One group of commercial equipment now uses a stylus of small contact
area, bearing on a coated dry paper. The signal current nasses through
the paper from the stylus to the drum, and the heat generat "d vaporizes
the coating, permitting the black paper base to show through. A
modification which may be developed in the future is the use of a spark
discharge at a stylus or point. Heat, ultraviolet radiation, or direct
electrolytic action might accomplish the actual recording.
Another important field of direct recording is that of electrochemical
action. Certain groups of molybdenum and other salts will change color
when current passes, as will also the organic azo dyes. The process is
sensitive and very rapid, but difficulty is experienced in obtaining a
stable reaction that will hold its color for a matter of years. Satisfactory
recordings are being made at a speed in excess of 1,500 ft. per min.
linear spot travel. The definition at present is much less than with
photographic recording but is ample for certain services such as message
handling and home recording.
Much work has also been done to utilize carbon recording. In this
process ordinary cheap carbon paper is laid with its face against plain
white paper and the combination advanced slowly between a rapidly
rotating drum carrying a raised spiral of wire and an axially parallel bar.
The bar is driven by loud -speaker -type magnets to vary the pressure
between it and the spiral, in accordance with the signal. The mechanism
is indicated in Fig. 17. This method is best adapted to black and white
recording but can be used to record linearly half-tone pictures if the
amplifiers are carefully compensated for the non-linear pressure-density
characteristic of the carbon paper.
10. Recording Sheets. Some slight use is made of photographic
recording of a positive directly on paper for delivery, but the majority of
the work is negative recording on film stock which is itself delivered, or
from which a delivery print is made. The emulsion is chosen to match as
nearly as possible the spectral distribution of the recording lamp. Within
this requirement it is also desirable that the emulsion have a good linear
region, that the gamma be fairly high to require a lesser intensity range
of the recording spot, and that it be relatively color blind, if possible, to
permit working in the darkroom under safelights. For black and white
recording, as with the CFVD system, a highly contrasty and sensitive
film is desired and a commercial process film is used. For linear record-
ing a less contrasty and more sensitive film is best, and special emulsions
have been made available which lie approximately between an ortho-
chromatic and a panchromatic as regards color response.
The paper used for carbon recording is a cheap grade that merely
has a fine enough grain not to cause undue loss of the definition inherent
in the method. The paper for opaque coatings is a jet black of rather
coarse grain and of only nominal mechanical strength; whereas that
for impregnating baths must have proper absorption properties, as well as
mechanical strength. This is because most of these systems use the
paper in a damp condition or else pass it through a liquid bath just prior
to recording. In either event it must be tough enough to withstand the
feeding and rolling stresses while wet.
11. Recording Mechanisms. The recording system utilizes mechà-
nisms of the same general type as for transmission, some of which have
already been indicated, e.g., in Figs. 10, 12, and 17. In this case, how-
ever, the mechanisms must be held to even closer tolerances than in the
transmitters in order that deviations be not apparent in the record.
Because of its greater inherent definition the photographic process
requires the most precise mechanisms. Specific tolerances are indicated
in Table II.
In particular, the lead screw must be very accurate in order that
irregular feed between adjacent lines not result in light or dark streaks in
the recording. Also the drum or equivalent must travel smoothly and
without hunt within the stroke or from stroke to stroke. This infers
complete lack of gear ripple and a drive motor which has a uniform
Sec. 201 FACSIMILE 5!
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instantaneous rate of rotation. These may usually be minimized by

reducing the mass and inertia of the drum system or by use of flexible
coupling and flywheel action to filter out these quick -speed variations.
Many receiving machines are fitted with cams for the purpose of using
quasi- or full -automatic synchronizing or phasing. This is particularly
necessary in home recorders or in a large network receiving a picture
simultaneously in several offices. Most of these utilize the interval
between the end of one scanning line and the beginning of the next as
such a phasing signal. One variation is in the start -stop type of recipro-
cating machine, in which the travel of the stylus is arrested at the end of
each complete stroke cycle and is then released for the next cycle by
receipt of the phasing signal.
Many appliances have been developed, such as sheet folders and
cutters, recordings on both sides of the record sheet, automatic drum
loaders and discharge schemes, automatic hold circuits to permit reruns
if needed, etc. Some, notably in the international field, are equipped
with gear shifts to permit meeting various conditions and standards of
other countries.
Machines have often been designed so they may readily be used as
either transmitters or recorders. Others have been designed for monitor
service in conjunction with transmitters.
12. Receiving Circuits. Most of the facsimile systems, either wire
line or radio, record the signals in essentially the same general form as
óU
ñl
1200
f
3000
M
-70-40 0 +25
lnput,db
ñ
o
1600 7000
f
3 Diversify Galvan- Galvan-
Bond
receivers
filter Limiter ,_,Demodulan
filter
tio
ometer ometer
keyer I recorder
Fla. 18. -Block diagram of receiving system for subcarrier f-m method.
they are received. For these the received signal is amplified, rectified,
and applied to the recorder either directly or through some type of
vacuum -tube keyer. Invariably the frequency band is limited to that
just necessary to pass the pertinent signal components. This is usually
accomplished by the use of filter networks; the process is carried to a
more or less high degree in the variously designed systems. Its purpose
is primarily to increase the effective signal /noise ratio, but on long wire
lines or extensive networks it also eliminates those lower frequency signal
components whose phase would be sufficiently distorted to have a dele-
terious effect on the recorded copy.
Some few systems use special circuits at the recorder. One such is
the carbon recorder method when used for half tones. In order that the
recorded densities of the copy have a satisfactorily linear relation to
the densities of the original subject, it is necessary that the amplitude
characteristic of the amplifier be predistorted in a curve conjugate to
that of the recorder characteristic. Of course, this can, and is, often dona
at the transmitting end instead of at the receiver.
Sec. Se] FACSIMILE 763
A second system which requires special "signal shaping" is the method

for transmission by submarine cable. This is more fully treated in
Art. 17.
A third such system is the subcarrier f-m method. The heart of this
method lies in the special treatment accorded the signal at the recording
location. In this case the signal is amplified to a usable value, say zero
level, and then applied to a very rigid amplitude limiter (e.g., one which
shows no change in output level for a variation of the input on the order
of 70 db). The output is then applied to a frequency-discriminatirn
network (e.g., cutoff slope of a low -pass filter). This reinserts ar
amplitude variation which is proportional only to the variation of fre
quency of the received audio subcarrier. Thereafter the signal is handled
as an ordinary a.m.
SYNCHRONIZING
In order that the recording be properly built up to appear to be the
equivalent of the original, it is necessary that the elemental areas be
recorded in the same geometric relation with the others as are the elemen-
tal areas scanned at the transmitter. This demands that the transmit-
ting and recording mechanisms operate in practically perfect synchronism
and phase (or frame) with each other. It is now customary to drive the
mechanisms by synchronous motors or by accurately speed -controlled
d-c motors. The inherent accuracy of the frequency at transmitter and
receiver is usually depended upon for equal driving speeds. The phasing
is accomplished by manually or automatically causing the recorder to
start a scanning line simultaneously with the start of a scanning line
at the transmitter. This is done either at the start of a subject or
periodically throughout the reception.
13. Drive Motors. For home recordings ordinary 60 -cycle syn-
chronous motors are often used. These are satisfactory if the transmitter
and recorder are connected to the same power network or to networks
that are interconnected or synchronized with each other. However, this
is a considerable limitation, and the trend appears to be to transmit a
control frequency to the recording station and to use that to control or
drive the motor.
The schemes for driving or controlling the speed of the motors on the
recorders are identical to those used on the transmitters, as mentioned
in Art. 7. All of them require a source of standard frequency for con-
trolling the driving circuits. The great majority of present systems use
independent tuning forks at the transmitter and recorders, or else they
connect directly to a -c power lines which are interlocked as to frequency.
However, several designs have in the past -and there are signs of revival
of the idea-actually transmitted a control tone derived from the fre-
quency standard at the sending station.
14. Speed Controls. All commercial systems obtain their speed con-
trol from tuning-fork oscillators. The frequency may lie between 60
and 1,500 cycles.
Some take elaborate precautions to enclose the forks in heated and
heat -insulated chambers, with the temperature variations held to 0.01 °C.
or less. The drive circuits are carefully engineered to minimize or elimi-
nate variations in the drive due to supply voltage, tube emission, load, or
similar variations. Recently it has been realized that changes in atmos-
pheric pressure have a considerable effect on the frequency stability of forks.
Other systems utilize a fork which is compensated for temperature and

therefore does not require careful temperature control. Such forks are
made of a bimetallic layer structure in which the two metals have opposite
temperature coefficients. By proportioning the two metals properly, the
resultant for the fork can be made to within 0.05 p.p.m. per degree
centigrade. However, its frequency is susceptible to variations in drive
and atmospheric pressure.
15. Phasing Methods. In start -stop systems the recording gearing
is chosen so the scanning -line cycle is traversed faster than at the trans-
mitter, and the motion is arrested at the end of each cycle. The trans-
mitter then sends a release or start signal at the commencement of each
new scanning -line cycle, which releases the drive at the recorder. Thus
the recorder is in step with the transmitter at the commencement of each
line.
In other systems a phasing signal is sent at the start of each transmis-
sion schedule, and this cooperates with a cam on the recorder to slow down
or speed up the drive until the two machines are accurately phased.
This circuit is then disabled, and the relative equality of the fork fre-
quencies at the two stations is depended upon to retain the phasing. In
still others a special signal is sent which releases a clutch at the recorder
and thus starts it in phase with the transmitter. This is essentially the
same procedure as is used in the start -stop system except that it is done
but once rather than at the start of each line.
PROPAGATION
The communication medium to be utilized has a great bearing on the
design of the facsimile system. There are essentially three mediums used
at present, viz.,
1. Radio.
2. Submarine cable.
3. Landline telephone circuits.
Each has its special problems of propagation.
16. Radio Circuits. The radio circuit is affected by multipath trans-
missions resulting in both general and selective fading, in fading caused
by the ionosphere variations of short-time, diurnal, seasonal, and other
phenomena. It is also affected by the signal /noise ratio that can be
realized with the equipment available, as well as by interference from
natural and man-made sources.
Amplitude modulation of the r -f carrier cannot be received in a suffi-
ciently stable manner for use in facsimile transmission, and, until recently,
the only practical system was to utilize a complete telegraphic on- and -off
keying of the r-f carrier. The intelligence is conveyed as a "time modula-
tion," so that the amplitude of the signal could be rigidly limited at the
receiver, thus eliminating such variations caused by fading. However,
even with this limiting, serious distortion occurred in the form of a
variable and erratic elongation of the keyed signals due to delayed
arrival over the various multipaths from the ionosphere. Although this
is in a sense a phase distortion, it is not of the same type experienced on
landlines and cannot be compensated by phase equalizers, as known for
that purpose. In this method of keying there is no way of minimizing
See. 20] FACSIMILE 765
noise or interference other than narrowing the audio band by means of

filters as much as is possible, consistent with maintaining a sufficiently
true wave shape of the signals for recording purposes.
The use of f.m. greatly minimizes these difficulties. So long as the
received signal amplitude is greater than the peak noise, the noise has
but a minor effect. If the signal is two or more times the peak noise, the
full benefit of the "noise- improvement threshold " is realized and essen-
tially no noise appears in the recording. The same is true of interfering
signals. Further, the only effect of the multipath phenomena occurs
at the edges of sudden changes in the picture tonal value, and this appears
merely as a raggedness in the recording of such edges-no effect of multi -
path is to be seen in areas of constant or slowly changing tonal values.
Some work has been done with facsimile transmissions at high speed
240 r.p.m. and better-on u -h -f radio circuits. Here the difficulties
-
with fading and multipath signal variations are not of importance, and
available band width is ample. In this case the propagation is affected
only by the constancy of the received signal and by the audio phase and
amplitude characteristics of the radio and terminal office equipment.
17. Submarine Cable. The attenuation characteristics of even the
loaded submarine telegraph cables precludes the useful transmission of
frequencies much higher than 100 cycles. For facsimile transmissions
the d -c variations in the phototube are d -c amplified and applied directly
to the cable rather than as a modulation on a subcarrier as is done in
other systems. Therefore the signals are subject to earth currents pro-
duced by magnetic variations and are greatly affected by magnetic
storms. -Correction must be applied to offset the "zero wander' this
can he done successfully for slow variations but becomes more difficult
when the rate of these variations approaches the pertinent frequencies
of the facsimile signals, as may happen. Earth currents of 9 or 10 volts
varying at a rate of 10 cycles, or currents of 50 volts varying at a much
slower rate, can be compensated. The transatlantic cable is comprised
of two sections, each of which has an attenuation droop of 30 to 90 db
at the higher frequencies. These sections must be individually equalized
by "signal -shaping" networks. It is also essential carefully to correct a
considerable phase distortion existing on the cables. Operations are
effected successfully when the total noise and earth currents are 5 per cent
or less of the signal swing from black to white.
18. Wire -line Telephone Circuits. Extensive networks utilizing wire
lines are in operation in the United States and throughout Europe, as
well as in other parts of the world. These all use existing telephone
channels and systems and rely on transmitting an a-f subcarrier, ampli-
t ude modulated by the picture signals. Both double and single side -band
methods are used. In the latter the upper side band is suppressed, the
carrier set near the top of the telephone channel (say 2,400 cycles) and
the lower side hand, extending down to approximately 1,200 or 1,000
cycles, is transmitted.
For circuits of any considerable length it is important to equalize
the lines, both for amplitude and for phase distortions. It is essential
that the over-all phase characteristic for the pertinent frequency band
be nearly linear. Relatively small deviations will delay certain fre-
quencies with respect to others and may produce all sorts of weird effects
in the recording.
766 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. so
The over -all gain must also be held within extremely close limits, as a
variation of 0.1 db can be perceived by the eye and variations greater
than 1 db cannot be tolerated in high -class commercial service.
Some systems are equipped with networks comprised of special circuits
which have been carefully equalized and adjusted and are used only
for facsimile work. These may be extended by using ordinary telephone
lines to interconnect them with other locations, usually on an emergency
basis, for a sudden news event. Other systems utilize ordinary telephone
toll facilities and take their chances on the quality and stability of the
circuit. Some connect their equipment directly to the lines through
repeat coils, and others connect by inductance coils coupled to the ringing
box and coil of the ordinary telephone subscriber's station. Most of
these networks are set up primarily for the handling of news pictures and
are therefore designed for the utmost of flexibility so as to meet any
emergency of news occurrences.
TAPE -FACSIMILE SYSTEM
Tape equipment is designed solely for message communication as
opposed to picture or news matter. It produces a record on a narrow
tape, much as do the better known telegraph printers. The method of
recording use i to date is that of a rapidly rotating spiral and an axial
bar moved by a loud -speaker magnet in accordance with the signal.
This is exactly ¡onus to the action shown in Fig. 17. The recording
Tape feed roller

Double spiral
rr'411,o Paperlcrpe
Signe/ bar
Carbon
paper tape
Loudspeaker
drive
FIG. 19.- Elements of facsimile tape recorder with double spiral.
has been done either with a carbon paper tape, also similar to Fig. 17, or
by applying ink to the surface of the spiral through the medium of a felt
roller saturated with the ink. The scanning lines are crosswise of the
tape and are made at a rate of about 60 per second. The tape is slowly
advanced lengthwise so the texture of the lines are about 60 to 100 per
inch.
Two distinct methods of transmission have been developed. In the
United States much work has been done to develop a phototube scanner
along the general principles outlined in Art. 4. This method actually
transmits a facsimile copy of written or printed messages placed on a tape
at the scanner. It is being developed for mobile services, such as police
and aircraft.
The second method utilizes a special instrument which comprises a
large number of cams, one for each character (figure, letter, or punctua-
See. 20] FACSIMILE 767
tion mark) to be sent. The cut of the earn is such that a contact operated
thereby will send out telegraphic type mark and space signals, which,
when recorded as above described, will form the shape of the desired
character. Two designs of this instrument have been developed. In
one the message is perforated in paper tape as though it were to he sent
on a standard printing telegraph circuit. The permutations of the
holes in this tape consecutively select and release the proper cams, as
the tape is fed through the instrument. In the other type a typewriter
keyboard is manually operated and the striking of a type key will release
the proper cam. This type of scanning is used extensively in Europe, and
the United States rights have been acquired by one of the large com-
panies in this country.
The synchronizing problem is just as pertinent as in the other systems
but is possibly slightly easier. This is because the scanning line is so
short and the rate so high that the discontinuity between the end of one
line and the commencement of the next readily provides a frequency
component that may be used for automatic framing and synchronizing.
OPERATING STANDARDS
To date the only effective attempt toward standardization in the
facsimile field has been in the adoption of International Standards under
the aegis of the C.C.I.T. and the C.C.I.R. The former, in its Opinion
681, as amended at Warsaw in 1936, established rlc for drum size, line
advance, speed of operation, frequencies for synchronizing and carrier,
setting up of circuits on the international telephcne circuits, tariffs,
refunds and rebates, etc. The C.C.I.R. is endeavoring to modify or
apply these rules to the needs of the radiophoto service.
A typical proposal to the C.C.I.R. which covers the technic Al specifica-
tions, is cited herewith to indicate the trend:
1.Drum diameter -88.00 mm (3.464 in.).
2.Drum circumference -276.46 mm (10.88 in.).
3. Gripping (framing) loss -15.00 mm (0.59 in.).
4. Phasing loss -5.00 mm (0.196 in.).
5. Maximum skew or hunt- 0.0S°.
6. Drum length -310.00 mm (12.2 in.).
7. Picture size, maximum -250 X 290 mm (9.8 X 11.4 in.).
8. Drum speed -20, 60 r.p.m.
9. Line advance -4, 5 per mm (101.6, 127 L.P.I.)
10. Index of cooperation --352, 440.
11. Speed stability-0.001 per cent.
12. Screen frequencies -100. 150, 200 cycles.
13. Standard frequency -300 cycles, or mltiples.
The International Index of Cooperation is defined by the formula
M =P =DF,
where D = diameter of the drum
P = pace of the scanning line or helix
F = fineness of scanning expressed in the number of lines per unit
length of the drums axis.
If two machines have different dimensions but the s:cnr ind^x, the picture
sent between them will be enlarged or reduced but will not be distorted in its
proportions.
788 TILE RADIO ENGINEERING' HANDBOOK [Sec. 20
APPLICATIONS OF FACSIMILE
Radio Circuits :
Short Wave
transmission.
-at relatively low speeds of 20 to 60 r.p.m. for long- distance
U.H.F. -at high speeds of 240 to 600 r.p.m. for point to point work.
Medium Wave
homes.
-at medium speeds 75 to 120 r.p.m. for broadcasting to
Marine Service -broadcast of weather maps, etc., to ships at 20 r.p.m.
Wireline:
Point to Point-for news dissemination or public service, 90 to 120 r.p.m.;
for message pickup and delivery (customers' machines or "letter -box"
machines) at 180 r.p.m.; for message service on trunk lines at 180 r.p.m.
Submarine Cable -at20 r.p.m.
Photoengraving -used for preparation of printing plates, either black and
-
while sir four -color separation plates for color printing.

Military --for both Army and Navy use in handling maps and documents.
Tape Facsimile or "Hellschreiber" -used extensively throughout Con-
tinental Europe for news dissemination to agencies, by radio on 60 to 150 kc-
also proposed for aircraft and police-car use.
References
Although a vast amount of work has been done in facsimile, it is fortunate that recent
compilations have gathered the various references together so that the few citations
given below will permit the reader to follow in detail the developments of facsimile in
the radio field and will give him a working knowledge of the wire -line services.
CALLAHAN, J. L.: A Narrative Bibliography of Radio Facsimile, in "Radio Facsimile,"
RCA Institutes Technical Press, 1938.
JOLLEY, L. B. W.: "Alternating Current Rectification" John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1928.
MATHER, R. E., and J. N. WHITAKER: Radio Facsimile by Suhcarrier Frequency Modula-
tion, RCA Rev., October, 1939, pp. 131 -153.
"Radio Facsimile," RCA Institutes Technical Press, 1938. (A group of papers detail-
ing various aspects of the art.)
SCHROETas, FRITZ: "Handbuch der Bildtelegraphie und des Fernsehens," Verlag Julius
Springer. Berlin, 1932.
WILSON, J. C.: "Television Engineering," Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, 1937.
SECTION 21
RADIO BROADCASTING
BY CARL G. DIETSCH, B. Sc.1
1. Principal Elements of a Broadcasting System. All the equip-
ment of a broadcasting system extending from the microphone to the
radiating antenna of the radio transmitting station will be considered
as part of the system. A general circuit layout of typical facilities of
the kind used in the larger broadcasting centers for supplying a net-
work of stations with program service is represented by the simplified
diagram, Fig. 1. Equipment of a single studio is represented; that of
other studios of the usual group would be similar and would be at the
point marked on the program bus. Inasmuch as many programs, such
as the broadcasting of special events, originate at remote points, in
most cases a (great distance from the studio, the layout of the facilities
for remote pickups, sometimes termed "nemo" programs, has been
included to illustrate the use of telephone lines as well as point- to-point
radio-telephone communication to complete the circuits necessary.
A list of the essential elements of the system is as follows:
1. Microphones:
a. Studio.
b. Remote pickups.
2. Apparatus for controlling and conveying microphone output:
a. Studio control booth:
(1) Preliminary amplifier.
(2) Microphone mixers.
(3) Studio amplifier.
(4) Volume control or faders.
(5) Volume indicator.
(6) Monitoring speaker.
b. Remote pickups:
(1) Preliminary amplifier.
(2) Volume controls or faders.
(3) Volume indicator.
(4) Monitoring equipment.
(5) Radio telephone or wire -line facilities for intercommunication.
3. Master control -room apparatus:
a. Volume controls.
b. Studio amplifiers.
e. Relays and switching apparatus.
d. Network channel amplifiers.
e. Volume indicator.
f. Monitoring facilities.
4. Telephone-line facilities to local radio transmitting stations and to dis-
tant radio transmitters connected to networks.
1Engineering Department. National Broadeacting Company.
769
5. Radio transmitter:
a. Line amplifier or limiting amplifier.
b. Volume controls.
c. Volume indicator.
d. Radio transmitter.
e. Monitoring equipment:
(1) Monitoring rectifier and speaker.
(2) Modulation- percentage indicator.
(3) Carrier -frequency monitor.
f. Antenna.
2. Audio -frequency Range. Perfect reproduction of a sound trans-
mitted through an electroacoustic system requires that the system
pass all the audible frequencies of the sound in their relative intensities.
Under these conditions of reproduction, the listener would be conveyed
acoustically from his loud -speaker to a point near the sound source.
A correlated acoustic chart of the frequency range of various musical
instruments within the orchestral range and the different voices which
constitute the vocal range is shown in Fig. 2. The shaded keys are not
included on a standard piano keyboard. The extreme organ range not
shown on the chart is from 16 to 16,384 cycles physical pitch. The
extreme frequency -transmission ranges necessary to produce perfect
naturalness of speech and orchestral music are shown in Fig. 3. These
ranges extend considerably above those of Fig. 2 because they include
overtones and noise accompaniment additional to the fundamental
tones. These curves were secured as a result of listening tests by a group
of observers upon sounds transmitted through an electroacoustic system
equipped with electrical filters by means of which frequencies above and
below any desired cutoff could be suppressed. Extensive research,
made during recent years indicates that for perfect reproduction of
speech and music a frequency range between 30 to 15,000 cycles is
desirable in order that the average ear may appreciate fully all the fre-
quencies produced by the sound sources.
The curves shown in Fig. 4 are an indication of the relative qualities
of reproduced orchestral music the frequency range of which was limited
by electrical filters. It is apparent from these curves that, where a
transmission system has a limited frequency range, such as that which
exists in broadcasting technique, an acceptable reproduction of the
sound sources may be secured within a band width of between 30 to
9,000 cycles.
The engineering and economic limitations of the frequency range used
for broadcasting lie in restrictions of the use of the upper audio fre-
quencies due largely to a limited band width of the modulation spectrum
contained between the presently assigned carrier frequencies of 10-kc
separation.2
An overlapping of the modulation frequencies of a "wanted" station
by those of an "unwanted" station of 10,000 -cycle separation restricts
the range of frequencies to a broadcast listener usually considerably
below that which is passed by the broadcasting system itself. The high
quality of programs availahle from broadcasting facilities which have
an over-all uniform frequency response from the microphone to the
SNOW. W. ß., Jour. Acoustical Soc. Amer.. Jul,. 1931, p. 61.
= ECLERSLEY. P. P., Minimum Frequency Separrtion, Proc. I.R.E., February, 1933,
p. 195.
Sec. m RADIO BROADCASTING 71
c2 r
k}
e ª}
D22/`!l
#
-s =
2
k\
|k: )\9
77-1& -2¡
-2k
\1 , k
-
}- / f fi
`
;\ 8
772 THE RADIO ENGINEERING: HANDBOOK (Sec. 21
ACOUSTIC CHART
WINO INSTRUMENTS
PICCOLO
FLUTE
OBOE
CLARINETS
TRUMPET
FRENCH HORN
TROMBONE
BASS CLARINET
BASSOON
BASS TUBA
PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS
KETTLEDRUMS
STRING INSTRUMENTS
VIOL N
VIOL
CELLO
BASS VIOL
HUMAN VOICE
SOPRANO
ALTO
TENOR
BARITONE'
BA S.gi I
>rfErff
I 1111111111911 1 Ill
I
I +'IA L± iiiU
§ ii11iri
I
i.=sS
i:
W°
hi)Thrly .o oora. Oxoo
- d,.R
;IArIi 1
«9. ráß <oPOr. - Rsts4P r°PááÑBgó _
wñ 1.11101P41-HIPOR al
mss0
S~ x.....-2ggv -
1,-1,111
-o _
._ x .5 oßá ^.,
,uummuERw2v rR:rs
é~ á:N ° ^ä °o..o°a^.$TNP, F.:
FIG. 2.-Correlated
acoustic chart showing the scientific or philosophical
scale generally used by physicists, the international equally tempered scale
based on A = 435 complete vibrations per second. This scale was formerly
used by musicians. The current orchestra or symphony scale based on
A = 440 complete vibrations per second is at present generally used by
musicians.
Sec. 21 RADIO BROADCASTING 773
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND

500 1000 5000 10000 16000
r_ff
immll'_iiAIEE
111118g .Ti
ii" .
'
. °l: ! -3_:
Ìl!!_`3 333331..
gig 3; i3=
Wrf
--
IIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIII!JIlIIIll!llhIII
-_---
ìiIIIIIIII!IIIIIIIIIII
Si
111111 IIIi11I11IAI11111111111111I11111JI111I11I11JL llll III
1--_--_Ie_MI
III
mums
iSsMINIIIIR
TYMPAN
-....
a,MMENIMIlimAr moo
I---
BASS DRUM
__u
SNARE DRUM
--
M INCH CYMBALS
MSS VIOL
=. =s= M
smmN
s
CELLO N
PIANO MBA
VIOLIN
BASSTUBA im amSIIIIIIM
__111-11111M1
lismomeSs
TROMBONE m
-r...
ISBNS MM.
a,e-- __.MÁER
FRENCH HORN
TRUMPET
BASS SAXOPHONE
BASSOON
Se
aaaa>uu
aawes ism
BASS CLARINET mom
--I
.---
CLARINET
SOPRANO SAXOPHONE smosiBM
_-
OBOE
NM aaaaaa_Ems
-
FLUTE
PICCOLO
MALE SPEECH
FEMALE SPEECH
FOOT STEPS
HANDCLAPPING
KEY JINGLING
aaaaaa aaaaaaa
sum=
___
mmiem -IMM.+
miiIN
=MN
mow
=MI
mammr
16 20 30 50 100 200 500 1000 5000 MAJO 16000
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
Flo. 3.- Frequencyvoice,
range required for the reproduction of musical
and noise without noticeable distortion.
instru-
ments,
TABLE I. -PEAK POWER OF METRICAL INHTRUMENTH

(Fortissimo Playing)
Peak Power.
Instrument Watts
Heavy orchestra 70
Large bass drus 25
Pipe organ
Snare drum 13
Cymbals 10
Trombone 6
Piano 0.4
Trumpet 0.3
Bass saxophone 0.3
Bass tuba 0.2
Bass viol 0.16
Piccolo 0.08
Flute 0.06
Clarinet 0.05
French horn 0.05
Triangle 0.05
100
90
80
t 70
á
e.
60
'Lo 50 00 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000 18000

-Off Frequency,cydes per sec.
Cut
Fla. 4.- Quality of orchestra music as a function of cutoff frequency.
Note Cycles
second
per Organ
pipe Remarks
CH 33.488 Beyond limit of audibility for average person.
Ce 16.744
15,000 Considered ideal upper limit for perfect transmission of
speech and music.
10,000 Considered as upper limit for high-quality transmission
of speech and music.
9.000 Considered as satisfactory upper limit for high -quality
transmission
Ce 8,372 % in. Highest te on fiftee th stop.uaic.
Cr 4.186 Highest note of pianoforte.
G. 3.136
Es 2,637.2 Approximate resonant frequency of ear cavity.
3,000 Considered as satisfactory upper limit for transmission
of speech for ordinary communication.
C. 2.093
2.000 Maximum sensitivity of human ear.
1,500 Mean speech frequency from articulation standpoint.
Ae 880
800 Representative frequency of telephone currents.
E4 659.3
A5 440 Orchestral tuning (see note below).
Cs 261.6
200 Considered as satisfactory lower limit for good -quality
transmission of speech.
C's 130.8
100 Considered as satisfactory lower limit of high- quality
transmission of speech and music.
E2 82.4
CI 65.4 8 ft. Lowest note of cello.
13o 61.7
Co 32.7 16 ft. Lowest note of average church organ.
30 Considered ideal lower limit for perfect transmission of
speech and music.
A 27.5 Lowest note of pianoforte.
G 24.5
C 16.35 Lowest audible sound. Longest pipe of largest organ.
Notes of the "Gamut"
Vibration frequencies proportional to
C
1
I)
9b 3á i5 e7: 4s 1!
El,
2
GA BC
Intervals between successive notes
NOTE: Nearest note is indicated.
% i( "4s % e9í ií+
Scale A = 440 cycles per second based on middle
',is
Ce (symphony pitch) = 261.6 cycles per second.
Fla. 5.-Frequencies to be transmitted on a high- quality system.
774
antenna within 2 db from 30 to 9,000 cycles and above cannot therefore

be appreciated by the average listener because of limitations in the
average broadcasting -receiver frequency response and restrictions in
the present sound broadcasting band width which can be received free
from cross talk and "monkey chatter."
3. Volume Range. Table I (page 773) gives the peak power of various
musical instruments playing triple forte. A violin playing very softly
has an output of about 4 mw, whereas that of a full orchestra has a
peak value of 70 watts. The intensity range of the sound sources in
this case is about 43 db. Owing to limitations in broadcasting circuits,
background noise, and the modulation capabilities of the transmitter,
this volume range must he in most cases compressed within the limits
which can he handled by the wire lines and their associated equipment, as
well as the transmitter where serious amplitude distortion results if
modulation peaks, except those of extremely short time duration, exceed
the modulation capabilities of the transmitter.
STANDARD REFERENCE LEVELS
4. VU and Decibels. The electrical signal intensity or level of an
audio signal passing through each particular circuit of the broadcasting
system, including the studio equipment, wire -line facilities, and the
Use with curve A and B
000001 00001 0001 001 0.1 .0milliwatt
Q 001 001 01 IO 100%Wlts
10
11,11 i l I 1
lIIII1 ...01101
20 ;1;111111111111111 s Gib
'
NUM 100
otsysm Pili 90
-30
Am III 80
-40 Cu
m
s0 10
-50 70
11111
`
-60 60
-i0 I li! t
i. 11111
soó
-BO
IcO ts
°,, .-1--- .. ..Rig +40
ViY
- 9c °ii eGsp1. _ ,sitived 11111
+30
i cuN D',tnsa ,1111111111 +20
- I0(
: 0r"Q II1
1 1111111r11111 +10
11111111 111111 0
IOZ 103 IOa 105 0 0'% volts
0001 001 0.1 I.0 10 100 watts
Use with curve C and D
Fia. 6.- Relation between decibels and watts or per cent volts. Zero level =
1 milliwatt across 600 ohms.
broadcasting station, must at all times be carefully adjusted. The

adjustment must be such that the transmitted program signals will
remain within the limits which every part of the system can transmit
without objectionable distortion due to overloading or from interference
caused by noise, such as the interference produced by cross talk, induc-
tion, rectifier ripple, etc., inherent in equipment as well as associated
wire lines. A convenient and consistently accurate method of measuring
the amplitude of the signals is required, as well as a reference level com-
mon to the entire system. From this reference level, termed the zero
reference point or zero VU, is based the amplitude of the program waves
throughout the system. It also serves as a reference level from which
the amplitude of interference or noise may be measured.
For broadcasting technique together with the interconnecting wire
lines between studios and broadcasting stations there has been estab-
lished a standard energy reference level of 1 mw. For the standard line
impedance or pure resistance of 600 ohms at the terminals of a piece
of apparatus in the system the zero reference level in VU would correspond
to Ora r-m -s volts of 1,000 -cycle sine-wave electrical energy as meas-
ured by a standard a-c voltmeter across the terminals.
Since program signals have wave shapes that are very complex and
because peaks of these complex waves are liable to cause overloading,
there was developed and standardized a new standard volume indicators
for the purpose of measuring program levels at all parts of a broadcasting
system so that the correct signal level can be maintained without objec-
tionable overloading. This instrument (see Volume Indicators) is
calibrated to read VU on a logarithmic scale. It has electrical character-
istics approximately equivalent to those of an r -m -s instrument. For
signals having sinusoidal wave shape, the VU readings on this standard
instrument should follow the decibel- voltage curve shown in Fig. 6.
However, since the instrument is designed and used for measurement of
complex program waves, the VU level of a particular program wave is as
indicated by this standard volume indicator because of its particular
characteristics. The term VU is therefore associated with the reading
of this meter whereas the term decibel follows steady-state conditions
and mathematical laws.
Simultaneous with the establishment of the new reference level of 1
mw the 0 db level of 12.5 mw was abandoned and the value for standard
apparatus and telephone -line termination impedances for broadcasting
was changed from the previous value of 500 ohms to the present standard
600 ohms.
AUDIO FACILITIES
5. Microphone Requirements. By means of the microphone,
acoustic energy of sound waves produced for broadcasting purposes is
converted into those of electric energy, the wave shape of one conforming
to that of the other. The principal requirements of a microphone which
will produce high -quality conversion are as follows: a relatively high
sensitivity with respect to its inherent noise level, a uniform wave
response over the frequency range desired, a substantially uniform
frequency response over the angles included by its directivity character-
istic, and mechanical and electrical ruggedness.
With some reservation, one may say that all forms of acoustoelectric
transducers require the introduction of an obstacle into the path of the
sound waves. To be effective, the active element of a microphone must
either partake of, or otherwise influence, the motion of the air particles,
or it must respond in some way to the pressure variations on its surface.
Some portion of the instrument such as the outside case, regarded as a
rigid obstacle, must reflect some of the incident wave energy, whereas
Canna. H. A., D. K. GANNETT, and R. M. Moaate, A New Standard Volume Indi-
cator and Reference Level, Prot. I.R.F,., January, 1940.
See. Ill RADIO BROADCASTING 777
the element which responds to vibration from the sound waves must
reradiate some of the energy exciting it. An instrument of high sensi-
tivity and efficiency must, therefore, absorb a considerable proportion
of the sound energy reaching it and convert it into electric energy.
Faithful reproduction, therefore, is dependent upon the physical size
and shape of a microphone. These features enter into the distortion of
the true sound field, as well as the characteristics of the elements used to
convert the sound into electric energy with a minimum of wave distortion.
Inasmuch as the quality of reproduction of speech and music is depend-
ent upon the acoustic properties of the room' containing the sound
sources and the placement of the microphone with respect to them,
satisfactory results while using even the best instruments require a
knowledge of the technique of microphone placement.
/0°
20° /0° 00 ZO
30
90 90
s0
-
Oí SO°
60'
60°
70° 70°
80° 60
90° 11112414!--!.._ + 90'
Useful <
reception Ribbon
zone
Directional characteristic element
of a
+ velocity microphone
10,000 cps
6000 cps
1000 cps
Flo. 7.- Directional characteristics of RCA velocity microphone.

6. The Velocity Microphone. This instrument gets its name from
the movement of a metallic ribbon under the motion of air particles
impinging upon it, thus setting up by electromagnetic induction an e.m.f.
corresponding to the amplitude variations of an incident sound wave.
The commercial form of the RCA type 44BX2 consists of a thin metallic
ribbon suspended between the poles of powerful permanent magnets
with the ribbon length perpendicular to, and its width in the plane of, the
magnetic lines of force. It is moved from its position of equilibrium by
the difference of pressure between its two sides. This pressure difference
between the front and back of the ribbon is the same as that produced in a
sound field between two points in space separated by this distance.
HANeori, O. B., and R. M. Mounts. Design and Construction of Broadcast Studios,
Pros. I.R E.. 19 January. 1931.
'OLsox, H. I.. Jour. Soc. Mot. Pict. Emirs., 19, 695, 1931; Jour. Acoustical Soc.
Amer., 3, 56, 1931.
The pressure difference between the front and back of the ribbon is
proportional to frequency. Since the acoustic impedance of the system
is also proportional to frequency and the velocity in a mechanical system
is the ratio of the pressure to the acoustic impedance, the velocity of the
ribbon is independent of frequency.
With a ribbon constructed to have a natural period below the audible
range, the frequency response is free from severe irregularities prominent
in some pressure -operated types because of cavity and diaphragm reso-
nance and from pressure- doubling effects produced at the higher fre-
quencies. The ribbon is made light enough so that its motion will
conform with the motion of air particles even at very high frequencies,
with a result that the response of the velocity microphone is uniform over
a wide range of frequencies.
The velocity-type microphone is markedly directional. With a plane-
progressive wave the response in front and back of the instrument varies
with the cosine of the angle between the direction of the sound wave and
the normal to the ribbon. Since these directional properties are prac-
tically independent of frequency, they become useful in discriminating
against undesired sounds and for obtaining a desired relation between the
sounds from different sources and from reverberant sound in a studio.
a
2.2
0
ig 2
_a
6 20 304050 100 Z00 500 600 1000 5000 6000
Frequency,cycles per sec
Fta. 8.-Velocity-microphone characteristics.
Its response' to reverberant or reflected sound is one -third that of a
non -directive system, with the result that it can be used at a distance from
a sound source of 1.7 times the distance of a non -directive type and still
give the same results with respect to undesired reverberant sounds.
Because of the directional properties of the instrument, its sensitivity
is at a maximum in directions in front and back perpendicular to the
plane of the ribbon. With an input sound pressure of 1 dyne per square
centimeter the unit will normally deliver open circuit across the 250 -ohm
tap an output level of -74 db compared to a zero level of 1 volt.
7. Moving -coil or Dynamic Microphone. This type of instrument
(such as the Western Electric 630A) utilizes a light movable coil con-
tained in a magnetic field to produce an e.m.f. which conforms with the
sound waves impinging upon the dome -shaped diaphragm.
The assembly is composed of a coil of fine aluminum ribbon edgewise
wound and attached rigidly to a duralumin diaphragm of low mechanical
stiffness which supports the coil in a radial magnetic field of a permanent
magnet made from high-grade magnet steel. The diaphragm has a rigid
dome-shaped center and a tangentially corrugated annulus. It has a high
area /stiffness ratio. The diaphragm is cemented to a raised annulus on the
outer pole piece. The outer and inner pole pieces are of soft iron and are
welded directly to the magnet. The diaphragm is damped by an acoustic
-resistance which is supported below the coil by a brass ring, which in turn
is held in place by rubber gaskets.
I OLSON. H. F., Jour. Soc. Mot. Pitt. Engra., 16, 695, 1931;
Jour. Acoustical Soc.
Amer., 3, 56, 1931.
Sec. !1l RADIO BROADCASTING 779
When the diaphragm vibrates in response to the sound waves impinging
-
upon its surface, the coil vibrates in a like manner and cuts the magnetic
8
Odpcbel=/voNperbór(ópéñarúüw/hrge
across output impedance of 20 ohms)
Angle ofincidence
ir degrees-
0
,,
l
0\ ff0
90
80
y
a)
- 85
-90
-95 óry
, I
_ïf" \ ,k;, -90
.
t J.490
10 I
#60 +So
-10
30 50 100 500 000 5000 10,000 20.000
Frequency, cycles per second
Flu. 9. -Field calibration of dynamic microphone showing effect of angle of
incidence of the sound wave.
lines of force. The e.m.f. generated in the coil is substantially proportional
to the sound vibrations which cause the diaphragm movement.
The spherical shape of the microphone housing and its size are such that the
housing fits closely over the diaphragm and thus produces very little more
diffractive effect than the diaphragm pressure ribbon'
itself. To prevent resonance within
the spherical case an acoustic resist-
ance baffle is provided to divide the `
space in two parts. A tube with its
outlet at the back of the housing
AEK/ocify
ibbon
serves the double purpose of equaliz-
_
ing the inside and atmospheric pres-
sures and of increasing the response
of the instrument at low frequencies.
This microphone was designed to
provide a uniform frequency response
in all directions and has been termed Acoustic--
a non-directional micro phone.' For Magnet
-
this reason the small spherical shape resistance

was selected as well as the method of
mounting the diaphragm in a hori-
plane. A protective grid is
provided over the diaphragm to con- -Will
trol the resonance of the cavity in
front of the diaphragm. This grid
is most useful in the improvement of 411711.1716
the frequency response of the instru- Flo. 10.- Unidirectional ribbon micro-
ment at frequencies from 8,000 to phone elements.
15,000 cycles.
Wave -response calibration curves of this type of instrument indicate that
the frequency characteristics are influenced to some extent at the higher
' MARSHALL, R. N.. and F. F. RouANow, Belt System Tech. Jour., July, 1936, p. 405.
frequencies by the angle of incidence from which the sound waves approach
the diaphragm. Since the diaphragm is mounted horizontal, the instrument
is entirely non -directional with respect to the vertical axis.
In spite of the small physical size necessary to provide the non -directional
characteristics, the sensitivity is about -88 db where 0 db is equivalent to 1
volt per bar, (open- circuit) voltage across the microphone output impedance
of approximately 20 ohms.
The non -directional characteristics of this microphone make it useful as a
pickup for large orchestras and choruses where in most cases the sound arrives
at the microphone from all directions. Unless the microphone response is
uniform in all directions, there is a form of distortion due to discrimination
against certain frequencies with directivity.
8. The Unidirectional Ribbon Microphone. In certain forms of studio
technique it is desirable to eliminate the pickup of unwanted sound in the
rear of the microphone, such as audience noise, room echo, etc. Here the
.1.5
-40100cyc%s
4S°
Fta. 11. -RCA 77B unidirectional microphone characteristics.

unidirectional microphone is very useful. The unidirectional instrument
utilizes a light corrugated ribbon suspended in a magnetic field in some-
what the same manner as the bidirectional velocity microphone, except
that the ribbon is divided into two individual sections. one of which is
pressure operated and the other velocity operated.
The field response of the pressure -operated section is very nearly uniform
in all directions and may be expressed as E = Eo, whereas the response of the
velocity section is bidirectional and is equivalent to E = Eo cos e. Since
the sensitivity of the non -directional pressure section is made to equal the
greatest sensitivity of the bidirectional or velocity section, the combined polar
field response characteristic of the two is equivalent to E = Eo(1 + cos B).
In three-dimensional space this is very nearly equivalent to a cardioid of revo-
lution. The point of maximum sensitivity is directly to the front of the
instrument, while directly to the rear of it the sensitivity approaches zero.
A bar is 1 dyne per square centimeter.
Sec. Ill RADIO BR0ADCASTINO 781
A uniform frequency response in all directions for the pressure- operated

ribbon section is approached by allowing the operating face to be freely
accessible to the atmosphere while the other side is terminated in an acoustic
impedance very nearly equivalent to that of a very long pipe. Since a long
pipe is too cumbersome for practical purposes, a short pipe of correct cross
section, provided in coiled form, and loaded throughout its length with
absorbing material, such as tufts of felt, exhibits a suitable acoustic resistance
over a frequency range covering all but the lowest frequencies.
The operating properties of the velocity- actuated ribbon section are quite
the same as were described previously for the bidirectional velocity micro-
phone. The ribbon is driven from its
equilibrium position by a difference of
pressure between the two sides; the pres-
sure difference being due to the difference
in phase between the two sides. The
vibration of the ribbon caused by the
sound waves impinging upon it causes an
induced e.m.f. to be generated in the rib-
bon. The directional characteristics of
the ribbon section are practically inde-
pendent of frequency.
The RCA 77-B unidirectional micro-
phone has an open -circuit output level of
approximately -81 db based on 1 -volt
zero reference level for a sound pressure
of 1 bar at 250 ohms output impedance.
The Western Electric 639-AA cardioid
directional microphone' utilizes a ribbon
element of special design in combination
with a compact pressure type non-direc-
tional element to secure a field response
having a directional characteristic similar
to a cardioid.
The pressure element is of the dynamic
type having a dome -shaped diaphragm
and constructed in some respects similar
to the Western Electric 630A microphone
previously described. Commercial in-
struments of this general type have 12.- S'ntplified cross-sec-
switches which enable the directional tional view of the cardiod direc-
characteristics to be changed at will. tional microphone.
9. Crystal Microphone. This microphone utilizes the piezoelectric
phenomenon produced in plates cut from piezoactive crystals. Thin
plates cut from Rochelle -salt crystals are used almost entirely for the
elements of crystal microphones. In comparison to other crystalline
piezoelectric materials, such as quartz, Rochelle salt exhibits greater
sensitivity for this purpose and it responds quite readily to mechanical
vibrations.
Crystal microphones may be classified under two individual groups: (1)
those utilizing multiple sound cells in free space and (2) those utilizing
bimorph crystal elements each excited mechanically by an associated
diaphragm. In the first of these types utilizing the Brush Development Con,-
pany assembly, termed the sound cell. the elements are plates having dimen-
sions 4,i by áK by 0.30 in. cut from Rochelle -salt crystals along axes in such a
manner that their inherent characteristics tend to cause elongation or con-
traction when they are subject to an electric field provided by foil electrodes.
t MARSHALL. R. N.. A Cardioid Microphone, Belt Lab. Rec., July 1939.
By cementing together two such piezoactive plates which have tendencies

to act in opposition to each other when a voltage is applied, an assembly is
produced with a motion analogous to the mechanical motion of bending
a bimetallic thermostatic strip acted upon by variation of temperature.
The assembly consists of two plate combinations mentioned above, separated
by an air space and held in position by a suitable mounting.
The cell is covered over with a membrane which serves as a pressure seal
and to protect the crystals from the outside atmosphere. When the cell is
placed in a sound field, pressure acting normal to the outer surfaces of the
plates tends to cause bending, with a result that an e.m.f. is generated
between the foil electrodes. The two plate combinations are connected in
parallel. The wave form of this e.m.f. conforms with that of sound waves.
Because of the small physical dimensions of the plates the frequency of
mechanical resonance of the system is rather high, with the result that
frequency response is quite uniform over a wide frequency range. Some
models are quite uniformly sensitive up to 15,000 cycles.
Commercial models contain series and series -parallel groups of these sound
cells ranging from 2 to as many as 24. The sensitivity of a single sound cell
is approximately -90 db, while a multicell microphone has a sensitivity as
great as -68 db.
The output impedance (which is purely capacitative) of these instruments
is quite high. This sometimes requires them to be operated directly into the
grid of an amplifier tube having a grid leak of about 5 megohms. The small
physical dimensions of a single cell make it practically non -directive. This
property is also characteristic of multicell units. Figure 13 shows a resistance -
capacity-coupled amplifier suitable for use with such a microphone.
The diaphragm type of crystal microphone, such as the Brush Model AP
utilizes a hermetically sealed bitnorph crystal supported at three points
within the microphone housing.
Projecting to the center of the spe-
cially treated fiber diaphragm is a
small drive pin. This engages the
remaining corner of the bimorph
crystal. Inasmuch as the bimorph
crystal is highly sensitive in con-
verting fluctuating mechanical
Fia. 13.- Amplifier for use will crystal stresses, such as those caused by
microphone. bending, into corresponding elec-
trical fluctuations, the fluctuations
in pressure created by the sound waves impinging upon the microphone dia-
phragm result in corresponding voltage fluctuations to be produced across
the terminal ends of the bimorph crystal plates.
Similar to most pressure- operated microphones, this instrument is semi -
directive. However, the smallness of the instrument assists in securing
rather uniform frequency response with direction. By placing the diaphragm
facing the ceiling of the room, the instrument is essentially non-directional
in a plane through the diaphragm and parallel with the ceiling.
The output impedance of the crystal element is approximately 250,000
ohms. This permits long cables to be employed when either high or low
impedance connections are used. By means of a high -quality matching
transformer this microphone can be satisfactorily operated into circuits
exhibiting 50, 200, or 500 ohms impedance. The frequency response of this
instrument is substantially flat from 100 to 5,000 cycles. It has a variable
ontrol to allow manual adjustment of frequency-response characteristic
.chile in operation. It has an output level of approximately -48 db based
on a zero reference level of 1 volt per dine per square centimeter.
The crystal microphone shunted across the input resistor of the amplifier
tube attenuates the higher frequencies of background noise such as those
caused by thermal agitation. The properties of the crystals themselves are
such that they are liable to damage such as a change of frequency character-
Sec. 21] RADIO BROADCASTING 783
istics and output if the instrument is subjected to temperatures in excess of

120 °F. to 125°F. particularly for periods of several hours.
10. Condenser Microphones. The condenser microphone utilizes the
principle of mechanical variation of thickness of the air dielectric of a
charged electrostatic capacity as a medium to change acoustic energy
into electrical energy of corresponding wave shapes. One form of this
microphone consists essentially of an electric condenser formed by a thin,
tightly stretched duralumin diaphragm spaced approximately 0.002 in.
and insulated from a flat brass disk called the back plate.
A polarizing potential difference is applied between the condenser elec-
trodes formed by the diaphragm and the back plate. The varying pressure
upon the very thin diaphragm by the sound waves causes the electrostatic
capacity of the condenser to vary by an amount in the order of 0.01 per cent
of its normal value of 200 µµf.
The microphone has an aluminum alloy diaphragm 0.001 in. in thickness. being
The edges are clamped between threaded rings, the requisite stiffness
obtained by advancing the stretching ring until the desired resonant fre- the
quency, usually about 5,000 çps, is obtained. The space between
diaphragm and the back plate is hermetically sealed to prevent dust and
auxiliary
moisture from entering and resulting in noise. The thin rubber
diaphragm, together with a small air -vent hole in the center of the back
plate, is provided as an equalizing system for changes in atmospheric pressure.
On account of its inherent high-impedance characteristics, it is usual to
incorporate an amplifier in the microphone housing to reduce to a minimum
the length of the lead and the corresponding shunting capacity amplifier between
microphone and associated amplifier grid. Sometimes a compact with
is placed on the floor alongside the microphone, the two being connected
low- capacity cable. A d-c polarizing voltage in excess of 180 volts has been
used, but this should never exceed 500 volts.
Developments upon the early Wente' models by using duralumin as a
substitute for steel as diaphragm material brought the sensitivity of modern
instruments to about ten times that of early models.
Since this is of a pressure-operated type, there are inherent irregularities in
its characteristics from acoustic and mechanical phenomenon. The micro-
well as the
phone diaphragm is subject to certain resonance frequencies as characteristic.
cavity. These tend to disturb the smoothness of the response surface of the
The sound waves striking and being reflected from the flat
diaphragm cause pressure doubling especially at high frequencies. whereas at
Below 500 cycles this instrument is practically non -directive
frequencies above 2,000 cycles the directivity is very noticeable. This direc- and,
tivity has a tendency to discriminate against h -f noise and reverberation,
under certain conditions where the studio does not accentuate the easily low fre-
to
quencies, it has an advantage since the human ear responds more
background noise of higher frequencies than to lower frequencies.
The sensitivity of the condenser microphone on the basis of an input sound
pressure of 1 bar is approximately -60 db below 1 volt as measured at the
output of the preamplifier.
The Western Electric 640A miniature condenser microphone unit=.3 contains
a diaphragm a fraction of an inch in diameter. The condenser unit is
mounted in one end of a tapered shell housing, of dimensions approximately
2 ;4 in. in diameter and 7 in. long, which also contains the preamplifier. The
weight of this microphone and preamplifier unit is 13á lb.
The output level of the complete instrument is -61 db below zero level of
1 volt per bar open circuit at the preamplifier output
impedance of 50 ohms.
WENTE, E. C., Phys. Rev., 19, 498, 1922. Micro-
HARRISON, H. C., and P. B. FLANDERS, An Efficient Miniature Condenser
phone System. Bell System Tech. Jour., July, 1932, p. 451. 1939, p. 278.
HOPPER, F. L., Jour. Soc. Mot. Pict. Bagre., September,
Published field -response curves indicate a rather uniform frequency -response

characteristic from 40 to 10,000 cycles with some dropping off of the higher
frequencies as the angle is increased from an axis line normal to the diaphragm.
11. Carbon Microphones. These devices use the variation resistance
of carbon granules to produce electric waves from sound waves. A
typical example of a "double- button" carbon microphone is shown in
Fig. 14. The diaphragm of this microphone is made from duralumin
0.0017 in. in thickness and is clamped securely around its outer edge.
Stretching of the diaphragm to give the desired resonant frequency,
vw N.a,
GRANULAR
CARSON
OIARNRAGM
FINAL 'CAMPING
_II ss.ca
STCCA NG
111111
INITIAL RLATE GROOVE
ST Á TCHRNG RING
Fro. 14.- Carbon r iicrophone.

a 40
-13 M1
- 45 Eiji; SEMMI11
Mer.\IAO:
-50 O11 Msg11
11
MNIN:.IMM11
MERMEN.
&
-55
:M:11
ENO1111
1
0 db= / vo/t (open circa I)perbor
MINIM
=M1
-60
50 100 11100 10,000
Frequency Cycles per Second
Fro. 15.- Response of air-damped duralumin diaphragm.
usually about 5,700 cycles, is done in two steps by means of two stretch-
ing rings. To ensure uniformly low contact resistance, the portions of
the diaphragm which are in contact with the granular carbon are covered
with a thin film of gold deposited by cathode sputtering. The carbon
granules will pass through a screen having 60 meshes per inch but will he
retained on a screen having 80 meshes per inch. Each button contains
about 0.06 cc of carbon corresponding to about 3,000 granules.
The use of an air- damped stretched duralumin diaphragm has resulted
in uniform response over a wide range of frequencies.
The operation of a carbon microphone may be affected by cohering (some-
times called caking) of the granules. Severe cohering causes a large re-
duction in resistance and sensitivity which persists for an extended period
unless the instrument is tapped so as to agitate mechanically the granules.
One of the common causes of cohering is breaking the circuit when current
is flowing through the microphone. Experience has shown that the use of a
simple filter consisting of two 0.02
isf condensers and three coupled -Jack to
coils, each having a self-inductance measure current
of 0.0014 henry, will effectively
protect the microphone button Carbon
without introducing an appreci- mic.4 =
able transmission loss; a potenti- Cab /ek',
ometer switch also serves to studio
prevent caking.
The quality of transmission
i
obtained with a double- button car- FIG. 16.- Carbon microphone connec-
bon microphone compares favor- tions.
ably with that secured with a
condenser microphone; the carbon microphone has the disadvantage, how-
ever, of a high noise level or " microphone hiss." Figure 16 shows the manner
/lI i/
\
in which the carbon microphone is connected to its associated amplifier. The
-
current through each button is usually in the neighborhood of 10 to 20 ma.
250 e
240'
120°
230
130
220.210.200'190'
`
170' 160.150' 140'
140° 150°160'170180°190' 200'210'220'
130
`w 230'
120'
240°
`1 I °
ïb
Pil // _ io%'';°'°á::`"'..'s
. :., ...
__.:..,,.,`>>2so.
: {"4
o 0>>
IL
:;'aacl;;",,>,.. 100°
\I
ií]IL
,,, ,,;Syós%
250°
100°
27 0 °
90
III1 9Clis c.`ç:,,0 , : :IÌ:1I111II)...- aIll 270° 90
III Irl'1 1¡11i1. III1I IIIIIII
=II i//
'.. '11
,
' ` °ii^¡¡.I
```\```\` %/
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280é° IIIIIII 1
80°
```\ `
\
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=
`= /
b0 17`,
, °i¡:¡hn+OI 2B0'
I
\`
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`!
70'
270 /
.
t;:
I
350°
. 30°
320`
40
Varlation
responst
`fiorntht%.../..._.,,a
?n inicro
wit/r angwhr
e
óisp/wcement of the aourrt
ii 40
320'
330' 340 20
350° 0 10° 30
30 20 10 350 340 330°
FIG. 17.- Directional characteristic of carbon microphone.
Tho sensitivity of the carbon microphone is somewhat higher than the other
types. The average sensitivity is about -40 db.
Wave -response curves, for a carbon microphone show that response at
normal incidence is quite uniform from 60 to 1,000 cycles. Above 1,000 cycles
BALLANTINE, STUART, High -quality Broadcasting, Prue. I.R.E., 22, 576, May, 1934.
1
it increases rapidly, becoming about 15 db higher at 2,500 cycles than at 1,000

cycles. This increase extends rather uniformly from 2,500 to 0,000 cycles,
where there is a marked falling off.
12. Parabolic Reflector Microphone. The use of a large concave
reflecting surface mounted behind a microphone has been found to give
the instrument pronounced directional characteristics in the reception
of sound waves. The system gets its name from the shape of the reflect..
ing surface, a cross section of which contains a section of a parabola.
By virtue of the microphone placement at the focus of the parabola of
revolution or hollow paraboloid section, the sound waves striking the
reflecting surface are concentrated upon that microphone diaphragm
facing the inside of the paraboloid resulting in increased sensitivity of
the instrument in line with the axis inside of the paraboloid.
30° 20° 10° 0° 10° 20° 30'
`
40° 40°
50°
60°
70°
80
90° .1,
mi[rophone.F=B ``11 I .
60°
10°
90°
Fie. 18.- Comparative axial response at 1,000 cps in millivolts per bar. A,
parabolic reflector; B, inductor microphone.
The use of the reflector, therefore, makes possible the placement of the
instrument sufficiently far from the sound source so that it is practically
equidistant from all the instruments or voices, with a result that the
problem of securing proper balance and volume control is simplified.
The directional characteristic makes it possible to swing the microphone
and its reflector as one would a searchlight and in this manner follow the
action on the stage of an auditorium or on the field of a sporting event.
There is an increase in sensitivity along the line of axis of about 4 to 1,
due to the use of the parabolic reflector.
Since the reflector increases the sensitivity and makes it possible to locate
the microphone at a greater distance from the source of sound, it is desirable
that the output of the microphone should fall off rapidly if the sound origi-
nates at a point displaced more than 30 deg. from the axis of the instrument;
if this characteristic is obtained, reverberation and reflections in the studio
or auditorium will have very little effect.
The h -f response may be increased by as much as 15 db over the response
at low frequencies by varying the position of the microphone in the reflector.
However, in focusing the microphone, care must be taken to select the most
useful frequency range, because at certain points of focus there is a tendency

for sharp irregularities in the l -f response due to cancellation between the
directly received and reflected sound from the paraboloid reflector. In
certain instances where the h -f absorption is considerable, the ability to
accentuate the highs by refocusing proves very helpful.
Another distinct advantage of the directional microphone is its ability
to disregard to quite an extent the acoustics of the robin as it responds almost
entirely to the sounds upon which it is directly focused. In some cases
another microphone without a reflector has been used with the parabolic
microphone so that it may be faded in at certain times to make the repro-
n/'
duction sound more realistic. The parabolic microphone has been used to
.
pick up sound from a certain section of a large crowd or audience of a sports
event or to pick up the voice of a single individual at a time in an audience.
o
lo °
AlÌ1
10°
60
50
*a *4111110
50°
,4*ftalano#,
Fia.
30°
ftillES
20° 10° 0° 10° 20° 30°
19. -Axial frequency response of parabolic microphone with a focal
length of 8 in.
o
13. Microphone Calibration and Testing. The sensitivity of a particu-

lar microphone is generally expressed as the open-circuit output voltage
generated at the microphone terminals for a unit sound pressure against
its active element. The intensity of the sound waves impinging upon
the active element may be evaluated as a pressure or force. This is
usually expressed in dynes per square centimeter or bars, where one bar
of sound pressure is equivalent to one dyne per square centimeter of the
surface area.
The actual voltage generated by the microphone being very minute
(a very small fraction of 1 volt for a sound pressure of one bar against
its element), the sensitivity may be expressed in minus decibels below a
standard reference level usually taken as 1 volt. When it is desired to.
correlate this value with the amplifier gain one would have to assume
the microphone to be loaded with a matching impedance. This would
result in dropping the output voltage to one -half of the opera circuit
value or a corresponding 6 db decrease in output.
The sound pressure at a particular point where a standard microphone
is set up is generally measured by the Rayleigh disk method. This
instrument consisting of a light circular mirror suspended by a fine
quartz fiber at an angle of 45 deg. to the axis of the tube through which
the sound waves pass. The torque produced on the disk mirror by the
sound field is measured by the deflected beam of light focused upon it.
For small angles of deflection, the rotation of the disk is proportional
to the sound intensity in the tube and consequently to the intensity in
the undisturbed field. The actual value of torque may be determined
by a torsion head which has a tendency to return the mirror back to its
original position.
30
25 MI111111E111111
20 MI111111=111111
1111111111111111111111Wal
15
10
111111Ir::III
=1f11111iM%2d412í
o
5
0 IM111i..i1i11
IIIIIf51ft511
-5
O -10 111111l;1i11
11111IB11111
á 15
ct -20 111i1111111
111i1111111
25
30 1.1.111i1U=111i1i
35 M111111111111111
-40 =0111111=11111
81000 456 snow
4
10 20 30 4 56 8 00 2 3 6 2 3
Cyc es
Fla. 20.-Frequency response in axis of parabolic reflector microphone at
various focal lengths.
Where a sound chamber having suitable acoustic properties to prevent
reverberation, at the lower frequencies especially, is not available, wave
response calibrations are made in open air in a quiet atmosphere. From
a standard microphone calibrated in this manner, other instruments
may be compared to it for characteristics.
In determining the response characteristic of a diaphragm -type instru-
ment such as a condenser microphone, use has frequently been made of
the thermophone method, the thermophone consisting of two strips of
gold foil mounted on a plate and fitted into the recess in the front of the
microphone, the recess being entirely enclosed and filled with hydrogen.
A d.c. upon which is superimposed an a.c. is passed through the foil and
causes fluctuations in the temperature of the foil and the gas immediately
surrounding it. These fluctuations in temperature cause changes in the
pressure on the microphone diaphragm, and the magnitude of the pres-
sure developed on the diaphragm can be computed from the constants
of the system. Thermophone calibration is often referred to as a pres-
sure calibration, since it depends entirely upon the actual pressure devel-
oped on the diaphragm and hence does not take into account any effects
which may occur when the microphone is used for actual pickup purposes.
The response obtained by placing the instrument in a sound field of con-
stant pressure is termed a field calibration.
See. 011 RADIO BROADCASTINO 789
The effect of the diffusion of the sound field and the tendency for most
acoustic materials to be more absorbent at high frequencies appear to
cause the microphone actually to respond more closely to the field cali-
bration rather than to the pressure calibration.
Previous to the use of any microphone in an actual broadcast or
rehearsal, it is carefully tested by speaking into it and having another
trained individual listen to the quality of the sound reproduced through a
high- fidelity amplifying and loud -speaker system. As compared to the
results secured from a standard microphone of known high quality, the
condition of the microphone tinder test can be determined.
STUDIO TECHNIQUE AND MICROPHONE PLACEMENT
14. Studio Problems. A problem of vital concern to a broadcasting
system is that of providing favorable acoustic conditions within its studio
or auditorium facilities in order that the effects of reverberant sound
from the walls of the enclosures may he kept within desirable proportions
in comparison to the sound reaching the microphones directly from the
source. Of even greater concern are the problems involving correct
placement of microphones with respect to the sound sources within the
enclosures, to assure faithful reproduction of each voice or musical
instrument, their significant overtones, and a pleasant blending of the
groups of voices or instruments.
It is, therefore, by virtue of the selection of a microphone which will
faithfully transmit all the actual sounds that occur within its range
as well as the correct placement of it within a studio or auditorium having
suitable acoustic characteristics that high -quality programs can be
produced. Under optimum conditions of reproduction a broadcast
listener would hear the same acoustic naturalness of the program from
his loud- speaker as he would if he were to be transported to a favorable
spot in the studio or auditorium where the soundsooriginating therein
would afford a sensation most pleasing for him to hear.
The major considerations involved in proper studio design such as
sound proofing, ventilation, optimum dimensions, and suitable acoustical
treatment of the walls have been given.1 At present we shall he con-
cerned only with the problems of microphone placement, assuming that
favorable studio and auditorium conditions exist. Normally, these con-
siderations would be as follows: adequate soundproofing that would
prevent undesired extraneous noises from entering a given enclosure,
and suitable acoustical treatment of the walls and floor to provide equal
absorption over a wide frequency range and give the enclosure in itself a
uniform frequency characteristic. It is of considerable importance that
the frequency characteristic of the studio or enclosure be considered for
high -quality transmission because this characteristic is actually super-
imposed upon that of the microphone under conditions where the rever-
berant sound received by the microphone is appreciable as compared
with that received directly from the source.
15. Single versus Multiple Microphone Usage. During the first years
of broadcasting, it Nvas a usual procedure to use more than one m' icro-
phone to pick up a program, especially under conditions where the broad-
' HANeoN, O. B.. and R. M. MORRIS, Design and Construction of Broadcast Studios,
Proc. I.R.E.. 19, January, 1931; SW'IAN, L. J., Bell System Tech. Jour., 10, 108, 1931;
MORRIS, R. M., and G. M. Ntxox, Broadcast Studio Design, RCA Rev., October,
1938.
casting group was rather large. This was necessary on account of

rather low microphone sensitivity and the inherently high noise level of
the carbon microphones used during that period requiring a placement
of those instruments sufficiently close to the sound sources to overcome
the inherent background noise of these carbon types. The combination
of more than one microphone for making a pickup had a disadvantage in
that the outputs from the several microphones used were not in proper
phase relation with respect to the sound sources. This resulted in con-
siderable distortion when the microphone outputs were combined and fed
into a common amplifier.
Improvements in microphones to secure higher sensitivity as com-
pared to inherent instrument noise level has resulted in the use of only
one microphone at a time. The microphone is located at a sufficient
distance from the sound sources so that more than one microphone
is not necessary to obtain a good acoustic balance from a group. The
practice of using more than one microphone at a time has, therefore,
been discouraged whenever possible because of the phase distortion in
the sound field resulting.
16. Microphone Placement. The carbon microphone, has been
practically abandoned for use in broadcasting pickup work. The direc-
tive characteristics of the carbon and condenser types at the higher fre-
quencies make necessary the placement of the broadcasting group within
an area contained within an angle of 30 deg. either side of the microphone
axis.
The frequency characteristics of any diaphragm type of microphone are
dependent upon the relative positions of the microphone and the sources
of sound. When the sounds approach at right angles to the plane of the
microphone diaphragm, a uniform response over the desired range might
be obtained. But, if the sounds approach from any other point, it will be
found in general that the response will fall off with frequency. This
characteristic is illustrated by Fig. 17, which indicates how response
varies with the angular displacement of the sound source from the micro -
phone axis. It will be noted that there is a high loss at the higher
frequencies for high angular displacements. Since the majority of
musical instruments depend for their quality or timbre upon the presence
of overtones, it is obvious that, if these overtones are discriminated
against, the quality will be changed materially. If, in considering this
loss in the higher frequencies with angular displacement, we apply the
limitation that the loss at 5,000 cycles shall not be more than 2 db, then
Fig. 17 indicates that, in using a single microphone of the diaphragm
type, all the musical instruments of a group should be kept within an
angle of 30 deg. either side of the microphone axis.
An individual source of sound such as a speaker, announcer, or musical
instrument should not be placed closer to the microphone than 1 ft.
Greater distances are determined by the volume range of the voice or
instrument and the relative volume desired with respect to the accom-
panying instruments.
One must consider that in different selections and different arrange-
ments of the same selection the relative importance of the particular
instruments may be changed considerably. Where desired prominence
cannot be given to a particular group at a certain time using a single
microphone, it may be necessary to fade-in another located near the
group to be emphasized. A number of microphones can in this way be
used, each for the particular interval desired, to emphasize the particular
musical instrument or instrumental group, the soloist, or the announcer.
The control of individual microphone circuits for this arrangement is
performed in the control booth by suitable mixing and switching devices.
Extensive rehearsing accompanied by listening tests at a remote point are
generally required to secure the desired balance for a particular setup
previous to an actual broadcast.
In general, the volume range of certain instruments adjacent to one
another permits their alliance into natural groups each instrument of a
group being placed approximately equidistant from the microphone.
One group may contain violins, violas, and cellos; a second group, the
piano, harp, flutes, and clarinets; a third group, the oboes, bassoons, and
French horns; a fourth group, the string bass, tuba, timpani, and traps;
a fifth group, the trombones and trumpets. In dance orchestras the
guitar is usually placed in the first group, the saxophone in the third
group, and the banjo with the fourth group.
There are many factors involved in securing the proper placement of
vocal sound sources or musical in- N, _Drapes on
struments before a microphone par- /Battery Tympan back wall
titularly before a ppressure or
diaphragm type. While certain Brass S /ringe
\ bass
rules have been set up, they may
only as a guide. Most satis-
factory results are obtained by a
olas
Violas
N.
Woodwi
,
hd no m +
Cellos
combined study of the instruments
s1 Rio/ins
as well as an actual setup of them Harp
before a microphone in a given en-
closure. The results of actual listen- \ Conductor /
ing tests by means of a high-fidelity \\
speaker and monitoring system per-
formed by one who has a trained
\
\\ /
i
car for music or sound naturalness ,/
/
Shielded or
is a final check upon the proper undirechóna/
placement.
17. Typical Studio Arrangement. dfi , microphone
A typical setup of a large symphony
orchestra before a condenser micro- Fla. 21.-Setup of 110-piece syni-
phony orchestra.
phone is shown in Fig. 21.1 The
instruments are placed so as to obtain the desired balance for theater or
auditorium work and to obtain the proper harmonic balance allowing
for the microphone directional characteristics on higher frequencies.
The microphone is acoustically shielded to prevent reverberation from
the auditorium behind it. Present -day microphones, such as the uni-
directional and cardioid types, could be used to advantage without the
shield since their response in the rear is very small. The string instru-
ments in this setup, being the least powerful ones, are concentrated in the
foreground of the group. The wood winds are next in line followed in the
background by the powerful brass and percussion instruments. In
the arrangement the string tone of the orchestra is given a favorable
position to produce a softness to the music which will not be over-
powered acoustically by the heavy brasses and percussion instruments.
HAxeore, O. B., Microphone Technique in Radio Broadcasting. Jour. Acoustical Soc.
Amer., 1 No. 1. July, 1931.
Figure 22 shows various arrangements of instruments and voices before

the inductor or diaphragm type of microphone. The characteristic of this
type permits the placement of the musical instruments within an area con-
tained by an angle of 45 deg. on either side of the microphone axis. In
using this type of instrument the source of sound, speaker, announcer, or
Ti T, T3
(a) (b)
Small Group with Voice Similar to (a)excepf smaller Group
of Singer in Prominence
TI T,
T, T, T
T,
25'
19
16'
12'
(c) (d)
Large Dance Orchestra with Singer Concert Orchestra
L E G E N D
B- Bassoon 08 - Oboe T - Trombone
C- Clarinet P - Piano 4 - Tuba
F- Flute S - Saxophone
V, - First Violin
G- Guitar Sy-Soloist (voice) V2 - Second Vb%n
H2-French Horn T, -Trumpet V4- Ce/%o
M- Microphone T2 - Tympani, Traps Vs- String Bass
Flo. 22.-Orchestra arrangements for use with a single type 50A inductor
microphone.
musical instrument should not be placed closer than 1 ft. from the face of
the microphone.
The bidirectional characteristics of the velocity microphone are
advantageous in that the performers can be distributed on both sides of
the instrument in a manner shown in Fig. 23. The uniform frequency -
response characteristic of the instrument with directivity is an advantage
in that the intensity of some instruments may be decreased without
discriminating against their higher frequencies, simply by moving them
at a larger angle with respect to the microphone axis
See. 111 RADIO BROADCASTING 793
An orchestral arrangement involving the use of a velocity microphone

as suggested by LaPrade' is shown in
Fig 24.
The orchestral group in this arrange-
ment was conveniently located on one face
of the instrument. To prevent reflection
from a wall directly in back of the micro-
phone, the instrument is tilted at an angle
of approximately 30 deg. toward the or-
chestra. An exceedingly well -balanced
pickup has been accomplished by this Not less
method. than s. --Microphone
inches
18. Volume Controls or Faders. Vol - 6feet .Siring Bass
ume controls or faders used in high- quality 'rums o -d o
broadcasting circuits should have fee- Violins
quency characteristics which are uniform o o o o Piano
between 30 and 15,000 cycles to prevent Saxophones
them from causing frequency distortion.
Also essential is a very low noise level.
This is normally -150 db or better. Prop-
er shielding for protection against dust
and dirt is necessary to maintain a low Dance Orchestra
noise level, as well as to act as a shield
against any stray r -f electromagnetic 2ance
23.-Dance
microphone arrangement.
orchestra
fields.
In Figs. 25 to 31 are shown various types of attenuating structures used
in broadcasting technique. The type shown in Fig. 25 is frequently used
100% 98% 93% 86% 75%
0° 10° 20° 30° 40°
63%
98% 50°
10°
50°k
93% 60°
20° 32%
70°
86%
30° 25°k
75°
75%
40°
63%
50
459
55°
MICROPHONE
Fta. 24.- Velocity-microphone setup for large orchestra group.
as a microphone fader and is commonly known as the LT structure.
When used in multiple such as for mixing several microphone outputs,
' LAPRADE, ERNEST, National Broadcasting Co., The Technique of Broadcasting
Instrumental Groups, address at North Central Music Educators Conference, Indian-
apolis, March, 1935. See Proc. Music Educators National Conference, 1935.
FIG. 25.-LT attenuator. Fu:. 26.-- Bridged -T attenuator.
FIG. 266.- Multiple -type LT attenuator.
FIG. 27.-- Ringle- ladder attenuator.
Output
11111111111111
FIC. 2g. -Balanced -ladder attenuator.
Fta. 29.- Type -T attenuator. FIC. 30.- Balanced-H attenuator.

Sec. 11) RADIO BROADCASTING 795
as in Fig. 26a, sufficient resistance is inserted in one output lead from each
attenuator to maintain correct circuit matching. The bridged -T struc-
ture shown in Fig. 26 is used extensively for the same purposes.
The ladder attenuators maintain an impedance that remains prac-
tically constant in both directions through the middle of the attenuation
range. Important features of this type -1 f- - ---o
of attenuator are its simplicity of design I
r --i-
1
requiring fewer contacts and switches. !n ut

The minimum attenuation setting of a L1_=_ i
ladder pad normally corresponds to its t 2.4,
insertion loss which amounts to approx-
imately 2.5 db. Where an attenuation
range is required extending from zero FIG. 31.- Voltage divider.
upward, the H or T structures are
used. They are usually constructed with a minimum attenuation setting
of zero.
The T and balanced-H structures maintain a constant impedance in
both directions when properly terminated. The balanced -H and ladder
3000 2N, 2R4
RA
',
2000
Z, i4e 22 Z, Z,
, RA l';4
1000
800 *.
to
a
_ Curves shavinq resish+nce values olkgs
of lyprs //and Ta/kaxdars wi/,h
in decibels
,,,\,
to loss
2 hbTE'Forolherlerminatánresisbnirs
iiii
600
%\_respect
.\=oíi,,,1
a 400 N °2 äò where Zs. Zz resishrnm w/&esa
2 `Nipraporh'ona/and may besecured
_`
L300 aNtr.`byinJerpo/alion
o
ai 20n
`b
u Ell
á
GiZ.
.. .
1,
v 180
60
ti¡
/1)ti
mg..
/
3 /vcti
,5o5
mr0i wm
40
30 e! cIA
71Z2
Ra
20 p
10
0 4
IIIIIIiIIIIII
8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Loss,clb
Fia. 32. -Chart for H and T attenuator design.
structures are used where the transmission circuits must be balanced to
ground. They are frequently used in broadcasting circuits as master
gain controls. Figure 31 shows a high -impedance voltage divider
usually in the form of a gain control in the input circuit of a vacuum tube.
This is a common type of gain control used on speech amplifier units.
Microphone fading is usually accomplished at the outputs of the pre -

amplifiers and beyond where programs originate in studios. For field
pickups the fading is in most cases accomplished directly at the outputs
of the microphones. This, of course, requires attenuators of very low
noise level. Microphones of the moving -coil dynamic and the velocity-
ribbon types have constant low -impedance output over a wide frequency
range and for this reason can be faded directly at their outputs.
The curves in Fig. 32 give resistance values of the branches of an
H-pad suitable for a channel having an impedance of 200, 500, or 600
ohms, the range of attenuation being between 2 and 30 db. Similar
curves for other impedances may be determined from the formulas
published previously.' (See also Sec. 6 of this book.)
19. Volume Indicators. The volume level of an audio signal at any
particular point in a broadcasting system is normally measured by means
of a standardized instrument called the volume indicator. The com-
ponents of the complete instrument consist essentially of a sensitive
high- resistance voltmeter of the copper oxide type, an associated T
attenuator for extending the range of the meter to higher readings, and
a variable resistor accessory to the attenuator provided for calibrating
the instrument. The instrument scale is marked in a logarithmic fashion,
and superimposed upon this is an associated percentage scale. Two
scales are provided, the A type tending to emphasize the VU readings and
the B type in which the percentage readings are more prominent.
While an oscillograph placed across the circuits at a particular point in
the system would give a true picture of the rather complex wave shapes
present from program signals, it would be a rather cumbersome and
expensive method of indicating the characteristics of the signal, although
it could be used if properly calibrated against a standard. However,
through coordination between the leading broadcasting systems and the
telephone company whose facilities were also involved, there was devel-
oped2 a standard instrument of the indicating -needle type having
characteristics most suitable for the purpose of indicating signal volume.
The standard volume indicator (Fig. 33a and 6) utilizes a d-c instrument
with a non -corrosive full -wave copper oxide rectifier mounted in its case.
Arranged for bridging, as in Fig. 33e, across a line, it has an impedance of
about 7,500 ohms measured with sinusoidal voltage. Of this impedance
3,900 ohms is in the meter and about 3,600 ohms is external for the purpose of
securing required dynamic characteristics.
The dynamic characteristics are such that if a 1,000 -cycle sine wave voltage
of an amplitude to give a steady reading of 100 on the voltage scale is suddenly
applied, the pointer will reach 99 in 0.3 sec. and then overawing the 100 point
by at least 1.0 and not more than 1.5 per cent. The frequency response of
the instrument is very good as is indicated by the fact that it does not depart
from its 1,000 -cycle reading by more than 0.5 db between 25 and 16,000 cps.
The standard volume indicator is calibrated to read 0 VU when it is
connected to a 600 -ohm resistance in which is flowing 1 mw of sine wave power
at 1,000 cps or n VU when the calibrating power is n db above 1 mw. How-
ever, owing to limitations in the present art, it has not been found practical
to make an instrument of sufficient sensitivity to be calibrated to read 0 VU
across 600 ohms with 1 mw, and therefore the instrument is normally Cali-
' JoaNsoN, K. S., "Transmission Circuits for Telephone Communication," D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc., New York; and LANTERYAN, W. F., The Design of Attenu-
ating Networks, Electronics, February, 1931.
2 CHINN, H. A., D. K. GANNETT, and R. M. MORRIS. A New Standard Volume Indi-
cator and Reference Level, Poe. I.R.E., January, 1940.
brated by the application of 1.228 volts r.m.s. (4 db above 1 mw in 600 ohms)

to the instrument in series with the proper external resistance td cause a
deflection to the 0 VU or 100 scale point. The instrument therefore has
sufficient sensitivity to be read at its normal 0 VU point on a volume level of
+4 VU, which is the minimum setting of the attenuator and volume indicator;
for this reason the 1 -mw calibration is correct.
For routine checking of the calibration of volume indicators, a "reference"
instrument properly calibrated may be used in a simple comparison method.
To the terminals of a source of a-c voltage of adjustable output, the refer-
ence- volume indicator and volume indicator to be calibrated are connected
in parallel. The attenuators of both indicators should be set at +4 VU.
The applied voltage is then adjusted until the reference-volume indicator
About
600cv,
2800a,
C Z" Calibrating
resistor
¡¡ T,-
Copper oxide
rectifier and
instrument
: ,:
30Ów : About .7900w 3A'10ohm attenuorbr
`'3900cw
About 7500w' 3900w adjustable in //sfgbs
of 2db each
t About., a
8 B00w +
Copper oxide
rectifier and
instrument
About 600a, Abou139001w - J900ohmattenuator"3900w
3900w' adjustabiein / /steps
at 2db each
b
Fta. 33.- Standard volume-indicator circuit, a, for bridging across a line; b,
low -impedance arrangement such as line termination.
pointer is at the 0 VU or 100 mark. If the pointer of the volume indicator
being checked is not then on the 100 mark, its calibration resistor should be
adjusted until it reads the same as the reference -volume indicator.
Inasmuch as the standard volume indicator has been developed and stand-
ardized as a method of checking volume of signals of complex wave shapes,
it has associated with it the term VU. This term has been restricted to its
intended use; hence, whenever a volume level reading is encountered expressed
in so many plus or minus VU, it will be understood that the reading was made
with an instrument having the characteristics of this standard instrument
and expressed with respect to the reference level. Most previous types of
volume indicators, even when recalibrated to a 1 -mw basis, will not give
indications corresponding to those of the new instrument on all types of
program waves owing to the particular characteristics of the new instrument.
20. Speech -input Amplifiers. These amplifiers are sometimes termed
preamplifiers or microphone, line, and program amplifiers. They com-
prise the apparatus necessary to increase the electrical energy output of
the microphone or transcription reproduction to a sufficient level to
permit its transfer by means of wire lines to the broadcast transmitter.
The normal energy level of programs entering the wire lines or program
loops is approximately +8 VU ( +14 VU delivered from the line amplifier
798 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (See. !1
with a 6-db isolating pad). In Fig. 34 is shown the arrangement of

preamplifiers and line amplifiers between the microphone and the wire
lines. Other equipment shown are the microphone controls, volume
indicators, monitoring amplifiers, and relay-switching systems.
Speech-input equipment is designed to have a substantially uniform
response from about 30 to 15,000 cycles and above. The maximum
gain of such a two-stage amplifier from input to output is approximately
48 db. The input impedances are 67.5/250 ohms, and the output
impedances are 25 %oo and 600 ohms.
[1-1E0
Inputó -0+/B0
Output: Gnd
l'
Fta. 34.- Microphone or preamplifier circuit.

PROGRAM RECORDING FACILITIES
The essential parts of a large broadcasting system usually include the
acilities for recording programs for the following reasons:
1. To have an accurate record or log of the program material actually
broadcasted from a station. This is known as reference recording.
2. To secure a record of a studio or special events program at some distance
over wire lines and thus be able to reproduce the program at a time most
convenient for an audience which may be in a time zone a number of hours
different from that in which the event takes place.
3. For production of recordings for use at small stations where wire line
facilities are not available.
4. The recording of an audition of a person or group of persons qualifying
for a program part.
5. Production of sound effects such as crowd noise, etc., for convenient use
and introduction into a particular program.
21. Recording Equipment. The essential equipment required for pro-
ducing high- fidelity recordings on disk records consists of the following:
For bridging a program bus by means of a multiple point switch there
is a limiting amplifier of the type similar to that described under Radio
Facilities. It is the function of this limiting device to prevent over-
cutting of the record on high peaks. Following this are duplicate
recording channels, each a program amplifier having linear amplitude
characteristics and a uniform frequency response over a wide range.

This amplifier normally has audio power- handling capabilities up to
+46 VU so that high audio peaks are not distorted before reaching the
cutter head. There is a standard volume indicator across the line
following this equalizer since the cutting head is placed after the equalizer,
the output of which drives the cutter head.
22. Methods of Recording. It is possible to secure high-quality
recording for broadcasting either by recording sound on disk records or
on film. Disk records are used most extensively in broadcasting
technique.
The principle methods of recording sound on film are more commonly
used in sound motion -picture technique at present than for radio broad-
casting. These methods include the following: (1) variable density,
which may be accomplished by using either a light valve or glow lamp;
(2) variable area, accomplished by using a galvanometer "vibrator";
(3) recording with a Kerr cell; (4) film engraving; and (5) a vibrating
ribbon (used abroad).
.I L
o too'
to) (b) to
Fla. 35. -(a) Variable -density sound track produced by light-valve ribbons
or glow lamp; (b) variable-area noiseless track produced by vibrating mirror;
(c) noiseless recording showing greater density during periods of low
modulation.
1. Variable -density Recording. The light -valve method uses a light
of constant intensity; the ribbons of the valve move in response to a
voice current and cause a sound track of variable density to be recorded
on the film. When using a glow lamp to produce a sound track, a light
source, whose intensity is varied, is focused on a film through a slit of
fixed dimensions. Sound tracks produced by these two methods are
similar. Variable-density sound tracks are shown in Fig. 35a and c.
The average density of the sound track in this case acts as a "carrier"
on which the modulations of the sound waves are recorded in less or
greater density variations than the mean.
2. Variable -area Recording. In general this is accomplished by using
a light of fixed intensity, which is modulated through the operation of a
galvanometer, or vibrator. This produces serrations on the sound -track
area of the film, as shown in Fig. 35b.
3. Recording with Kerr Cell. In this method the light -valve unit or
oscillograph unit is replaced by a Kerr cell. The appearance of the
sound track is similar to the variable-density sound track.
800 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Pee. 11
4. Film-engraving System. In this method an electric-cutting stylus

actuated by a power amplifier is used to engrave the ound record
directly on the face of the film. The position of the sound track may
be inside or outside the sprocket holes. The depth and shape of the
groove are similar to those used for cutting disk records (i.e., from 2 to
2.5 mils in depth, and 4 to 6 mils in width).
5. Vibrating -ribbon Recording. Several methods developed abroad
Fi/m make use of a vibrating ribbon to cast a fluctu-
ating shadow upon the sound track. One such
ribbon valve, developed in Soviet Russia, can
e be rotated 90 deg., so as to yield at will either
variable-area or variable-density recording.1
The RCA Photophone recorder,2 used for vari-
able-area recording, is shown in Fig. 36. Two
coils actuate the galvanometer. One carries the
voice current to be amplified; the other, a por-
tion of that current which has been rectified and
is used as bias. In the absence of modulation a
very narrow transparent line is produced down
the center of the sound track. A speech signal
causes the mirror to vibrate about a central
position determined by the bias current and
hence to reflect to the film a varying width of
the triangular aperture.
A variation of this method is push -pull record -
ing, in which the sound track carries two images
side by side but 180 deg. out of phase. The
optical system of the reproducer focuses each
recording separately on one cathode of a double-
cathode "full- wave" photocell.'
The Western Electric light -valve recorder
e consists essentially of a duralumin ribbon "hair-
Fla. 36.-Schematic pin" in a plane at right angles to a strong mag-
diagram of RCA Photo- netic field. The ribbon is approximately 6 mils
phone recorder. a, re- wide and 3i mil thick. This ribbon is stretched
cording lamp; b , by means of an adjustable spring over a bridge
condenser lens; c, tri- having a narrow slit for passage of the light
angular aperture; d, from the recording lamp through the optical sys-
lens; e, galvanometer
mirror; f, condenser tem to the film.
lens; g, mechanical slit. Setscrews are provided to center the ribbon
accurately over the slot, which is approximately
8 mils wide and 250 mils long.
The ribbon is tuned after proper spacing on the valve to 9,500 cycles
or higher, so that its natural period will be outside the range of the
frequencies being recorded. A diagram of the optical system using a
light valve for recording is shown in Fig. 38. The light source is pro-
vided by a special lamp having a horizontal filament. The lamp socket
mounting is so adjustable that the filament can be focused properly on
the light-valve slit. The sound track produced is shown in Fig. 35a.
1
Jour. Soc. Mot. Piet. Enprs., March, 1934, p. 158.
r RCA Res., October, 1936, p. 3.
Jour. Soc. Mot. Pict. Engrs.. July, 1932, p. 51.
Sea 311 RADIO BROADCASTING 801
A portion of the speech input is detoured through the noise -reduction

amplifier and used to control a bias current which flows through the
hairpin ribbon and in turn controls the ribbon spacing. The result is a
noiseless recording as shown in the lower half of Fig. 35e. The increase
in sound -print density reduces the ground noise (and consequently
increases the volume range of the record) to the extent of about 12 db.
A dialogue equalizer' is sometimes used with wide -range recording to
c- c
6'
4
a3 b'
Fta. 37.- Schematic diagram of t e galvanometer used to actuate the
mirror of Fig. 36. a, silicon -steel ar nature; h,h, silicon -steel poledamping
pieces; c,
at
voice coil; d, bias coil; e,e, non -magnate spacers; f, rubber pad for
resonance frequency (9,000 cycles) g,g air gaps; h,h, prongs providing tension
;
for galvanometer ribbon; i,i, galvanometer ribbon; k, mirror plate; m, mirror

The mirror vibrates rotationally about a center through the ribbon.
Recorder (amp
rilamenl
Fla. 38.
-1_T.
Condensing
Len Syslem
[Lehi
!Valve
.-Slit
r
(0001 "x RIS61

eLens
Optical system used in light -valve recording.

II ,,I faADgs7rF'Gttd1
reduce the 1-f response during dialogue and especially for intimate
close -ups.
23. Glow -lamp Recorder. This consists of a two-element gaseous -
discharge tube which varies its illumination in accordance with the voice
currents impressed on its circuit. This produces a variable- density
sound track similar to the light -valve track. The Aeolight, used by
Fox Film Corporation, is one of the recorders in this class. The lamp
is not focused upon the film, but a portion of its illumination is allowed
to pass through a quartz slit which is in contact with the film.
The recording level for the Aeolight is approximately +12 db above
zero reference level. All lamps have a steady d -c component impressed,
which causes them to burn at a predetermined exposure. This exposure
is modulated by an a -c component due to the introduction of voice
currents from the recording amplifier. The resulting output is a variable -
density sound track similar to that shown in Fig. 35a. The illumination
from a glow lamp is approximately proportional to the amount of current
flowing through it. within the normal recording range.
24. Sound on Disk Recording. The direct method of disk recording
utilizes aluminum disks usually 16 in. in diameter and 0.050 to 0.060 in.
thick, coated with a cellulose nitrate compound (usually miscalled
i Jour Soc. Mot. Piet. Engrg. April. 1934, p. 254.
802 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. Il
"acetate "). The cellulose nitrate coating is used as the medium for
recording sound modulations. These disks are suitable for immediate
playback.
For indirect recording it is the usual procedure to use soft wax records
approximately 17 in. in diameter and from 1 to 2 in. thick. These records
are later processed to produce a hard record approximately 16 in. in
diameter and % in. thick.
The sound record is cut in the highly polished surface of the wax disk
by means of an electromechanical recorder. The technique of cutting
wax records is similar to making standard electric phonograph records.
The standard speed for common phonograph records is 78 r.p.m., while
for broadcasting records it is usually 331-3 r.p.m. This speed with a
16 in. disk gives a playing time from 10 to 15 min.
Both types of records are cut with the spiral proceeding from the
outside edge of the record toward the center, similar to making standard
electric phonograph records.
25. Variation of Frequency Response on Disks. In recording on
a disk revolving at a constant angular velocity, the cutter stylus is placed
near the outside edge of the record, and, as the engraved spiral of the
sound track progresses toward the center of the disk, the velocity with
which the stylus travels on the disk is decreased. This velocity is
directly proportional to the radius between the center of the disk and
the position of the stylus. Now, for most satisfactory reproduction of the
higher frequencies, the stylus must travel with sufficient velocity over the
disk to provide sufficient space in the groove to permit satisfactory
engraving of the h-f pulsations of very short duration. Therefore there
is a tendency for more satisfactory engraving of the higher frequencies
near the outer edge of the disk than toward the center. In other words,
for a given cutter engraving on a disk of constant rotational speed, the
frequency response one may reproduce from a disk is more satisfactory
near the outer edge of the disk and is less satisfactory, especially to high
frequencies, as the stylus moves toward the center. For this reason, if
high- fidelity results are to he obtained, the groove containing sound
modulation should not be closer to the center of the disk record than
5 in. for 78- r.p.m. recording and 8 in. for 333- r.p.m. recording. Medium
to good results are obtained with the groove containing the sound modu-
lation at a radius on the disk of not less than 2% in. for 78- r.p.m. and
4 in. for 3335- r.p.m. recording. For a given playing time it is sometimes
possible to keep this minimum radius, cutting more grooves per inch,
sometimes as many as 160 in lateral and vertical disk engraving.
28. Lateral and Vertical Disk Engraving. In the lateral system the
groove depth is kept constant, and the engraving stylus moves in a hori-
zontal fashion to produce undulations in the sides of the groove. The
groove spacing therefore must be sufficient to prevent the stylus from
cutting into adjacent grooves at the low frequencies.
The vertical system utilizes an engraving stylus moving in a vertical
direction. The groove depth varies with the mechanical modulation,
whereas the groove width is kept more or less constant, with a result
that the groove spacing can be kept closer with a correspondingly greater
duration of playing time.
In Fig. 39 are illustrated waves produced in disk- record grooves under
conditions of "constant-amplitude" and "constant-velocity" recording.
The wave marked 1 illustrates constantamplitude engraving produced by
a constant sound level regardless of frequency at the cutter. In this case

the recorded amplitude is the same for all frequencies.
The constant -velocity system utilizes constant vibrational velocity of the
stylus in the record groove under influence of the cutter head. In this case
the amplitude of the wave is inversely proportional to the frequency. The
wave marked 2 illustrates undulations in the record groove produced by
constant- velocity recording, producing an increase in amplitude that with a
decrease in frequency for a constant sound -level input (assumingfrequency the
uniform
entire system from the microphone to the cutter head hasv /kf, the amplitude of
a
characteristic). In this instance, where amplitude =
a wave frequency J of 100 cycles would be one-half that of the 50 cycles for a
therefore,
constant velocity e. At the lowest frequencies,higher amplitudes
would be excessive if sufficient amplitudes of the frequencies are to be
/00- 200- S00, /000^, 5000 -
I I Wave Noll
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39.- Characteristic of
the constant velocity systems of recording.
produced in the record groove. Since the groove spacing would in have to be
made considerable to avoid "groove crossover" or "echo" effects adjacent
grooves, due to excessive amplitudes at the lower frequencies, itpoint
is customary
between
to cut records constant amplitude at frequencies below some
350 and 800 cycles and constant velocity for frequencies above this point.
between
This is illustrated as wave 3, a solid line. The transition frequency
constantamplitude and constant -velocity recording normally some point
selected between 350 to 1,000 cycles is called the turnover point.
To produce a constantamplitude cutting characteristic up to thetoturnover
utilize
point and a constant- velocity cutting beyond, it is necessary head used.
corrective equalizers depending upon the particular type of cuttercutter head
In sorne cases the response characteristic of the electrodynamic
itself is a contributing factor in the production of the constant -amplitude and
constant -velocity range as well as the turnover point. This is illustrated in
Fig. 40.
Commercially, direct recording has become of great importance because
of its advantages of immediate playback and cheapness when producing
disks in small quant ;ties. While the nitrocellulose coating is essentially softer
804 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. n
than the pressed records manufactured by the electroplated soft wax process,
as many playbacks as 100 may be secured from a nitrocellulose disk with a
well -designed lightweight reproducer. A substantially flat frequency
response may be recorded on, and reproduced from, these disks over a range
of between 50 and 10,000 cycles and higher near the outside portion of the
disks. It is good practice where very high -fidelity reproduction is required
on 3334- r.p.m. disks to use the outside portion of the disk to compensate for
the loss of the higher frequencies in reproducing as the pickup moves toward
the center of the disk or to divide time into two or more disks, thus permitting
reasonably high linear recording velocity of the cutter stylus. A volume
range of approximately 55 db has been obtained from nitrocellulose disks
using the lateral system of recording and reproducing. With satisfactory
operating conditions over -all distortion of the combined recording and play-
back operations is less than 5 per cent. This over-all distortion is
function of engraving velocity, decreasing as the velocity is increased,also a
also
decreasing with a decrease in engraved depth.
Flutter is a term used to describe vertical modulation produced in
recording groove due to the hounding of the cutter head at a frequency the of
approximately 30 cps. It is normally caused by mechanical response of the
recording head and its associated supporting-arm mechanism under excitation
10
,`43 -IS
-20
50 100 500 1000 5000 10,000
Frequency, cyc es per second
Fia. 40.- Frequency response of cutter head based upon optical measurement
of the stylus tip motion for constant input.
from building noise and other l -f rumble. In observing reflections from record
grooves created by a single source of light, the effects of flutter can be noticed
in the form of spokes or long spiral patterns extending from the inside over
the recorded surface to the outside. Under a microscope this vertical modu-
lation may be seen as a varying width of the cut groove. Manufacturers
supply stabilizers whieh assist in the elimination of flutter.
When recording on nitrocellulose disks, an air -suction nozzle is provided
near the cutter to remove shavings or shreds so that they will not interfere
with the engraving process and also to provide for safe disposal of this highly
inflammable material. Care must be taken to avoid dust, fingerprints, or
grit from entering the engraved surfaces of the disk. Otherwise there is a
tendency for increased noise. It is customary to engrave 120 grooves per
inch on these disks, although 96 and 112 and as high as 160 grooves per inch
have been used. This number is fixed by the lead screw of the recording
machine. The groove depth engraved on this type of disk is normally about
0.0015 to 0.002 in. Commercially, it has been possible to secure recordings
of this type having a noise level 50 to 60 db below the maximum modulated
signal, although the average record has only a 35- to 40-db spread between
noise and modulated signal. By the method explained below for processing
soft wax from which pressings are made of a hard material, nitrocellulose
disks may be similarly processed for the purpose of making a large number of
pressings.
The indirect recording method requires considerably more equipment and
time to manufacture the pressed disks than the direct method described
above. However, for mass production, pressings can be made considerably
more cheaply than single records by the direct process.
27. Necessary Equipment. Equipment necessary for wax disk record-

ing consists essentially of a machine lathe especially designed to turn the
wax record clockwise at a uniform speed, which is 3313 r.p.m. for broad-
casting work. The carriage of the lathe is driven with a lead screw care-
fully machined to move the recorder holder at a predetermined rate while
cutting the wax record. The lead screw is driven through a gear train
which regulates the number of grooves cut per inch, usually 86, 92, 98,
112, or 120. A recorder holder provides the necessary support for the
electrical recorder.
A horizontal turntable, driven through a vertical shaft, is provided
for supporting the wax record. 'l'he vibration of the driving motor is
eliminated on different lathes by various methods. The Western Electric
lathe uses an oil dashpot placed below the lathe bench, and through
which the vertical shaft of the turntable is driven. 'l'lhis dashpot pro-
vides the necessary damping to ensure smooth recording on the record.
The RCA machine utilizes a motor on a rubber isolating mounting.
The table is driven by means of a rubber roller, the shaft of which is
belt driven from the motor pulley.
The details given below refer to lateral-cut records, this being the most
common type of record that has been used for broadcasting. Vertical -
cut records are made by some studios for playback purposes. Both
types have their particular advantages.
28. Sound -recording Channel. A schematic diagram of a typical
recording setup is shown in Fig. 41 which represents a Western Electric
system.
29. Preliminary or Booster Amplifier. This amplifier (see Fig. 41)
is mounted between the mixer panel and the volume- control panel.
It is used to amplify the output of the mixer before passing through the
volume-control panel. Amplification is desired at this point to raise the
recording level sufficiently high to prevent undesirable pickup from
stray electric currents or other sources entering the voice-transmission
circuit. It also eliminates possible noise when operating the volume -
control potentiometer. This amplifier differs in detail for various sys-
tems. In the Western Electric system, it is a three -stage resistance -
coupled amplifier using three 264 -A tubes.
30. Volume -control Panel. The outputs from the individual mixer
panels are connected in parallel, and leads from them are connected to the
input of the preliminary or "booster" amplifier. The output from the
preliminary amplifier is fed into a control potentiometer, which permits
simultaneous adjustment of the total volume without changing the rela-
tive adjustments of individual mixer values. This panel also mounts
an extension volume indicator to give a visible indication of the volume
level maintained at the bridging bus.
31. Main Amplifier. This amplifier is so designated that it amplifies
the output from the volume -control potentiometer and delivers the
amplified current to the bridging bus circuit (or in simpler installations,
directly to the power-control panel and recording machine). It is the
amplifier furnishing the largest gain in the recording channel. The
main amplifier differs in details for the several recording systems. In
the Western Electric system it may he an impedance- coupled amplifier
with input and output transformers, i.e., the first stage using a Western
Electric 102-type tube and the second and third stages, 205 -type tubes.
The total gain of this amplifier is approximately 70 db. The gain
806 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. !t
control of the amplifier is provided by a potentiometer in the input
circuit. One bridging amplifier is required for each recording machine,
its principal function being to prevent variation in individual recording
circuits from introducing any loss or distortion to other circuits. It
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divides the electrical circuit output from the main amplifier, depending
upon the number of amplifiers connected to the bridging bus. It is
essentially a power amplifier, with the input transformer arranged for a
high input impedance, making the bridging of several of the amplifiers
across the main bus practical.
The bridging-amplifier outputs are connected to the film and wax

recording machines in the recording room. The wax recorder requires
approximately +8-db volume level, and the film recorder around 0 db.
32. Disk Records. The grooves of a disk record are ordinarily spaced
92 to 160 per inch. For 92 grooves per inch this allows about 0.011 in.
from center to center of the groove, of which 0.006 in. is the width of the
groove itself. The maximum lateral motion of the stylus is thus limited
to about 0.0025 in. on either side. Generally, 0.002 in. should not be
exceeded. Cutters usually used are designed as constant-velocity
devices. In practice such cutters have this characteristic only above
300 cycles or higher. Below this point the amplitude is independent of
frequency. If the maximum amplitude for a 300-cycle wave is equal to
0.002 in. on either side of the center, then a 1,500 -cycle amplitude for the
same electrical input level would be 0.0004 in.
The shape of the groove varies somewhat in commercial practice, but
it is approximately 0.006 in. wide and 0.0025 in. deep. The pitch of the
groove is generally 0.010 to 0.011 in., leaving a space between grooves of
about 0.004 in. With only this space available, the maximum safe
amplitude is something less than 0.0025 in., if the walls of the groove are
not to be cut too thin.
Cutting stylus consists of a sapphire, synthetic ruby, or other hard point
fastened to the lower end of the stylus arm. One end of the sapphire
has a rounded point about 0.002 -in. radius and a cutting angle between
86 and 88 deg. for the sides.
The advance ball is a small cylindrical sapphire, ground spherically
at one end and held in an adjustable mounting attachment to the recorder.
This ball supports the weight of the recorder, and the arm, being adjust-
able, permits regulation of the depth of the groove on the wax.
Playback reproducer is provided to permit playing back the wax
record immediately after it is cut for rehearsal work and test. This
usually renders the wax unsuitable for processing, and for this reason
two wax records are usually provided for each recording channel, one
of which can thus be used for playback and the other for processing.
The pressure of the needle on the wax is generally adjusted to between
15 and 20 g.
A needle provided for playback from the soft wax is designed differently
from the ordinary needle used for the finished hard record. The Western
Electric type has a point 0.003 -in. radius. The needle is constructed
on a mandrel, ground to a smooth finish, and the point given a chromium
plate to improve wearing quality.
Checking Speed. The periphery of the turntable is usually divided
with vertical lines, so that a neon lamp, operating from a 60-cycle source,
The
may be used as a stroboscope to observe the turntable motion.
lines on a standard turntable are usually arranged so that with the 60
cycles on the lamp, as the turntable rotates at exactly 3333 r.p.m.,
lines will appear to be stationary. If faster than 3333 r.p.m., thewilllines
will advance slowly, and, if slower than 33 r.p.m., the reverse be
the case. This check of the speed is usually made with the wax record
on the turntable.
Checking the Damping Action. A method of checking the instan-
taneous constant speed may also be used to check correct damping of the
turntable. With the turntable rotating at normal speed, the oscillator
for supplying 60 -cycle source to the neon lamp may be adjusted until
the vertical lines appear stationary. If the disk is now touched lightly
by hand, the line or spot observed will appear to shift its position owing
to momentary load. As soon as the hand is removed, the line or spot
observed should come back to its original position. Observing the
movement will determine whether the turntable has insufficient damping
or too much damping.
Determining the Starting Point. Disk records for radio broadcasting
use are cut in clockwise rotation from the outside in, similar to ordinary
phonograph disk records. To obtain a definite starting point for the
records when in use, the first Froove is spaced an appreciable distance
from the rest of the cut. This is obtained by a coarse speed cam actuat-
ing the lead screw at the start of recording. As the lead screw makes
its first complete revolution, it moves the recorder under the influence
of the eam until the recorder is in its normal cutting position.
33. Wax- suction Equipment. This equipment is provided to furnish
a means of removing the shavings from the wax record during recording.
The suction tube is so placed that the shavings thrown off by the stylus
are carried away from the face of the wax. A central suction system is
usually provided in studios having several recording channels. This
usually consists of a turbine suction pump with pipe lines leading from
a central suction point to a separator tank placed in each recording room.
In some smaller installations, an individual bell jar, with a small suction
motor, is used for each recording machine.
34. Wax Preparation. Two types of waxes are generally used in
sound recording, those having a working temperature of 75 °F., and
those with a working temperature about 90 °F. Matthews type M,
75 °F. working temperature, is perhaps most commonly used. It is
considered good practice to maintain the room temperature for the type
M wax around 75°F. when recording.
The procedure for preparing the wax consists briefly of the following
steps:
1. At the center of the wax, which is usually indicated by a cross mark, a
152-in. hole is drilled to a depth of y, in.
2. A coarse cut is made for a depth of about yá in. on one face of the wax
and repeated as necessary to obtain a perfectly flat surface. The wax is
later reversed, the first cut surface becoming the base for the finished wax.
3. On reversing the wax, a hole is cut from the other side to meet the hole
drilled on the bottom.
4. A coarse cut is now made on the top surface and repeated where neces-
sary to produce a smooth and flat surface. The wax is now ready for the
final shaving or polishing cut, which is done with a sapphire or ruby cutting
tool.
5. The face of the shaving knife is usually set at an angle of between 40
and 50 deg. to its line of travel, depending upon the particular design of the
knife. Its rounded end is toward the center of the wax. The cutting face
of the knife is set at an angle of 90 deg. to the surface of the wax. The turn-
table revolves in a counterclockwise direction.
6. The suction nozzle is placed close to the cutting knife, about 3. in. from
the front face and ;82 in. above the cutting edge.
7. The best finishing speed is usually determined by experience, but gen-
erally ranges from 150 to 160 r.p.m. The finished cut on the wax should
give a perfectly polished surface free from ripples or blemishes of any kind.
35. Record Processing. Briefly, this consists of the various steps
after obtaining the soft wax record, to produce the final hard record
for commercial use. A complete description of each step would go

beyond the limits of this section. The following are the essential steps
in this process:
1. The surface of the engraved soft wax disk is rendered conductive by
spreading a very thin, extremely fine conducting powder, such as metallic
powder, over its surface; by the finer processes of depositing silver from a
solution of silver nitrate; or by sputtering pure gold of very minute thickness
on the surface. This metal coating is for the purpose of forming one electrode
in the electroplating process.
2. Electroplating of this record with a sheet of copper 12 to 51e in. in
thickness deposited on the wax. The negative electroplate obtained is
separated from the wax and used to hot-press a molding compound, such as
shellac, mixed with a finely ground filler. The first electroplate obtained is
called a master.
3. Two test pressings are made from the first master, after which it is
electroplated with a positive.
4. From this positive, sometimes referred to as an original, a metal mold or
stamper record is made.
5. From the record, duplicate originals may be made and, from them,
duplicate molds or stampers. By thus making a number of duplicates, it is
possible to protect the original master from injury.
6. From each stamper it is possible to obtain as many as 1,000 finished
pressings.
Generally, it may be said that the duplicating process reproduces
everything on the original wax engraving to such a fine degree that
the only difference one may observe is in the materials, one soft wax,
and the other a harder, more durable plastic, composed of shellac,
vinyl, or acetate compounds mixed into a filler having very little abrasive
properties. The surface of these manufactured records is considerably
harder than the nitrocellulose coating on metal- covered disks used for
direct playback and, with a sufficiently light reproducer, will reproduce
with good quality up to 1,000 playings.
36. Re-recording. It is common practice to select desired portions of
a sound record by a process of re- recording. This is done with both disk
and film records. Either can be played on standard reproducing equip-
ment, which then serves as the input to the recording system, in place of
the microphones. Special re-recording equipment is also used; one type
consisting of a film reproducer and a film recorder combined in a single
instrument and actuated by a single motor. The output of the repro-
ducer photocell is, of course, returned to the recorder light valve in the
same casing only after it has passed through an external amplifier. This
instrument is used to copy on 16-min film a sound track that was origi-
nally recorded on 35-mm stock; optical reduction, however, is also
used for that purpose. Duplication of records and films is often called
"dubbing."
Re- recording is used to superimpose special sound "effects" upon a
record. For this purpose two or more reproducing systems are connected
as a parallel input to the recorder amplifier. The method offers superior
control over the relative volume of such sounds as gunshots, background
music, storms, etc., and, moreover, tends to reduce the cost of produc-
tion. A library of "effect" records is maintained at ninny studios.
Originals intended for re- recording are sometimes made abroad by
cutting a lateral track in discarded film, which is reported to be entirely
serviceable for this purpose and to withstand many playbacks without

damage.
37. Electrical Recording Machines. It is essential that a recording
machine of a precision type should have a constant speed. For this
reason it is usually driven by a synchronous motor. The mechanical
inertia of the revolving table assists in keeping the rotational speed
constant, the speed regulation of the disk being usually better than
0.3 per cent. It is customary to mount the driving motor on vibration
dampers in such a manner as to prevent the motor vibration from
reaching the revolving table. Vibration from the motor shaft is kept
from reaching the shaft of the revolving table either by using belt drive,
rubber differential speed rollers, or both. The spacing of the grooves
cut on the disk is controlled by gear trains and the lead screw which
moves the cutter head toward the center of the disk. The number of
grooves engraved per inch can be set by means of the gears. A suction
tube is provided for removing the shaving or thread produced while
engraving. A microscope and groove illumination lamp facilitate
examination of the engraved grooves. A playback pickup arm is
generally provided in addition to the engraving cutter mechanism to
permit playback of the record for quality checking.
38. Recording Heads or Cutters. The essential requirements of a
recording head suitable for producing high -quality recordings are as
follows: (1) freedom from amplitude distortion in producing undulations
on the disk record, (2) suitable frequency-response characteristic over a
range of 40 to 10,000 cycles to produce constant -amplitude and constant..
velocity recording over the frequency ranges required, (3) freedom from
mechanical resonance which would tend to cause overcutting, and (4)
reasonably good efficiency in transformation of complex electric wave
energy into mechanical vibration of the cutting stylus.
There are numerous types and designs of cutting heads manufactured
for recording sound on disk. The most common in present-day usage are
the electrodynamic and the piezoelectric crystal types.
Electrical recorder heads provided for disk recording are generally designed
so that the average linear velocity of the stylus (which may be expressed as
a constant X the frequency X amplitude) is proportional, over a wide
range of frequencies, to the impressed voltage, or y = kfe. The method of
damping the moving system varies with different recorde. The Western
Electric recorder uses a rubber tube about ;S in. in diameter and 8 in. long,
one end of which is fitted to the armature assembly and the other end free.
Oil is sometimes used to damp the armature movement in other types of
recorders.
A drawing of an electrodynamic type of recording cutter is shown in Fig.
42a. With a modulated current passing through the winding of this instru-
ment, the armature produces and transfers to the cutting stylus mechanical
undulations conforming with those in the electric wave, except that the
amplitude is altered somewhat by mechanical and electrical means. In Fig.
426 is illustrated the RCA MI -4887 high -fidelity recording head. This
cutter head utilizes a band -pass mechanical network terminated in a dry
mechanical resistance material. The balanced armature is centered by
means of a tempered steel spring. It is supported on knife -edge bearings
upon which the lateral stylus motion is centered. Nicaloi is used for the
pole pieces of the permanent magnet.
The frequency- response characteristic of this cutter head is shown in
Fig. 40. Below 800 cycles, frequencies are controlled to hold amplitude
constant, the stylus velocity decreasing as the frequency is reduced. Above
the 800 -cycle point the response curve shows constant-velocity motion well
over a frequency of 10,000 cycles. It is possible by electrical means to move
the turnover point in this curve from 800 cycles to a lower frequency of, say,
500 cycles if desired.
While the electrical input impedance of the cutter head itself is approxi-
mately 5 ohms, an electrical impedance compensating network can be secured
Permanent
magnet
Exciting_.
coil -- Armature
Sty/us groove
on disc
Fla. 42a.- Electrodynamic type of recording reproducer.
Armature
and spring
assemb /y
Coil
assembly
Pole piece
assembly
Needle' Sty /us

screw holder
Fro. 42b.- High-fidelity recording -head assembly.
0.23;uferach Sohn=s each
iT l i T
;q/! 2 4 S 8 718 9 lO 13 output of
recording
° amplifier
IS ohms
Fro. 43.- Circuit for correcting characteristic of recording head.
to retain the total input impedance of 15 ohms throughout a wide frequency
range. A high -quality amplifier having a power output of 10 watts or more is
recommended for driving this cutter head.
39. The Crystal Cutting Head. This type of recording head, utilizes a
5-ply bimorph Rochelle salt crystal to drive the sapphire stylus to engrave
sound waves laterally on disk records. For the constant -amplitude recording
812 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. $1
range the voltage applied to the crystal of the cutter head is normally 75
volts r.m.s., while for the constant velocity range of recording it is about 150
volts r.m.s. Since the internal impedance of the head is rather high normally,
159,000 ohms at 100 cycles, the actual power consumed by the crystal is rather
small, being less than 1 watt, although the power output recommended from
the driving amplifier is considerably more.
A corrective equalizer is required with the cutter for constant -velocity
recording above 350 cycles. Under correct operating conditions the manu-
facturer shows that this cutter has a frequency characteristic substantially
flat within ±3 db between 30 and 10,000 cycles.
A sapphire cutting stylus is recommended for use with the cutter head.
For most conditions of recording the groove depth is 0.0025 in. for cutting
soft wax and 0.0015 to 0.002 in. for nitrocellulose records.
40. Measurement of Frequency Response. By examination of the
frequency -response curves of the various component parts of a recording
system the over -all performance of the system can be checked. The
program microphones and amplifiers which feed the recording head are
measured in a conventional manner with a standard sound source, beat -
frequency oscillator, output meter, or cathode -ray oscillograph. Under
these conditions the output of the amplifier at the terminals of the cutting
head is usually flat within ± 1 db between frequencies of 40 to 10,000 cps.
The recorder cutting head, however, usually has a sloping frequency
characteristic (Fig. 40). The response of the cutting head alone has been
measured by supplying constant level tone at various frequencies to the head
and, by means of a tiny mirror attached to the stylus, reflecting a beam of
light into a phototube. It is usual practice to measure the response of the
cutter and disk material together.
This consists of making a recording of the output of a beat-frequency
oscillator held at constant voltage at the cutter terminals. Frequent es
usually recorded in order from outside to inside are as follows: 10,000, 9,000,
8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,500, 1,000, 800, 500, 300, 200,
150, 100, 80, and 50 cps. The completed record is then removed from the
turntable; and under a concentrated single source of light, the reflection of
light source as seen in the grooves shows peculiarly patterned shapes similar
to their descriptive name "Christmas tree." The pattern is symmetrical
about the radius of the disk. It is actually a graphic representation of the
frequency responses of the cutter and disk material together. The radius
of the disk is the axis of frequency, the end of the pattern nearest the center
being the lowest frequencies. The width of the pattern measured perpen-
dicular to the disk radius is proportional to the undulations of the groove.
This in lateral recording corresponds exactly to modulation depth. This
phenomenon is due to the reflection of light over a wider band, the greater the
ratio of modulated groove width to depth.
Inasmuch as good reproducing equipment usually has flat characteristics,
the Christmas tree pattern may be produced with straight sides from the
turnover frequency, of say, 500 to 7,000 cycles. Below this, it is customary to
compensate the loss of low frequencies by boosting them with electrical
filters in the reproducer. If it is noticed that pronounced peaks are in the
pattern, the cutter head may be adjusted or filters inserted to produce the
response characteristics required.
41 Record Reproducing Facilities. Transcribed programs generally
originate in studios located separately from those in which recording is
done. It is quite evident that, if full advantage is to be taken of the
high -quality program material recorded on disk records, the transcription
or reproducing equipment must also be of the precision type.
Sec. ill RADIO BROADCASTING 813
The transcription turntable is generally driven by a high-torque

synchronous motor cushion -mounted within the console or cabinet. The
motor shaft is flexibly coupled to the main turntable spindle. Speed
regulation is reduced to a very small value for both rotational speeds of
33% and 78 r.p.m. by means of flywheel inertia and a mechanical filter
on the drive shaft.
Speed reduction of the RCA type 70C turntable is accomplished by
means of a heavy-duty ball- bearing speed- reduction mechanism operated
by a button located at the rim of the turntable disk. Noise and vibra-
tion pickup is kept at a minimum by cushion-mounting the motor and
spindle housing and cushioning the suspension arms.
Special consideration is generally given to the design of a satisfactory
tone arm and reproducer head for high-fidelity reproduction. The
reproducer head must he light in weight and in pressure on the groove
of the disk. Normally the pressure exerted by the diamond point stylus
as measured by means of a spring balance or postal scale should not
exceed 2 oz. A more desirable weight is less than 13 oz. A lightweight
tone arm and reproducer head assists in the reduction of record hiss or
scratch noise and also the reduction of high frequencies especially near
the center of the disk. Lightness also assists in securing more playbacks
from a record since a lateral reproducer having a stylus which operates
too stiff or having too great a pressure on the disk tends to erase the
higher frequencies from the record groove.
Commercial reproducer heads generally utilize electrodynamic or
piezoelectric principles as electric generators to convert mechanical
force supplied by the groove modulation through the stylus assembly
to the electrical generator clement.
The RCA Mí-1858 reproducer (Fig. 42a) is equipped with a permanent
diamond point, the radius of which corresponds to the 0.0023 -in. standard for
lateral cut non -abrasive high- fidelity records. The armature is of the
clamped-reed type. The two upper air gaps are filled with non -magnetic
material and are inactive. A linkage having a 6:1 leverage ratio is pro-
vided since the armature impedance is too high to be directly coupled to the
record groove through the stylus. A diamond point is secured in the lower
end of an extremely light pivot-arm spring supported vertically but rigid
laterally. The pivot arm is thus permitted to rise without lifting the entire
head. In the direction of useful motion transmitted to the armature the
linkage has a m of compliance with a resultant cutoff of about 9,000
cps. This peak is reduced by means of a block of loaded rubber arranged as a
selective damper approximately adjusted for the resonant frequency.
A shunt capacity located within the tone arm is generally connected across
the pickup coil to react broadly with the inductance, increasing the response
through the upper frequency range. An equalizer may be placed directly
at the output of the pickup head to compensate for losses in the record
modulations.
The piezoelectric type of lateral disk- record pickup head utilizes a bimorph
crystal under torsional strain to convert mechanical modulations of the
record groove into electrical waves. The sapphire stylus used with this
reproducer is set in a small screw which fits the thread of a hollow magnesium
block. The motion of the chuck is converted into a torsional strain in a
bronze wire. This in turn conveys a twisting force to the bimorph crystal
sealed hermetically within a compartment. The e.m.f. produced at the
electrodes of the crystal is developed from the twisting force produced by
the stylus and attachment mechanism.
This type of reproducer head is normally rather light in weight, resulting
in a stylus pressure of approximately 1 oz. on the disk. It may be used for
814 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK 1Sec. I i
reproducing either constant -amplitude or constant- velocity recordings, the
type of electrical compensating network required being dependent upon the
p.rticular characteristics of the recordings.
42. The Orthacoustic System. There is a limitation in the amplitude
of the lower frequencies recorded upon a disk. This is col rected by
a sloping characteristic in the response curve below the turnover point,
brought about either mechani-
i0111I u1111 ,K^; ¡ tally in tyyhe recording head or
011111Zïd,,,,
10
«_10
MMMUUstoo1/11111
souk 11111
111111
°`d.iilIIH
11111
work. The undesisuitableenet-
needle
wo kiss is anundes limitation
hbef overcome for a satisfactor
11111 111111 11111 recording and reproducing sys-
.20
iiiilh
.111I
.1111IU1111I1I tem, well
+I0 caused by turntable and
building vibration etc.
1011111 In the RCA-NBC Orthacoustic
-20 11111
50 100
11100
11uIlln
111111111
SW 1000 2000 5000 10,000
system, recording and repproduc-
ing units are individually com-
FreQUthac`le:stic pensated to offset characteristics
Fla. 44.-Orthacousticc recording char- of each other and thus create a
acteristic which gives preemphasis to
high frequencies. reproduction
P whichic h is very
rY
nearly the equivalent of the
original sound. Below 100 cycles the characteristic of the recorder
system is made constant velocity by electric means. This tends to give
preemphasis to the low frequencies. Then it rises from 100 to 500 cycles
on a constant amplitude basis in accordance with the mechanical and
electrical characteristics of the cutter.
200 ohms 100 ohms
R
M1 75 ohms
Increase C,
to decrease _C,= 0/5,uf C2 =8pf 250 ohm
/benign amp/ fier
0
T frequencies Switch closed for new
7mh 1¡ standard o/hacoustic
pfJ 25 ohms
_
recordings.Swi/ch open
I for ordinary recordings
This condenser norma//y
located within the
M!1856 lone arm
Fla. 45.-Compensation filter for Orthacoustic repróducer.
Above 500 cycles a preemphasis above a constant velocity is given
to the high frequencies especially over the noise frequency range.
The necessary characteristic for reproduction is the inverse of this
curve, or Fig. 44, secured by electrical and mechanical means, especially
those of the transcription head itself (see Reproducer or Playback
System). An over -all response curve is produced which is flat over the
desired range.
43. Wire Lines. Wire telephone systems are employed almost exclu-
sively for the national distribution' of programs to the various stations
connected on a network.
The frequency band which is transmitted over long- distance program
circuits extends from about 100 cycles to about 5,000 cycles; to transmit
music with improved fidelity a wider band than the above is desirable
A few circuits are at present available which extend the band down to
30 or 50 cycles and extend the higher range by 2,000 or 3,000 cycles.
Program transmission circuits must be designed to handle wide ranges of
volume. At present the volume range is limited to some 25 or 30 db,
from about +8 VU down to about -22 VU. Obviously, since the
dynamic range of a symphony orchestra is about 60 db, the wire -line
circuit necessitates some compression of the dynamic range especially
on long network circuits.
44. Standardization of Transmitting Levels. To obtain optimum
conditions from the standpoint of noise and cross talk, it is desirable to
transmit program material into loops at as high volumes as practicable.
Telephone-company experience has demonstrated that in general +8 VU
is about the highest volume of program material that can be tolerated
in a local cable plant of the kind in which broadcasting loops are routed,
from the standpoint of interference to other circuits. In view of these
conditions, therefore, +8 VU ( +14 VU output of amplifier followed by a
6-db pad) shall be the standard volume level for transmitting to loops
in local telephone cables. This isolating pad is for the purpose of
isolating the amplifier from the telephone company loops.
RADIO FACILITIES
45. Audio -frequency Equipment. The process of transferring pro-
grams from the main control room of the studios to the broadcast trans-
mitting station is generally accompanied by a considerable reduction in
the program signal level. Attenuation caused by the wire line upon
which is added that caused by the line equalizer lowers the signal intensity
as much as 25 db. A line equalizer consists of a specially designed net-
work containing correctly proportioned values of L, R, and C. Irregulari-
ties in the wire-line frequency characteristics are smoothed out by
the equalizer to produce a uniform frequency response of the wire line
over as wide a range as practicable.
To increase the level of the incoming signals to a sufficient intensity
to drive the first tube of the speech amplifier of a broadcasting trans-
mitter, a line amplifier is required. This amplifier is usually of a high -
quality limiting type having sufficient gain to raise the audio program
signal to a level of approximately +15 VU. At this level it enters the
first speech- amplifier stage. The line equalizers, line amplifiers, variable
attenuators, volume indicators, monitoring amplifiers, microphone for
making local announcements, together with their switching equipment
and jack panels, are normally mounted on racks in a shielded room
called the control room. The shielding consists of an outside -grounded
copper screen containing within it a floating copper screen.
46. Limiting Amplifier. A special type of amplifier normally used in
the speech -input layout at the broadcasting transmitter is of the com-
CLARE, A. B., Wire Line Systeme for National Broadcasting, PrOc. I.R.E., 17, 1998,
November, 1929.
pressing or limiting type. This amplifier automatically reduces the

channel gain whenever the program peaks become excessively high.
Thus it tends to prevent overmodulation. As a result, distortion due
to transmitter overmodulation can he avoided while at the same time
the average modulation can be raised with a corresponding audio power
gain at the receiver. This is noticeable especially at low passages of
program material where background noise may become objectionable.
By rectifying a small portion of the program signal output, a bias
voltage control is provided on a program signal amplifier. This action
does not just cut off the program peaks, but it reduces the gain and then
allows it to again rise slowly to normal.
Aleler
6K7 ,(Gainrtduc /ion) B9
Oulpulamit-
Mehr
(VI)
6)ngk mu/!/ perpose
mehr on pane/
serves for a//
functions indicated
2.5a.
4c B B
Flo. 46.- Simplified schematic diagram of RCA 96A limiting amplifier.
The signal voltage is amplified and then rectified in a diode with a result
that a variable d -c bias voltage appears across a resistor in series with the
bias voltage to the grids of the first stage of the amplifier. With an increasing
signal, the bias becomes more negative and the output of the amplifier is
reduced. This action does not occur, however, until the audio signal level
applied to the control tube exceeds the fixed bias of this tube.
A potentiometer across the secondary of the input transformer is utilized
as a variable -input control from which the corresponding input level at which
the compression takes effect is varied. Owing to the high gain of the amplifier
(58 db), the beginning of the compression may be as low as -40 VU. Pro-
vision is also supplied for adjustment of the output of the amplifier by means
of a potentiometer in the input of the second amplifier stage. By means of
this control the output level can be set anywhere within the range of -10 VU
to +18 VU.
To compress sudden peaks of the program wave, the control circuit must
function very quickly. The time constant of the circuits involved is such
that the reduction in gain occurs in 0.001 sec. To prevent the gain from
fluctuating at low audio or syllabic frequencies, there is a slow discharge or
delay circuit provided to allow the compression bias voltage applied to the
grids of the tubes in the first stage to leak off slowly and return the amplifier
gain to normal in about 7 sec. This delay has been set by actual listening
teste to prevent introduction of distortior or destroy speech inflections.
Sec. !ti RADIO BROADCASTING 817
The amplifier has an output of +29 VU with 18 VU compression. The

frequency response is flat within +1 db from 30 to 10,000 cps.
47. Program monitoring facilities are a very essential part of broad-
cast station equipment. In broadcasting technique, program monitor
audio refers to a monitoring check on the audio signal input to the
transmitter, whereas program monitor radio refers to a check on the
demodulated signal secured by rectification of the carrier envelope as
produced at the broadcast transmitter output. By switching from the
input signal to that produced by rectification of the modulated trans-
mitter carrier, the station personnel can determine by listening tests and
measurements the relative amount of distortion produced in the broad-
casting station equipment. For monitoring the outgoing program the
personnel normally listens to the program monitor radio as produced
by demodulation of the signal at the antenna system. This ensures that
all portions of the audio and radio transmitting equipment, as well as
the antenna system, are functioning. This is indicated by monitoring
loud -speakers or oscillographs.
Facilities for program monitoring are provided in a room suitably
constructed and acoustically treated to provide a favorable place for
listening tests in the judgment of quality. This may be either the
transmitter room itself or an adjoining room called the control room
836 836 836 836
Antenna
pickup
Audio
Remote Carrier
antenna
meter
- 220v A -C on re /ay
Fin. 47.- Antenna monitoring rectifier circuit.

where the speech input is normally located. The equipment for moni-
toring the audio signal consists of high -quality audio amplifiers, the gain
of which can be regulated for proper signal volume; high -quality loud-
speakers; and associated switching equipment. The frequency response
of the entire system should be flat over a range of between 30 to 12,000
cps and higher. Additional to this equipment for program monitoring
radio is a well- designed monitoring rectifier capable of demodulating the
carrier signal as picked up at either the output tank circuit of the radio
transmitter or at the antenna, preferably the latter.
Schematic diagrams of two types of antenna monitoring rectifiers, shown
in Figs. 47 and 48, illustrate single -ended and push -pull types, respectively.
These rectifiers are equipped with circuits enabling them to be used as the
remote antenna current-meter rectifier, to close a carrier -on relay or time-
outage clock relay as well as the monitoring signal for oscillograph or loud-
speaker. In coupling such rectifiers as shown to an antenna circuit, pre-
7557, Pickup
inductance
RFC RFC
836 836
k
Signa/ for/ransmitker
J
room monitoring
Toremote antenna
meter time outage
l/Ov clock, relay, etc.
60", 0.002pf
Ac
Fia. 48.- Push -pull antenna monitoring rectifier.
cautions are usually taken to prevent the generation of even and odd r -f
harmonics into the antenna circuit as produced by rectification. Under
certain conditions such harmonic
generation and radiation from the
antenna system may create inter-
.100
R= ference on the harmonic frequen-
Fi':
cies. For this reason, the push -pull
ñ600 AM type when inductively coupled to
a high current point of the antenna
system has considerable advantage
ñ soo over single -ended types, in that
even harmonics are not as
pronounced.
E
áa00 For rectifying the envelope of a
carrier wave to secure a signal for
loud-speaker monitoring or for
modulation measurements with an
oscillogruph, it is essential that the
200
100
w J
áy
ryepbh i
...srtld
Nw7.2ineardy
42ccurshere Stolle
11"141
ChomckràtK RCA SV4G

linearity characteristics of the
monitoring rectifier between
the impressed voltage and the plate
current is substantially straight
throughout the operating range.
The unit must also have a uniform
50 100 200
150
Plate current, tp
250 300 350
frequency -response characteristic
to provide reproduction of the sig-
F> a. 49.- Characteristics of monitoring nal without frequency distortion.
rectifier. (i, refers to total plate current Diode rectifier tubes are used ex-
of two tubes.) tensively for monitoring radio tele-
phone signals. As an individual element of the monitoring rectifier, the diode
Sec. $11 RADIO BROADCASTING 8?9
itself is not a linear device since the internal resistance of the diode decreases
as the anode voltage is increased. The selection of diode tubes having low
internal voltage drop and the introduction of sufficient resistance in the plate
circuit are required in the design of a monitoring rectifier of satisfactory linear
characteristics. Linearity may be further improved .eby application of a
constant positive bias in the plate circuit so that the diode draws steady plate
current over the most non -linear lower portions of the curves. In Fig. 49
these design features are illustrated for a 5V4G diode, which is a particularly
good type for monitoring rectifier use due to its low internal voltage drop.
Tubes 9f higher inverse peak voltage are often required for rectifiers of higher
Fia. 50.- Circuit of frequency monitor.

power handling characteristics and to withstand voltage surges (such as those
caused by lightning) from an antenna circuit.
The percentage distortion of a rectifier may be approximately calculated
from the dynamic characteristic by using a similar formula to that used in
calculating percentage distortion of three -element tubes as audio amplifiers.
48. Frequency Monitor. This instrument is required at a radio broad.
casting station for the purpose of measuring the carrier frequency
deviation of the transmitter. The FCC rules under Sec. 3.59 state that
the operating frequency of each broadcasting station shall be maintained
within 50 cycles of the assigned frequency until Jan. 1, 1940; thereafter
the frequency of each new station or each station where the new transmit-
ter is installed shall be maintained within 20 cycles of assigned frequency;
and after Jan. 1, 1942, the frequency of all stations shall be maintained
within 20 cycles of the assigned frequency. Under Sec. 3.60 (FCC rules)
820 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. Si
the frequency monitor is subject to FCC1 approval and must have a

stability and accuracy of at least 5 p.p.m.
The frequency monitor type EX 4180 (Fig. 50) is an approved type and
operates within the limits specified. The instrument contains a frequency with a
standard oscillator utilizing an accurate quartz crystal togetherstability.
27 tube operating in a special circuit having excellent frequency
This precision oscillator drives a 24 buffer amplifier stage with very light
coupling between them. The output of the buffer is coupled to the grid of
a power detector stage. A few watts of r -f carrier energy, picked up from the
broadcasting transmitter at some stage below the one modulated,grid is capaci-
tively coupled to the mixing potentiometer connected to the of the
detector.
Inasmuch as the standard crystal oscillator stage is adjusted todetector a fre-
quency 500 cycles from the carrier frequency of the transmitter, theamplified
produces in its plate circuit a 500 -cycle beat note. This is in turn
by a 47 stage to a sufficient level to operate an indicating frequency meter.
Alarm
76
64 885 contact
I-V
4111 111416meglipri
G- I TU
IN
V3
115V
Rare
60
Fie. 51.- Schematic diagram of RCA 66A modulation monitor.

This meter, indicating directly any frequency from 450 to 550 cycles, has a
scale calibrated from 0 to -50 cycles and to +50 cycles. With the instru-
ment calibrated exactly from an approved measuring station, the transmitter,
when operating on exactly its assigned frequency, will cause the meter to
read zero deviation. A negative or positive drift of the carrier is indicated
by direct reading of the instrument. The electrical elements and circuits
of the oscillator, amplifier, and detector stages are containedthis in a constant
temperature cabinet at about 50 °C. Containedat within cabinet is
another containing the quartz crystal which is kept a constant temperature
of about 60 °C.
49. Modulation Monitor. Section 3.55 of the FCC rules requires that
each broadcasting station shall have an approved modulation monitor in
of the
operation at the transmitter to measure the degree of modulation
transmitter and for furnishing instant warning when the degree of
modulation exceeds a selected specified value.
t "Rules and Regulations and Standards Applicable to
Standard Broadcast Stations
as Promulgated by Federal Communications Commission," Broadcasting National
sale by Superintendent of Documents,
Press Building, Washington, D. C. Also for D. C.
,
U. 8. Government Printing Office, Washington,

Soc. 211 RADIO BROADCASTING 821
Referring to Fig. 51 illustrating circuits of a modulation monitor, the

modulated r -f signal to be monitored impressed across diode tube 1 -V is thus
rectified. The resultant rectified pulsating d.c. flows in diode load resistor
R2, R. The average value of d.c. is indicated on the carrier meter. This
is proportional to the average carrier voltage. The average component
of voltage across this load resistor excites two indicating devices- (1) the
meter M2 calibrated to read modulation percentage and decibels directly
and (2) a flasher and alarm circuit for providing a warning when the degree
of modulation is exceeded.
The modulation indicating meter is excited in the following manner: The
audio component secured from the first diode is rectified by the second 76
diode detector tube and charges condenser Cs. The voltage across this
condenser is impressed across the grid circuit of the 76 vacuum -tube voltmeter
stage which has the indicating meter Mx in its cathode circuit. Circuit
constants are made such in this instrument that the a-f peaks on the r -f
carrier are as indicated by meter M5. The neon flasher is operated by the
relay tube, an 885, which is in turn driven from the first 76 tube under the
same audio component from the tube 1 -V that is used for operating the indi-
cator meter system. If desired, the instrument may be used to operate an
auxiliary alarm when the modulation peaks rise to an excessive value.
Modulation indicators are usually calibrated by means of a pure sine wave
modulating signal applied to an accurate cathode -ray oscillograph and checked
against the indicator. The frequency response must necessarily be flat over
the audio range used to ensure accuracy of measurement over the range.
According to Sec. 3.55 of the FCC rules, a license of a broadcast station
will not be authorized to operate a transmitter unless it is capable of delivering
satisfactorily the authorized power with a modulation of at least 85 per cent.
When the transmitter is operated with 85 per cent modulation, not over
10 per cent combined a -f harmonics shall be generated. Under Sec. 3.46
(FCC rules) design recommendations call for the total a-f distortion from
microphone terminals, including microphone amplifier, to antenna output
should not exceed 5 per cent harmonics (voltage measurements) when
modulating from 0 to 84 per cent and not over 7.5 per cent harmonics (voltage
measurements of arithmetic sum) when modulating 85 to 95 per cent (distor-
tion shall be measured with modulating frequencies of 50, 100, 400, 1,000,
5,000, and 7,500 cycles up to the tenth harmonic or 16,000 cycles or any
intermediate frequency that readings on these frequencies indicate is
desirable).
The operating percentage of modulation of all stations is normally main-
tained as high as is possibly consistent with good quality transmission and
good broadcast practice.
RADIO BROADCASTING TRANSMITTERS
Production of a broadcasting signal that will afford a means for con-
veying speech and music to the receiving set of a broadcast listener
involves the generation of a constant r-f carrier upon which there are
superimposed audio frequencies, the intensities of which conform as
nearly as possible with those contained in the sound produced in the
studio. The production of such a signal may be accomplished by
several methods' of modulation.
In American broadcasting technique the amplitude system of modula-
tion is used exclusively in the present standard broadcasting band of
550 to 1,600 kc. The advantage of a.m. for transmission in this band
lies in the production of a modulation envelope containing but a single
pair of side bands, thus permitting station channel separation of 10 kc.
I Rooms, HANS, Amplitude, Phase and Frequency Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., 19,
2145, December, 1931.
Compared to the a -m system, the phase and frequency methods of

modulation produce an infinite number of side hands. It is evident that
greater channel separation is needed and for this reason f-m stations have
been assigned to the u-h -f part of the spectrum.
The primary requisites of a radio transmitter satisfactory to operate under
the present rules of the FCC for producing radio broadcasting signals are
as follows:
1. Satisfactory carrier frequency stability well within the allowable FCC
tolerance of ±20 cps maximum deviation.
2. Amplitude and frequency characteristics providing low over-all signal
distortion.
3. Suitable safety devices to avoid hazards to operating personnel and
electrical circuits and equipment complying with the National Electric Code.
4. Minimum carrier noise level, approved electrical metering facilities;
minimum r-f harmonic frequency power output; and freedom from parasitic
frequency emissions.
5. Low operating costs requiring an over -all high operating efficiency with
respect to power input, low approved power tube operating expenses, and
low expenses for operating personnel.
6. Durability, simplification of adjustment, and maintenance (requiring
accessibility for repairs).
7. Reliability of service providing for continuous operation with a mini-
mum of interruptions at rated carrier power output, modulated within legal
limits.
8. Satisfactory dimensions for given power output providing for minimum
installation and building costs.
9. Low initial transmitter and installation costs.
10. A pleasing appearance. and
A recent trend is toward transmitters having high-level modulated
high -efficiency linear power amplifiers for the purpose of producing the desired
high -quality broadcasting signal with a minimum of operating expense.
50. Typical Transmitting Equipment. In Fig. 52 is illustrated a
simplified diagram of a radio broadcasting transmitter of known recent design
rated at 5-kw carrier power output. It is commercially as the
RCA type 5 DX.
well
The emitted carrier frequency of this radio transmitter is maintained
oscillator unit.
within a tolerance of ± 20 cycles by a crystal- controlled deviation of not more
The present FCC regulations provide for a frequency effective Jan. 1, 1942,
than ±20 cycles for all newly licensed stations and, through the development
for all broadcast stations. This is accomplished of about 1 part in
of V -cut quartz crystals having a temperature coefficient is surrounded
1,000,000 per degree centigrade. The mounting of the crystal thermostat. The
by a heater in close thermal contact with the bimetallic compensated and
effects of changes in the ambient temperature are thusThere is no tuned
the crystal is maintained at constant temperature.
circuit. Thus it is effectively
circuit associated with the crystal input
"electron coupled" to the output. A small trimmer capacitor is provided
in shunt with the crystal to adjust it to "zero beat" or exactly to the desired
carrier frequency. a spare, which may be
Two crystal oscillator units are provided, one being of the crystal oscillator
switched into use instantaneously. The output power 802 buffer, an
in use is amplified to the full 5-kw carrier output by a single
push -pull 805 inter-
intermediate stage utilizing an 805 tube to the drive the
mediate power amplifier stage. This drives 892R power amplifier stage.
The modulated power amplifier is adjusted for stage plate-modulated class C r-f
operation. The output of the power- amplifier is normally conveyed
to the antenna by means of a concentric or fourcontent -wire open transmission line

through network circuits reducing r -f harmonic to a very low value.
The transmitter utilizes high-level modulation, i.e., the 892 it stage is
plate- modulated by a push -pull stage containing two 891R tubes. The
modulator tubes are biased for class B audio operation for the purpose of
securing high efficiency. The modulator is coupled by means of a modu-
lation transformer to the plate supply voltage of the modulated amplifier.
The modulator tubes are driven through an input transformer by 845 tubes
operated push -pull as class A audio amplifiers. The 807 and 1603 stages
are also operated as class A audio amplifiers.
Elaborate precautions have been taken in the design of the characteristic audio stages
to control the phase rotation with respect to the frequency applied. All
in those circuits to which degenerative feedback has been have a minimum
circuit elements, especially the audio transformers, must
of phase shift over the a-f range to realize advantages from the application across
of degenerative feedback. As illustrated in Fig. 52, a potentiometer
the primary of the modulation transformer provides system. a signal voltage that is
introduced out of phase into the input of the audio Hum or noise
modulation transformer
generated in the r-f power amplifier appears across the amplifier
and is thus also introduced out of phase to the speech is very low. input. There-
fore, with regeneration, the over-all carrier noise level Measure-
ments indicate this to be 65 to 70 db below the signal level of 100 per cent
modulation. The amplitude distortion is maintained 30bytothis system well
below 3 per cent r.m.s. over the a-f range of between is substantially 10,000 cps, and
flat
the over-all frequency response of this transmitter
within 1 db over this audio range. simplicity
Features of this transmitter which merit considerationforareallitstubes, thus
brought about through the use of a -c filamentpoints supply
eliminating filament motor -generator sets. This toward a considerable
saving in power and vacuum -tube operating costs as well as on transmitter
space requirements and initial installation costs. Reduction of carrier noise
level of this transmitter to an extremely low level is accomplished through the
use of indirectly heated cathodes of tubes in the low -level stages and the use
of degenerative feedback. The transmitter requires no water- cooling system
since all power tubes are air -cooled. by the power
A very small portion of the modulated r-f power produced
amplifier is introduced with proper phase rotation into the first audio stage
of the transmitter to reduce carrier hum and noise. Design features require
minimum phase shift in all circuits involved to permit satisfactory operation
of this system of reducing carrier noise and envelope distortion.for use during
A transmitter is normally supplied with a phantom antenna
transmitter warm -up and test periods. Switches are provided for trans-
ferring r -f carrier power from the output stage of theistransmitter to either the
radiating antenna or the phantom. The latter designed to act as an
impedance of the
effective resistance -load equivalent to the characteristic 75 kw of r -f
transmission line. It must necessarily be capable of dissipating
energy in a 50-kw transmitter when modulated 100 per cent with a sustained
audio signal having sinusoidal wave shape. Electric 4058 -1 5-kw
Figure 53 illustrates a simplified circuit of a Western low-level grid -bias modu-
transmitter. The modulation system consists of astage for the high -efficiency
lation applied to the Western Electric 241 -B driver amount audio power
power amplifier output stage. In view of the smallthe audio of and modulator
requirements from the modulator for this system, feedback is utilized
stages are quite simple and of low power. Stabilized
between the power amplifier stage and the first audio stage to reduce over-all
distortion and carrier noise. l'he value of r -m-s a -f harmonic distortion over
the range from 40 to 5,000 cps is less thancent 2 per cent at 85 per cent modu-
lation and less than 3 per cent at 100 per modulation. The r -m -s noise
level is normally 60 db below a signal produced 1 by a 100 per cent modulated
cps.
carrier. The frequency response is flat within db from 30 to 10,000
The over-all efficiency is about 15 kw for carrier only, 16 kw for the

average program, and 19.5 kw for 100 per cent modulation from a single
sinusoidal frequency.
51. International Broadcasting. Transmitters for this service are
operated at high frequencies and for this reason are considerably different
in design from transmitters operated in the 550 -kc to 1,600 -kc hand.
They are used with directive antennas having a power gain of 10 or more,
and have carrier powers up to 50 kw 100 per cent modulated.
THE R -F CIRCUITS
6,t. Radio -frequency Amplifier Neutralization. One of the essential
adjustments in an r-f amplifier circuit to obtain stability and prevent
self- oscillation is accomplished through neutralizing the electrostatic
capacitance of the grid -to-plate electrodes in the triode power tubes.
For the purpose of neutralizing an amplifier stage such as the r-f amplifiers
shown in Fig. 52, first remove plate voltage from it and apply normal r -f
excitation to the grid circuit. Tune the grid circuit to resonance in the usual
manner. Next connect a low -power (5- to 10-watt) high -resistance lamp
across one or two turns of the plate tank inductance. The leads to the lamp
should be very short and provided with clips for convenience. Next tune the
plate tank circuit to resonance with the grid exciting voltage frequency as
indicated by maximum brilliance of the lamp. It is to be noted that the
circulating current in the plate tank circuit which lights this lamp includes the
coupling effect of the grid -plate capacitance of the tube.
The neutralizing voltage of opposite polarity is obtained by connecting
to the opposite end of the grid or plate tank circuits, as the case may be.
The magnitude of the voltage used to neutralize the grid -plate capacity
current is regulated now by adjusting a neutralizing condenser. As the
neutralizing condenser is varied, the lamp will change brilliancy, and, when
correct balance is obtained, the lamp will be at practically zero brilliancy.
As neutralizing capacitance is changed, some slight corrections in plate -
tank tuning and in grid tuning may be necessary, due to interactions of these
two circuits. Always tune to resonance by maximum lamp' brilliancy and
neutralize for minimum brilliancy.
When best results are obtained by the lamp method, remove it from the
plate coil, and, if more accurate adjustment is required, a low range r -f
ammeter should be inserted in series with the tank circuit. By using a
meter, maximum accuracy is obtained by tuning the circuit to obtain absolute
minimum current:
Since the effect of coupling between successive stages greatly affects the
neutralizing, the adjustment should be made with all circuit conditions and
couplings as nearly final as possible.
The power -amplifier circuit in Fig. 53 is equipped with an entirely different
neutralizing system. This consists of an effective inductance shunting the
interelectrode grid -to -plate capacity of the power tube. Suitable d-c blocking
capacitors are provided to prevent the plate voltage from reaching the grid
through this neutralizing inductance.
Neutralizing adjustments with this shunt inductance may be accomplished
with a high resistance lamp or thermo-milliammeter attached to the output
tank circuit in touch the same manner as was described for capacitor neutrali-
zation except that neutralization is accomplished by adjustment of the shunt
inductance. This system has great advantages over the neutralizing capaci-
tor method especially where it is desirable to keep circuit tank capacity and
the corresponding kva /kw ratio to a low value. This is the case where
stabilized degenerative feedback is applied through an amplifier stage wherein
a minimum phase rotation with frequency is required.
Sec. 21) RADIO BROADCASTING 827
53. Class B Linear R -f Amplifiers. The operation of a push -pull

class B r-f amplifier may be understood by a study of Fig. 54. Here it is
shown that plate current drawn by the tubes is very closely, a linear
function of the grid -voltage swing. The associated output -circuit loading
is adjusted so as to realize from the tube a maximum conversion efficiency.
Some curves showing how plate-current efficiency varies with effective
Tube A-
Actua/p /ate current

for tubeA
Resu/tan/average
i -taiia plate current ied to
Tube 1-t
B . rl LrT h -- tank arcuitis
i reproduction of
Acfúalplate grid voltage save
current
S2 for tube B
Grid eerctii7g
voltage wave
-Bias (optimum)
-
Fla. 54.- Theoretical curves showing push -pull class B r -f amplifier operation.
75
70
tú 65
60
0.55
c 50
ú 45
40
35
p
33000 5000 7000 9000 11,000 13,000 15,000 17,000 19,000
p ohms
E
!p
Fla. 55. -Load characteristic curves of two RCA 892 power amplifier tubes.
load impedance are shown in Fig. 55. The crest position on these curves
depends upon the tube characteristics and the power factor of the circuit
into which it operates. These curves were taken at a broadcast fre-
quency by varying the load upon the output circuit of a linear amplifier
stage and measuring the efficiency of the stage at various d -c plate
voltages.
Under conditions where the conversion efficiency is a linear function
of the grid swing, the power output is necessarily proportional to the
828 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. !1
square of the grid swing. Hence the peak power output at 100 per
cent modulation is four times that at which the modulation is zero.
The steady power output under conditions of sustained 100 per cent
modulation is 1.5 times the output of zero modulation. Therefore, in
considering power-tube requirements for a class B linear-amplifier stage,
provision must be made with respect to filament emission and plate
dissipation so that the tubes are capable of supplying peak power outputs
of four times that of the nominal carrier -power output rating of the
transmitter. This assumes that the modulation capability of the
transmitter is 100 per cent.
In adjusting a push -pull linear amplifier, both sides of the circuit must
necessarily have very nearly identical operating conditions with respect to
grid swing and circuit adjustment, so that equal plate currents are measured
on the individual tubes identified as A and B in Fig. 54. The grid -bias
adjustment depends necessarily directly upon the plate voltage used since the
position of the characteristic curve is moved with each corresponding change
in plate voltage.
As illustrated in Fig. 54, with a simple triangular wave form, the method of
determining optimum grid bias depends upon the point where an extension
of the straight portion of the curve intersects the horizontal axis. Both
dynamic curves of tubes A and B have their straight portions in direct
alignment. Distortion due to the lower bend in each characteristic curve is
averaged out together with the kva /kw inertia effect in the output -tank cir-
cuit. On the other hand, it is illustrated in the curves that, for maximum
modulation peaks with output increasing as the excitation voltage is increased,
there is a limit to the output as represented by the upper bends, points SI
and S,, on the curves where the tube saturation points begin.
Linearity is therefore dependent upon grid bias, grid -exciting voltage, and
output-tank loading. The procedure for setting taps for correct output-tank
loading consists of first saturating the grids of the amplifier tubes with
sufficient r -f grid driving power. Then with one-half normal, class B r -f
operating plate voltage applied, the amplifier is loaded until it delivers rated
carrier power normally to the antenna, the plate efficiency being usually
between 65 to 70 per cent. Then the grid -exciting voltage is reduced (usually
by means of grid-loading resistors) until the amplifier stage with full plate
voltage applied delivers the same rated carrier output with a corresponding
plate efficiency of very nearly 35 per cent. This is the plate efficiency for a
class B r -f amplifier as specified by Sec. 3.52 of the FCC rules in the deter-
mination of carrier output power by the indirect method. Under this same
section the plate efficiency for plate -modulated class C r -f operation of the
last radio stage as measured by the indirect method is 70 per cent for trans-
mitters having carrier power output up to 1 kw and 80 per cent for 5 kw and
over.
54. High-efficiency linear -power amplifiers are a result of work to
reduce the expense for operating power of broadcasting transmitters of
5-kw carrier output and above. The limitations of the class B r-f
linear amplifier as previously discussed illustrate that for satisfactory
operation of this system the plate power efficiency ranges from 30 to
35 per cent for the stage. Considering the driver and modulator stages
and the transmitter auxiliaries, with this system the over-all efficiency
from power mains to carrier power output may range from 20 to 25 per
cent. The high -efficiency amplifier circuit' provides a plate operating
efficiency of as high as from 60 to 65 per cent to be realized from a linear-
power amplifier.
DOHERTY, W. H., A New High Efficiency Linear Amplifier for Modulated Waves,
Prot. I.R.E., September, 1936.
See. Hl RADIO BROADCASTING 829
The amplifier circuit (Fig. 56) has been divided in block form into individual
units. Voltages at points in the circuit are as indicated by symbols
Es, E3, and Eo. The exciting voltage Er passes into two branches. The one
E,, E
leads into a negative 90 -deg. phase -shifting circuit, thus transforming it to the
proper amplitude for grid excitation of the carrier amplifier tube. This grid
voltage ER is amplified by the carrier tube, the a -c components of plate
voltage becoming El (180 deg. out of phase with E2). The output voltage Ei
in passing through the impedance-inverting network shown has its phase
retarded an additional 90 deg. at the output of the network. Therefore, in
+/B0..
Ei
Ez
Fou. 56.-Block diagram of high -effi- Fin. 57. -Phase relations in high-
ciency power amplifier. efficiency amplifier.
Amp/ifiéd currentand w//age emehpes
E
A B 'Pc
1 ; 1
-ÿ
_
l
_ i
i i
I
L=L'=
EPP
--IPP
FIG. 58.- Amplifier operating characteristics.

turning through 360 deg. in this path, the resultant Eo is in phase with the
exciting voltage L. In the lower branch of the circuit the 180-deg. phase
reversal of Er in passing through the grid network and the phase reversal
produced in passing through the peak amplifier tube results in a correct phase
of Eo at the load. The phase shifts may be further clarified by the vector
diagram of Fig. 57, where the output voltage produced by both the carrier and
peak tube are illustrated as acting in phase to produce Eo at the load.
Figure 58 illustrates in graphical form the theoretical individual and com-
bined operation of the carrier and peak tube branches of the power amplifier
unit as produced by a modulated r -f exciting voltage (assuming sinusoidal
variation of r -f voltage with modulation). For the carrier amplifier tube the
r -f plate voltage rises very nearly linearly over the region O to A, flattening
off at this point due to saturation; beyond this point any increase in grid-
exciting voltage for this tube produees practically no further increase in

plate voltage. The carrier amplifier tube plate current on the other hand
rises quite linearly from O to B. Thus from O to A the operation is quite
similar to that of a class B r-f linear amplifier operating into a load impedance
of constant value; whereas from A to B there is a progressive reduction in its
plate impedance under influence of positive delivery of power from the peak
amplifier tube on upward modulation swing, as observed through the imped-
ance- inverting network and the plate- current rises. The plate voltage of the
peak amplifier tube rises linearly from O to B, where the curve flattens off
because of saturation. This tube is biased to a point where little positive
power is delivered for grid -exciting voltages below carrier amplitude A.
However, owing to coupling to the carrier amplifier tube output circuit
through the impedance -inverting network, a voltage exists in its plate circuit
during this idle stage for the tube. Therefore, a linear variation in plate
voltage for the carrier amplifier tube between O and A causes a corresponding
linear voltage variation between O and A in the plate circuit of the peak
amplifier tube because it is in parallel with the load. Owing to grid-biasing
conditions with respect to the excitation voltage for the peak amplifier tube,
appreciable plate- current flow begins when exciting voltage assumes an
amplitude greater than that necessary for an unmodulated carrier condition.
Over the region A to B, plate current rises very nearly linearly to the limit
at B. It is evident that at the crest of the modulation cycle corresponding
to B both the carrier and peak amplifier branches are delivering equal power
outputs in phase to the load.
Adjustments required for satisfactory operation of the high- efficiency power
amplifier consist of correct neutralization of the interelectrode tube capacity,
correct grid biasing of the carrier and peak amplifier tubes, adjustment of the
grid load resistors of both amplifier tubes and their grid and output tank
circuits to resonance, as well as obtaining correct phase- inverting character-
istics from the circuits involved. For the purpose of correct loading of the
amplifier into a load, the r -f transmission line should be properly terminated
to permit operation of the amplifier into a resistive load. It will he noted
that for the purpose of securing the impedance-inverting characteristics
required, a 90 -deg. phase shift is also secured. All other phase -shift net-
works are utilized to compensate for this undesired phase shift. Compen-
sation for phase shift must be effective over all useful side-band frequencies
and also at the carrier frequency. The 90 -deg. phase -shifting circuit in the
grid of the carrier amplifier tube and the 180 -deg. phase -shifting circuit in the
grid of the peak amplifier tube are utilized for compensation purposes only.
55. Stabilized degenerative feedback as applied to radio-broadcasting
transmitters reduces the audio-harmonic distortion and noise created
within the transmitter equipment, thus providing high- fidelity per-
formance. Reduction of carrier-noise level may be carried to as low as
65 db below 100 per cent modulation signal by utilizing degenerative
feedback, even with a-c applied to the filament of all tubes. The
FCC, Sec. 3.46, recommends that the carrier hum and extraneous noise
(exclusive of microphone and studio noises) level (unweighted r.s.s. i) be
at least 50 db below 100 per cent modulation for the frequency band of
150 to 5,000 cycles and at least 40 db down outside this range. Harmonic
distortion may be reduced to well below the FCC requirements, and in
some cases the measured value of r-m -s a -f harmonic distortion in the
range 50 to 5,000 cycles is less than 2 per cent at 85 per cent modulation
and less than 3 per cent at 100 per cent modulation even with a high -
efficiency power amplifier unit as a part of the system.
The application of stabilized degenerative feedback to audio amplifiers
is described in another section. A thorough treatment is also covered
1 Root sum square.
Sec. 21J RADIO BROADCASTING 831
in the literature.' In the application of degenerative feedback to the

transmitter (Fig. 52) it is evident that the principles as applied to audio
amplifiers also apply to the circuits shown.
Application of feedback to radio transmitters is, in general, more
complex than when applied to amplifiers. Theory shows that, if a
part of the output of an amplifier or radio transmitter is fed back to
the input and combined with the input signal in reverse phase, the
effective gain is reduced. However. if the signal fed back contains
noise and distortion components not present in the input signal, these
components will be amplified by the full gain of the amplifier and, in
traveling through the system to the point where they were picked up,
will tend to neutralize the distortion and noise in the system provided
that the fed-back signal is exactly 180 deg. out of phase with the input
signal and the phase shift through the system is small over the range of
the distortion frequencies. Under such conditions the distortion will
be reduced in amplitude by the amount of gain reduction.
In operating a transmitter with feedback the over-all gain of the
audio system is reduced by the amount of feedback used. For example
if 30 dh of feedback is cm' ployed and the feedback voltage is removed
suddenly by some fault, the program input will be 30 db too high, and
readjustment of the program input level must be made instantaneously
to prevent overloading. In the transmitter of Fig. 53 the feedback
voltage is secured by rectifying a small portion of the power output of
the power amplifier unit by means of a feedback rectifier designed for
minimum phase shift. This voltage is introduced into the first speech
amplifier audio stage together with the audio input signal.
With the application of degenerative feedback to cascade r -f amplifiers
it becomes extremely difficult to maintain the phase of the rectified signal
picked up at the output of the transmitter sufficiently close to the 180 -deg.
rotation required throughout the entire a-f range. Unless all networks
in the entire cascade system are correctly designed, the kva /kw ratio of
all r -f tank circuits are kept to a very low value, and stray capacities are
minimized, there is an accumulative phase shift through the feedback
loop wherein the degenerative system is active.
Under conditions where the voltage fed back to the audio input of the
transmitter after passing through the feedback loop is other than 180 deg.
out of phase with the input signal, less noise and distortion cancellation
result. This is especially true under conditions where the phase shift
of the feedback loop becomes less than 90 deg. or more than 270 deg.
At frequencies where the phase shift approaches zero and 360 deg. from
that of the input signal, stabilizing circuits are necessary to prevent
violent oscillation of the entire transmitter at these frequencies, provided,
of course, that the amplification around the loop is at least unity. These
frequencies are sometimes referred to as those at which the phase "turns
over." For the h-f turnover point, say around 25 ke, an adjustable
stabilizing filter may be utilized in one of the low -power speech amplifier
audio stages. This prevents oscillation or singing of the transmitter at
the particular high a.f. where the condition exists and for this reason is
called the "anti- sing" circuit. In addition there may he required a l -f
(below 100 cycles) stabilizing circuit in one of the low -power audio
' BLACK, H. D., Stabilized Feedback Amplifiers, Bell Swarm Tech. Jour., January,
1934.
stages to prevent oscillation at the l.f. at which another unstable condi-

tion exists.
By correct proportioning of all constants of the a-f and r -f stages and
associated networks throughout the entire section of the transmitter
containing the feedback loop and by application of the stabilization
circuits as mentioned together with careful transmitter adjustments,
an effective amount of feedback can be normally secured for cancellation
of noise and distortion.
MODULATION EQUIPMENT
58. The Speech Amplifier. An audio-amplifier unit employing power
tubes is usually necessary as the preliminary part of the audio system
of a transmitter to raise the audio-signal intensity to a sufficient amount
to swing the grids of the modulator tubes. Resistance coupling is
frequently used in speech- amplifier circuits. In Figs. 52 and 53 are
shown simplified circuit connections of typical transmitter speech
amplifiers.
Amplitude modulation provides a means for reproducing a signal
containing a distortion not exceeding a few per cent with the carrier
fully modulated. In broadcasting transmitters it can he effected by
either plate or grid modulation. When grid modulation is applied to a
power amplifier tube, either by bias- voltage or r -f grid -voltage change,
the efficiency of the power amplifier is rather low, ranging from 30 to
35 per cent. A plate-modulated radio stage operating as a class C
amplifier has a comparatively high efficiency ranging from 70 to 80 per
cent. This advantage of higher efficiency, however, is offset by the low
efficiency of the plate modulator unless a class B audio amplifier is used
for modulating. Therefore there is not much difference in the two sys-
tems, in so far as efficiency is concerned, with respect to power and
vacuum -tube costs except under conditions where modulating power for
a class C r-f output stage is supplied from a modulator of rather high
efficiency.
When the power- amplifier stage of the transmitter is plate-modulated,
the setup is called a high -level system of modulation ; whereas a transmitter
modulated in a low -power stage of the transmitter and followed by a class
B r -f power amplifier is termed the low -level system of modulation.
57. Modulators and Modulated Amplifiers. In Fig. 59 is shown a
constant- current system of modulation due to Heising.1 The modulator
and modulated amplifier are connected in parallel with a constant -current
source of supply. This is connected to the common plate lead through a
large inductance LI called the modulation choke.
The dynamic modulating characteristics can be determined with a fair
degree of accuracy from the static characteristics of the modulator tubes in a
method illustrated in Fig. 60. The modulated amplifier is assumed to be a
pure resistance load in parallel with the plate resistance of the modulator
tubes and both assumed to be supplied with power through a modulation
choke of infinite impedance. The sum of the instantaneous currents in the
amplifier and modulator in this case is a constant. An approximation is
made of the number of modulator tubes required to modulate a given r -f
amplifier. The plate- current ordinate for a single tube must be multiplied
by the number of modulator tubes before the load line BA can be plotted, the
slope in amperes per volt which depends upon the load resistance produced
I Hzz,i o, R. A., Modulation in Radio Telephony, Proc. I.R.E., 9, 365, August, 1921.
Sec. ill RADIO BROADCASTING 833
by the amplifier. Line BA was chosen for two modulator tubes operating
at 3,000 volts plate into an amplifier of 2,000 volts and 150 ma or an effective
resistance of 13,333 ohms. The mean modulator plate current /o is chosen
from allowable plate dissipation and load line BA drawn in about operating
point C. The modulator grid voltage swings from (filament voltage) HE,
to equal grid voltage on the other side of the operating point. By taking
Modulator C Moduloled AmplifS'er
C?
Rt
Fra.
1400
,e
.
600
500
1; IB
.f300 ó150
200
1CO
Oó
.gZOo
-.
1100
300
250
50
+Ea
500
_
59.- Heising constant-current
,»ssa.se f
riff,
"
;m
000
ED
I
r
ti /
I
1500
111 ;
I
2000 2500
Plot Volts
Fia. 60.- Method of determining modulator characteristics.
'
modulator and equivalent.
Ic
i...._,
3000
Eo
;
E¡= // VoNs A-C
3500 4000
ti
4500 5000 5500

LA
readings of plate current and voltage from end points of the load line, the
f allowing information becomes available:
EA Es
Modulation factor 2E0
where EA = maximum plate -voltage swing
Es = minimum plate- voltage swing
Eo = d-c plate voltage at operating point C.
's(1A + la) lo
Per cent 2nd harmonic distortion (Ja IA)
X 100
where IA = maximum plate-current swing
Is = minimum plate-current swing
Io = plate current at operating point C.
Power output in watts = 3s (EA Ea) (Is IA)
58. Design for High Audio Fidelity. In the design of the modulated
amplifier circuit of the above system certain elements of the circuit must
be properly proportioned to afford a uniform frequency characteristic.
The capacitance of CI (Fig. 59) should be large enough so that its imped-
834 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. H
ance at the lowest frequency to be transmitted is less than one -third of
R, or the plate -dropping resistor.
The capacitor C2 provides an r-f path from plate to filament of the
amplifier tube and at the same time breaks the path for the d.c. It
must also break the path for higher frequency a -f current and permit
it to flow through the amplifier tube. It should, therefore, be no larger
than necessary to conduct the r-f plate current without producing exces-
sive phase shift in the plate current under conditions where C2 is less
than 2C,.
Sufficient impedance of the modulation choke over the a -f range is
100
another important factor in cir-
cuit design. Its impedance at
90
80
G °0 i
the lowest a.f. should be at least
two times the effective resistance
load produced by the r-f amplifier
tube. The choke should be free
inherent self- capacitance
ó /c,0
defects over the frequency range
oe 60 to maintain a sufficiently uniform
50 high impedance at the higher
frequencies.
40 High- quality signal reproduc-
8 tion requires that amplitude dis-
30 tortion should be kept at a
PO minimum. A common cause of
amplitude distortion is due to
IO underexcitation of the grid of a
0
modulated amplifier tube when
0 0.4 0.8 12 1.6 2.0 plate modulation is applied.
24 28 32 3.6
Peak Volts This results in insufficient dciv-
Fta. 61.- Amplitude curves taken on in village during periodsof high
a modulated amplifier. Curve A taken plate- voltage swing and conse-
on stage with sufficient driving power (Ila fitly peak -output limiting.
applied to saturate grid. This shows Trouble from this cause shows
negligible amplitude distortion. Curve up quite clearly upon an ampli-
B taken on stage with insufficient grid tude curve or upon an oscille-
excitation to cover positive peaks. Am- graph in the form of chopped -off
plitude distortion becomes noticeable at positive peaks. In Fig. 61 are
60 per cent modulation and increases
with higher levels. amplitude
Plitude curves taken on
the modulated carrier of a stage
the grid of which was excited to saturation as shown in A and under -
excited in B. It is a custom to have available a surplus of driving power
for a modulated amplifier to prevent any possible occurrence of ampli-
tude distortion.
The constant -current or Heising system of plate modulation is often
designated as a class A system, since the modulator tube performs under
conditions similar to those encountered in a class A amplifier. Condi-
tions of operation of a tube in a class A system may be defined as those
under which the plate current of the tube does not pass through zero
at any time during a grid- voltage cycle.
A vacuum tube performing as a class B audio amplifier or modulator
operates with a negative bias voltage fixed at a condition approaching
plate- current cutoff. Therefore plate current of the tube increases with
Sec. 21j RADIO BROADCASTING 835
a positive grid -voltage swing, but, as the grid voltage passes through the
positive half of the cycle and swings negative, the plate current is cut off
and remains so until the grid again swings positive.
Operation of a tube as a class B amplifier may be defined as that
under which the plate current for the tube flows for one -half of a grid-
voltage cycle. By virtue of a push-pull circuit arrangement shown
in Fig. 62 it is possible to develop a combined output plate current from
two tubes which conforms with the grid-driving voltage throughout the
cycle.
A properly designed class B system permits a much higher plate
efficiency to be secured from a given set of tubes and correspondingly a
much greater output from them than with a class A system. This
To Modulated
Class Class Amplifier
Speech Amplifier Modulator
To
Audio
+gB Monitor
s
Flu. 62. -Class B pus i-pull modulator.
efficiency has been made to reach as high as 66.6 per cent with a small
percentage of audio harmonic distortion.
Inasmuch as it is often necessary to drive the grids of class B audio
amplifiers into their positive grid-current region to obtain maximum
power output, it is important that the driver-amplifier stage for the
modulator stage should have a good output -voltage regulation. This
calls for driver tubes having a sufficient output capacity to deliver an
undistorted voltage to the grids of the class B stage, even though there
is a non- uniform increase of load on the driver stage caused by the class B
tubes as they are driven through the positive grid-current region of their
dynamic operating characteristics.
FREQUENCY MODULATION SYSTEMS
The method of program signal transmission by means of f.m. utilizes
a frequency variation or deviation at the audio rate, the deviation fre-
quency being a small percentage of the unmodulated carrier frequency.
Assume the existence of an f -m transmitter operating on 42.6 Mc and
that a maximum deviation of ±75 kc is desired. Then a sustained sine
wave of, say, 1000 cps may be applied to the modulator audio input, the
amplitude of the audio signal adjusted to provide ±75 kc deviation.
836 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [sec. 21
This would result in utilizing the full modulation capabilities of the

transmitter. With a complex program input, the frequency deviation
at any instant corresponds to the amplitude of the complex wave at that
instant. -
Channels for f -m transmissions have been assigned 200 kc apart,

which has been found to be a sufficient carrier separation to allow a
frequency deviation of as much as ± 75 kc. The width of the band
required' in the frequency spectrum is at least twice the value of the
highest modulating frequency or twice the frequency deviation, which-
ever is greater. Important side -band components may occur outside
these limits, however.
59. Methods. There are diverse methods of producing f.m. on an
r-f carrier. Two rather different systems have been classified as (1)
direct f.m. and (2) indirect f.m., accomplished primarily by phase
modulation.
Direct f.m. is produced by frequency modulating directly the master
oscillator stage, as illustrated in Fig. 63, which has a normal unmodulated
Fla. 63.- Frequency -modulated Flo. 64.- Reactance -tube modu-

oscillator. lator.
carrier frequency of either the transmitter output frequency or a con-
venient subharmonic thereof. In papers2'3 giving a mathematical
treatment of f.m., it has been illustrated that, if the tank circuit constants
of the oscillator stage are varied in accordance with the audio-input
frequencies, there will be produced a resultant f-m output signal. With
some device operating as a condenser microphone varying the capacity
of the tank circuit of the master oscillator, there may be produced an r-f
carrier frequency modulated to conform with the sound undulations
vibrating the microphone diaphragm. This illustrates f.m. by the
direct method.
A modified form' of the direct system of frequency modulating a trans-
mitter is accomplished through the use of a tube (Fig. 64), employed
as a variable reactance. Here a variable reactance is caused to exist
between the cathode and anode of the reactance tube by grid -bias
variation at an audio rate. By supplying the grid of the reactance tube
with r -f voltage previously passed through a phase -shifting circuit of
suitable resistance and capacity, the grid-excitation voltage is caused to
CARSON, Notes on the Theory of Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., February, 1922: VAN DER
POL. Frequency Modulation, Proc. I.R.E.. July, 1930.
RODER, Amplitude, Phase and Frequency Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., December,
1931.
CROSBY, M. G., Frequency Modulation Propagation Characteristics, Proe. I.R.E.,
24, No.
6, June, 1936.
CROSBY, M. G., Frequency Modulation Noise Characteristics, Proc. I.R.E., April,
1937.
be in phase quadrature with the plate voltage. Then the a-c portion
of the reactance -tube plate current i, will be very nearly
i, = gme,
However, since
e, = jKe,
then, under influence of the phase-shifting network,
jKgme,
and
Z, = i,v=
From which the equivalent capacity produced by the tube
C. =ZÌ
The reactance tube may be caused to appear as an equivalent variable
capacity across the oscillator tank circuit.
For satisfactory transmission of the f -m signal it is essential that. in addition
carrier -
to producing the modulated wave, there must be present a satisfactory
wave stability. For this reason it is necessary to add a stabilizing tocircuit that
compared
by means of which the average frequency of the wavecompensating % ltagee
is
of a precision crystal oscillator and thus to supply a
to the grid of the modulator tube. The compensating oscillator voltage supplied is
proportional to frequency deviation from the crystal standard.
The action of the circuit is somewhat similar to that described under a -f
stability in
degenerative feedback except that the improvement in frequency
this case is proportional to the loop gain or µß, where µ is the frequency com-
pensation of output frequency resulting from 1 volt change of modulator -grid
voltage and ß is the volts produced by the frequency comparison circuit for
unit (kilocycle) frequency change. from a given
The circuit, required to produce the d-c compensating voltagestandard, the
frequency deviation consists of the precision crystal oscillator detector stages.
mixer tube or converter stage, and the discriminator and
An i.f. of about 1,500 kc is produced by mixing the transmitter and crystal
output frequencies. This in turn is applied to the discriminator, utilizing
connected to a double
practically the same circuit as that in f-in receivers whenproportional
diode rectifier. This produces a d -c output potential to devia-
tion of the applied frequency as compared to that to which the circuit is
adjusted. Since the feedback voltage utilized for frequencytime stabilization
is caused to pass through a low -pass RC network of sufficient constant,
the circuit has practically no effect on the audio modulatingoffrequencies. preventing
Stabilization of the average carrier frequency is for the purpose
a change of the mean carrier frequency during modulation and permits the
or
same output carrier frequency regardless of whether characteristic not modulation is
applied. The discriminator is provided with a linear output frequency. as broad
A
as the maximum frequency swing produced in the a steep
compromise on the band width is necessary, however, to maintain sufficient
characteristic in the discriminator circuit, and thus, to provide a
amount of frequency stabilization, the hand width there of the discriminator should
not be too great. In commercial transmitters is normally a linear
characteristic over the range of ± 100 kc with the discriminator peaks
separated by 400 kc, thus providing good over -all stability either with idle
I WEIR, I. R., Comparative Field Tests
of Frequency Modulation and Amplitude
Modulation Transmitters, Proe. Radio Club Amer., 16, July, 1939.
t33ti THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK LSec. 91
carrier or under full modulation. It also provides full frequency control over
sufficient range to prevent the oscillator from drifting out of the control
range.
An important advantage of the f -m transmitter over one utilizing the
amplitude system lies in the fact that the efficiency of the r -f amplifier stages
can be as great as it is for class C telegraph service. At ultrahigh frequencies
this may between 50 and 70 per cent.
A typical f-m transmitter operating on a carrier frequency of between
30 and 44 Mc may have an over -all distortion below 1y¢ per cent at all
modulating frequencies from 30 to 7,500 cycles. The frequency character-
istic may be flat within ± 1 db from 30 to 15,000 cycles, and the carrier noise
level may be better than -60 db below a signal produced by full modulation
swing of the transmitter. It may be designed to operate with a normal
maximum modulation frequency deviation of -_t 60 kc and to be linear within a
deviation range of ± 75 kc for use under the present 200 -kc assigned channels.
The power output of this transmitter may be increased by additional class C
r -f stages up to 50 kw.
Amplifier Amplifier
Master
oscillator
To
multipliers
Sideband
amplifier
Modulation
input
Fla. 65.- Scnematic diagram of Armstrong frequency modulator.
The indirect or phase-modulation method of producing frequency modula-
tion, consists in general of a constant- frequency oscillator, a modulator
(the function of which is to change the phase of the oscillator output as
illustrated in Fig. 65), and a series of multipliers to increase the amount of
phase modulation sufficiently to secure the frequency shift or modulation
required in the radiated signal. Results are secured by splitting the oscillator
output into two paths. One path contains a phase -shifting network which
shifts the phase 90 deg. and, in the other, a balanced modulator generating
side bands with a suppressed carrier.
A combination of these two signals produces a phase -modulated signal
with a phase -shift modulation capability up to ±30 deg. with satisfactory
linearity. A frequency modulated wave is derived therefrom by transmitting
the signal through frequency multipliers. A multiplication of several thou-
sand times is required to obtain deviations of ± 75 kc.
ARMSTRONG, E. H., A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a
System of Frequency Modulation, Proc. I.R.E., May, 1936.
To produce f.m. and at the same time maintain a constant deviation

frequency, the phase modulation must necessarily be inversely proportional
to the modulating frequency. Therefore with this method it becomes neces-
sary to have the amplitude of the phase -modulated signal decrease in pro-
portion to the frequency of the audio input to secure a flat a -f transmitter
response. This is usually accomplished by a corrective network in the audio
circuits ahead of the modulator.
The amount of frequency multiplication required following the performance
of phase modulation to secure the desired f.m. by the indirect method depends
upon (1) the amount of phase modulation produced by the modulator, (2)
the lowest a.f. transmitted, and (3) the deviation or frequency swing at the
[ ine Pre -
áifkrJKa remar
1
Audio' milli
input
W
zcilblor- &rffer
200kc rrPld
hnttti
4xdf _Buffer
Carrier_ Vmphl
p/ifier,
43.2 Mc.
P. A.
Frequency 2499for50kw
200kc.
mu /tip /iers 2Okc
3200kc. /2800 kc
mgOel7cy ver
uNi. ' 800 ,'rr liysla/osc
1/4900/cc.
Frequency
multipliers 900 kc
4f 2 Mc.
Fto. 66.-Frequency-modulation transmitter utilizing phase-shifting network.

output frequency. For a phase shift of 0.5 radian, frequency deviation of
± 60 kc and lowest a.f. 30 cps, the frequency multiplication required is
4,000 times.
To obtain this amount of frequency multiplication, the initial oscillator
frequency must be multiplied in several stages, then heterodyned to a
lower frequency, and then again multiplied a number of times moredown
to secure
the output frequency.
The 1 -kw Western Electric 503A -1 f -m transmitter utilizes
tubes directly as frequency modulators in a manner as shown in reactance
Fig. 66e.
The method used to maintain constant the mean carrier frequency is
appropriately called "synchronous f.m." since it operates by comparing
the mean frequency (measured in total carrier cps) of the f -m oscillator
to a precision -fixed frequency standard. The difference frequency thus
derived is then utilized as a control medium for mechanically retuning
the oscillator stage and thus keeping the oscillator frequency an exact
multiple of the standard. The method used to control the frequency
of a turbine -driven generator supplying electric power is similar.
See. Ill RADIO BROADCASTING 841
Figure 66b shows the frequency-stabilizing circuit, which functions

through a small portion of the 5-Mc f-m oscillator (assume a 40-Mc
carrier), being fed back through frequency dividers to obtain a 5-kc
frequency equal to that of the precision quartz crystal frequency
standard. The 5-kc frequency, a much lower submultiple of the 40-Mc
carrier, is necessary to produce a difference -frequency sufficiently low
Reactance Output O3ci//color
control tubes tubes
r II i
L L_
Motor
Flo. 66a.- Essential circuits of Western Electric f -m transmitter.
PROGRAM EREQUENCY_a POWER

INPUT DOUBLERS AtlPLIFIER
CONTROL
MOTOR
Fio. 66b.- Frequency stabilizi ig system of Western Electric.
to be within the range of the rotating magnetic field of the electric motor
used for the retuning of the oscillator variable capacitors through a
suitable speed- reduction mechanism of gear trains. The direction of
rotation of the motor depends upon whether the oscillator frequency is
higher or lower than the fixed multiple frequency of the standard. Thus
automatic readjustment of the oscillator tuning is made in the correct
direction so that when exact synchronism occurs between the frequency
fed back from the f -m oscillator and the frequency standard the motor
is at rest.
Because of the inertia of the motor rotating elements and the high
order of frequency division used, the motor is not caused to rotate by
frequency deviations produced on the carrier at an audio rate during
modulation. The main advantage claimed for the synchronized f-m
method over others described for maintaining output frequency stability
is that the output frequency is maintained identical in precision to the
standard by making all the controlling factors in terms of frequency.
The f-m output signal of the oscillator of the transmitter passes
through four pentode stages, three of which are doublers. then through
a WE 356-A triode stage and a final WE 357 -A triode output stage into
the antenna. Operating characteristics of this transmitter are such
as are required to transmit faithfully high -quality f -in program signals.
80. Merits of F.M. versus A.M. With the application of f.m. to trans-
mitters operating in the u-h -f band, the relative merit for this system of
signal transmission can be evaluated on the basis of an a-m system.
The u-h -f signal field intensity at a given distance from a particular
transmitting antenna may be determined from theoretical and empirical
relationships as published in papers= and derived from extensive mathe-
matical and experimental work. Actual experimental tests3 have shown
that an interfering audio signal (output of receiver) will create objec-
tionable interference if its level is about 30 to 40 db below the desired
signal. Thus service areas can be defined as zones in which the desired
component of the resulting audio signal is at least 35 db above the
interference. For very high quality reproduction, this figure runs from
40 to 55 db.
For interfering signals on the same channel as the desired signal,
it is evident that, if a.m. is used, a signal input ratio of 35 db is required
to secure the desired output ratio. However, in Lin. the ratio of signals
at the receiver input needs to be only about 6 db since the receiver for
f -m reception responds to frequency variations and limits amplitude
variations such as those caused by noise and undesired signals.
On this basis there are claimed advantages of f.m. over a.m. because
of (1) improved signal-plus-noise to noise ratio. Experimental results
have shown this difference to be as much as 25 db as influenced by intensi-
ties of automobile ignition, X rays, and other man -made interference.
Atmospheric interference being small at ultrahigh frequencies, it
becomes negligible in comparison with man -made interference. (2)
A uniform and definite service area from a given transmitter since
f-m signal -plus -noise to noise ratio remains high until field intensity
reaches a low value. (3) A smaller geographical interference area
obtained when two f -m transmitters are operated simultaneously on the
same frequency as compared to similar operation of two a-m transmitters.
(4) A r -f amplifier used to increase a f-m signal is more efficient than one
used for a.m. because f.m. can be accomplished at low level followed by
a class C r -f power amplifier. (5) For a given service area, less radiated
power is required for f.m. because of the improvement in signal-plus-
noise to noise ratio obtained with f.m. (6) For a given power output,
TREPOR and CARTER, Notes on Propagation of Waves below Ten Meters, Proc.
I.R.E., March, 1933.
+ Dzviso and HumT, Ultra Short Wave Propagation over Land Burrows, Prot.
I.R.E., December, 1935.
+ WEIR, I. R., Field Tests of Frequency and Amplitude Modulation with U -h -f Waves,
Gen. Elec. Rev., May, 1939; CROSBY, M. t;., The Service Range of Frequency Modulation,
RCA Rev., January, 1940.
power-tube operating costs are less because smaller tubes can be used for
f.m. for a given power output.
The FCC has assigned 40 channels 200 kc wide for f.m. between 42 to
50 Mc.
61. Frequency -modulated Transmitter Measurements. The measur-
ing equipment is considerably different than is required for an a-m
station since there is a variation in frequency of the emitted wave with
modulation while the amplitude is kept more or less constant. This
is exactly the reverse of a.m. where the carrier is varied in amplitude but
maintained at a constant frequency. The frequency swing or deviation
can be measured by applying sustained tone to the transmitter and then
measuring the relative intensities of the carrier and the side frequencies
present, the relative amplitudes of which correspond to the Bessel
functions involved.1
62. Air - and Water -cooled Tubes. For tubes of low power, artificial
cooling during operation is usually not necessary, radiation into the air
being sufficient. For the larger tubes, however, artificial cooling is
usually accomplished by means of a circulating water system which causes
a sheet of water to pass over the anode surface at very high velocity.
To restrict leakage of current from the anodes to the grounded pipes
of the water system, connection is made between the anodes and the
water system through a long length of coiled hose or porcelain tubing
r -=-
I
- - --
IEntari tubes forapervting protection relays
á0l
k3 I
xá l
ik
2nd. power Lost Stage Power Bakery of

Amplifier Amplifier Radiators
Fia. 67.-Water-cooling and circulation system.
This interposes, between the anode and ground, columns of water long
enough to make the electrical resistance to ground very high; as much
as 100 ft. of coiled hose may be used, giving resistances of 0.5 up to several
megohms.
In many cases distilled water is used, the water being maintained at a
satisfactory temperature by an artificial cooler, since for economical
reasons it is desirable that the same water be used indefinitely.
The water-cooling and circulating system is automatically started when
the transmitter is turned on, and the transmitter is automatically turned
off in the event of any failure in the water-cooling system. One method
of doing this is shown in Fig. 67, where the water system contains a
Venturi tube whose inlet and output orifices are connected to a device
operated by the difference in pressure established between the two orifices
by the flow of water. If the flow is interrupted or falls below its normal
i CROSBY, M. G., A Method of Measuring Frequency Deviation, RCA Rev., April.
1940.
value, a contactor through additional relays causes the power supply to

be disconnected.
Sometimes a milliammeter is provided on the transmitter panel which
indicates the magnitude of the current leaking through one of the closed
coils, the amount of current serving to indicate the relative purity of the
water and indicating when it is advisable to change the water supply.
In place of water cooling, forced air cooling is also used on some large
tubes. For the large dissipation required, a large number of radiating
fins are made a part of a copper radiator attached to the copper anode.
Sufficient air is forced upward and between the cooling fins to carry away
the heat developed on the anode. Because of the high electrostatic
capacity created by these anodes, they are not used on the very high
frequencies.
63. Power Supply. Plate-voltage supply for transmitters may be
obtained from d -c generators, high -vacuum tube rectifiers, mercury-arc
rectifiera, or hot-cathode mercury -vapor rectifiers.
The hot-cathode mercury-vapor rectifier is considered the best method
of supplying high voltages to transmitter plate circuits. The most
striking difference between mercury -vapor tubes and high -vacuum tubes
is the internal voltage drop between plate and cathode. In the high -
vacuum tube the voltage drop may vary from a few volts to several
thousand volts, depending upon the current, element spacing, etc. In
the mercury -vapor tube the space charge is limited by the arc drop of the
vapor which is practically constant at values between 12 and 17 volts
regardless of the current.
Table II gives a direct comparison of the relative efficiency of a high -
vacuum tube and two types of mercury -vapor tube. Note that the
mercury-vapor tubes give very low internal voltage drop and have con-
siderably higher efficiencies.
There are two fundamental limits which determine the power output
that can be obtained from any number of tubes operated in any type of
circuit. These ratings are (1) the maximum peak inverse voltage at
which the tube can operate without flashing back and (2) the maximum
peak plate current which the cathode can supply with a reasonably long
life.
The maximum peak inverse voltage which can exist across a tube in any
of the usual types of circuits is equal to the line-to-line peak or crest
TABLE I1.- COMPARISON OF HIGH- VACIIUM AND MERCURY -VAPOR TUBE
RECTIFIERA*
D-c output Tube drop LoeWSttkilo-

No. Tube Effi-
Circuit ciency,
tubes type Am- Kilo- Volta amt Fila- Tube- percent
Volta
peras watts
pares ment drop
6 TV-214 3edouble V 15.000 12 180 1,560 0 6.9 18.7 87.5

6 UV -857 3efull wave 15.000 12 189 15 12 1.5 0.36 98.8
PI UV -857 3efull wave 21,000 30 630 15 30 1.5 0.9 99.4
I. R. E., Vol. 18. No. 1. January, 1930.
t Maximum rating.
RADIO BROADCASTING 845
See. Sll
voltage of the power transformer less the voltage drop of the conducting
tube. circuit, tube, filter,
The peak plate current depends upon the type oftube must carry the
and load. In a single -phase full -wave circuit each-phase half- and full-
full -load current for half the time. In the three
wave circuit each tube carries the load current for one -third of the
time.
If the rectifier feeds into an in-
Emms
ductance, square blocks of cur- Si phare fu//sue 2 ubes
rent are drawn from the rectifier Ea QI.ÓEEmaxiinum
and the peak plate current ap- Einverse J.Móovero9e
proaches the d -c value. If the / overage a6.16Imosimum
rectifier feeds into a capacity UEi.M.s

load plate current is drawn for Singkphasefu/ /save 41u6es
Eavkphose .6 nave 41 mum
only a part of each half cycle
and the peak current may reach Einverse 157 Ea emge
values of from three to five In !average
times that of the d -c load Eves. r 7hrcephosehaK»ove
t
Eaveiw9e =0677Emorimum
current. E L/706hH.M.S.
Table III gives data on sev-
eral typical hot- cathode mer-
cury-vapor tubes designed for
radio power supply purposes.
_. circuits
rr- 1
Eimerse =07/mmromum
/average
;
r Theephare/a /fwe
,Eoverage ae77Ema+imcvn
commonly
used with these types of tubes
are shown in Fig. 68. The sin -
gle -phase full -wave and the
If
Aiîß
é I ave. Eierse
nv
!average
=/./706 R.M.S.
z09Eaverage
/9/Imaximum
=
three -phase and half -wave cir-

cuits are quite generally used.
EM.M.s.
- Three Owe f 6
E -/JlER Ms.
The three -phase full -wave cir-
cuit is particularly applicable ;F-7. al Einverse GO4staverage
!overage .2955Ima+,mum
to the half -wave mercury -vapor FIG. 68.- Hot -cathode mercury -vapor
tube, since it gives a peak in- power circuits.
verse voltage whose magnitude
is only 4.5 per cent greater than the average output voltage; the wave
form is that of a six -phase rectifier.
TABLE III. -HOT-CATHODE MERCURY-VAPOR TUBA RATINGS
Filament
Peak inverse Peak anode
Tube type voltage current, amperes
Volts Amperes
2.5 5 7.500 1.0

UX-866 10 7,500 5.0
UV-872 5
5 18 20,000 10.0
UV -869A 30 22,000 40.0
UV -857B 5
64. Parasitic Oscillations One of the most important design features

oscilla-
of a transmitter is to provide for adequate suppression of parasitic
tions. Such spurious oscillations are usually caused by regeneration in
an amplifier stage. They have frequencies different from the funda-
mental or its harmonics.
All classes of amplifiers are subject to these oscillations. Suppressing

them in a class C amplifier is not usually so difficult as in the class B types
where the grids of the tubes are driven positive for a considerable portion
of the cycle. Before reliable and economical service can be realized from
a transmitter of any type, all tendencies for parasitic oscillation must be
suppressed to prevent serious lessening in the life of vacuum tubes or
program interruptions because of arc -overs in the transmitter.
oscillations may exist in an otherwise normal amplifier stage and maySuch not
be evident to casual inspection owing to their disappearance entirely when
grid excitation is removed.
A typical class B power amplifier stage of the push -pull
Fig. 69. This amplifier contains inherent design featurestype is shown in
which have a
tendency to suppress spurious oscillations. C6 and C7 assist by
very low reactance path for all parasities of a frequency higheracting as a
than the
C
L9
- + C, Cs
fowl
Fia. 69. -Class B amplifier with characteristics to suppress parasities.
fundamental with a result that they effectively loll(' the parasitic circuit.
Connections between these capacitors and the tube grids are kept at
absolute minimum. The grid loading resistors R, and R2, whose real purpose an
is to improve the regulation of the grid circuit as the grids swing
also act as a resistor load to damp out oscillations. Cs and Cb, with positive,
mid -point grounded, act as a low reactance path to ground for frequencies their
above the fundamental.
The frequency of parasitic oscillations
low end of the frequency spectrum to the u -hmay be anything from the very
Parasities of very low
frequencies, in the neighborhood of less than region.
-f
1 to 10 cycles, are sometimes
set up by the dynatron action of the tubes at the natural period of the power
supply filter circuit C,, C2, and Li. -
The existence of these parasities of very low frequencies usually becomes
apparent in the form of a severe irregularity in the saturation curve of the
linear amplifier. Such a curve is shown in Fig. 70. The point X shows the
beginning of this parasitic condition
caused by the dynatron characteristicsand of
Y the point where it ceases. It is
the amplifier tube grids and occurs
at a point on their operating characteristic just before they are driven positive.
RADIO BROADCASTING 847
Sea Ill
A solution for such a condition is to use tubes whose amplification factor is
such that the region XY falls below the carrier operating point. For this
reason high-mu tubes have on some occasions been found to be more satis-
factory than low -mu tubes.
Low -frequency oscillations of approximately one-third to one -fifth of the
fundamental frequency are sometimes caused by tuned -grid tuned -plate
Grid Excitation Voltage-3.-

Flu. 70.-Typical saturation curve of class B r -f linear amplifier showing
dynatron effect of power tube grids with E. and E. constant.
regeneration with the plate chokes L6 and L4 in combinationA with the blocking
similar grid tank
condensers Cie and Cii forming an output tank circuit. are effectively in
circuit is formed by Ce, C7, and Le. Inasmuch as all tubestend to aggravate
parallel for this combination, the neutralizing capacitors an equivalent
the condition rather than to prevent it. In Fig. 71 is shown
parasitic circuit of the combina- Cis
tion as formed from the circuit
in Fig. 69. The remedy is to
change the values of inductance
and capacity in either the para-
sitic grid or plate circuits so as
to cause their natural periods to
depart substantially from a near
resonance condition. It is usu-
ally possible to suppress such
oscillation by tuning the parasitic
grid circuit to a higher frequency
than the corresponding plate
circuit.
The existence of these oscilla-
tions may usually be detected by
applying excitation at the funda-
mental frequency to a stage with
reduced plate voltage and grid- -Ec +C,.
bias voltage until the tubes draw Fta. 71.-Equivalent parasitic circuit of
plate current. If oscillation of Fig. 69.
the stage continues after funda- neon lamps attached to
mental grid excitation is removed, as indicated by by means of
the tube plates, the frequency of the parasitic may be determined
it.
a wavemeter, and thus steps can be taken to eliminatenear fundamental
Oscillations within an amplifier stage at frequencies stage thedue to improper
are usually caused by regeneration within an amplifier oscillations. Improper
neutralization causing tuned -grid tuned-plate circuit
circuit design or too close coupling between the inductances of the input and
output circuits or chokes is also liable to cause this condition.
Parasitics of frequencies in the neighborhood of from five to
the fundamental result in cases where the leads from the tube twenty
grids
times
and C7 form a grid tank circuit, the resonance frequency of which isand Cs
mined by various distributed capacities and the inductance of the deter- leads.
Oscillations are made possible by the existence of a similar plate tank circuit
formed by leads from the tube plates to C. and Cs together with various stray
capacities. This form of parasitic is seldom sustained but shows itself most
prominently when the stage is subject to high peaks of modulation. The
trouble may usually be corrected by insertion in the plate leads at a point
adjacent to the tube plates choke coils L7 and Ls.
These parasitic choke coils L7 and Ls together with a shortening of grid
leads to an absolute minimum may also assist in suppressing oscillations of
ultrahigh frequencies in amplifier stages employing two tubes in parallel.
The grid leads of the two tubes, although connected, may combine with stray
capacities, thus forming a push-pull oscillation of a very high frequency.
Such oscillations in some cases cause high r -f voltages to build up which may
result in serious arc -overs from various parts of the tube output circuits.
65. Suppression of R -f Harmonics. It is the inherent characteristic
of a vacuum tube, while functioning at a reasonably high efficiency in an
amplifier circuit, to generate harmonic frequencies of the fundamental.
A station broadcasting on 600 kc, if second and third harmonics were not
suppressed, would produce interference with other stations operating on
1,200 and 1,800 Ice. Field intensity measurements about a station are
necessary to determine how much harmonic energy is radiated and to
show the progress of work done toward reducing radiation.
In specifying the allowable harmonic radiation from a broadcasting
station the IRE Committee on Broadcasting as of January, 1930, recom-
mended that the maximum radio field intensity of a harmonic component
measured at a distance of 1 mile from a station should not exceed 0.05 per
cent of the field intensity of the fundamental.
A field strength of 500 or per meter at a distance of 1 mile is recom-
mended as a maximum allowable intensity from a high-powered trans-
mitting station. If in the case of a 50-kw station a circular-field pattern
and equal attenuation are assumed for both a harmonic and
mental in the immediate vicinity of the station, a field strengththe funda-
of 500 µv
at 1 mile would correspond to approximately 7 mw of radiated power
harmonic frequency. The effect of directivity (illustrated in curveatB,a
Fig. 72) may cause a field intensity of a number of times the value of
500 Ay to be projected in a given direction with a very small fraction of
1 watt of harmonic power in the transmission
line and antenna circuits.
Such a concentration of radiated power may form very objectionable
interference. Considering the factors involved, therefore, it is evident
that harmonic suppression must be attacked from a number of angles.
These may be briefly outlined as follows:
1. Design of the transmitter circuits to reduce the harmonic content of the
power delivered to the antenna circuits to a minimum.
2. Thorough and effective shielding of the entire transmitter or building.
3. Effectively grounding all harmonic drain circuits and elimination of long
conductors near the transmitter coupled to it inductively or capacitatively.
4. Reduction of directivity of harmonic radiation to a minimum.
5. Installation of shielded band- or low -pass filters at the input end of tho
transmission line to the antenna.
Sec. 211
0
240°
IOo.,'
°..'`,r '7-,
220°
140°
ö,/,4
°1.-.jI,`
120
260
,t
.A
RADIO BROADCASTING
Some commonly used triode amplifier circuits are shown in Figs. 73

and 74. The push -pull amplifier is superior to the single -ended circuit,
as it is capable of producing a sum plate current of the two tubes which is
210° 200° 190°
150° 160° 170° 180°
4 °_Ñ'..0,I10°
vi=a
al
170° 160° 150°
190° 200° 210°
, Field Strength!IO
140°
220°
.80°
,/1200
240°
2500
849
°1.,;/1\,'i
100 Fundamental 90°
..., ,'
c, 400 600 800100012001
Millivolts per 1000 270°
80°
280 I
80
80°
290'
70, /11
60'
290
Note: Measuremen B and Cmade 60°
3000 with same power in antenna at 00°
fundamenta/ata distance
ofImi/e 50°
350 °..ZZIMPí=akd310°
320° 330° 340° 350° 0 10° 20° 30° 40°
40° 30° 20° 10° 330° 340° 350° 360°
Fia. 72. -Radio field -intensity survey. The dotted curve gives funda-
mental frequency field strength; B and C are second harmonie intensity
before and after reduction.
Is, F..,
ÓTgó
,p o
a
c> TC"
C5
Fia. 73. -Push -pull amplifier with high kilovolt- ampere tank circuit in
transmission line.
symmetrical in wave shape and, therefore, it contains no even harmonics.
Individual plate currents, of course, contain even harmonics which are
drained to ground through C3 and C4 resulting in identical instantaneous
even harmonic potentials being set up on each side of L2 but no actual

even harmonic current through it. Under these conditions an electro-
statically shielded inductive coupling is provided to permit transfer of
only fundamental and odd harmonic frequencies to the coupled circuit.
For a condition of symmetrical plate current it is evident that the tube
characteristics must match closely, C = C2 and C2 = C4. The neu-
tralizing bridge must be balanced not only for the fundamental frequency
but for even harmonics. This requires that the internal capacities of the
tubes should match. As will be shown later, a high ratio of circulating
kilovolt-ampere in the tank circuit to the kilowatt delivered from the
amplifier reduces the output of harmonics from a single-ended amplifier
to a very low value. This is also true in the push -pull circuit.
The circuit shown in Fig. 74 will give a very small amount of harmonic
output by proper design of the circuit constants. The curves in Fig. 76
L2
Cg +B
Fia. 74. -Line termination effecting reduced harmonic radiation.
Fia. 75.- Improved tank circuits for suppressing harmonic radiation.

show the filtering effect of a high kilovolt-ampere tank circuit in sup-
pressing harmonic components of current generated in the tube. These
curves show actual harmonic transferred to a given load circuit ZL with
a constant output at the fundamental and various kilovolt -ampere to
kilowatt ratios of L2 and C2. Figure 75 shows improvement in tank
circuits so as to increase the normal filtering action of an ordinary tank
circuit. A high kilovolt -ampere to kilowatt ratio applied to these circuits
is capable of reducing harmonic output to an extremely small amount.
There are some limitations in the amount of filtering which can he secured
by a high kilovolt- ampere tank circuit, however, since the 12R losses in
the circuit increase in proportion to the circulating kilovolt -amperes
and the cost of apparatus for increasing kilovolt -amperes in a circuit
without increasing losses is considerable. In broadcasting transmitters
there is the limitation of too low a decrement in a circuit attenuating too
greatly the high frequencies of a modulated envelope. In Fig. 75 the
trap L2C, is tuned to a particular harmonic to be eliminated. The use of
antiresonant circuits (parallel traps) in the plate lead of an amplifier,
while reducing to some extent a single harmonic, has a tendency to allow
considerable voltage to build up at others. Most satisfactory results are

usually secured by designing a minimum impedance path for harmonics
to ground as compared with a given high impedance at the fundamental.
The effectiveness of the shielding of a transmitter may be determined
by operating the transmitter with full power output into a shielded
phantom antenna. Measurement of the harmonic field strengths
produced from the transmitter itself is direct evidence of how well it is
shielded. Such radiation can usually be traced to a long conductor near
the transmitter, coupled to it capacitively or through a common ground
return. Ground conductors serving to drain harmonic frequency power
to ground therefore should be as direct as possible and should not be
extended so as to have a free end which might attain a high potential at
resonant frequencies. This is particularly true of the harmonic drains,
0
0.3
0.9%
-:Second
I I 1 1.1 1 11
a ;' Harmonic
a 0.2
ó 's
E
t gá 0.1
0.5+0.9(SinWí- 3Sin,Tlly`_
xa
¡le051 +%SSin S kif --
»iird -0.9(0.707Cas 2Wt-0.353 -
U
b á 00
rmönnic
Cos14Wt - I I (
a 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Circulating Kva.inTank L2C2
Ratio
Kw. Output into 2L
Fla. 76.-Effectiveness of high kilovolt -ampere to kilowatt ratio in reducing
harmonic output with constant power output at fundamental.
near the antenna itself. These should have a separate ground to prevent
coupling of harmonic frequencies into the antenna.
A sensitive wavemeter is very useful in determining the relative
harmonic field intensities near the various circuits of a transmitter.
When tuned to the frequencies of various harmonics and coupled to
various circuits of the transmitter or placed at positions along near -by
open conductors, this instrument will indicate proportionate amounts
of the harmonic components of the current flow. By effectively ground-
ing a long open conductor either directly or through large capacities
at a number of distributed points, harmonic radiation can usually be
eliminated.
The push-pull amplifier coupled to a long transmission line has often
become a source of undesirable even-harmonic radiation because of
sufficient electrostatic capacity existing between the coupled circuits to
permit a transfer of energy from the amplifier output circuit to the line.
Unless this electrostatic capacity is reduced to an extremely low value,
i.e., by installation of a well -grounded electrostatic screen between the
two coils, even harmonics usually find a path along the transmission line
with a ground return to the generating source. An unshielded trans-
mission line serves in this case as an effective directive radiator in the form
of a large loop. Its effective height will be dependent upon the height
of the transmission line above ground. Parallel flow of even -harmonic
currents along the line, therefore, makes it a much more effective radiator
in some directions than the push -pull flow of harmonic currents in the line.
A circuit which has been found to be very effective in reducing both the
parallel as well as the push -pull flow of harmonic currents in a transmission
line is shown in Fig. 73 in the form of a high kilovolt- ampere floating tank
circuit L.C,Cio tuned to the fundamental component of current flowing in
the line. This tank circuit, while offering an impedance to the fundamental
approaching an infinitely high value, offers a relatively low impedance path
to ground for the parallel flow of even harmonics equivalent to
Z. -- 4trj-1.C'v -1
4aj.d'o
where resistance of circuit is negligible
Z.. = impedance to nth even harmonic
j ". = frequency of nth even harmonic
and for the push-pull flow of odd harmonics between transmission -line
conductors
-
2arj..La
(27j..)2LaC - 1
where resistance of circuit is negligible

Z.. = impedance to nth odd harmonic
j.. = frequency of nth odd harmonic
C_C92 -CIO
2
where Ca = C10.
It is evident that as C. and CIO are increased in capacity the effectiveness
of the circuit in reducing harmonics is increased. Since the transmission-line
termination impedance is usually made to match the line impedance for the
fundamental frequency, it usually happens that the line impedance is matched
1I } + { I'll. To Antenna
Flo. 77.-Low -pass filter combined with antiresonant circuits

in transmission line.
for this frequency only and as a result harmonic components of current and
voltage in the line appear as standing waves along the line. In such a case
the above tank circuit is most effective for eliminating a particular harmonic
if it is placed at a point along the line of maximum voltage. This circuit
alone was effective in one case in reducing second-harmonic radiation from a
station to one -fifth of its former value.
Antiresonant circuits installed in a transmission line at current antinodes
have been found very effective in reducing a single harmonic to which they
were tuned. Extreme care should be taken in shielding these antiresonant
circuits to secure best results. A combination of antiresonant circuits and
a low -pass filter is shown in Fig. 77. This combination has been used suc-
cessfully in severe cases of harmonic radiation from a very long transmission
line and antenna system. The filter matches the surge impedance of the
line and has a cutoff frequency between the fundamental and second har-
monic. Antiresonant circuits have been found useful to sharpen the cutoff
Sec. Ill RADIO BROADCASTING 853
20 as to attenuate sufficiently the second-harmonic frequency. Considerable

experience in filter design and adjustment is required to secure optimum
results from such an arrangement. For use with concentric lines with the
outer sheath grounded, the filter shown in Fig. 77 is simplified to the extent
of one -half, i.e., one line to ground.
The methods of line termination shown in Figs. 73 and 74 arc effective
in reducing the possibility of harmonics reaching the antenna circuit. The
termination shown in Fig. 74 may be improved by use of a multisection
low -pass filter.
66. Antenna Circuit Terminations for R -f Transmission Lines. Con-
siderable improvement in antenna efficiency can be secured from an
antenna located at some distance from the station so as to approach the
ideal case of an antenna radiating in free space. The r-f transmission
--
line is used for conveying the energy from the transmitter to the antenna.
A simple form of such a transmission line is the parallel two -conductor
type, each conductor having a diameter of approximately 4 in. The
spacing of the conductors is normally 12 to 15 in
Pam/k / Conductor Llne I
- ío= 776fa9roS1 S%ds I
i11
g
800 Concentric Tube Line
---- Zo =138 log,067d
-
io 600
°cars
-
paro,lll'' C
Ñ400 I
Zoo
...El
upJII!! concentrk,EIN
IN II
I
_I
o
5 IO 50 100 500
Sid
Fta. 78.-Impedance of parallel and concentric-tube lines.
The curves of Fig. 78 show the characteristic impedance values with
respect to spacing and conductor size of both the parallel conductor line
and the concentric-tube type.
67. Transmission -line Calculations. There are diverse methods of
measuring the characteristic impedance of a transmission line. A
simple but effective method is illustrated in Fig. 79. With the setup
shown and the switch thrown to the line position, a trial value of resist-
ance R2 is inserted. C is adjusted for maximum I2. Then with switch
thrown in the opposite position and R1 set to equal R2, the capacitor C
is adjusted for maximum It. By trial, a combination may be found
where there is a maximum value of I, and 12 for the same setting of C
with R1 equal to R2. This value of R is the characteristic or surge
impedance of the line.
When r-f power is transmitted over a transmission line to an antenna
load, the line termination may be adjusted to afford a condition where
there are no wave reflections by making the effective resistance of the
termination equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. Several
R1
RZ
Fta. 79.- Measuring impedance of transmission line.
----1
L4 ¡ LA I
1 ¡
B
I
sTaCA -s CB
i
.T.CA
,.RQ j.Ra
_í_ _T
t1_
T(a) lb) (C)- Equivalent Circuit
Fia. 80.-Terminations for transmission lines.
L
LT
CA
T Ra
Equivalent Circuit
FIG. 81.- Transmission -line termination.
Sec. sll RADIO BROADCASTING 855
circuits used for terminating transmission lines are shown in Figs. 80

to 82 together with their equivalent circuits.
A formula for calculating the value of capacitor Cs for an effective resist-
ance value Zo equal to the characteristic impedance of a two -conductor trans-
mission line balanced to ground as shown in Fig. 82 as well as for a
transmission line having one conductor grounded is as follows:
Let Zo = effective resistance of transmission -line termination
R. = antenna resistance consisting of radiation resistance plus equiva-
lent loss resistance
LT = combined inductance -balance coils plus equivalent antenna
inductance
CA = equivalent antenna capacity
Cs = line- termination capacity
X, = reactance of Cs
X2 = reactance of XL -
XcA
Z, = impedance branch 1 = -JX1
Z: = impedance branch 2 = R. + IX:
R.X,= -j(X:' -
X,X: + R.1)
Zo =
R.' + (X: X,)= -
Cs =
Zo - R.
4ar2f2Zo =R.
where Zo > R.
ZaR.
X, - f VR.(Zo - R.)
1
WCs
where, in Fig. 82, Cs is dependent only on values of Zo and R. where Zo is
equivalent to a pure a -c resistance with the antenna circuit adjusted for reso-
nance. Unless Zo exceeds the value of R. an effective resistance equivalent to the
characteristic impedance of the line cannot be secured.
When low -impedance lines are used, such as the concentric-tube type,
the termination shown in Fig. 81 is useful, since it affords a condition
where correct termination may occur in the form of an effective resistance
even though R. equals or exceeds Zo.
L
}CB
-"Zo J.
Ra
Equivalent Circuit
Fie. 82.- Balanced transmission -line termination.

In Fig. 82 is shown a transmission line in the form of a tank circuit.
The tank condenser Ce across the line is selected so as to provide a
suitable kilovolt- ampere ratio of the tank circuit with respect to the
kilowatts transferred to the antenna circuit; this kilovolt-ampere to
kilowatt ratio is normally about 10 and should never be less than 2.
ZoR.
XI =
± VR.(Zo - R.)
ZosR.
X12
from which
-(Zo-R.)
Xi=Zo
R.
+ XIIZo
where R. is the effective value of resistance reflected into the tank circuit
from the antenna circuit.
The value of R. can be calculated from
w =1I'R.
R. -
R. +X.' %
where the inherent resistance of the tank circuit is negligible

M = mutual inductance between LA and La
X. = reactance of antenna circuit
R. = resistance of antenna circuit.
For a condition of proper termination X. approaches zero and may be
neglected and
w =Mr X, =Zo
R. - Zor + XI'
M X,2ZOR,
w'(Zo' + X,2)
In Fig. 83 are shown values of M required for a transmission impedance
of 400, 500, and 600 ohms and a line- termination capacitor of between
0.001 and 0.004 µf. The transmitter frequency was assumed as 670 kc
and the antenna resistance 30, 70, and 140 ohms. In the design of
tank -circuit termination for a given line the value of C5 across the linea
is selected so as to provide a proper kilovolt-ampere in the tank circuit
with respect to the power transferred to the antenna circuit. This
kilovolt- ampere to kilowatt ratio is normally about 10.
68. Termination Adjustments. The usual procedure in adjusting
transmission -line termination for a condition of no -wave reflection ona
the line is as follows:
1. The number of coupling turns is calculated so as to give the proper
value of M. With the tank circuit open, the antenna is tuned to exact
resonance by means of an external oscillator loosely coupled to it at the
fundamental frequency.
2. The tank circuit is now connected into the circuit and tuned to reso-
nance. This is indicated by a condition where the current in the antenna
circuit becomes a minimum.
3. The transmission line is then connected across the tank circuit without
making any changes in previous adjustments.
4. Correct termination may be checked by measuring the transmission-
line currents at the ends and quarter-wave points along the line by means of
suitable meters. When proper termination has been effected, the trans-
mission -line currents will be identical at all points along the line.
69. Concentric Line Terminations.' The growing use of concentric
lines of the low- impedance type has led to cases where the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line is lower than that of the antenna
resistance. In general there are three cases to consider as follows: (1)
when the antenna impedance contains a resistance compon. nt only; (2)
I This and the following article are from Electronics. December, 1936.
Sec. Ill RADIO BROADCASTING 857
when the antenna impedance contains a resistance component and a

reactive component, either (a) capacitive or (6) inductive; and (3) when
the antenna impedance contains resistive and reactive components, the
latter being partially compensated by the insertion of an extra reactance
of opposite sign. These three cases are considered in order.
0.0050 (
XslO 6 ZQRa1 I
0.0045 Zo =Characteristic impedanceofAx

- where Ra =Antenna resistance
M- Mutual inductance inph
Xj =Reactance lank
0.0040 useuu cap otyCß
0.0035
Note: Value of Al for various fbrms-
ofLA and La may be calcu/a/ed
ç 0.0030 from formulas /74 to /93 of Bureau.
CO-
of Standards Bulletin Na 74
:II 0.0025 QJ
G
0.0020
0.0015
0.0010
0.0005
5;90alms
R Oohms s
la-l0olms
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Mutual lnductance0uh
Flo. 83.- Values of M required for proper termination.
easel. Antenna Impedance Purdy Resistive. From Fig. 84 the concentric
line characteristic impedance, Zo, is terminated by a network consisting of
Ca, Lc, and the antenna impedance ZA. For case 1 the reactance of the
antenna impedance is zero, and Zo < ZA = RA. Then the complex imped-
ance Za presented to the end of the transmission line is as follows:
Zi =
R,[XaX, X,(Xo - -
X1)1 + j[XaX,a + RA(Xa X,)1 -
RAT + X,a
where RA, X1, and Xa are as given in Fig. 84. For proper termination Zo
must equal Zc. X1 becomes
Zo
X, = RA
RA - ZO
RASXc
XI
Xi= + RAs
Since Ci = 1 /(271f1/1) and Lc = Xs /(27rf), their values in microfarads and

microhenrys are then readily calculable from f, the frequency of operation.
Figure 85 gives various values of Xi and X8 in terms of values of Zo and RA.
X3
T-òoo
I Lc
rio cgTX,
Cases(I)and(2) -L
JÓ+
Z.-.
X.,
-1-
XZ=O
zo
X3
__X2
XJ
o/öbbo-
1
_ _
-:
T '
XT o XT RA
Case I Case 2 -a Case 2-b
X3
Le x X2
JJJ}
ZA
XTCB
fi Zo RA
Case(3)
Zo
X3 X4 X2
:RA
(51."1
-
ZO'
X
XT
X* X2
RA
p AT e e 1
e
Antenna capacitive Antenna inductive
Fin. 84.-Concentric line terminations.
Case 2a. Antenna Impedance with Capacitive Reactance. Refer again to
Fig. 84. It will be noted that the equivalent diagram for case 2e is the same
as for case 1, except that the antenna impedance is now ZA = RA 3X1.
Then
Zr. =Zo
RAX,'
ZO
RA + (X: + X,)
from which
Zo RA
X, =
RA Zo[ X= ± (R `_ + \j
X2' ZoRA) ]
X,(RA' + X2X, + X=')
X, =
RA' +(XI +XS)'
Hence, with Zo, RA, and X, given, X, and X, can be calculated. From the
values of X, and X3, Lc and Ce can be calculated, exactly as in case 1. \'alues
of X, and X3 for various values of RA and values of X2 for the cases where
Zo is 80 and 100 ohms are given in Fig. 86.
Case 2b. Antenna Impedance Inductively Reactive. Case 2b is the same as
case 1 except that ZA = RA + P C2.
X,Induc ive reactance,ohms_
11lEEEEEEEEEEIS11l1EE
-g,150
E
E 111111 IIIEWM.IIIE
M EN II 111WAMMill
130
§ 1 1111111111 EIIIAMIE
IEI%/%r
110
MOM x,
ro0 iÓ 033
I
~ t;°%b
1
I .0,AII Z,-
5
8
° d
;Rw_
'.
a;Ii,; a5o ,tPo1odl

`QQì;Do//edcurves ---w/cesolX,:
So%d curves -va/rcdXr
No 50 - -- -
50 100 150 200 2
X, Capacitive reactance of capacitor C8 ohms
Flo. 85.- Values of reactances for line termination.
700
650
-'oao
_,Lc -CI
io
x,
- -S'- - -
:
-
.i -
Case( 2-a)
/
600 Zo= /OOohms
/
ZaBOáims
,
550
k/
// /
500
X1 ,i)
i,
4450 tip
0)/
4° /$60 Rá
a
L R gp0
V
a 350
Ç'
/_/: %
AO
pl.__
Ra"
-
c 300
ó 250
V
P, 20
400á
-- 6
15
10
Mi73i_--
--- E2=01;iiiii
RA=400w
VAR =800cu
X3
300
2003.
u
50 100
'RA=200cu
o 0 ><
50 100 150 200 250 300 3
X2,Capacitive reactance of antenna, ohms
FIG. 86.-Values of terminating reactors for case 2a.
Zo Re
X =
1
Ra Zo[ X2 ±
V Zo
(Ra a + X:° - ZOR4 ]
- X4(RAl + X:2 X:XI) -
Xa
RAa + (X: - X,)=
from which Lc and Cs are calculated. Figure 87 shows various values of X1
and Xa in terms of RA and X :, for Zo values of 80 and 100 ohms.
Case 3. Added Reactance to Antenna Impedance. When the transmission
line impedance "looks into" a complex antenna impedance, it is possible to
simplify the adjustment of the circuit greatly by adding a reactance X4 as
shown in Fig. 84 for case 3. This reactance X4 may be either inductive or
capacitive, as shown. If the sum of Xa and X2 is inductive, then X4 is made
capacitive and vice versa. The value of X4 is such that the algebraic sum of
XI, X2, and X4 is equal to zero. Since X4 is in series with the antenna imped-
50
I
f'I
5
45 2 -
Case (2-b)
---'6000
X3s Xry
I I
f I I
KEY
l
Fo Zo~ ;RA-- Xr(Zo=80ohmsl

;335
CIT
ZA`Rw {%X2
o ` --- X31
É
X, /Zo'/Obohms/
----X3(Z0. /00ohms. ó
30 ù
á 25 . RA = 900w MEN ó
v 200
150
.sa.
°
R =6i0ui
R, =200w
- -
. 300
GJ
u
c
6
C.)
a
a>
& 100 E_A
200
-a
R`RA=600cu
'RA=200w
400u 100-
150
I A
200 250 300
0 k
100 350 400 450 500 S50
X2 = Inductive reactance of antenna, ohms
FIG. 87.-Terminating reactors for case 2b.
ance, it adds directly with the reactive part of the antenna impedance. The
effect of the presence of X4 can then be taken into account by applying the
formulas of case 2a or 2b.
XI= Xa =N/WRi
This occurs only, however, if 14 is so chosen that
±X4- X1 +Xt =0
The reactance X4 must always have the opposite sign from X:, as indicated
by the plus-or -minus signs in the equation. When X4 is so chosen, the
reactance XI and Xa may be obtained for various value of Zo and RA by refer-
ence to Fig. 88. Note that these values apply regardless of whether RA is
larger than, equal to, or greater than Zo.
Practical Procedure in Designing Matching Circuits. In making suit-
able adjustments on the impedance matching circuits to provide a correct
160
ó Case r,ì1
ú 140
X1'X3
-'X4 X!+-X2°0
a
b¿2 Xz
e
/ 3 X+
°.I20 fF4R
I
,
zo
II/I
E100 Q Antenrwcapacitive
80
I 4j17 ill"
'
.
Za C R..`
zAix=A
2
ó
a C
a
60
..INAII01. Anfenna inductive
These conch/ions ho/ch
IN regardless of whether
Zo'Rw1ZoRAorZo<RA
40
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
X1, Capacitive eaclance of capacitor Cg
Fin. 8N.- Values of terminating reactors for case 3 when antenna reactance is
compensated.
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE RELATIONS
Ic
Lc !
lg
CBT
1
CASE 1, 2a AND 2b
CURRENT THROUGH TRANSMISSION

VOLTAGE
ANTENNA CAPACITOR Cg= LINE CURRENT=
AT BASE
CASE CURRENT /
lc lia Zw
RA OF ANTENNA
+g )- 'D
1
IA 1A =Ic EA,IÏZA
rRz+ R X1
R I0L ' TARA
a
Zo
A +X2
R2 V
!
R +X X +X 2 II
2a le IA 02,411X2)
V RA RP-
A 2+X! )Z! v Z.
iW X,Xi X22+,./RA Xi
IrrIRw W I (RA +.1X2)
2b Ic[ R2 +(X2-X» 2 w
V RA ] V Zo
1
w
ANTENNA
3CAPACITIVE R4 Ic[RRJX!]
RA Zo IA(Rw ßX2)
ANTENNA /W- I IlA + X! W I R+JX2)

3 INDUCTIVE / RA c [ RA
IA
Wis power in watts

Fia. 89.- Current and voltage relations in terminating circuits.
termination for a given transmission -line characteristic impedance, under

cases 2a and 26 above, where RA > Zo, the following procedure is
recommended:
1. The transmission -line characteristic impedance should be calculated
and the results checked by actual measurements if possible, either by means
of a r -f impedance bridge or by the methods described in the literature.
2. The antenna base resistance should be measured over a frequency band
width covering at least 100 kc each side of the operating frequency. A curve
should then be constructed with values of antenna resistance as a function of
frequency. A smooth curve drawn through the points of measurements will
assist in checking their accuracy.
3. Together with antenna resistance measurements, the antenna reactance
should be measured, either by means of a r -f impedance bridge or in a manner
shown in Fig. 90 over a wide frequency range and a curve constructed with
antenna reactance as a function of frequency.
Antenna
For accurate power measurement
antenna current meter
should be placed at this point Tesi clip lead
or /ow
capacity swdeh
PositionAál
Shield 7hermogal
,beano kr
0 No.2position,:Makeconnections
1
r_ _
minimum length
/ow capacity
1
-
r
L.
SO waH i 1R Calibrated
driver _. _ L, ` 1 resistance
=flaky - L? Ci fshieidedl
C2\ High quality
t. Calibrated
, - - capacitor
Fro. 90. -Setup for measuring antenna characteristics.
4. With the values of antenna resistance and reactance known, values of
capacitance Cs and inductance Lc may be calculated for case 2e or 26, as
may be required, and connected into the circuits as shown in Fig. 84.
5. With the transmission line connected, correct termination may be
checked by measuring the transmission -line currents at the ends, if its length
is equal to a quarter wave length or odd multiplies thereof. For a very long
line it is good practice to make these measurements at a number of points
along the line. The existence of stationary waves of current or voltage of the
fundamental frequency along the line is an indication of incorrect termi-
nation. In such a case slight adjustments may be necessary in Le and Ca
to correct for stray capacity of leads and tuning equipment or slight errors in
measurements. If a r -f impedance bridge is available. its measuring termi-
nals may be connected across the input to the matching circuit in place of
the transmission line and the termination circuit checked for an effective
resistance equivalent to the characteristic impedance of the line without the
line attached.
Although case 3 requires the addition of another piece of apparatus in the
form of an inductance or capacity in the antenna lead, which may be rather
expensive, the adjustment procedure is less difficult and is as follows:
1. With values of the line characteristic impedance. antenna resistance,
and reactance obtained by measurement, the value of Cs is calculated, which
gives the reactance XI necessary.
2. With Lc disconnected from Cs, reactance X. (inductive or capacitive)

is added in the antenna circuit in series with X1. By means of X4 the antenna
circuit is tuned to resonance, as indicated by maximum current through a
thermogalvanometer, when the antenna circuit is excited by means of an
external oscillator loosely coupled to it.
3. A sufficient value of inductance Lc having a value X2 equal to Xi is
then connected into the circuit as shown in Fig. 84.
4. The line is then checked for stationary waves, the absence of which
indicates a condition of correct termination.
The mechanical properties of long concentric-tube transmission lines
makes the measurement of current in the center conductor rather difficult.
In some cases removable plugs are placed in the outside tube at various
intervals along the line. These plugs, which, when inserted, make the outer
tube airtight, permit connections from an antiresonant circuit across the line.
Such an antiresonant circuit, when tuned to the fundamental frequency,
presents a very high impedance to the line, when bridged across it, and there-.
fore does not effect its characteristic impedance at the fundamental frequency.
With about 10 watts flowing through the line, the galvanometer reading is an
indication of the voltage at the points measured along the line.
70. Method Used in Measuring Antenna Characteristics. Refer to
Fig. 90.
Value of Co (usually about 0.0005 µf) is selected to provide sufficient series
capacitance reactance to make the antenna capacitive over the frequency
range measured. Then, with the an-
tenna excited by the driver oscillator Lc/2
at the frequency indicated by the 000
X3/2
wavemeter and the switch at position
1, adjust C1 and L2 for resonance, as
Zo- CB =X, Zw-
indicated by the maximum reading of Lc/2
G. R is then adjusted until G reading 6öà`
is the same as before. Then R is X0/2
the antenna resistance.
For antenna reactance measurement, Zó
the circuit is first calibrated for stray
capacity in the shielded resistance box
by resonating circuit (switch in posi-
tion 2) first with box in the circuit
=
-ZóZZ
Zo -
X3/2
Cj
X4/2
Xr gA
and then entirely removed. Differ- #
Zó X/2 X4/2
ence in reading of capacitor C2 be-
the two conditions equals Fia. 91.- Matching circuits for bal-
capacity of box. This value should anced transmission lines.
be added to each reading of C:, when
circuits are resonated, which is done as above for resistance measurement.
The antenna reactance X2 is equal to the reactance of C2 minus that of Co.is
When reactance of Co is greater than that of C2 the antenna reactance
positive.
When it is found desirable to apply the matching circuits described above
(Fig. 84) to balanced lines (open wire or double concentric types), the value
of X3 derived by the particular formula for cases 1 and 2 is halved and placed
on each side of the circuit (see Fig. 91), while the value of X4 is halved and
placed on each side of the circuit for case 3. Under these conditions the
formulas given above apply to the respective cases mentioned. The systems
become quite useful in matching a given balanced transmission line or r-f
circuit into another having entirely different input impedance characteristics.
In the foregoing analysis of antenna matching circuits, they were con-
sidered as providing for a given transmission line, a termination imped-
ance equivalent to an ohmic resistance at the fundamental frequency.
An analysis of the input impedance that such a line "looks into" at
various harmonic frequencies discloses that it may assume an infinite
number of different impedances containing resistance and positive or
negative reactance components, the values of which depend upon the
termination circuit constants as well as those of the antenna. The
values of antenna resistance and reactance may vary widely with fre-
quency. For harmonic frequencies, stationary waves of current and
voltage will form on the transmission line as well as in the antenna
circuit, unless suitable harmonic filtering is provided either within the
vacuum -tube transmitter or at the input to the transmission line.
The effectiveness of a given filter design for various harmonics depends
upon its position in the line with respect to the positions of current and
voltage antinodes of the harmonic frequencies along the line.
-Code
Vertical. beacon
radiator '
';Tower
lights
Isolating ANTENNA HOUSE

lighting
transformer,
Concentric Lightning gap
transmission to protect Lightning
concentric . 9aP
line transmission line -
Rain shield
insulator
720v 60--
power supply
. -- ' Copper tube
Mon- containingtower
R-f monitor recct. lighting wires
Antenna meter Diode rectifier
in transmitter roan for remote
antenna meter
FIG. 92.- Equipmentin antenna house of modern broadcast transmitter.
T1a. Loss in R -f Transmission Lines. By reference to Fig. 93, it is
evident that the most prominent factors contributing to power loss in
open wire transmission lines are as follows:
1. Power loss due to conductor thermal resistance
Rr = .1262 pgf ohms per centimeter length

where S
p =
» d
d (see Fig. 78)
resistivity of conductors in microhm -centimeters
A permeability of conductors
=
f =
frequency in megacycles
d =
diameter of conductor in centimeters.
2. Power radiated from balanced and unbalanced line currents.
3. Power component of mutual inductance due to secondary currents
induced in near-by conductora.
4. Power loss due to leakage or conductance of the insulating medium
or
YA
G = mho per centimeter length
5. Power loss due to dielectric hysteresis.
RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE COMPONENTS

OF AN R.F. TRANSMISSION LINE
S
I
Load'
dR -Equivalent resistance per unit of loop length

dy = - inductance -
da= - conductance per unit oflength
do = capacitance - - -
Z = Impedance per 1000 ft of loop length -R +j&L
Y = Admittance in mho per 1000 ft -G +jwC
CORRESPONDING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RELATIONS
OF AN R.F. TRANSMISSION LINE
I+dI aS 4E
°J
dea _dI Load
E`4E1 dti , Tdipl
((
Relationship along line any par/anon voltage or current

41 -EG +Cf dS'IR +LS
Assume sinusoidal varia/ion ofthe current and qe al any
pointmbng the dine a distance S from transmitter
I-IrcoshS 27 -Er1WsinhS ZY EErcoshSa7 -Iri/ZVsinhSaP
When the dine is aperiodic surge impedance Z.0-1/
Components contributing 6 dine doss:

del -1b/lage consumed in phase with current
dil= Current consumed m phase with voltage
Voltage Es alany point Sdis/ance from transmitter end

EsEre -e(a. !a) = Eae- S{/(Rfor
+jeoL1(G t/wCt
/lines of small
where cc-attenuation constant
leakage conductance «_ ff) C/G
For lines having negligible leakage oc = f {/f -

,/ =4.344 decibels per unit length
FIG. 93.-Losses in transmission lines.
For coaxial lines the major factors contributing to power loss in
transmission lines are as follows:
1.
where do =
ßr = J
Power loss due to conductor thermal resistance
O.Oß31C d, 1 1 \
-- d x J ohms per centimeter of line
outside diameter of inner conductor in centimeters

d: = inside diameter of outer conductor in centimeters
p = resistivity of conductors in microhm -ems
= permeability of conductors
f = frequency in megocycles
2. Power loss due to leakage conductance of insulating medium.

3. Power loss due to dielectric hysteresis.
By reference to the loss curves shown in Fig. 94, it is evident that the
greater part of the power loss in both the open wire and coaxial types
when operating with negligible reflection is due to the conductor thermal
resistance. Owing to the low -loss insulation materials now available,
the losses due to dielectric leakage and hysteresis can he reduced to a
iv
negligible quantity especially at standard broadcast frequencies.
The curves of Fig. 94 are the results of extensive r-f measurements
which confirmed mathematical formulas given for calculation of losses
óiíl !
á- I di
3
I
psl 1 I%a
60
50
Ilir( , ,
-/ 6i1A30
-3^c'p0.11':ce./I II
d,/' bá5;i/12Ó
.
pperáp8'
X
Ob
1
0.6
iï Opf15. C
r/8 dz
l
rl lcolcn`
l¡eiiEi . d,
tme°S ude3P
ú
pc
Za
§25 0.4
025 lioe ic be: "
12
0.3
°f'i" ``p
T'di/C 15" dx ' M!
lir1at'Z
l-
_a 0.2 d2
,s plcolo B
fAPr315:
s 0.08 0.1
ao6
a0a
0pp'Ire 1,c er
.-:.-:::,lo 1'
15
I
. (CCI
M Ç
a-
0.04 I 1
0000.
I lí!i15 1ilmommi
1
C Peer
0.03
0.02
A1dmi%/rid1
- IQ 1 0.5
0.01 I
01 02 0.3 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 10 20 30 40 60

Frequency of power transmitted,megocycles
Fra. 94. -Power loss in lines operating at 20 °C with negligible reflection.
in open wire and coaxial lines of various standard sizes. Worthy of
mention is the rather high efficiency of the open wire line consisting of
two No. 4 B. & S. gage solid copper conductors spaced 12 in. center to
center. The losses in this line are less than those in a 3-in.-diameter
copper coaxial line. The resistivity p of aluminum being greater than
copper, the losses in an aluminum coaxial line are somewhat greater
than those in a copper line of the same dimensions.
71. Broadcast -station Signal Coverage. The reception of satisfactory
signals from a given broadcasting station by a particular listener at a
given point depends upon the following: (1) the intensity of the signal
radiated from the antenna system of the station as influenced by the
radiated r-f carrier power, antenna directivity, and percentage of modula-
tion on the carrier; (2) distance between the broadcasting -station
antenna and the point of reception and the attenuation characteristics

of the intervening space or terrain; (3) intensity of objectionable inter-
ference at the receiving point; (4) fading as produced by receiver the raya of
direct and indirect signals; (5) the quality of the broadcast and against and
its ability to discriminate against local noise or interference signals into
adjacent channel interference and to convert the received r-f noise. The
sound without appreciable distortion or inherent receiver satisfactory
surrounding area about a given broadcasting station wherein the station.
program signals can be received determines the service areaofof the 550- to
The service area of a standard broadcasting station
1,600 -kc band consists essentially of two distinct regions. That region wave
in close proximity to the station is served by the direct ray or ground
called the primary coverage area of a broadcasting station, while the region
at some distance from the station and served by virtue ofarea. indirect ray
or sky -wave reflections is called the secondary coverage of the During stand-
daylight hours of broadcast transmission on frequencies listener is
ard broadcast band (between 550 and 1,600 kc), a broadcast for
concerned with the primary coverage area signals of near -by stations
during this
programs since there is very little sky -wave energy reflected of such a
period under normal conditions. The daylight service area
broadcasting station therefore consists almost entirely of that region
served by the direct ray. coverage
During the hours of twilight and darkness, the secondary apparent. The
area of stations in the standard broadcast hand becomes
secondary coverage area of a particular station begins at a considerable
sky wave.
distance from a given station and is served by the apredominant station
The primary and secondary coverage areas of broadcasting of the station. In
are separated by a region known as the fading area rays approach
this area the signal intensities of the direct and indirect signal intensities
an equality with a result that violent fluctuations in upon a
are apparent. The fading areas of stations are dependent antenna radiation
number of factors, such as frequency of transmission, of day and
characteristics, conductivity of intervening terrain, and timeof the stations.
season, and are independent of the transmitter powersthe broadcasting
The fading area is normally in the form of a hand about and several hun-
station normally contained within radii of between 20 The fading hand
dred miles, depending upon the factors mentioned.
may be as much as 50 miles in width. in all directions
Considering a broadcasting station radiating equally attenuation, the
over surrounding terrain, and assuming equal ground or circular area
service area would consist of a primary coverage area signal. Outside
near the station and served by a steady ground -wave primary
of this would exist the fading area consisting of a ring about the
area. Beyond the fading ring the secondary coverage area would exist.
Inasmuch as broadcast reception is rather uncertain of in the fading region
and in the secondary coverage area, the real value a given station is
dependent normally upon its primary coverage area.
be most accurately
The primary service area of a particular station cansurvey'
determined by means of a field-intensity survey. A-intensity of this kind
is accomplished through the use of mobile field measuring
equipment. This consists essentially of a field -intensity
meter of
i KIRBY, S. S. and K. A. NORTON, Field Intensity Measurements, Bur. Standards
Jour.
Research, April, 1932.
carefully shielded receiver equipped with an indicating meter at its

output terminals to read carrier-signal intensity as induced in the loop
antenna. The field -intensity meter together with the loop antenna are
carefully calibrated in their position in the measuring car to give accurate
readings in microvolts per meter over a wide range of carrier-signal
intensity.
72. Field-intensity Measurements. The procedure of making a field-
intensity survey consists usually of making frequent measurements
at satisfactory positions (in free space) along radials progressing to and
from the station. Eight or more radials at equal angular spacing are
generally made about a point established on the field survey map by the
broadcast station antenna system and extending to a signal intensity
of 500 my or beyond. Each radial is then plotted on loglog coordinate
graph paper and a smooth curve drawn through these points to show
directly the signal intensity along one ordinate, with distance along the
other. Later the values required are transferred to a map in the form
of signal contour lines representing positions about the station where
field intensities of 100, 50, 10, 2, and 0.5 my per meter exist. The
contour map for reference purposes also contains information such as
(1) station call letters, (2) frequency, (3) antenna power and its direc-
tivity and other characteristics, (4) scale of map, (5) date, etc.
Since fading occurs after sunset, these measurements are an indication
of satisfactory daytime coverage only from the particular station. As
recommended by reports of the LR.E.,r FCC,' and the National Associa-
tion of Broadcasters, values of standard broadcast field intensity con-
sidered necessary for reliable broadcast service are given for three areas
as follows: (1) a business city area where a field intensity of from 10 to 25
my per meter is required to override high interfering electrical noise and
overshadowing effects of large buildings, (2) a residential district of a
city where a field intensity of 2 to 5 my per meter is required, (3)
rural area where 0.1 to 0.5 my per meter signal intensity is sufficient.a
In addition it is stated that for fair service a signal intensity of one -half
the above values is needed and for poor service one -fourth of these
values. These figures are based upon the average signal intensity
necessary to override the noise levels of these districts. In large cities
where large, tall buildings are numerous, a free space field intensity of
as much as 50 my per meter over the city may be necessary to provide
a signal intensity at a particular receiving antenna between buildings of
one -fifth of that amount.
Since the primary service area includes nighttime reception as well as
daytime, fading measurements are necessarily a part of the field -intensity
survey in determination of this area. Fading measurements are made
with the same field-intensity measuring equipment used for the survey
except that the field- intensity meter is equipped with a recording milliam-
meter (usually of 0 to 5 ma range) attached to the output of the field -
intensity meter. A d-c amplifier sometimes is necessary to secure
sufficient signal level to actuate the recording meter from the field- inten-
sity measuring set. The equipment is set up for periods of time at a
given distance and location from the station, and fluctuations in carrier-
Report of Committee on Radio Propagation Data, Prix. I.R.E., 21, No. 10, October,
1933.
'Fifth annual report to the Congress of the United States, by Federal Communica-
tions Committee, gives tabulated values of field strength.
signal intensity are noted on the continuously moving recording chart.

Amplitude fluctuations as recorded on the chart indicate the amount of
fading. Fading measurements of considerable periods of time and overa
a wide area are necessary to determine the fading region about
given station and to evaluate the secondary coverage area about the
station, particularly those designated as class I stations.
73. Calculations of Station Coverage. A mathematical investigation
of the attenuation of radio waves propagating over plane earth has led to
mathematical expressions which follow very nearly the characteristics
of waves as indicated by actual measurements. A simplified form of
this expression requires the following information for a solution: (1)
the frequency of the transmitted wave, (2) the distance from the station,
(3) conductivity of the soil in electromagnetic units, and (4) the induc-
tivity of the soil in electrostatic units. Since the inductivity value can be
generally assumed to be 14 to 15 e.s.u., then, with a measured of
station may
conductivity Cr, the field intensity at a given distance from a irregularities
be calculated. With further assumptions concerning the
in general characteristics of the terrain about the station, it is possible
to calculate the contours. The value of o (the soil conductivity) is
usually secured from a measured radial or taken from availahle field -
FCC
intensity measurements of some other station in the vicinity. TheStates.
has published charts showing soil conductivity over thebeUnited
Provided measured values are not available, these may used.
For convenience the chart shown in Fig. 95 is given. It may be used The
to calculate signal attenuation of standard broadcast frequencies.
form of Sommer-
attenuation curves shown are derived from a simplified curves to
feld's attenuation formula.' With a single set of Sommerfeld
cover all the standard broadcast frequencies and soil conductivities. from the
the conductivity of a given soil can he rather easily computed by first con-
attenuation of a particular signal. This is accomplished 1 mile and
verting a given radial to an inverse field strength of 1.000 my atwith which
then determining the frequency of the ground -wave curve
it coincides, i.e., the conversion frequency. The conductivity is secured
from the soil-constant curve passing through the intersection of the
operating and conversion frequencies on the conversion chart in the upper
right corner of the figure. The conversion chart has been prepared from
the following relationships:
ft = f1, aó
where f = operating frequency
ó = standard conductivity of chart (100 X 10 -16 e.m.u.)
ó, = actual soil conductivity
f, = conversion frequency.
SOMMERFELD. ARNOLD, Ausbreitung der Wellen
in der drahtlosen Telegraphie
und ungerichtete Wellenzage, Jahrb.
Einfluss der Bodenbeschaffenheit, und gerichtete Numerical
drahtlosen Tele. Tele., 4, December. 1910. ROLF, Discussion of Sommerfeld's
March, 1930. EcKERSLEY, P. P., The
Attenuation Formula, Pros. I.R.E., IS, No. 3. Stations,
Calculation of the Service Area of Broadcast Prot. I.R.E.. 18, No. 7, July,
1930. EcEERSLEY, T. L., Direct Ray Broadcast
Transmission. Proc. I.R.E.. 20, No. 10.
K. H., Propagation of Radio Waves over a Plane Earth.
October, 1932. NORTON, Waves over the Surface of the Earth and
Nature, June 8, 1935; Propagation of Radio I.R.E., 24, October, 1936; Part II, Prot. I.R.E.,
in the Upper Atmosphere, Part 1, Proc.
Electronics, 9, No. 9,
22, September, 1937. FITCH, W. A., The Sommerfeld Formula,
September, 1936.
I,\\ t-,r
11
For example, assume a station operating on an assigned frequency of
660 kc where the field strength radial, as plotted from measurements,
follows the 1,500 -kc curve Then, from the soil conversion chart,
100 V
80 O
\\...
\_1111
60 0 \\\\\\\\\\
40
\\\
I I I I 1 1 1 1
Attenuation curves for soi/

having conductivity of o =
I00w/0-'se.m.u. and induchvity
of/4e.s.u.- inverse field
strength al one mile =/OOOmv
1 1 1 1 1 1 I
-
-
_
30
oo Ì,ií1/iíi,rvfiyr
oüiir.u -
2000
20
14 1 \
i \ ` 0n 50.%.
.
E
800!':'t/
;
ç ióóóIÌ....i.í
i í.,,,,
á
1500
ii
'
i
\;
.%%iii
.-
10 , h 60 .
\\%1/4
,\\\1\4'\jq ..
.
8
°n ó m ó ó ó ó
6
4
I
Groundwtyve
1, \
,\\
Convers on frequency
CONVERS ON CHART FOR SOILS-
OTHER THAN o=100x 0-'5E.M.0 -
\ \in.\\
3
`,1\
2 )
\`` 1`\
`1'\
T>)
=
77:
E
1
i`\ Vsu
..,IA ,IM
..,\\\\
rlM'\\ .,._`\ .erNe.r MIMI.
MIME
Q1
4 11- \`\1
1 -- ó
\\ '
13 `
ó
-
3
2 o
rrLU\\\ 1 [Oki!!
II
u
1.4
1
mow..
tltlrl rJrri\N\\hm \11 -rl1111111_1111r111111
0.8 \,V\ WIrl1111 NMI
MIMEOS MINIAIMSana111 11IrIIIM M
0.6
h\\all\h\1AU_\1\1\1 MINWRuMIMaWE n1111l111
0.4
1i "1 1
0.3
\\it i , `
0.2
0.14
0.1
11111 i ;7 >1
\,I 111
` II' \\d1
\
3 4 5 618 10 15 20 40 60 80 100 200 300 500
Dis +ante. mi les
Fia. 95.-Ground -wave field -intensity curves.
the conductivity is very nearly 20 X 10 -15 e.m.u. On the other
hand, if the soil conductivity is known, the signal attenuation can
be determined from the conversion chart and the attenuation curves
See. 21) RADIO BROADCASTING 871
of various frequencies. Since these curves are based on a field strength

of 1,000 mv at 1 mile, the actual signal at a given distance from a station
is, of course, derived from the ratio of the actual signal intensity in milli-
volts at 1 mile from the particular station divided by 1,000. At consider-
able distances from the transmitter these curves are subject to corrections
for the effects of curvature of the earth.
The curves in Fig. 96 refer to sky -wave intensities under various
conditions of propagation. These are most useful in the determination
of the fading. regions about a particular station and are plotted to
give intensities of reflected sky -wave intensity for different antenna
electrical heights based on a signal intensity of 1,000 mv along the ground
of the
at 1 mile from a given antenna. In this case the electrical height height
antenna in degrees equals 3.85 X 10 -4Hf, where H is the physical
5
Q5 a f 90ianenny
.,Pi' á5,rs8
4
an
ií=m
3
2 aN ei 11001^te °ro
.4'.
10.8
I.f
I.
l
VA/006
op
b
,.,
ÌIeeirel
a5i6, l
b
,t51 anp
ç 0.6
`
.6-
/I
0.4
ti /q
10. 3
+slo' 0.2
0.1 5
: i
III itai i
h 1 i
010 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 210 2

Distance between antenna and receiving location, miles
Fib. 96. -Sky -wave propagation curves for antennas of various heights.
Layer height = 100 km, reflection coefficient = 1.
of the antenna in feet and f is the operating frequency in kilocycles. This
is based on a velocity of propagation equivalent to 0.95 that of light.
Inasmuch as the attenuation curves of ground-wave intensity (Fig. 95)
are also based on 1,000 mv at 1 mile, then the particular distance from
a given antenna where the sky-wave intensity, shown on curves of Fig.
96, equals the ground-wave signal intensity of Fig. 95 is the distance
from the antenna where one would expect to observe greatest fading or is
an estimate of the center of the fading band. Owing to the height of
the Heaviside layer being other than 100 km and reflection being less
than unity, on which these curves are based, calculated distances given
by these curves are approximate. Measurements are required for more
exact determination of the fading region.
The service rendered by a standard broadcast station depends also
on interference caused by other stations on the same and near -by chan-
nels. This interference is greatly increased at night because signals from
872 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. !1
undesired distant stations are reflected by the Heaviside layer and may be
received with varying intensities within the service area of a desired
station. Following extensive survey work covering nighttime signal
propagation over the period February to May, 1936, the FCC issued a
report' wherein a great amount of information concerning sky-wave
propagation is given. In Fig. 97 are illustrated curves representing the
average sky -wave field intensity (second hour after sunset) at the
recording station. An interfering or undesired signal existing for 10
per cent of the time has been standardized as an interfering signal.
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
g 0.02
0.01
0.005
= 0.002
0.001
0.000r
0.0002
0.0001
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800
Miles
FIG. 97.- Average sky -wave field intensity, 640 to 1190 kc.
Thus, with the antenna sky- radiation characteristics of a given station
known,2 it becomes possible to estimate the amount of undesirable inter-
ference it is liable to cause to another distant station. In the deter-
mination of interference problems, the FCC has indicated its approval
of ratios as follows in the protection of a desired standard broadcast station
signal against an undesired one, using an average receiver:
Ratio of
Intensities
Desired to
Undesired
Desired and Undesired Signal Signal
Same frequency 20
±10 kc 2
± 30 kc 0.02
These apply to ground -wave signals, whereas the ratio for sky -wave
signals are 0.2 for 10-kc channel separation and 0.04 for 20-kc channel
' FCC Report 18108, September, 1938.
,Standards of Good Engineering Practice concerning Standard Broadcast Stations,
FCC Report 41831, Jane 29, 1940.
separation. The FCC has classified standard broadcast stations with

respect to protected service contours and permissible interference signals
in accordance with Table IV.
TABLE IV.-PROTECTED SERVICE CONTOURS AND PERMISSIBLE INTER-
FERENCE SIGNALS FOR BROADCAST STATIONS
Signal intensity contour Permissible inter-

of area protected from fering signal on
objectionable inter- same channel
Class ference
of Class of Permissible power,
sta- channel kilowatts
tion used Day, t Day, t
micro- Night, micro- Night, I
volts per microvolts volts per microvolts
per meter meter per meter
meter
I-A Clear 50 SC 100 Not duplicated 5 Not dupli-

AC 500 cated
I-B Clear 10-50 SC 100 500 5 25
AC 500 (50% sky wave)
II Clear 0.25-50 500 2,5001 25 1251
(ground wave)
III -A Regional 1 -5 500 2,500 25 125
(ground wave)
III -B Regional 0.5-1 per night 500 4,000 25 200
and 5 per day (ground wave)
IV Local 0.1 -0.25 500 4,000 25 200
(ground wave)
t Ground wave SC = same channel; AC = adjacent channel

$ intensity for 10 per cent or more of the time.
Sky-wave field
from all stations except class I -B,
I These values are with respect to interference
which stations may cause interference to a field-intensity contour of higher value.
74. High -frequency broadcast- station coverage concerns the stations

licensed by the FCC primarily for the transmission of radio telephone
emissions in the h -f broadcast hand for reception by the general public.
The h -f broadcast band contains the band of frequencies extending from
43 to 50 Mc, inclusive. In accordance with Sec. 3.225(d) of the FCC
rules, the stations in this band must use a system of modulation of the
radio signal in which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied with
the program signal; this being commonly termed frequency modulation
or f.m. The assigned operating frequency or "center frequency" is
that of the r-f carrier without modulation. It must be maintained within
2,000 cycles of the assigned center frequency assigned. Channels for
h -f broadcast stations begin at 43.1 Mc and continue in successive steps
of 200 kc to and including the assigned frequency of 49.9 Mc.
According to Sec. 3.222 of the FCC rules, h-f broadcast stations shall
be licensed on the basis of an area in square miles within the service area.
The contour bounding the service area and the radii of same are deter-
mined in accordance with the FCC standards. On this basis, a h-f
broadcast station has a single service; that corresponding to the primary
service of a standard broadcast station. Secondary, sky-wave or

intermittent service is not recognized in h -f broadcast coverage.
In FCC Report 41831' the standard of field intensity necessary for
satisfactory service is given as follows:
TABLE V.- SERVICE
Median Field
Intensity, Millivolt
Area per Meter
City areas near factories, car lines, or busy streets 1
Rural areas away from highways 0.050
These figures are based on the absence of objectionable fading and
usual noise levels encountered in these areas and are not dependent upon
i
interference from other h -f broadcast stations. The chart of Fig. 98
50,00 uiwair,¡y i.11Wa.CII1.i MINEIVA/.u.i Walsil.
30,00
0MI
!/.IW505/5051.%505/
KdIM1:11%AI/MNI:I'/.AI/Og
,
20,00
0 1 5°` WL1,:1;;`1'
fW 1/20/11'/./LIIII20I2//
E 1000 A O5 po`ve a`' +'°
/,\\Sr5 br ,'50,0t\SUIloSi//
a, 600i r
IYfy wl\5ai
¡
I:II
JRyyG'tii
u t'r, pete,iR
,'
1
ptt+' , n; 3,,,0
Mib 115
`,
µS\./:
ù1
.r
400i 0rp,.s
A°t`n
2,/
s
200 %%G~
II;II S
p\,o
s
¡`w `'p. Ì,I1/.0
C
Air
/-
En
cA+IP` ,1y5°° ' S SS' ' In+511
--ó Ial1
//%/II.// -4
r
%I ;i1.
g 1000
600 Ìiiiï
: 1A ,\°,
1pw91
1 µl\
.I/.on.n
'!-__=0,
t`:,,`.. ..tt
....:...
60
o
ow
1
Jl' 000 issa.

IC00C:
Ñ II1111% IIu1tm%..
400
1w1'
` i I/ i11111m
t iil%
1
1 wlw
É %sI10I./15i ' ` A'
200 %5O5/i! 1!%
I1O2C/.P1I1/I ''
.de1/21511111!51
6
, /.I:ílIIO1111.._ 11'
: !w IIiÍÍ.1n3'-;:__-=-g
1
100 //,!Í/.%:II,;i/!/./,._
E
60
40
.
:
iiïi%íiïiïi:.iiii.ï :ii° iii¡h
._...:..:---.-"-p.;p'::';
M/Waiii'íi:6i.s.
ÌII2/g/ItiI%%íM1tilr/Í/11»111ì
-""=:::.:ciLt61i:h` 500ft.=-
..Ii.u.smm.an
2000 ft. ii
/°óiiiiiiáh=1000!AM;
=50000 in
%5//5//'':i%51/5/:I:í!%5//11111111111111111111
20 20I/!iil;tlll/IIIr/ili11I20imm11111omm11111NENN
100 !:/./.%:IISi//S/.GÍ.II;íOi1111115511111!51
20 40 60 100 200 500 1000 I0000 04000 504000
o
Fla. 98.-Signal range for
high -frequency broadcast stations. (f = 46 Mc;
o = 5 X 10-14 e.m.u.; dielectric constant . = 15.)
may be found useful in the determination of the signal intensity rendered
from a given h -f broadcast station. The results obtainable are based
on a signal intensity at a receiving antenna with an elevation of 30 ft.
The distance to the 50-µv per meter contour about a given station is
dependent upon values of the transmitting antenna height, the antenna
power, and the antenna field gain.
The procedure in using the chart is as follows: Assume that there is a h -f
station with an antenna height of 750 ft., an antenna power of 500 watts, and
an antenna field gain of 2. To determine the distance to the 50-µv per meter
Standards of Good Engineering Practice Concerning High Frequency Broadcast
1
Stations, FCC Report 41831, June 29, 1940.

Sec. fll RADIO BROADCASTING 875
contour, refer to the dashed horizontal line extending from the 750 -ft. antenna
elevation over to the 45 -deg. line marked 2 kw. Then proceed vertically
downward to a point midway between the curved lines represented as 1,000
and 500 ft. Finally, proceed horizontally again to the left to find that the
expected range is 54.5 miles or the radius to the 50-µv per meter contour.
The procedure may be reversed to determine the power required for a given
antenna height to produce a signal intensity of 50 pv per meter for a certain
distance.
The additional power scales are useful in estimating the distance to the
5- and 1,000 -µv per meter contours. The scale indicated by O at the bottom
of the chart is used for the purpose of finding the distance to any desired
contour. In this instance
B= h X P2 X G X (50 /F)
h = transmitting antenna height in feet
P1/2 = square root of the antenna power in kilowatts
G = antenna field gain
F = desired field intensity in microvolts per meter.
By means of the above equation, O may be determined. Then the corre-
sponding distance can be determined from the chart by proceeding vertically
at that value of O to the proper curved line and then in a horizontal direction
to the the left, where the distance is given.
In the consideration of objectionable interference from other stations
on the same and adjacent channels, the FCC Sec. 3.225(f), requires
that the proposed station shall not have interference to such an extent
that its service may he reduced to an unsatisfactory amount. For
this reason objectionable interference is considered to exist when the
signal for 50 per cent of the distance in any sector on a radial exceeds
0.005 my per meter at the 0.050 contour of the desired station. If it is
considered that a station is protected to the 1 -mv per meter contour,
objectionable interference occurs when the signal for 50 per cent of the
distance in any sector exceeds 0.1 my per meter. For other field intensi-
ties the ratios in Table VI govern allowable ratios of the desired to
undesired signals.
TABLE VI.- ALLOWABLE SIGNAL RATIOS
Ratio of Desired to
Channel Separation Undesired Signals
Same channel 10:1 median field intensity
Adjacent channel 2:1 median field intensity
The service contours in the cases above are determined by actual

measurements or by means of Fig. 98.
High-frequency broadcast transmitters are normally located as near
to the center of the proposed service area as possible. A high elevation
of the transmitting antenna is necessary to reduce the shadowing effects
upon propogation due to hills, buildings, and other obstructions in the
city area. The position of the transmitter site is also dependent upon
the purpose of the station, i.e., whether it is intended to serve a small
city, a metropolitan area, or a large region. A suitable transmitter
site may be made available by the use of a directive antenna. Where
a directive antenna is used, a centrally located station site may not be a
desirable one. As one may understand by studying the chart in Fig.
98, the transmitter antenna height above the average elevation of the
service area is a consideration of greatest importance to secure optimum
coverage with a high -frequency broadcast station.
SI:CTIn\ 22
LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS

BY HUGH S. KNOWLES'
In the design and operation of electroacoustic devices, consideration
must be given both to the physical or "objective" properties of the
sounds that are to be reproduced and to the psychophysiological or
"subjective" processes involved in hearing.
a. Sound is an alteration in pressure, particle displacement, or particle
velocity propagated in an elastic material or the superposition of such
propagated alterations.
b. Sound is also the sensation produced through the ear by the alterations
described above. In case of possible confusion the term "sound wave"
may be used for concept (a), and the term "sound sensation" for concept (b).+
In the case of a sound wave in air the pressure is alternately above and
below atmospheric.
The velocity of propagation, c, of a sound wave of small amplitude is
C = 33,060 + 610 cm per sec. (1)
where O is the temperature in degrees centigrade. The wave length
X is given by the relation X = c /f, where f is the frequency in cycles per
second. The density p of dry air at 20 °C. and at a pressure of 760 mm is
0.001205 g per cubic centimeter.
The intensity of a plane or spherical "free" sound wave (no reflection)
in the direction of propagation is
I = -
pC
= 2.42 X 10 -0P= watt per sq cm (2)
where P is the effective sound pressure (dynes per square centimeter).

The standard reference intensity is 10-"'watt per square centimeter.
The intensity level in decibels of a plane or spherical free sound wave in
the direction of propagation is
IL = 10 login 2.42 X 10132 (3)
The standard reference pressure is 0.0002 dyne per square centimeter.
In a plane or spherical free wave the intensity is proportional to the square
of the pressure. In this case the pressure level in decibels of a sound
wave is defined as
r Jensen Radio Mfg. Co.
'American Tentative Standard Z24.1, Acoustical Terminology.
876
See. s=I LOUD- SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 877
PL = 20 login 5,000P (4)
Two pressures are said to differ by x db if 20 times the logarithm to the

base 10 of their ratio is x. As in the analogous electrical case involving
a field strength or voltage ratio, this is valid only if the impedances are
identical so that the energy is proportional in both instances to the square
of the respective pressures. For this reason Eqs. (2) and (4), in general, do
not hold in more complicated fields.
1. Speech. The variation in conversational speech power with fre-
quency is shown in Fig. 1 (after Sivian and Fletcher). The ratio of
sec. peak to averaged power in 15 -sec. intervals is roughly 20 db.
In overloaded amplifiers such as are frequently used in public address
systems, the ratio may be 10 db or less. This ratio is important in
ia..bon,
-M,,"
20
IO
FMNIM__ M\,
.0-PG
>
OC
ó; 0 MMNarm,m
o
MaMPA
UM NM
WM
BEM \
4- 6
o-
óá
-20 /OM
.Er1. Average power /Ssecond intervals (Women)ik
° -30 ..3. Ma;
o (Men)
,4.
:
6 imumpeakpaveriniBsemndinlervalslN,frir
cc
-40
5.
130.8
I I
261.6
Frequency. cps
I I
523.2
-
m
Peak power eXCeededin 2% ofinlerva/s '
- /0 %
1046 2092
i l l
4185 8310
Fla. 1.- Variation of conversational speech power with frequency. (After

Sivian and Fletcher.)
temperature-limited loud -speakers (see Tests). The distribution of
energy with frequency is brought out differently in Fig. 2 (after Fletcher).
Articulation curves which give a measure of the "recognizability" of
speech are shown in Fig. 3 (after Fletcher). The percentage of called
sounds correctly recognized is the per cent articulation. Tests of
syllable, sound, vowel, individual sound, and other types of articulation
are now widely used in the laboratory and to an increasing extent in the
field to determine the suitability of a system for the transmission of
speech. "Intelligibility" tests, in which the content of a simple sentence
is to be understood, are also used. On the average 30 per cent syllable
articulation corresponds to nearly 90 per cent "discrete sentence"
intelligibility, indicating the relative ease of understanding connected
speech. From Figs. 2 and 3 we note that reproducing only the fre-
quencies above 400 cycles halves the system power requirement and yet
reduces the articulation by a negligible amount. In a power-limited
iiu
system in which speech articulation is important, the transmission band
is sometimes limited to from 600 or 800 to 4,000 cycles, corresponding
roughly to the 90 per cent articulation points at each end. This reduced
band roughly quarters the power requirement.
IO
0
A-A//frequencies be%ow rB A//frequenciesabove
absassa removed - abscissa removed
.,,.,,I
iiuiuiuuu
40 70 100 200 400
Frequency, cps
1001000
Flo. 2.- Speech power variation with frequency. (After Fletcher.)

Articulation and naturalness are not to be confused. By successively
2000
raising the cutoff of high -pass filters and lowering the cutoff frequencies of
4000 10000
low-pass filters, each by a barely perceptible amount, Schäfer has shown

I00
C 80 i1
A-A//frequencies 'B',411 frequencies
ñ 60 bebwabscissa removed 'above abscissa removed
r
0
6
/
3 40 \
a 20
0
100 200 400 100 1000 2000 4000 100010,000
Frequency, cps
Fla. 3.-Variation of articulation with transmitted frequency range. (Afte.
Fletcher.)
that the required transmission band for natural speech reproduction
includes some 32 to 36 minimum perceptible changes in band width.'
SCHÄFSa, E., The Audibility of Variations in Frequency Band in Speech Trans-
mission, Elek. Nach.- tech., 15, No. 8, 237 -240, August, 1938.
Sec. 211 LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 879
The steps are roughly logarithmic. Some change in quality could be

detected when frequencies above 8,000 were attenuated. The transmis-
sion of natural sounding speech and noises which accompany it therefore
appears to require the transmission of all frequencies from 100 to about
10,000 cycles.
i'\
2. Music. The frequency distribution of the maximum and most
probable peak powers for a 75-piece orchestra is shown in Fig. 4 (after
Fletcher). The curves are based on average measurements of four
selections which gave whole "spectrum" peak powers from 8 to 66 watts
and average powers of 0.08 to 0.13 watt. Zero level corresponds to an
average power of about 0.1 watt. As in the case of speech the average
power over 15 -sec. intervals is about 1 per cent of the peak power in
n -sec. intervals.
20
v-0
a IO
as0
N o
ppr
L N
°'
°a4)
r IO
2
q
óa 20
I' 1. Maximumpmkpowersin5bsec.iHerw/s
o-
áce °o 30
Mos1 probable peakpowers in rBsecinkno,
Tofw/mvrmgr poser =O.I KW/ /approx.l 0db
-40 1111111111111
130. 261.6 523.2 4185 8370 16140
32.7 654 1046 2092
Frequency,c ps
FIG. 4.- Variation with frequency of the power
tra. (After Fletcher.)
output of a 75 -piece orches-
The power output of various musical instruments is shown in Table I.

The bass drum may radiate over a third of the peak power of a 75-piece
orchestra. The large peaks in the 20- to 62.5-cycle range of the organ
are well known to recorders and electronic organ people who find it
desirable to use 1 -f stops which are "rich in harmonic development" and
therefore sound much louder without badly overloading the record,
amplifier, and speaker. The 15-in. cymbals follow the drums and organ
closely in peak power output with 9.5 watts. Their maximum peaks
occur in the 8,000-to 11,300 -cycle range. Transmission systems having a
"predistortedl" frequency characteristic which includes a marked rise
in h -f response in some part of the system (such as f-m and television
transmitters) are frequently overloaded by this instrument. The same
problem occurs in recordings recorded with a similar characteristic.
The high output of the trombone in the 2,000 -to 2,800 -cycle band near
the frequency of maximum ear sensitivity gives the trombone (and other
brass instruments) their piercing "bite." It has been found that the
ear critically appraises the response of a system in this range and that
surprisingly small changes can be detected. This suggests that the
balance of the brasses in a studio pickup merits special attention.
880 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. ff
TABLE I. PEAK POWERS IN MUSIC
Field pressure,
dynes per
square centi-
position meters Per- Frequency
Total cent- band con -
Instrument and assumption
p in peak tainin
converting to total
Aver- Peak power, g of
age g
maximum
sound power watts inter- peaks
age in in vals p
15 -sec. 3¢ -sec. cps.
inter - inter-
val val
Bass drum, 36 3 ft. in front, on axis. 99.0 1,260.0 24.6 6.0 250- 500
X 15 in. Radiation confined
to a cylinder having
drum diameter
Bass drum, 30 Same as above 35.0 980.0 13.4 1.0 125- 250
X 12 in.
Snare drum ft. in front,
4
off axis. Peak pres-
90 deg. 14.6 365.0 11.9 2.5 250- 500
sure increased 8.5 db
for 1 -ft. distance.
Radiation confined
to hemisphere
15 -in. cymbals. 3 -ft. distance. Peak 18.0 360.0 9.5
pressure increased
7.5 8,000 -11,300
7.2 db for 1 ft. Ra-
diation confined to
hemisphere
Triangle 3-ft. distance. Con- 2.3 25.8 0.05 1.0 5,600- 8,000
version as for cym-
bals
Bass viol 3 -ft. distance. Ra- 4.2 37.8 0.158 2.0 62- 250
diation confined to
hemisphere
Bass saxophone 3-ft. distance. Radi- 4.1 58.2 0.288 25.0 250- 500
ation confined to
hemisphere
BBB tuba 3-ft. distance. Con- 5.4 43.2 0.206 17.0 250- 500
version made from
measurements with
a complex sound
source attached to a
horn of similar size
Trombone 3 -ft.distance. Con- 6.5 228.0 6.4 5.0 500- 700
version as for tuba 2.000- 2,800
Trumpet 3-ft. distance. Con- 8.6 54.2 0.314 18.0 250- 700
version as for tuba
French horn As for trumpet 3.8 27.0 0.053 6.0 250- 500
Clarinet As for trumpet 3.3 26.4 0.050 5.5 250- 500
See. 22] LOUD- SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 881
TABLE I. PEAK POWERS IN MIISIC.- (Continued)

Field pressure,
dynes per
square centi-
meters Per-
Microphone position Total cent -
band con-
Instrument and assumption in peak age of
taining
converting to total Aver- Peak power, inter- maximum
watts peaks
sound power age in in vals
15-sec.3-sec.
inter- inter-
val val
Flute As for trumpet 1.6 25.6 0.055 1.0 700- 1,000

1.400- 2.000
Piccolo 4s for trumpet 2.2 30.8 0.084 0.5 2,000- 2,800
Piano 10 -ft.
distance. Room 2.6 23.4 0.267 16.0 250- 500
29 X 29 X 13 ft.
Reverberation time
1 sec., 60 -4,000 ,
average of 3 methods
15 -piece orches- 6 ft. from nearest in- 7.9 126.0 9.0 1.5 2,50- 500
tra struments, in same
room as piano. Av-
erage of 2 methods 2,000- 2,800
75 -piece orchea- 15 ft. from nearest in- 4.6 129.0 66.5 1.0 250 - 500
tra strument in theater 8,000- 11,300
Pipe organ Effective distance 15 20.0 90.0 12.6 36.0 20- 62.5
ft. Radiation as-
sumed uniform over
y, sphere
The audible frequency ranges of many musical instruments are shown

in Fig. 5 (after Snow). The vertical ruled portions indicate the frequency
range in which noises accompanying the playing of the instrument occur.
While the elimination of these frequencies permits the fact that the fre-
quency range is restricted to be detected, it does not mean that the quality
is judged to be best with the unrestricted range. In many cases the
quality of the reproduced music from instruments which radiate extrane-
ous noises (reed, bowing, key, and others) is improved by eliminating the
noise range.
In restricting the transmitted frequency range of reproduced music,
we have to be primarily concerned with the degradation in quality as
judged by a good "sound jury" rather than with recognition of the
selection played or the power distribution with frequency or "spectral
composition' of the music. The average results of a test of this kind,
using a jury of 10 and an 18 -piece orchestra, are shown in Fig. 6 (after
Snow). Considering the many variables involved, the maximum and
mean deviations from the curve were surprisingly small. It was the
judgment of the observers that the quality improved rapidly as the
lower range was extended to 80 cycles and the upper to 8,000 cycles.
It has been found experimentally that, if the transmitted frequency
range is to be restricted, good balance between low and high frequencies
may be obtained by so choosing the range that approximately equal

degradation in quality occurs because of loss of low and high frequencies.
For reasonable degradation the product of these two frequencies is
roughly 640,000. The square root of this product or the geometric mean
-
of these frequencies is therefore roughly 800 cycles. A system trans-
mitting more octaves below 800 cycles than above usually sounds
ununllll
o
Actual lone range
Accompanying noise range
Cut-off frequency of fi/ter
'
delectable in 80% of tests

Tympani
Bass dru m
Snare dru
14 "Cymbal S
/1-__.m Ill 111111
IIIIIII Ili
MIMSIMENNIMENIMIII
III
Bass viol
cello
Piano
Violin
Bass tuba
Trombon e
French ho rn
IIII r 111I1I1IIIII
u,=..o1.=E1
1M=MVIII=1=A
Trumpet
Bass saxo phone um,
Bassoon,
ñéf_:
Bass cla n
un
111111
Clarinet
MNI111III nunn
,""I-,"'f
Soprano s áxophone ` plllll
Oboe
Flute ___ IIIIAII
Piccolo -
Male spe
Female s
Foot steps_
Hand cla
Key jmgll ñqng w_ommuiDiiiÌÌ
40 60 100 200 500 1000 5000 10.000 20(
Frequency,cps
Ftc. 5.- Audible frequency ranges of some musical instruments and sounds.
(After Snow.)
heavy, "thick," or u"drummy." Likewise a system transmitting
"heavy,"
octaves above 800 cycles than below will sound "thin" or "tinny."
This assumes flat response in the range and similar cutoff characteristics.
A sharp cutoff at one end will increase the apparent output at that end
because of the transient response which accompanies such a cutoff. A
peak in either range will increase the steady -state and transient response
in that region. This can be only partly balanced by added response in
the other range.
In considering the problem of reproducing sounds in a complete
system including the effect of the room at the source of sound and at the
Sec. 42] LOUD- SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 883
source of the reproduced sound, it is desirable to know the energy dis-

tribution with frequency of a typical sound. The importance of this
100
Á// frequencies bei /ow
abscissa removed
80
B A//frequenciesabove
abscissa removed'
to 60
-6- 4°
d7
20
o
10 20 40 70 100 200 400 1000 4000 10,000 20000
Frequency, cps
Fia. 6.- Variation in quality of reproduced orchestral music with transmitted
frequency range. (After Snow.)
will be discussed under Room Acoustics. Since a common type of
sound in music is a damped sinusoid, corresponding, for example, to the
sound output of a plucked string instrument, the spectral analysis
a =/0
I I I I I I I w
o
I11T1!h1!!!!
ó a
c
P(tl=poe'tcoswot Ostao ó
tc 11(1) =0 t<0 °
c
a 2+w2
pawl =.12-0 (wo -w2+a212+4a2w2
lu
a = /00 v
v
ri a.
-4
a)
CC
t =0 w =0 w =°Jo w-
Fia. 7.-Pressure variation with frequency for two isolated damped sinusoids
with different rates of decay, values of a the sanie in the two sets of curves.
for two waves with different rates of decay is shown in Fig. 7. Any
isolated wave train of this type contains energy which covers an infinite
frequency interval. By analogy with the optical case the spectrum is

said to be a continuous or band spectrum.
The highly damped wave contains appreciable energy at frequencies
differing up to from 20 to 30 per cent from the frequency of a correspond-
ing undamped wave. As the rate of decay is decreased, the wave train
contains more energy, and an increasing amount of this is concentrated
near the undamped frequency of the wave. In the limit when the rate of
decay is zero and the wave has existed for an infinite length of time, i.e.,
when we have a steady state, the band spectrum degenerates into a line
spectrum with all the energy concentrated at the undamped frequency
of the wave.
The fact that music and speech are not of a steady -state character
but vary from instant to instant (and therefore have a continuous dis-
tribution with frequency of their energy) substantially aids their satis-
factory transmission in a room (see Room Acoustics).
3. Aoise. Noise is an "unpitched" sound composed of a large
number of discontinuous, non -periodic sounds. Therefore the energy in
noise is distributed in a continuous manner with frequency. A click,
for example, closely approaches the hypothetical pulse which lasts for
an infinitesimal length of time and the energy of which is continuously
and uniformly distributed with frequency. A noise may have one or
more broad peaks in its band spectrum, but a sharp peak indicates a
nearly periodic disturbance which will give the noise a definite pitch.
The properties of noises are of some importance because (1) the
proper reproduction of intended noises may enhance the dramatic value
of the reproduction, (2) the ambient noise levels in studios or halls and
in rooms frequently limit the dynamic range at the "pickup" and
"playback" points, and (3) they influence the response of the ear by pro-
ducing masking or artificial deafening.
The reproduction of most noises requires the transmission of substan-
tially the entire audible frequency range. For this reason noises are
frequently used as test material in high-quality systems. The frequency
ranges of footsteps, hand clapping, and key jingling are shown in Fig. 5.
These indicate that it is particularly important that all the upper audible
frequencies be transmitted.
The intensity level of various representative noises is listed in Table II.
In urban locations, particularly in large buildings, the ambient noise
level in moderately quiet rooms is of the order of 45 to 60 db. This noise
level is high enough so that even in specially treated broadcasting studios
it frequently limits the dynamic range of the transmitter.
Even in relatively quiet residential sections the ambient noise level
in a typical listening room is high enough so that it, too, places a lower
limit on the intensity of the sound required to overide the noise.
4. Hearing. All the data contained under Speech, Music, and Noise
which were obtained by the use of a sound jury or listener involve the
sensation produced in the listener by the designated source of sound.
All tests of this type depend to some extent on the techniques employed
and, of course, on the observers. All similar tests are of principal value
when the jury is composed of a large selected sample with known hearing
characteristics.
One of the most important properties of sound is its loudness. This
has been found to vary with both the frequency and intensity of the
sound. To a rough approximation it has been found that in the middle
See. 221 LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 885
TABLE II. NOISE LEVELS
Pressure, Noise level,

dynes per decibels
square above Type of noise
reference
centimeter threshold
630 130 Pain threshold

250 122 Airplane-1,600 rpm, 18 ft.
45 109 Boiler factory
25 102 Subway train passing station
13 96 Elevated train -15 ft.
4.0 86 Heavy traffic-15 ft.
2.0 80 Average truck -I5
ft.
1.3 75 Average factory location
8.3 X 10-4 70 Average automobile -15 ft.
3.2 X 10 -1 64 Department store
1.1 X 10-1 55 Average office
2.8 X 10-1 43 Quiet office
8.3 X 10 -3 30 Very quite residence
1.4 X 10-+ 17 Gentle whisper -5
ft.
Threshold (for street noise)
4.5 X 10 -4 7
120
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Frequency, cps
Fla. 8.- Loudness level curves showing variation in sound intensity with
frequency required to produce a sound judged to be as loud as the 1,000-cycle
reference sound intensity given on the curves. (After Fletcher and Munson.)
Solid curves obtained with listener facing sound source. Dashed curve
indicates threshold (corresponding to solid curve O) but for sound of random
incidence. (After Sivian.)
886 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. is
frequency range equal percentage increases in intensity produce equal
increases in loudness. The loudness is the magnitude of the hearing
sensation and is assumed proportional to the number of nerve impulses
reaching the brain per second.
The loudness level contours for a sample of 200 ears are shown in Fig. 8
(after Fletcher and Munson). These curves were obtained by alter-
nately listening to a sound of arbitrary frequency and intensity and
comparing it with a 1.000 -cycle tone the intensity of which was adjusted
1-.11.
until the two were judged to he equally loud. At 1,000 cycles therefore
mermii-
the loudness level of the sound corresponds to the intensity level because
feeling gm
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Frequency, cps
FIG. 9.-Threshold of hearing curves for large population sample. Per-
centage figures indicate percentage of sample tested having a hearing thresh-
old lower than the corresponding curve. (After Beasley.)
this is the reference test frequency. The intensity is that which exists
in an undisturbed sound field before the listener is immersed in it.
The observer faces the source and listens to the sound binaurally. By
plotting the differences in minimum audible field intensities for sound of
normal and random incidence found by Sivian, we obtain the dotted
curve in Fig. 8. This indicates that the other contours for sound of
random incidence would also be more regular.
Recently reports have been made by Beasley on a sample of 16,000 ears.
Some of the results are shown in Fig. 9. The curves show the percentage
of the sample tested which had lower thresholds of hearing than the
indicated value. For example, the solid curve marked 50 per cent indi-
cates that 50 per cent of the ears tested had thresholds of hearing equal
to or better than that indicated by this curve. From these data we see
that the Fletcher and Munson threshold curves are for ears in the upper
1 per cent of the 16,000 -ear sample, and that hearing deficiencies are
prevalent enough to justify their consideration in equipment design.
Sec. III LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 887
of a
The loudness or apparent response or transmission characteristic
intensity
system emitting a plane free sound wave of three constant
levels is shown in Fig. 10. A loud sound (constant 100-dbA intensity
sound of
level) seems almost equally loud from 30 to 6,000 cycles. below
moderate intensity (constant 60-db intensity level) is inaudible In the
60 cycles and increases in loudness rapidly up to 400 cycles.
loudness at
presence of noise, masking would substantially reduce therapidly with
low intensities. The l-f characteristic varies much more volume
intensity level than the high and for this reason compensated
controls are designed to have their maximum effect at low frequencies.
100,000
70,000 /nknsdykee/=/óbdb;P= u--
40,000
20000 80db p,I

10,000
N 7000
60 db aZ,ÿan,
4000
É
2000
1000
J 700
400
200
100
10 20 40 70 100 200 400 7001000 4000 10,000
Frequency, cps
Fio. 10.-Loudness variation with frequency for three Fire tones of the indi-
cated intensity showing reduced loudness of low intensity l -f sounds.
It should be noted that the intensity -level compensated characteristic by
is a purely arbitrary thing and, although it is considered superior when
some, it does not correspond to our normal experience. In practice,
"drop out."
we go some distance from the source, the low frequencies effect.
When an orchestra plays at low intensity, we get the same deafness or
The effect of noise on hearing is to produce artificial results depends
"masking." The nature of the apparent deafness which fairly
on the spectral composition of the noise. Many noises produce levels is to
uniform deafening or masking. The effect of moderate noise
decrease articulation. This may be largely compensated by raising the
intensity level of the sound.
LOUD- SPEAKERS
A loud-speaker is a device which is actuated by electrical
signal energy
and radiates acoustical energy into a room or open air. The shorter
term speaker is used when no confusion with a person addressing a

microphone results.
The selection and installation of a speaker as well as its design should
be guided by the problem of coupling an electrical signal source as
efficiently as possible to an acoustical load. This involves the
mination of the acoustical load or radiation impedance and selection deter-
of a diaphragm, motor, and means for coupling the loaded loud-speaker
to an electrical signal source. The performance of the speaker is inti-
Frequency, cps for l2 "speaker(10 "piston)
ií
,10 30 50
iw
100
. , 300 500 1000 4000
'1 -2
70
40
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2 =MR xIO4Rforfinke.forRofS47cros65speaker)
Fto. 11.- Radiation resistance, reactance, and mass per
of a flat, rigid piston vibrating in an infinite, rigid non square centimeter
-absorbing baffle.
Piston radiates into a solid angle, S2 = 2r steradians (hemisphere).
inately connected with the nature of its acoustic load and should not be
considered apart from it. The nature of the radiating system, and
therefore the acoustic load impedance it sees, is primarily determined by
space, acoustical environment, and cost factors.
5. Radiation Impedance. When a vibrating diaphragm placed in
contact with air, its impedance to motion is altered. isThe added
impedance seen by the surfaces which emit useful sound energy may be
called the radiation impedance. By analogy with antenna systems the
resistive part is called the radiation resistance. The radiation reactance
or reactive part is usually positive, and the corresponding apparent mass
may be called the radiation mass. The radiation impedance seen by a
Sec. !!l LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 889
diaphragm depends on its size, shape, the frequency, the acoustical

environment, and the medium into which it radiates.
8. Single Piston. The average radiation impedance per unit area
seen by a flat circular piston vibrating in a thin, rigid, non -absorbent,
infinite plane or baffle in air is shown in Fig. 11. When the length of the
radiated sound wave X exceeds the circumference of the piston, 2,rR,
1.0
8
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.....
MINIM II.1'..11M
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10 20 40 60 80100 200
Frequency, cps
Fla. 12. -Total displacement required of diaphragminto of indicated size to
radiate one watt. Solid curves for pistons radiating a hemisphere at
low frequencies where the radiation resistance is proportional to the square
curves for
of the frequency (2vR /X less than about 1.4 in Fig. 11). Dashed centimeter
constant radiation resistance of 41.5 mechanical ohms per square
(exponential horn value well above horn cutoff frequency).
the radiation resistance is nearly proportional to the square of the

frequency. In this frequency range the piston velocity should vary
inversely with frequency to radiate constant power since this is equal
[see Eq.
to the square of the r-m -s velocity and the radiation resistanceobtained
(5)]. This variation in velocity with frequency is usually
by placing the fundamental resonant frequency of the diaphragm and has
motor near the lowest frequency to be transmitted so the systemWhen
mass reactance or is "mass- controlled" in this frequency range.
the wave length is less than half this value, the resistance is very nearly
41.3 mechanical ohms per square centimeter and the diaphragm (real or
virtual) is efficiently coupled to the air (see Diaphragms, Size).
When the length of the radiated wave exceeds the circumference of the
piston, the air increases the apparent mass of each side of the diaphragm
by approximately the mass of air contained in a cylinder whose base is the
piston and whose height is 0.85 times the piston radius. At high fre-
quencies the radiation mass ( "accession to inertia ") and the mass
reactance decrease and approach
zero for infinite frequency.
7. Mutual Radiation Impedance.
When a sound wave radiated from
one surface of a diaphragm has ac-
cess to another surface of the same
diaphragm or to a surface of another
diaphragm, there is said to be cou-
pling between the surfaces. Con-
sideration of this mutual radiation
impedance is simplified by fixing
attention on what occurs at each
diaphragm. The motion of the dia-
phragm is opposed by the ( "self-")
radiation impedance. It is also op-
posed or aided by the force exerted
on it by the waves generated by
any other diaphragms which are
Fia. 13.- Primary images 2, 3, coupled to it. The (complex) ratio
and 4 of piston 1 introduced by of the force due to all other dia-
planes Y and Z. phragms to the velocity of the dia-
phragm itself is the mechanical
impedance seen by the diaphragm due to the other diaphragms. This we
will call the total mutual radiation impedance.
The total radiation impedance seen by a diaphragm is the sum of the
self- and the "mutual" radiation impedances. The acoustic power IV,
radiated by a diaphragm is
1V, = (rs rM)V2 X l0-' watt (5)
where rs = real part of self- radiation impedance (total)
rM = real part of mutual -radiation impedance (total)
V = r-m -s diaphragm velocity in centimeters per second.
Note that the velocity appears as current would in the corresponding
electrical equation. The diaphragm displacement is V /2,rf, where f is
the frequency. The total displacement of various diaphragms required
to radiate 1 watt is shown in Fig. 12. These curves clearly show the
need for large diaphragms if appreciable low- frequency power is to be
radiated.
By knowing the self- and mutual radiation impedances of diaphragms
mounted in a single infinite baffle we can determine the impedance
seen when other baffles are added. In Fig. 13 assume four pistons
(1, 2, 3, 4) mounted in the X- plane. Because of symmetry there is no
net sound flux through the plane Y since for every positive vertical
(z) component from pistons 3, 4 there is a negative component downward
from pistons 1, 2. We may therefore introduce the rigid, thin, non-
absorbent plane or baffle Y without altering the impedance seen by any

of the pistons. With Y in place we may remove istons 3 4, and pistons
1, 2 will continue to see the same impedance. Thesound wave reflected
by the plane corresponds exactly to the wave which would come from
" primary
diaphragms 3, 4 and therefore the plane is said to have created which 1, 2
images" (by analogy with the optical case) of diaphragms 1, 2
cannot distinguish from the real diaphragms 3, 4. Similarly the plane Z
Fie. 14.-Effect of adding pistons and reflecting planes on radiation

impedance. All pistons marked with the same letter see the same radiation
impedance.
may be introduced and pistons 2, 3, 4 removed, leaving 1 looking into its
original impedance. In all cases pistons of equal size, vibrating in phase
and with the same amplitude in infinite, rigid non -absorbing baffles, are
assumed. The relations hold approximately when the baffles are a
wave length or more long. Finite impedance of a baffle may be treated
by assuming reduced amplitude of the image to account for absorption
and a change in phase to account for the reactive part of the impedance.
The principle is readily extended to multiple sources of arbitrary size,
phase, and displacement such as occur in vented enclosures, labyrinths,
and the like.
Several piston combinations are shown in Fig. 14. All pistons marked
with the same letter see the same radiation impedance. The ratio of the
radiation resistance and reactance seen in each case to that seen by
single piston A is shown in Figs. 15 and 16 (after Klapman). The actuala
impedance is therefore obtained by multiplying the ordinates of Fig. 15
or 16 by the corresponding ordinate of Fig. 11. The letters on the curves
correspond to those on the pistons in Fig. 14.
Values of the ordinate less than 1 indicate the piston sees less resistance
or reactance than it would if alone in a single infinite plane. This
Frequency, c ps for l2 "speaker(10 "piston)

SO 6010 80 100 200 300 400
4
0
01 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 060708 1.0
2aR
= 1833 x104Rfor fin k.c.forR of5.47cros. (-Sspecked
Fio. 15.-Ratio of radiation resistance seen by a piston in the presence of
one or more others (real or images) vibrating with equal amplitude and
phase to radiation resistance it would see alone radiating into a hemisphere.
Designating letter of curve is same as that of corresponding piston in Fig. 14.
(AfEer Klapman.)
occurs when the time delay in the wave from one diaphragm and the
frequency are such as to give out-of-phase components at the other.
Figure 15 shows that the radiation resistance is increased by the largest
factor and over the greatest frequency range when each diaphragm is as
close to all others as possible. At low frequencies the group then behaves
as a single large piston. Figures 15 and 16 show that the radiation
resistance increases much more rapidly than the reactance as speakers
(or their images) are added. The exact improvement in efficiency which
results depends on the impedance seen looking back into the speaker
diaphragm but a typical speaker efficiency is increased by a factor of
nearly 2 (3 db) for case B and 3.2 (about 5 db) for case C. This
indicates qualitatively the improvement gained by operating a speaker
at the intersection of the floor and wall and in a corner, respectively.
Sec. 211 LOUD- SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 893
For a given diaphragm amplitude one speaker in locations B and C

will radiate two and four times as much 1-f energy, respectively, as one
in location A. The radiated power for constant amplitude is therefore
proportional to the square of the number of actual diaphragms. The
radiation resistance at high frequencies is not improved by the use of
additional speakers. A group of speakers therefore has better low but
no better high response than a single one, and they therefore sound as
though they had relatively less high response. Except for cost reasons
multiple speakers are usually preferred to a single speaker with the same
size motor because (1) the small diaphragms are lighter per unit area
than a large one of adequate rigidity, giving better efficiency and high
response; (2) the angle of individual speakers may be adjusted a moderate
Frequency, cps for I2"spea ker (I0" piston)
50 60 70 80
, I
-%I I I
100
I
200
,
300
r
400
i
-B
,A
t
.1 0.15 0.2 03 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 IA
2nR =1. 83311 04Rforfinkc .forRof5.47cros.(5speaker)
Pio. 16.-Ratio of radiation reactance (or mass) seen by a piston in the
presence of one or more others (real or images) vibrating with equal ampli-
tude and phase to reactance (or mass) it would see alone radiating into a
hemisphere. Designating letter of curve is same as that of corresponding
piston in Fig. 14. (After Klapman.)
amount to give a good h -f directional pattern without injuring the 1 -f
response; (3) improved reliability, since failure of a single unit usually
does not seriously affect the performance of the group; and (4) the
temperature rise of each voice coil is reduced.
MULTIPLE LOUD - SPEAKERS
Some of the numerous advantages of multiple direct -radiator speakers
where these all cover the same frequency range are discussed in Art. 7,
Mutual Radiation Impedance, above. Multiple-speaker systems in
which the speakers cover complementary frequency ranges also have
certain advantages and are widely used. The more important advan-
tages are (1) improved frequency response, since each type of unit covers
a moderate range; (2) higher system efficiency, for the same reason; (3)
improved directivity characteristic, since the diaphragm (or horn mouth)
for the highest frequency range may be made relatively small (see Figs.
S94 TILE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDBOOK [Sec. 22
17, 17a, and 17b) (4) improved transient response, since many of the
artifices used to obtain extended frequency ranges in single units make
the transient response worst, particularly at high frequencies; (5) reduced
intermodulation, since large amplitudes are confined to speaker reproduc-
ing low frequencies; and (6) reduced frequency modulation which occurs
when a single diaphragm moves with large amplitude with respect to the
listener, thereby altering the frequency (due to the Doppler effect).
8. Piston Directivity. With rising frequency the radiation from a
rigid piston becomes increasingly concentrated on the axis, as shown in
+3
+20 ker
'a'
SOUND PRESSURE ON4XIS '5Ped Aker
FOR COVSTANTTOIAL RADIATION '
j2á 5 e edKe
S5
TOTAL
1\\.s
RADIAT/ON FOR CONSTANT
SOUND PRESSURE ON A15/3 é!.
et)*
c- cJ,P4
.(
20
-30
1 200 400 700 Ikc 2kc 4kc 7kcl0kc 20kc
Frequency, cps
Flo. 17. -Effect of concentration of radiation on piston axis at high fre-
quencies for the case of pistons radiating constant total power (top curves) and
the case of constant pressure response on the axis (lower curves). Because
of cone flexing the concentration is less marked in actual diaphragms where
the equivalent piston diameter at high frequencies approaches about six -
tenths the actual cone diameter.
Figs. 17 and 17a. Figure 17 shows that, if the flat axial pressure response
curve so often sought after is obtained, the total radiation and therefore
the efficiency are actually falling rapidly at high frequencies. Con-
versely, if a speaker is to have constant efficiency its axial pressure
response must rise appreciably at high frequencies. The variation in
relative response with angle up to the angle for which the first minimum
occurs is shown in Fig. 17a. The response on the axis has been arbi-
trarily adjusted to the same reference level in all curves. At high fre-
quencies the effective area of an actual cone is reduced by flexing, so that
the directivity of actual cones is somewhat less than that shown for the
piston.
LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 895
See. !fl
..
Typical directional curves for fi- and 10-in. (designating size) speakers
,°;!`#,
are shown in Fig. 17b. The axial response is assumed equalized to
give
15°
0° 15°
30 30°
°
45 45
6444104414
90"llatt r.fk.laf 90°
Fla. 17a.- Variation in relative response with onangle up to the angle for
which the first minimum occurs. The response curves. the axis has been arbi-
trarily adjusted to the same reference level in all
flat response and the relative response for other angles is shown.
Typical
directional curves for a 6- by 9-in. designating size) elliptical speaker
6 i 9 "t//¡pae v er/2a/mainting
`r11,1111
60°
1111
6;9e//pse - -
I¢in.circuhr horironla/movntirsy
Frequency,c.p s Frequency,c.p.s.
Fta. 17b.-Experiment ally determined directional characteristics for two
The elliptical diaphragm has the
circular and one elliptical diaphragms. plane
broadest characteristic in the horizontal when its major (long) axis is
vertical.
of this elliptical
are also shown. These show that the directionalisresponse to
speaker in the plane of the minor or short axis roughly comparable
that of a circular speaker with a diameter equal to the minor axis. The
directional response in the plane of the major or long axis is worse than
that of a 10-in. circular speaker up to about 6,000 cycles. Above this
frequency it is better. Contrary to popular belief the elliptical speaker
should be mounted with its major axis vertical to get broadest distribution
in the horizontal plane. This corresponds to the theoretical predictions
of Stenzel. This same effect is present in rectangular mouth -shaped
horns where the middle and middle h -f response is most directional in the
plane of the broadest horn mouth dimension unless partitions, or separate
cells are used. Even then the effect is present when the wave
comparable to the smaller dimension of the entire mouth. length is
9. Horns. A horn is a tapered acoustical transmission line used
couple the impedance it sees, looking back into the diaphragm, as effi- to
ciently as possible to the load it sees looking out of its mouth (see Motors).
The small end of a horn is called its throat,
its mouth has an infinite flange or baffle, the the large end its mouth. If
radiation impedance it sees
is approximately the impedance given in Fig. 11. If there is no flange,
the radiation resistance is half and the reactance approximately seven -
tenths this value at low frequencies. At high frequencies the flange
does not alter the impedance.
Exponential horns are usually employed because they provide more
efficient coupling at low frequencies. Their cross- sectional area varies
exponentially with length and is defined by the following relation:
S = Soe
where S and So are the areas of plane section normal to the horn axis
at a distance x from the throat and at the throat, respectively; m is a
constant which determines the rate of flare and theoretical cutoff fre-
quency; and e = 2.71828. Curves showing the
for different area ratios and cutoff frequencies areaxial length of the horn
given in Fig. 18.
The impedance per unit area seen at the throat of an infinitely long
non -absorbing horn is
ZA = rA + jxA = pc("V 1 - m=c=

4w=
mc)
+72w/ (7)
where p, c, and m have been defined and w = 27 times the frequency.
The total mechanical impedance seen by the diaphragm is AdzA, where Ad
is the diaphragm area, assumed equal to the horn throat
area. The
radiated acoustic power IV assuming no absorption in the horn, is
W, = Vd7AdrA X 10-7 = Vd=pcAd X 10 -7)111 - msc' watt

4w= (8)
where V = r-m -s diaphragm velocity. The exponential horn behaves
as a high -pass filter, since its input resistance is zero when w is
less than me /2 and rapidly approaches a constant at higher frequencies.
The theoretical cutoff frequency is j., = me /4ar.
In a horn of finite length the outgoing wave does not see radiation
impedance, at the horn mouth, equal to the characteristic aimpedance
of the infinite horn unless the length of the wave is approximately two -
thirds the mouth diameter, or less. The wave is therefore partially
Sea 221 LOUD- SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 897
reflected at low frequencies. Partial reflection of the return wave also

occurs at the diaphragm unless the impedance looking into the diaphragm
(or sound chamber) equals the characteristic impedance of the infinite
horn. This requirement can be met over a wide frequency range only
with very efficient motors. These reflections result in maxima and
minima in the throat impedance of the horn which become more severe
as the horn mouth is made smaller. The actual cutoff frequency of most
exponential horns is about 20 per cent above the theoretical. The horn-
1000
ENE,
700
h 400
o.
u
ESE.
Taffeibl.
200
100
3 70
s
4° 11111V0.70.MM
r
r
WASEMEI
20
10
x,
2
MI
4 7 10
MI
20 40 70
xZ , Distance between areas A, and Az inches
100
Flo. 18.- Distance along exponential horn axis between area ratios indi-
cated on curves for theoretical cutoff frequency given by the ordinate. For
example, the area of a 70 -cycle horn doubles every 11 in. and the area of a
100-cycle horn increases 20 per cent every 2 in.
mouth diameter is usually made about one -third the length of the wave
corresponding to this actual cutoff frequency.
If the impedance seen by the diaphragm and given by Eq. (7) is not
high enough, an air "transformer" or sound chamber is used to increase
it. The horn throat is then made smaller than the diaphragm. At low
frequencies the impedance seen by the diaphragm is increased by a
factor (Aa /A,)2 where A, is the throat area. To maintain the radiation
resistance seen by the diaphragm up to high frequencies, the sound cham-
ber is usually divided in some manner or made narrow to avoid cancella-
tion effects. Two of the more recent sound chamber constructions to
achieve this are shown in Figs. 19 and 20. Figure 19 shows a dome-
shaped diaphragm and a series of concentric circular slots. Figure 20
shows an annular trough-shaped diaphragm which minimizes the dis-
tance from any part of the diaphragm to the circular exit slot.
898 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. Ili
From Fig. 11 we note that a diaphragm looks into a radiation resist-

ance of about 42 ohms per square centimeter when the peripheral length
of the piston is more than twice the length of the radiated sound wave
(2s-R greater than 2X). This corresponds to frequencies higher than 1,000
and 2,000 cps for 10- and 5-in. speakers, respectively. From Eq. (7)
we note that this is also the maximum resistance seen looking into an
exponential horn unless a sound chamber is used. This accounts for the
Cover. ;Diaphragm Sound

7 chamber
Rubber '-Top plate

gasket 'Voice cod
Pole piece
FIG. 19. -Cross section of a diaphragm and sound chamber in which
concentric annular slots are used to reduce destructive sound chamber
interference at high frequencies.
fact that the addition of a horn to a conventional large-diaphragm speaker
helps the efficiency only below about 1 000 or 2,000 cycles, depending
on the diaphragm size. This added efficiency is obtained down to a
frequency from 10 to 30 per cent above the theoretical cutoff frequency'
of the horn. Below this the efficiency may be lower than it would be if
the diaphragm were on a large baffle. The net effect is to make the unit
sound more efficient but relatively deficient in high -frequency response.
Sound
chamber
Top p/ate
. 'Diaphragm
Pole Voicecoil
piece
Fla. 20. -Cross section of annular V- shaped diaphragm and sound chamber
used to reduce destructive interference in sound chamber at high frequencies.
The idea is prevalent that a long horn with a slow rate of flare is much
more directional than a short one with a rapid rate of flare when both
horns have the same mouth diameter. Theoretically and experimentally
it has been found however that the directivity depends almost altogether
on the mouth size and shape since the mouth becomes a "virtual" sound
source. Near the 1 -f cutoff all horns become relatively non -directional
and they are made more directional by increasing the mouth diameter,
not by making the horn longer. Minor effects occur at high frequencies
but may usually be neglected compared with the 1-f effect.
DIAPHRAGMS
10. Principle of Operation. The diaphragm is the part of the
speaker
which couples the radiation impedance to the speaker motor. In the
usual hornless or direct radiator speaker the force exerted by the motor
which is
is localized, and this must be transmitted to the acoustic load little as
spread over a large area. To do this effectively and tolight add as
possible to the impedance, the cone is made as rigid and as possible.
The usual conical diaphragm may be thought of asfrom a continuous
mechanical transmission line radiating acoustic energy each ele-
ment of area. Radial waves which travel from the driving point to the
edge and are reflected and circumferential waves which travel around the
cone, both occur in various combinations depending on the "mode
of
vibration." the one in which
The lowest frequency mode and the simplest one is the edge termina-
the effective radial wave length of the cone, including with a quarter
tion, is one -quarter wave. (This must not be confused which
wave length in air at the same frequency.) At this frequency, cones, no
ranges from 700 cycles in large to 1,400 cycles or more in small
move in phase.
circumferential wave is present, and all parts of the cone
a minimum at the
The displacement is a maximum at the apex and and terminates the
flexible annulus which supports the outer edge
transmission line. The impedance of this termination plays an important
part in the diaphragm behavior, especially at frequencies near the funda-
mental resonance of the diaphragm and motor and in the 1,000- to 2,000 -
cycle range.
At frequencies below the lowest mode of the cone itself all parts of the
cone move in phase, and the cone behaves approximately as ain piston which
unless the annulus stiffness increases rapidly with displacement,
The annulus is
case the cone may flex at even very low frequencies. to produce
frequently made this way deliberately in inexpensive speakers loudness by
distortion of low frequencies and substantially increase their
radiating most of the energy at harmonic frequencies. Unfortunately,
occurs, which
intermodulation of low and high frequencies thena also
makes the high end sound rough or garbled when strong low note is
reproduced.
11. Size. It has been found experimentally that at low frequencies
the effective area of the cone is its projected or for base area. This is
approximately the "cone" size where this is defined a circular cone as
"the diameter to the nearest quarter-inch of the minimum circle deter-
its base."
mined by the tangency of the cone and a plane touching
This is not to he confused with the designating size of a loud-speaker
which is commonly used in describing a speaker. radiator
"The designating size of a loudspeaker employing a circular
to the nearest
shall he twice the maximum radial dimension, measureddesignating
eighth-inch, of the front of the speaker except that the portion ofsize
the
shall not exceed the maximum diameter of the unsupported
vibrating system by more than 25 %. "i
Radio Manufacturers Association, definition M5 -111.
'Radio Manufacturers Association, definition M5-110.
This definition is intended to limit the amount of functionally useless
cone housing included in the designating size. Representative cone
sizes for various speaker-designating sizes are shown in Fig. 12.
In direct radiator speakers and at low frequencies the radiation resist-
ance is proportional to the fourth power of the radius (square of the
area) and the reactance to the cube of the radius. The resistance
reactance ratio or power factor of the radiation impedance is therefore-
proportional to the piston radius. For constant radiated power the
piston displacement varies inversely with area. With fixed amplitude
the radiated power is proportional to the square of the area at a given
frequency, or a frequency one octave lower may be reproduced if the
area is increased by a factor of four. The upper limit to diaphragm size
is set by the increased weight per unit area required to get a sufficiently
rigid structure. The nature of the acoustic load (horn enclosure,
/
0
,/.'
T
,,1'=, ``-----
-
A
o
-20
-o -25
I!/11"
-30
30 40 60 80 100 150 200 300 400 600 1000
Frequency, c
Fta. 21.- System efficiency of four speakers using identical moving -coil
motors but different cone sizes (calculated). Designating size of speaker is
given.
cabinet, etc.), space limitations, cost, and the motor employed also
control size.
It is customary to increase the size of the motor as the diaphragm size
is increased, since the mechanical impedance looking back into the motor
(voice coil, say) should go up as the impedance looking into the driving
point of the cone rises to maintain good energy transfer. If a large cone
is put on a small motor, the displacement and distortion for a given
acoustic output drop and lower frequencies may be reproduced with the
same distortion, but the efficiency in the mid-range may actually drop.
These effects are illustrated in Fig. 21, in which the calculated system
efficiency of four speakers using different size cones but the same motor
are shown. Minimum cone weights, found to be satisfactory experi-
mentally, and average mechanical resistance and resonant frequencies
were assumed. The motor is an intermediate size normally employed on
8-in. speakers but frequently used on all four diaphragm sizes. Speaker
efficiency, even at low frequencies, is therefore not limited by cone size.
The cone size must be large, however, if appreciable power is to be
radiated with reasonable cone excursions at low frequencies.
Sec. 22) LOUD-SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 90I
12. Shape. The most efficient shape at low frequencies is circular.

This is also the most satisfactory structurally. Theoretical and experi-
mental investigations have shown that an ellipse with a major to minor
axis ratio of two, and a two -to-one rectangle have an average of 5 and 7
per cent lower radiation resistance in the useful l -f rango than a circle
of the same area. The loss is progressively greater as the shape departs
still further from circular. In spite of the appeal of elliptical and other
diaphragm shapes, which were used in early magnetic speakers and even
in more recent European moving-coil speakers to a limited extent, their
disadvantages have prevented their general adoption.
At high frequencies all pistons have the same radiation resistance
per unit area, but most cones cannot be considered pistons, both because
they are not flat and because their radial length exceeds a quarter wave
and flexing is therefore important.
The shape of the cross section or profile of the cone depends on the
application and response desired. Straight side cones are usually
employed when good 2,000- to 5,000 -cycle response is required and when
reproduction above 6,000 to 7,000 cycles may actually be undesirable.
This is frequently the requirement of public address and phonograph
systems where noise and distortion are otherwise objectionable. Curved
cones improve the response above 6,000 to 7,000 cycles by providing a
diaphragm impedance, viewed from the voice coil, which has a more
uniformly high negative reactance and therefore absorbs more power
from the high positive reactance (due to the voice -coil mass) seen looking
back into the voice coil. This improvement is obtained at the expense of
2,000 - to 5,000 -cycle response and with a weaker cone structure, with the
result that straight cones predominate by ten or more to one in actual use.
13. Material. Hard, impregnated or filled, and pressed or calendered
papers are used when loudness efficiency and apparent h -f response are
important. Radiation resistance provides very little dissipation in
direct radiator cones; hence, by using a paper having low internal
flexural losses, the conical transmission line is made to have strong
resonances. Nearly all speakers now use material of this type. The
transient response of diaphragms of this type is necessarily poor since
non- center moving modes of the cone are inappreciably damped by the
motor. Soft, loosely packed, or felted blotterlike cones are used when
some loss in h-f response can be tolerated and a smoother response curve
with reduced transient distortion is required. The loudness efficiency
of high -loss cones of this type is several decibels lower than that of low -
loss cones.
Felt, leather, rubber, and similar materials are used as the annulus to
terminate the conical transmission line in a low -stiffness high -resistance
material. Their effect is to add considerable dissipation to the cone
at the termination, resulting in reduced reflection of the flexural wave.-
The effect is similar to that obtained in soft cone materials where, how
..ver, the dissipation is distributed along the line. The objection to
leather is that it is very sensitive to changes in humidity, resulting in
mechanical cone alignment problems unless adequate air-gap clearances
are provided.
14. Breakup Subharmonics. The term cone breakup is sometimes
applied to the flexing or wave -transmission process in a cone. Since
there is nothing discontinuous in the process to suggest the word "break"
and to avoid ambiguity, it is suggested that this term be applied only
in the other sense in which it is used, to name the process which results
in the generation of subharmonics.
If the apex of a cone is driven with an adequate sinusoidal force at
certain critical frequencies, the radiated wave contains not only the
r
3
) Hz
0 Tola/rms disförtion content
5 inc/udingharmonics(not \
plotted) of fundamental
..-
:
.,W -,..
11.94
_.r -
-a
5
I
i
tiz
.
i
,, ...r r
%//
É 0.8
v 0.6 'r/
NS/z
s%
0.4
a 0.3 X,r/Z ;7
.I
0.2
0.15
01
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Voice coil current, amperes
Fta. 22.-Variation in radiated distortion products with voice -coil current
showing abrupt start of half frequency (subharmonic) and odd multiples
of it. Subscript indicates factor by which fundamental frequency is multi-
plied to obtain frequency of indicated distortion product.
fundamental and integral multiples (harmonics) of it but also a frequency
corresponding to half (and rarely to a quarter) that of the fundamental
and integral multiples of this subharmonic. While distortion in the
motor may contribute to this, some unpublished research has shown that
the cone is the important source.
The half frequency appears very suddenly at a critical input as shown
in Fig. 22. To simplify the graph, the fundamental and usual harmonics,
which would include even multiples of the aubharmonics, are not included.
From the total (r -m -s) harmonic curve /iv which includes these unplotted
See. t2J LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 903
terms, we see that negligible rise in total distortion occurs when the
subharmonic begins. The eal, however, reports a large increase because
the pitch sense of the output has dropped an octave and the distortion
has a high annoyance or objection ability factor. This type of distortion
is not so important as is frequently supposed, however, because (1) it
occurs only in limited frequency regions; (2) it does not occur below a
moderate, critical level (3) the time required to start it is large unless
the force is large; (4) the spectral composition of speech and music are
such that the probability of its production is small. Because of the
statistical improbability of its frequent occurrence, it would be uneco-
nomical to design most systems to avoid completely this occasional
distortion.
MOTORS
A loud -speaker motor converts electrical into mechanical energy and
couples the electrical signal source as efficiently as possible to the mechan-
ical impedance seen looking into the diaphragm which it drives.
15. Force Factor. The mechanical circuit of a speaker motor experi-
ences a force when a current is applied to the electrical terminals. The
(complex) ratio of this force when the mechanical circuit is blocked
(infinite impedance) to the current which produces if is the force factor.
Since force is analogous to voltage the force factor is analogous to
mutual impedance between two electrical circuits. It differs from
the conventional electrical mutual impedance in that it makes no con-
tribution to the electrical impedance when the mechanical circuit is
blocked (secondary open -circuited) because its counter e.m.f. is due only
to motion of the mechanical circuit, and in that the force factor has
opposite signs when viewed from the electrical and mechanical circuits.
In usual circuit notation z12 = -zsi (not z12 = Z21 as in the electrical
case). Since only the product of the force factors looking in both direc-
tions is involved in the following equations this will be called Mi.
The normal impedance of a speaker is defined as the impedance
measured or seen at its signal terminals when operating normally with
its proper acoustic load. The normal impedance zN of moving coil and
magnetic armature speakers is
s
2N = ze (9)
z.
where z. = blocked impedance of the speaker
z,,, = the total mechanical impedance seen by the mechanical
circuit including diaphragm and acoustic load.
In moving -coil speakers M2 = Bels, where B is the average radial
flux density which the coil embraces and l is the conductor length.
In balanced magnetic armature speakers M2 = 4/302/4/2/R2, where Bo is
the steady flux density in the gaps, N is the number of turns on the voice
(armature) coil, and R is the effective reluctance of the alternating flux
path (see Magnetic Armature, Art. 19).
A two-terminal load impedance absorbs maximum power from a two -
terminal source when the impedance of the load is the conjugate of the
impedance measured or "seen" at the source terminals. The conjugate
impedance is one having the same resistive or real part and a reactive
or imaginary part equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. This holds
for acoustical and mechanical circuits as well, but in these the terminals
are not always so readily determined.
The speaker motor therefore absorbs maximum energy from the
source, regardless of the complexity of the source network, when its
normal impedance is the conjugate of the source impedance. The usual
1000
800
600
400
300 11111
A '
200 11111N
pm ving coi/
I___ AhiI
150
,
100 MiNI NM
IN\ EI
M1O MM1
MIIIIII 11MIMMMIN
MIIIIIIMIIMMMMMNO
,
o
80
60
Mi
l
>II I1MIN
111111s0=
h1/EMiIM1
1s11g11M1
sisiOMssINFAIIsi=MMSicdi
1111111g411=MIIMII lIEr4111
40 1114111M111116 IMIIIIPESil
á
v
É
30
20
15
lo
/111a1111111111111M1r 1111PCMIE1111
' 111011111.1íMM1111111
I1lumw,1m
M......M...:,
11111/1i1111111
Moving cod-horn "
Mi.l
6
4
8
U/Igd
111r
InS11MM
MIMMIM...
1
MMffirs.MsMMININ=MMI
111ì11
MIgWIIIIMINNIIIMIII lMIt
1111M1
3
2
1.5
30 5060 80 100 200 400 600 000 2000 4000 10,000

Frequency,cps
Fin. 23.- Magnitude of normal input impedance of various speakers
adjusted to same value at 400 cycles to simplify comparison. Magnitude all
of
reactance of pure capacitance and inductance shown for comparison.
source is a vacuum tube, and its associated loud-speaker should ideally
have a normal impedance which is a constant resistance. From Fig.
23 we see that this requirement is most closely met by moving coil or
dynamic speakers.
16. Magnetic Motors. By the I.R.E. definition, "A magnetic speaker
is a loud speaker in which the mechanical forces result from magnetic
reactions." This includes both moving-conductor or moving -coil
(dynamic) and magnetic-armature speakers.
17. Moving Coil. A moving -coil motor is one in which the mechanical
forces result from magnetic reactions between the field of the moving
coil and the applied steady radial field in the air gap. A section of half
of a moving -coil speaker is shown in Fig. 24.
Moving-coil motors are now used almost exclusively because (1)
their electrical impedance permits good energy transfer from the source,
(2) the large amplitudes required by the popular direct radiator dia-
phragms are obtained conveniently with minimum non-linear distortion,
(4(3) the mechanical impedance of the moving element may be made low,
) the structure is simple and rugged mechanically, and (5) the cost is
low.
Annulus,
C/amp ring
--Cone housing
-Voice coi/
Field co lcase
-Fie /d coi/
Fia. 24.- Sectional view of small moving -coil speaker showing structural
simplicity.
The impedance seen at its electrical terminals when the coil is rigidly
blocked is called the blocked impedance of the motor or speaker. This is
approximately a high resistance and low inductance in series (R, and L, in
Fig. 25) and is therefore easily coupled to a vacuum tube. Near the
fundamental resonance of the speaker the impedance rises, and, if a
low impedance source is used, the mismatch reduces the energy absorbed.
Moving-coil speakers are sometimes called electrodynamic or briefly
dynamic speakers. Both terms have been applied for many years to
speakers having either electromagnet (or "energized ") or permanent
magnet fields. The prefix "electro" in electrodynamic has nothing to
do with the source of steady flux in the gap.
18. Permanent and Electromagnets. Magnetic speakers require a
source of magnetomotive force to provide steady flux. If the current
source is hum free and therefore the flux absolutely steady, the voice coil
cannot distinguish between a given flux density due to permanent and
electromagnets. The efficiency of any electromagnet speaker can 1
equaled or excelled by a permanent magnet if cost is neglected. In
Re Le
Ftc.25.- Equivalent l -f electrical circuit. of moving -coil or magnetic -

armature speaker in a total enclosure or in an infinite baffle. In the latter
case the enclosure stiffness S. is zero and its equivalent electrical inductance
infinite.
100
I
Energized speaker
90 35
80 Voice cod temperaturererise

Rated audio input 400 cps; 30 Li-
o_
. 70
;Permanent magnet speaker ¡ _ 25
á
13 60
eî
-Field coi/copper 20 c
50 temperature rise
5?
á 40 Voice l
coi/ copp r temperature
u rise;
a
a, No audio inputenergized speaker - 15=
E
30 d
-Field coil case - 10wui-
temperature rise ca_
20
10 Voice coil copper temperature rise; no audio input

,Permanent magnet speaker
o I I I
0 0 5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Time, hr.
Fia. 25a.-Reduced voice -coil temperature rise in permanent- magnet
speakers compared to energized types. Abnormal voice-coil temperature rise
when rated "complex-wave" input is applied at 400 cycles also shown.
See.4il LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 907
small speakers the differential in cost between permanent and electro-

magnet types is small even when no current supply source cost is added
to the electromagnet type. In intermediate sizes the cost of the two
types is comparable if the cost of a source of field power is included. In
larger speakers the permanent magnet type is more expensive. The
installed cost, however, of permanent magnet types is frequently lower
because of simplified wiring.
The trend is toward the use of permanent- magnet speakers particu-
larly when a special field current supply must otherwise be provided.
The temperature of the electromagnet and consequently that of the voice
coil rises with time as shown in Fig. 25a. The field coil resistance rises,
lowering the field current and flux density. The higher voice -coil
impedance and reduced flux reduce the speaker efficiency. The higher
voice-coil temperature reduces the permissible signal input power in
voice-coil temperature -limited speakers.
The temperature rise when the rated complex -wave input is applied
at a single frequency (400 cycles) in a typical intermediate size radio
speaker is also shown. The single- frequency rating is normally much less
than the "complex- wave" (speech and music) rating since in the latter
case advantage is taken of the high ratio of peak to average power (see
Arts. 1, 2, 35).
19. Magnetic Armature. "A magnetic armature speaker (or motor) is
a magnetic speaker (or motor) whose operation involves the vibration
of the ferromagnetic circuit." The shorter term "magnetic" may be
used where no confusion will result with moving conductor or moving -coil
speakers, which are also by definition magnetic speakers. A cross -sec-
tional view of a balanced arma-
ture motor of this type is shown Cone.
in Fig. 26. Flux increases in
one pair of pole faces and de-
creases in the other pair, when
current flows through the voice
coil and when the armature
moves, resulting in operation -- Armature
analogous to a push -pull tube Pivot
circuit. The voice coil does not
move and therefore is made rel- Voice coi/
atively large. The resulting
high inductance plus distributed t." Laminated iron
capacitance in high impedance - po/e pieces
types accounts for the large rise
in impedance at high frequencies permanent
(see Fig. 23). This makes it
difficult to couple it to a tube magnet
properly. To get high efficiency FIG. 26.-Sectional view of balanced
the armature pole piece clear- armature magnetic speaker.
ance must be small, and this
leads to instability of the armature and a limitation on its displacement.
These factors plus mechanical difficulties in construction and mainte-
nance have reduced the acceptance of the magnetic-armature type.
20. Condenser. "A condenser speaker (or motor) is a speaker (or
motor) in which the mechanical forces result from electrostatic reac-
tions." They are really large condensers in which one flexible electrode
is free to move and to act as a diaphragm. In push-pull types the

flexible electrode is mounted between two perforated fixed electrodes
resulting in cancellation of the even harmonics which occur in the two-
plate type. Its blocked impedance is that of a condenser, and it is
therefore difficult to couple to a vacuum tube. The electrode clearance
must be small or the steady polarizing potential which is applied must
be large to get high efficiency. The former limits the diaphragm ampli-
tude, and the latter causes rapid disintegration of any flexible dielectric
used to support the electrode.
21. Crystal. "A crystal speaker (or motor) is a speaker (or motor) in
which the mechanical forces result from the deformation of a crystal
having converse piezoelectric properties." The crystal has a high
mechanical impedance viewed from the driving point. Only a small dis-
placement is possible without distortion or crystal fracture, so a mechani-
cal transformer or lever arm is used when moderate excursions are
required. This leads to mechanical complications, particularly at high
frequencies where the transformer is not ideal, and to added cost. The
application of this type has therefore been largely limited to h-f speakers
in which the diaphragm amplitude is small. The blocked impedance
is that of a leaky condenser. The normal impedance of an 8-in. unit is
given in Fig. 23.
COMPLETE LOUD- SPEAKERS
The more important characteristics of a complete speaker system,
which includes an electrical source of known impedance, motor, dia-
phragm, and known acoustic load, are its efficiency-frequency (including
response frequency and impedance), directional, and distortion charac-
teristics (see Tests).
22. Efficiency- frequency Characteristic. The energy efficiency, or
simply efficiency, of a loud-speaker is the ratio of the useful acoustic -
energy output to the signal- energy input. The "absolute" or system
efficiency is the ratio of the useful acoustic energy output to the signal
energy an ideal load would absorb from the signal source. The latter
definition is a practical one in that it penalizes the speaker for its inability
to absorb maximum power from the source. At a resonant frequency
of a speaker the two efficiencies frequently differ by a factor of 10 or
more.
If the effective internal resistance of the source and its ideal resistance
load (both seen from the voice coil) are r,, then the absolute efficiency is
given by
Absolute efficiency - I
[zE
4r..1= =r,
+(lt : :I
/zm)1z,,
(10)
where zE= blocked voice coil impedance plus r,

= total mechanical impedance of the mechanical mesh including
z,,,
diaphragm radiation and air load
r, = total radiation resistance seen by the diaphragm
M is defined under Force Factor. (See Art. 15.) The vertical
lines indicate that the absolute value is to be taken.
The 400 -cycle system efficiency of the speakers commonly used in
radio receivers ranges from 1 to 4 per cent. The corresponding efficiency
of direct-radiator speakers with very large motors ranges from 10 to
Sec. 221 LOUD-SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 909
30 per cent. Efficiencies of this order are more readily obtained in horn
speakers, but 30 per cent is rarely exceeded over any appreciable fre-
quency range. Although higher values are frequently claimed, these
values, if based on any measurements, are usually based on motional
impedance measurements in which all horn, diaphragm, air, eddy- current,
and hysteresis losses have been assumed to be useful acoustic radiation.
23. Response -frequency Characteristic. If a loud-speaker is to be
used indoors, a graph showing the efficiency- frequency characteristic
is probably the most useful single curve. If a loud -speaker is to be used
outdoors, then we are rimarily interested in its pressure response-
frequency characteristic (see Tests).
24. Baffles, Enclosures, and Cabinets. "A baffle is a partition which
may be used with an acoustic radiator to increase the effective length
of the acoustic transmission path between front and back of the radiator."
This term is usually reserved for a relatively flat baffle in which both
sides of the diaphragm look into substantially a hemisphere (solid
angle of 2,r steradians). The term directional baffle is sometimes applied
when one side of the diaphragm looks into a smaller solid angle. sharp The
baffle then begins to take on the properties of a horn. There is no
line of demarcation, but there appears to be little reason for calling ofany
structure which restricts the solid angle to less than 7/2 (an octant a
sphere) anything but a horn.
If a baffle is used outdoors, appreciable destructive interference or
pressure cancellation between the front and back waves of the speaker
may occur at the listener's posi-
tion at some frequency above the
cutoff frequency. The frequency
at which this occurs depends on o o
the baffle size and listener loca-
tion. Destructive interference at used Fio.27.-Irregular baffle shapes
the cone itself is usually unim- band outdoors to broaden frequency
destructive interference be-
portant except near the cutoff tween of speaker front and back waves at
frequency of the baffle. To dis- listener's position.
tribute this effect and make it used.
cover a broad band, baffles shaped as shown in Fig. 27 are sometimes
such sim-
Since the effect depends primarily on the listener's location,inno
a moderate -
ple result occurs indoors and a space average of the pressure baffles
size listening room shows no such effect. Conventional rectangular or
may therefore he used indoors unless the room approaches free field
outdoor characteristics. magnetic-
The equivalent -f electrical circuit of a moving-coil orHere
1
R. and
Fig. 25.
armature speaker in an infinite baffle is shown ininductance. ZD is the
L. are the blocked voice -coil resistance and
electrical equivalent of the diaphragm less air load. ZA is theS.equivalent
provided
of the air load, except that in this case there is no stiffness M is
by the air load, so its equivalent inductance M2 /S, is infinite.diaphragm
defined under force factor Sa, ma and rd are the effective m, are the
stiffness, mass, and resistance, respectively, and r, andfrom Fig. 11.
radiation resistance and mass which may be determined resistance and
Note that both sides of the diaphragm have radiationFig. 11 must be
mass in this case and the values per unit area given in used in Fig. 25.
multiplied by twice the piston area to give the r, and m,
The magnitude of the impedance of a moving -coil speaker in an infinite

baffle is shown in Fig. 23. The antiresonant impedance of the parallel
circuit corresponds to the resonant frequency of the diaphragm and air
load and is limited by the parallel value of the two resistances. These
resistances are proportional to the square of the flux density and inversely
proportional to the diaphragm and air (radiation plus dissipation)
resistances. A high resonant impedance is therefore not necessarily
undesirable, as is generally supposed, since it may be due to a high flux
density and therefore mean a high efficiency over a wide frequency hand.
The effect of the source impedance, connected to the input terminals.
on response may be noted from this circuit. If the source resistance
r, is low, the speaker will absorb very little power at resonance and the
acoustic output may not rise appreciably. The voice -coil resistance
R, and the source resistance r, in series are effectively across the anti -
resonant circuit at low frequencies since the reactance of L, can be neg-
lected. When the flux density
is high, the Q of the antireso-
Enclosure nant circuit alone is high but
the source and voice -coil resist-
ances then provide substantial
shunt resistance and "electro-
magnetic damping." The ef-
fect of this on the speaker
response to a pulse is shown in
the experimentally determined
Absorplion curves of Fig. 40. The minor
maSerial irregularities in these damped
sinusoids are due to h -f modes
Port of vibration of the diaphragm.
As the source resistance is
raised, more power is supplied
the speaker at antiresonanee
and at high frequencies where
Fra. 28. -Bass reflex type of vented the effect of the voice-coil in-
enclosure in which port area is large and ductance is important and less
placed near diaphragm to obtain maxi- is supplied in the mid -fre-
mum aid from mutual radiation resist- quency range. The steady -
ance between diaphragm and port. state response of a vented
Phase shift of hack -side radiation ob-
tained by choice of circuit constants. enclosure (see Figs. 28, 29,
29e) as the source resistance or
"impedance match" is changed is shown in Fig. 39. Here the response
at 400 cycles has arbitrarily been adjusted to the same value as that to
which the source resistance was raised.
25. Total Enclosure. A total enclosure which prevents radiation
from the back side of a diaphragm may be used to prevent destructive
interference between the front and back waves from a diaphragm. This
might be obtained by closing the vent or port in Fig. 28. When the
wave length exceeds four times the maximum enclosure dimension,
the enclosure adds a total stiffness Sc, viewed from the diaphragm
S,, = pc2Aat /Va cm per dyne, where Ad is the effective piston area of
the cone and Vo is the equilibrium volume of the box. The "capaci-
tance" is the reciprocal of this value. This stiffness raises the natural
Sec. 22J LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 911
frequency of the speaker. If the enclosure includes absorbing material,

this stiffness will be altered by the reactance seen at the surface of the
material. Each square centimeter will dissipate P' X 10 -7 /ra watt,
where P is the sound pressure in the box and rB is the resistance per unit
area for sound of normal incidence on the absorbing material. From
this the equivalent resistance in parallel with the box stiffness may be
obtained.
If the volume is small enough or the natural frequency of the speaker
out of the enclosure low enough, the enclosure and not the diaphragm
stiffness will control the natural period.
The 1-f equivalent electrical circuit of such an enclosure is shown in Fig.
25. Here zD is the electrical equivalent of the diaphragm alone; Sd,
rd, and and are the stiffness, resistance, and mass of the diaphragm meas-
ured in vacuo. The electrical equivalent of the air load including radia-
tion impedance is zA; S. is the effective enclosure stiffness, r, the total
air or fluid resistance (enclosure dissipation if any, and radiation
resistance), and m, is the effective air (radiation -plus-enclosure)
mass. Normally the parallel value of zD and zA or a single parallel
"antiresonant" circuit is shown but the contributions of individual ele-
ments are then not as clear. Since the electrical circuit elements are
inverses with respect to M2 [see Eq. (9)], the stiffness appears as an induct-
ance and the mass as a capacitance.
A total enclosure is sometimes called an infinite baffle. While it
resembles one in preventing front and back wave interference, it has
two important differences which make this designating term undesirable.
The enclosure adds an air impedance to the rear of the diaphragm, which
may be very different from that seen in an infinite baffle. An infinite
baffle restricts the radiation to a hemisphere, and the radiation imped-
ance seen by the diaphragm is given by Fig. 11. If the enclosure is
used outdoors, the radiation resistance which the outside of the diaphragm
sees at low frequencies is only half this value and the reactive part
approximately seven-tenths this value. In practice the useful efficiency
is almost halved at low frequencies. Indoors the impedance seen will
depend on the environment as described in Art. 5, Radiation Impedance;
also in Room Acoustics, below.
28. Vented Enclosures. The idea of putting a vent or "port" in an
enclosure is very old. It was first done to provide "pressure relief."
In more recent types, known as bass reflex enclosures, detailed considera-
tion has been given to the very important effect of the mutual impedance
between the port and diaphragm. The port area is large and the port is
near the diaphragm to increase the mutual radiation resistance and extend
the frequency range over which it is effective (see Art. 7, Mutual Radia-
tion Impedance). Such an enclosure is shown in Fig. 28. The effective
or virtual diaphragm in the opening is coupled through the stiffness of
the air in the enclosure to the diaphragm. The equivalent 1 -f circuit is
shown in Fig. 29. zD corresponds to Fig. 25 and r, and m, correspond
except that the mutual -radiation impedance must be added.
The vent and enclosure have therefore added one LRC circuit. The
effect of this is to shift the back-side -cone radiation by nearly 180 deg.
above the frequency at which the port mass m,, and box stiffness viewed
from the port are resonant when the cone is blocked. For about one -third
of an octave above and below this frequency most energy is radiated by
Le
Port mass and
radiation mass.
ir MAd/
rob/ radiation resisbnce
(se/f and mulua/J
zI
Zoi
L 1 L '
I
PcZAd ; P21^dZ
Box stiffness seen from
diaphragm port closed
Fto. 29.- Equivalent 1-f electrical circuit of moving -coil or magnetic -arena
ture speaker in vented enclosure.
80
70
60
50
40
30
IZNI . . IZNI-_ ,Rw. 14,1
Le 20
Ñ
-
10
0
v' 1
i
.
ii
r
¡ ' ...
.- __ ----
-10
-201
-X ` rhXFNN
30
-ao
-50
-60
20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300 400 600 800
Frequency, c p s
Fra. 29a.- Impedance of circuit of Fig. 29.
30 per cent. Efficiencies of this order are more readily obtained in horn
speakers, but 30 per cent is rarely exceeded over any appreciable fre-
quency range. Although higher values are frequently claimed, these
values, if based on any measurements, are usually based on motional
impedance measurements in which all horn, diaphragm, air, eddy- current,
and hysteresis losses have been assumed to be useful acoustic radiation.
23. Response -frequency Characteristic. If a loud-speaker is to be
used indoors, a graph showing the efficiency- frequency characteristic
is probably the most useful single curve. If a loud -speaker is to be used
outdoors, then we are rimarily interested in its pressure response-
frequency characteristic (see Tests).
24. Baffles, Enclosures, and Cabinets. "A baffle is a partition which
may be used with an acoustic radiator to increase the effective length
of the acoustic transmission path between front and back of the radiator."
both
This term is usually reserved for a relatively flat baffle in which (solid
sides of the diaphragm look into substantially a hemisphereapplied
angle of 2w steradians). The term directional baffle is sometimes The
when one side of the diaphragm looks into a smaller solid angle. sharp
baffle then begins to take on the properties of a horn. There is no
line of demarcation, but there appears to be little reason for calling any
structure which restricts the solid angle to less than 1r /2 (an octant of a
sphere) anything but a horn.
If a baffle is used outdoors, appreciable destructive interference or
pressure cancellation between the front and back waves of the speaker
may occur at the listener's posi-
tion at some frequency above the
cutoff frequency. The frequency
at which this occurs depends on o
the baffle size and listener loca-
tion. Destructive interference at used FIG. 27.- Irregular baffle shapes
to broaden frequency
the cone itself is usually unim- band outdoorsof destructive interference be-
po rtant except near the cutoff tween speaker front and back waves at
frequency of the baffle. To dis- listeners position.
tribute this effect and make it used.
cover a broad band, baffles shaped as shown in Fig. 27 are sometimes such sim-
Since the effect depends primarily on the listener's location,inno
ple result occurs indoors and a space average of the pressure a moderate
-
baffles
size listening room shows no such effect. Conventional rectangular or
may therefore be used indoors unless the room approaches free field
outdoor characteristics. magnetic-
The equivalent l -f electrical circuit of a moving-coil orHere R. and
Fig. 25.
armature speaker in an infinite baffle is shown ininductance. ZD is the
L. are the blocked voice-coil resistance and
electrical equivalent of the diaphragm less air load. Z5 is theS.equivalent
provided
of the air load, except that in this case there is no stiffness
by the air load, so its equivalent inductance M2 /S, is infinite. M is
diaphragm
defined under force factor Sd, ma and rd are the effective m, are the
stiffness, mass, and resistance, respectively, and r, andfrom Fig. 11.
radiation resistance and mass which may be determined resistance and
Note that both sides of the diaphragm have radiation Fig. 11 must be
mass in this case and the values per unit area given in used in Fig. 25.
multiplied by twice the piston area to give the r, and in,
The magnitude of the impedance of a moving -coil speaker in an infinite

baffle is shown in Fig. 23. The antiresonant impedance of the parallel
circuit corresponds to the resonant frequency of the diaphragm and air
load and is limited by the parallel value of the two resistances. These
resistances are proportional to the square of the flux density and inversely
proportional to the diaphragm and air (radiation plus dissipation)
resistances. A high resonant impedance is therefore not necessarily
undesirable, as is generally supposed, since it may be due to a high flux
density and therefore mean a high efficiency over a wide frequency hand.
The effect of the source impedance, connected to the input terminals,
on response may be noted from this circuit. If the source resistance
r, is low, the speaker will absorb very little power at resonance and the
acoustic output may not rise appreciably. The voice -coil resistance
R, and the source resistance r, in series are effectively across the anti -
resonant circuit at low frequencies since the reactance of L, can be neg-
lected. When the flux density
is high, the Q of the antireso-
11
Enclosure nant circuit alone is high but
the source and voice -coil resist-
ances then provide substantial
shunt resistance and "electro-
-Speaker magnetic damping." The ef-
unit feet of this on the speaker
I 01 response to a pulse is shown in

the experimentally determined
Absorption
material
curves of Fig. 40. The minor
irregularities in these damped
sinusoids are due to h -f modes
Port' of vibration of the diaphragm.
As the source resistance is
f
^ raised, more power is supplied
II
the speaker at antiresonanee
and at high frequencies where
Fm. 28. -Bass reflex type of vented the effect of the voice -coil in-
enclosure in which port area is large and ductance is important and less
placed near diaphragm to obtain maxi- is supplied in the mid -fre-
mum aid from mutual radiation resist- quency range. The steady-
ance between diaphragma and port. state response of a vented
Phase shift of back-side radiation ob-
tamed by choice of circuit constants. enclosure (see Figs. 2R. 29,
294) as the source resistance or
"impedance match" is changed is shown in Fig. 39. Here the response
at 400 cycles has arbitrarily been adjusted to the same value as that to
which the source resistance was raised.
25. Total Enclosure. A total enclosure which prevents radiation
from the back side of a diaphragm may be used to prevent destructive
interference between the front and back waves from a diaphragm. This
might be obtained by closing the vent or port in Fig. 28. When the
wave length exceeds four times the maximum enclosure dimension,
the enclosure adds a total stiffness S, viewed from the diaphragm
S. = pc'Ad2 /Vo cm per dyne, where Ad is the effective piston area of
the cone and Vo is the equilibrium volume of the box. The "capaci-
tance" is the reciprocal of this value. This stiffness raises the natural
see.IIj LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 907
small speakers the differential in cost between permanent and electro-

magnet types is small even when no current supply source cost is added
to the electromagnet type. In intermediate sizes the cost of the two
types is comparable if the cost of a source of field power is included. In
larger speakers the permanent magnet type is more expensive. The
installed cost, however= of permanent magnet types is frequently lower
because of simplified wiring.
The trend is toward the use of permanent-magnet speakers particu-
larly when a special field current supply must otherwise be provided.
The temperature of the electromagnet and consequently that of the voice
coil rises with time as shown in Fig. 25a. The field coil resistance rises,
lowering the field current and flux density. The higher voice -coil
impedance and reduced flux reduce the speaker efficiency. The higher
voice-coil temperature reduces the permissible signal input power in
voice -coil temperature-limited speakers.
The temperature rise when the rated complex -wave input is applied
at a single frequency (400 cycles) in a typical intermediate size radio
speaker is also shown. The single- frequency rating is normally much less
than the "complex- wave" (speech and music) rating since in the latter
case advantage is taken of the high ratio of peak to average power (see
Arts. 1, 2, 35).
19. Magnetic Armature. "A magnetic armature speaker (or motor) is
a magnetic speaker (or motor) whose operation involves the vibration
of the ferromagnetic circuit." The shorter term "magnetic" may be
used where no confusion will result with moving conductor or moving -coil
speakers, which are also by definition magnetic speakers. A cross -sec-
tional view of a balanced arma-
ture motor of this type is shown Cone.
in Fig. 26. Flux increases in
one pair of pole faces and de-
creases in the other pair, when
current flows through the voice
coil and when the armature
moves, resulting in operation I 1 Armature
analogous to a push -pull tube
circuit. The voice coil does not
R p¡vot
move and therefore is made rel- Voice coi/
atively large. The resulting
high inductance plus distributed R- Laminated iron
capacitance in high impedance po/e pieces
types accounts for the large rise
in impedance at high frequencies
(see Fig. 23). This makes it __Permanent
difficult to couple it to a tube magnet
properly. To get high efficiency Fie. 26.-Sectional view of balanced
the armature pole piece clear- armature magnetic speaker.
ance must be small, and this
leads to instability of the armature and a limitation on its displacement.
These factors plus mechanical difficulties in construction and mainte-
nance have reduced the acceptance of the magnetic- armature type.
20. Condenser. "A condenser speaker (or motor) is a speaker (or
motor) in which the mechanical forces result from electrostatic reac-
tions." They are really large condensers in which one flexible electrode
908 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [See. MM
is free to move and to act as a diaphragm. In push-pull types the

flexible electrode is mounted between two perforated fixed electrodes
resulting in cancellation of the even harmonics which occur in the two -
plate type. Its blocked impedance is that of a condenser, and it is
therefore difficult to couple to a vacuum tube. The electrode clearance
must be small or the steady polarizing potential which is applied must
be large to get high efficiency. The former limits the diaphragm ampli-
tude, and the latter causes rapid disintegration of any flexible dielectric
used to support the electrode.
21. Crystal. "A c rvstal speaker (or motor) is a speaker (or motor) in
which the mechanical forces result from the deformation of a crystal
:laving converse piezoelectric properties." The crystal has a high
mechanical impedance viewed from the driving point. Only a small dis-
placement is possible without distortion or crystal fracture, so a mechani-
cal transformer or lever arm is used when moderate excursions are
required. This leads to mechanical complications, particularly at high
frequencies where the transformer is not ideal, and to added cost. The
application of this type has therefore been largely limited to h-f speakers
in which the diaphragm amplitude is small. The blocked impedance
is that of a leaky condenser. The normal impedance of an 8-in. unit is
given in Fig. 23.
COMPLETE LOUD- SPEAKERS
The more important characteristics of a complete speaker system,
which includes an electrical source of known impedance, motor, dia-
phragm, and known acoustic load, are its efficiency-frequency (including
response frequency and impedance), directional, and distortion charac-
teristics (see Tests).
22. Efficiency- frequency Characteristic. The energy efficiency, or
simply efficiency, of a loud-speaker is the ratio of the useful acoustic -
energy output to the signal -energy input. The "absolute" or system
efficiency is the ratio of the useful acoustic energy output to the signal
energy an ideal load would absorb from the signal source. The latter
definition is a practical one in that it penalizes the speaker for its inability
to absorb maximum power from the source. At a resonant frequency
of a speaker the two efficiencies frequently differ by a factor of 10 or
more.
If the effective internal resistance of the source and its ideal resistance
load (both seen from the voice coil) are
given by
r then the absolute efficiency is
4r,11 =r,
Absolute efficiency (10)
[ZR + (D1= /z,,,)12zfl
where zg = blocked voice coil impedance plus r,

zm = total mechanical impedance of the mechanical mesh including
diaphragm radiation and air load
r, = total radiation resistance seen by the diaphragm
M is defined under Force Factor. (See Art. 15.) The vertical
lines indicate that the absolute value is to be taken.
The 400-cycle system efficiency of the speakers commonly used in
radio receivers ranges from 1 to 4 per cent. The corresponding efficiency
of direct-radiator speakers with very large motors ranges from 10 to
see. in) LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 911
frequency of the speaker. If the enclosure includes absorbing material,

this stiffness will be altered by the reactance seen at the surface of the
material. Each square centimeter will dissipate P2 X 10 -7 /rR watt,
where P is the sound pressure in the box and re is the resistance per unit
area for sound of normal incidence on the absorbing material. From
this the equivalent resistance in parallel with the box stiffness may be
obtained.
If the volume is small enough or the natural frequency of the speaker
out of the enclosure low enough, the enclosure and not the diaphragm
stiffness will control the natural period.
The 1-f equivalent electrical circuit of such an enclosure is shown in Fig.
25. Here zD is the electrical equivalent of the diaphragm alone; Sa,
rd, and and are the stiffness, resistance, and mass of the diaphragm meas-
ured in vacuo. The electrical equivalent of the air load including radia-
tion impedance is zA; S. is the effective enclosure stiffness, r, the total
air or fluid resistance (enclosure dissipation if any, and radiation
resistance), and m, is the effective air (radiation -plus-enclosure)
mass. Normally the parallel value of zD and zA or a single parallel
"antiresonant" circuit is shown but the contributions of individual ele-
inverses with respect to 2
ments are then not as clear. Since the electrical circuit elements are
¡see Eq. (9)], the stiffness appears as an induct-
ance and the mass as a capacitance.
A total enclosure is sometimes called an infinite baffle. While it
resembles one in preventing front and back wave interference, it has
two important differences which make this designating term undesirable.
The enclosure adds an air impedance to the rear of the diaphragm, which
may be very different from that seen in an infinite baffle. An infinite
baffle restricts the radiation to a hemisphere, and the radiation imped-
ance seen by the diaphragm is given by Fig. 11. If the enclosure is
used outdoors, the radiation resistance which the outside of the diaphragm
sees at low frequencies is only half this value and the reactive part
approximately seven -tenths this value. In practice the useful efficiency
is almost halved at low frequencies. Indoors the impedance seen will
depend on the environment as described in Art. 5, Radiation Impedance;
also in Room Acoustics, below.
26. Vented Enclosures. The idea of putting a vent or "port" in an
enclosure is very old. It was first done to provide "pressure relief."
In more recent types, known as bass reflex enclosures, detailed considera-
tion has been given to the very important effect of the mutual impedance
between the port and diaphragm. The port area is large and the port is
near the diaphragm to increase the mutual radiation resistance and extend
the frequency range over which it is effective (see Art. 7, Mutual Radia-
tion Impedance). Such an enclosure is shown in Fig. 28. The effective
or virtual diaphragm in the opening is coupled through the stiffness of
the air in the enclosure to the diaphragm. The equivalent 1 -f circuit is
shown in Fig. 29. zD corresponds to Fig. 25 and r, and m, correspond
except that the mutual -radiation impedance must be added.
The vent and enclosure have therefore added one LRC circuit. The
effect of this is to shift the back -side-cone radiation by nearly 180 deg.
above the frequency at which the port mass mp and box stiffness viewed
from the port are resonant when the cone is blocked. For about one -third
of an octave above and below this frequency most energy is radiated by
912 TILE RADIO ENGINEERING IIANDBOOK [Sec. 22
Port mass and lob /rad/a/ianreslsbnce

radiation mass. (se /fandmu/ua /f
re Le .4a
AOAdi
Zo I # ZA
L 1 L
21.212
P Ad p Ad/
Box setness seen from ;
diaphragm port closed
Fra. 29.- Equivalent l -f electrical circuit of moving -coil or magnetic-arma
ture speaker in vented enclosure.
80
70
60
50
40
30
IZNI * -IZNI-_ Ax1. IZNI
F) 20
.; I
., \ ,
-_ .a.-.
'
10 .%. I '-
___ -
- 0
I
i ...
-
-10
v h XN
t,
1
-20
30
-40
-50
-60
20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300 400 600 800
Frequency, cps
Fia. 29a.- Impedance of circuit of Fig. 29.
Soc. U) LOUD -SPEAKERS ÌN ROOM ACOUSTICS
the port. Although the diaphragm and port radiation are out
913
of phase
below this frequency, the port radiation greatly exceeds the diaphragm
radiation near this frequency.
The enclosure is made as compact as possible. The port can be
placed near the diaphragm to increase the mutual- radiation resistance
since the phase shift is not due to transmission time delay but occurs
because the acoustic circuit goes through antiresonance, the phase
shift occurring suddenly at this frequency. In properly designed
enclosures, advantage is taken of a large mutual -radiation resistance to
improve the -f efficiency. Very little absorption in the enclosure is
1
Is 45
35
Open back cabinet
-rú 30
a,
Ç 25
't 20
15
Venled
enclosure
á l0
av5
i
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 100 150 200
Frequency, cps
FIG. 30. -Total distortion of open -back cabinet and of the same cabinet
enclosed as shown in Fig. 28, same speaker and electrical input in both
cases. L -f distortion much reduced because diaphragm sees high antiresonant
impedance of enclosure and therefore has only small displacement whereas
air in port (which lacks the non-linear edge stiffness and non -uniform Aux
of the speaker) moves with large displacement.
wanted at low frequencies to take maximum advantage of back -side
radiation. At frequencies of several hundred cycles or more where the
port radiates negligible sound the enclosure is made absorbent to avoid
"box" resonance. The advantages of vented enclosures are (1) back-
side radiation is used to substantially increase the 1 -f output; (2) most
of this output comes from the port which has no non -linear cone sus-
pension stiffness to produce non-linear distortion; (3) antiresonance of
the enclosure occurs near the lower frequency of maximum radiation
so the diaphragm amplitude is much less than it would be otherwise.
The result of these factors on non -linear distortion reduction is shown in
Fig. 30 in which the effect of converting an open -back cabinet to a vented
port enclosure of the same internal volume is shown. The change in
response is shown in Fig. 31.
914 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec b
27. Transmission -line Speaker. The phase and amplitude of the
back-side radiation of a cone may be altered by coupling a conduit or
+10
Open back enclosure
`Vented enc/osur
°) 5
-20
40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300 400
Frequency, cps
Fia. 31. -Total sound power radiated by cabinet for which distortion is
shown in Fig. 30. Shape of l -f response may be varied between wide limits
depending on enclosure volume, port area, and speaker used.
acoustic transmission line to it. In early types the multiple- resonant
properties of such a line were used to influence the response. In a more
Acoustic
transmission
/ine
Absorptive
materia/
Fia. 32.- Labyrinth type of transmission -line speaker. Phase shift of back-
side radiation obtained by time of transmission delay in line.
recent type known as the labyrinth, the line is folded to conserve space
and made highly dissipative (see Fig. 32). Phase shift between the
Soc. $$l LOUD-SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 915
diaphragm and port or open end is due to time of transmission in thelong,

line.
At very low frequencies the line is a small fraction of a wave length
the phase shift is negligible, and the port and diaphragm radiation are
out of phase. When the line is a quarter wave long, it acts as an imped-
ance inverter (as in the electrical case); the cone sees a high impedance,
and the radiation from the port is a maximum. Non-linear distortion
is therefore reduced at and near this frequency. The resonant frequency
of the diaphragm may be placed at this frequency to aid damping.
Between this frequency and the one for which the line is a half wave
length long, the port phase shifts gradually but maintains some com-
ponent of its radiation in phase with the diaphragm (neglecting separation
between the port and diaphragm) outside the line. Because of the
infinite series of resonant and antiresonant frequencies of the line high
5
A
i f ¡t.
I
/.`,"
fJD
/
t
i
030 50 00 200 300 5
Frequency
Fta. 33.- Relative response of open-back cabinet (A) and labyrinth (B).
(After Olney.)
absorption must be introduced to prevent the production of objectionable
resonances and radiated out-of -phase components of the port. Most
of the rear -side radiation is therefore absorbed. The comparison of the
response of an open -back cabinet and labyrinth is shown in Fig. 33 (after
Olney).
ROOM ACOUSTICS
28. Room Characteristics. The trend in the theory of room acoustics
is toward considering the source of sound, the room, and the sound
receiver or "sink," all as part of a unified dynamical system. This and
is
required to bring out the interaction between source, sink, and roomtrans-
their effects on the steady-state and transient aspects of sound
mission in the room.
In this theory the room is considered as an assemblage of resonators
and the walls of the room as terminal impedances determining absorption
and reflection. A rectangular room has a triple infinity of resonant
frequencies. If the wall impedances are pure resistances, these fre-
quencies are given by
f r
= 17,140[(
.!) +
(n-2
r/
f
l + ( /
ll
J' (11)
916 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK (Sec. !2
where ns, nv, n, = 0, 1, 2, ..

liv, and 1, = dimensions of the rectangular room in centimeters.
The distribution of these "allowed" frequencies (at which resonance

occurs) may be graphically shown as in Fig. 34 by a three -dimensional
plot in "frequency space" (after Morse). Each vector to a lattice point
is associated with a 'natural frequency" or "normal mode" of the room.
The shortest vector, corresponding to the lowest frequency is determined
by the longest dimension of the room. The direction of the vector from
the origin to a lattice point indicates the direction of excitation of that
frequency in the room, and the length of the vector is proportional to its
frequency
21x
TC
C
2Ly
vy
Fm. 34.- Distribution of resonant frequencies for a rectangular room with
side lengths 1 :, i,,, and l,. The length of a vector from the origin to each
lattice point indicates the frequency and the direction of the vector indi-
cates the direction of the corresponding standing wave. The velocity of
the sound wave c is given by Eq. (1).
At low frequencies there may be an appreciable frequency interval
between the natural frequencies if the room is small. At high fre-
quencies the number of natural frequencies in a given frequency interval
is proportional to the square of the frequency.
28a. Reverberation. Using this concept of multiple natural fre-
quencies, the decay of sound in a room may be described as follows:
Assume energy has been supplied the room until the energy level is
constant, i.e., the rate of absorption at the boundaries equals the rate of
supply to the room. The resulting standing wave system depends not
only on the room and frequency but on the location and orientation of the
source. When the source of energy is stopped, each individual mode of
vibration of the room will decay exponentially, and the combined effect
of these is called reverberation. Only the modes having allowed fre-
quencies near the frequency of the steady-state excitation will contain
appreciable energy.
By definition the reverberation time is the time required for the
mean energy density in the room to drop 60 db. While this mean may
be the result of a large number of rates of decay each of which is indi-
See. !f] LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 917
vidually exponential, the combined value in general is not given by ofa

single exponential term. This accounts for the fact that the slopenot
the mean-energy- density time-decay curves for the average room aretime
uniform and therefore for the fact that the apparent reverberationIf the
depends on the time interval over which the decay is averaged.
absorption is moderate the approximate reverberation time in seconds is
given by
T = 0.001611 (12)
a
where V = room volume in cubic centimeters
a = (Ala, + Asa, + ...)
total room absorption
and A1, A2, etc., are areas in square centimeters having absorption coeffi-
cients al, 02, etc., respectively.
+20 l I
Eight microphone average
c +10
E
-a
a
.a 10
c
Single microphone
Z-6 20
$ 30
-40
20 40 60 80 100 150 200 500 1000 2000 5000 1Q000
Frequency, cps
FIG. 35.- Transfer admittance or "response curve" of a speaker,androom, and
microphone or electro-acousto- electrical transducer. Speaker micro-
phone are in diagonally opposite corners of an 18- by 20- by 11 -ft. room.
Corresponding to this type of energy decay in the room, there is a
growth curve. When a source suddenly emits energy, each of the excited
modes absorbs energy in an exponential manner. This occurs until
length of
the asymptotic or steady -state value is reached after an infiniteroom
time. When this is reached the acoustic power supplied the must
equal that absorbed at the room boundaries. By definition the absorp-
tion coefficient a of the boundary is the fraction of the incident energy
absorbed for a specified angle of incidence. The intensity I of a sound wave
[Eq. (2) ] is a measure of the energy per square centimeter per second. The
energy absorbed by the boundary per square centimeter per second is there-
fore Ia watt. The total power absorbed by the room will be la watt where
a is as defined in Eq. (12). This assumes, of course, that I is unifroom arm
throughout the room. This assumption is reasonably valid if the
is reverberant enough to be a good listening room, if the sound source is
not highly directional, and if the room dimensions are many wave lengths
long. Or mathematically
We = Ia (13)
918 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [sec, 22
where I = sound intensity in watts per square centimeter and IV,, =
acoustic power radiated by the source. The acoustic power equals the
product of the speaker efficiency and electrical signal input power. If
the room absorption is known, the speaker efficiency in this room may be
determined by measuring the average sound intensity in the room.
By combining Eqs. (12) and (13) we get
I = 620fftiT watt per sq cm (14)

28b. .Room Power Requirements. If we know the desired sound
intensity, the acoustic input power 11'., required to produce it may
obtained either from Eq. (13) by knowing the total room absorption beor
3.0
2.5 1
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ó
vAx, \\\\\\\\\
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- Speech
_.---- , '
0.5
01000 2000 4000 10001000 2 4 100,000 2 4 71,000,000

Room volume, cu. ft
FIG. 36.- Dependence of optimum reverberation time for speech and range
of reverberation time for music on room volume.
from Eq. (14) by knowing the room volume and reverberation time.
Desirable reverberation times in terms of room volume for speech and
music are shown in Fig. 36. The values for speech are seldom realized
except in acoustically treated rooms. Typical schoolrooms with average
attendance, for example, usually have reverberation times well up toward
the upper music range.
Speech articulation increases rapidly with intensity up to an intensity
level of 40 db or 10 -" watt per sq cm and more slowly to 50 db or 10 -11 watt
per sq cm. If room noises are present, the speech intensity should exceed
these by at least 10 db. In conversational speech the person speaking
radiates about 10 -6 watt. Loud speaking requires 10 -' watt. If a
loud -speaker is to simulate a person speaking loudly, its acoustic output
should be at least 10 -' watt which, for a 1 per cent efficient loud-speaker
radiating all its output into the room, means an electrical input of one-
tenth watt.
There is considerable difference of opinion on what constitute accept-
able levels of reproduced sound. Values of electrical power input which
have been suggested for theater use are shown in Fig. 37. These are
based on the use of speaker systems which have average system efficiencies
of 25 per cent. The trend is toward larger inputs to get enhanced drama-
tic value in the reproduction.
29. Acoustic System Characteristics. When a sound receiver is
included in the room with a source, then we must consider the reaction
of the room on it. The most common receiver is a listener. Because
of the difficulty, however, of making objective measurements of what is
going on in the listener's central nervous system, it is more convenient,
200
100
10
10
7
100 200 400 7001000 4000 10.000

Seating capoc ty of' theatre
Fia. 37.- Recommended amplifier output for motion- picture reproduction.
Speaker system efficiency assumed to be 25 per cent so acoustic input to
theater is one quarter indicated electrical input. Trend is toward higher
values.
although only approximately correct, to substitute one or more micro-
phones for the listener.
For sake of simplicity, assume we have a loud -speaker as a source and
a microphone as a receiver or sink, each with two accessible terminals.
Since no source of energy is assumed in the room, these four leads may
be considered the terminals of a passive quadripole or four-terminal net-
work. From circuit theory we know that the measurement of three inde-
pendent quantities will completely specify the performance of this
quadripole at any one frequency. By analogy with the purely electrical
case we may define the ratio (complex) of the current through a specified
microphone load to the input voltage of the speaker as a transfer
admittance.
A curve giving the magnitude of this quantity for a speaker and a
microphone mounted in diagonally opposite corners of a rectangular
18- by 20- by 11 -ft. room is shown in Fig. 35. This transfer admittance
is what might be called the response curve of the loud -speaker measured
in this room with designated locations for the source and microphone
and with the particular microphone employed. As would be expected
920 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [Sec. it
from the complicated equivalent circuit of the room, this transfer
admittance varies by a large factor with frequency and exhibits a large
number of maxima and minima at high frequencies. In passing it may
be noted that the impedance of the boundary of this room
ciably with frequency and therefore the location of the varied appre-
antiresonant frequencies of the "electro- acousto-electrical resonant and
not occur at the frequencies predicted by constant boundarynetwork"
impedances.
do
Considering the matter in this light, we see that this response curve
depends on the type of speaker, microphone, their location in the room,
the geometry of the room, and the impedance of the room boundaries
and therefore the impedance of the entire dynamical system seen
the acoustic terminals of the speaker and microphone. from
The loud- speaker supplies maximum energy to the room when the
impedance seen by the diaphragm looking into the room is
of the impedance looking back into the diaphragm with thethe conjugate
speaker con-
nected to its generator or amplifier. Since the latter impedance
usually high, the speaker supplies maximum power when the room is
impedance is high, which occurs (by definition) when the ratio
pressure to particle velocity is high, i.e., when the speaker is near of the
sure maximum. A pressure -actuated microphone gives a pres-
response at a pressure maximum. The maximum peaks in the maximum
admittance of Fig. 35 therefore occur when both the microphone transfer
speaker are near pressure maxima. No resonance pressure maximum and
occurs at the speaker below the lowest resonant frequency of the room,
and good l -f response is therefore hard to obtain in small rooms.
The apparent damping or Q of a mode of the system may be obtained
by steady -state sharpness of resonance methods corresponding
employed in circuit investigations. With negligible dissipationto those
losses in the source, air, and sink, the damping of a particular mode due to
indication of the absorption of energy at the boundary. From is an
damping coefficient the effective absorption coefficient of the boundary this
under the conditions determined by the mode may also be obtained.
The simplest result is obtained when the wave front is parallel to the
walls on which it is incident. The same apparent absorption is obtained
from the transient decay of the same mode.
Likewise, by analogy with the electrical case, we may think of
transient current which flows through the microphone the
load when a
unit d -c potential is suddenly supplied to the speaker terminals
transfer Judicial admittance of this electroacoustoelectrical network. as the
Viewed in this light the transient response of the speaker itself (a
part of the dynamical system) or the transfer indicial admittance ofsmall the
loud-speaker and microphone mounted in a free field where no reflec-
tions are present takes on much less significance.
We know experimentally that any room which is considered a good
acoustical listening environment has appreciable reverberation
therefore that the rate of decay of the energy in the resonators and
room is only moderate. Experimentally it has been found that of the
of decay of the modes of the speaker itself measured in a free field the rate
the same order. If the loud-speaker is loosely coupled to the room, is of
if the room impedance seen by its diaphragm is small as compared i.e.,
the impedance seen looking into the diaphragm, then we may loosely with
think of the loud-speaker as converting the unit d -c e.m.f. into a number
of damped sinusoidal terms (one corresponding to each mode
of the
speaker), which in turn excite the room. The spectral in composition of a

single damped sinusoid for two rates of decay is shown of Fig. 7. From
these we see that, if the rate of decay is large, the number ofroom modes
excited may be large, because of the broad frequency spread think the energy
exciting the room. Actually, of course, we should only a simplifica- of the
dynamical system as a whole and the above explanation as
tion of the problem.
Experimental curves of this transfer indicial admittance are what one
would predict from the theory. If the speaker is loosely coupled to the
room, if its damping when it looks into a small acoustical impedance is
low, and if an undamped resonant frequency of the speaker lies neara
one of the resonant modes of the room, the transient term looks like
typical one for two coupled circuits. That is, there are two prominent
rates of decay containing the combined effect of the two important if the
resonant frequencies (the speaker and room). On the other hand,
speaker is highly damped when looking into a high acoustical impedance,
if the driving point impedance of the room at an undamped natural
frequency of the diaphragm is high, and if the room is large or its dimen-
sions are so chosen that there are a number of resonant frequencies near
an undamped resonant frequency of the speaker diaphragm, then the
transient term consists of the superposition of a large number of damped
sinusoids. In this case it may be seen that elimination of the term due
to the loud -speaker would cause a negligibly small change in the apparent
transient response of the system. This was verified in an unreported
investigation conducted 8 years ago, in which it was shown experimentally
that, if the fundamental speaker mode was eliminated by the use of a
properly chosen electrical network, the aural result in reproduced speecha
and music was small unless the damping of the speaker radiating into
free field was unusually small.
The more important practical implications of the above (see also Art. 7,
Mutual Radiation Impedance) are the following: (a) The loud- speaker
should preferably be mounted in the corner of the room. In this position
the greatest number of room resonances are "excited" and the most
energy is supplied to the room. (b) The average l -f radiation is a maxi-
mum when the speaker is as near the floor (or ceiling) as possible and in
the room corner. Next most desirable location is near floor (or ceiling)
and side wall. (c) At any one frequency, maximum radiation is obtained
when the room impedance seen by the diaphragm is the conjugate of the
impedance seen looking back into the diaphragm. That is for the loca-
tion which makes the combined speaker and room resonate. Such a
maximum may not be obtained if the longest room dimension is less than
roughly a half wave length long. (d) Because of this and the small
number of resonant frequencies which occur in small rooms at low
frequencies, small rooms do not normally permit the best l -f reproduction.
(e) Corner positions also permit improved h -f response because of the
smaller solid angle the radiation has to cover. (f) The l-f transient
response of the speaker itself is not so important as is generally supposed
because the transient response of the room helps obscure this distortion.
OBJECTIVE LOUD-SPEAKER TESTS
The following more important characteristics of a loud-speaker must
be determined in any complete test: response-frequency, efficiency-
frequency, directional, impedance, and distortion.
30. Response -frequency Characteristic (Steady State). A response -

frequency curve of a speaker is a curve graphically depicting the sound
produced at a designated position in the medium, the electrical input and
acoustic environment being specified. Frequency discrimination is
the most important form of distortion in many loud-speakers, and the
response curve attempts to indicate quantitatively the amount present.
Since the ear is primarily responsive to the sound pressure, the ordinate
of the curve is made proportional to it or to its average value in a specified
region.
The response curve is obtained by connecting the loud-speaker to a
variable frequency source of specified internal impedance and constant
specified internal voltage. The pressure at one or more points in the
medium is measured as the frequency is varied slowly enough so the
resulting measurement does not differ appreciably from the steady-state
value.
A "free-field" response curve is made outdoors in the absence of
unintended reflecting surfaces and is probably the most useful single
curve showing the loud-speaker performance for outdoor applications.
Curves of this type are valuable because (1) the direct incident sound
from the source in various directions may be accurately determined and
a close estimate made of the direct sound indoors; (2) the acoustic
environment is relatively simple since only intended reflecting surfaces
are included. The efficiency of the unit may then be accurately obtained
for this environment at some frequencies and estimated at others, since
the impedance seen by the diaphragm will change slowly with frequency
(i.e., the transfer admittance of the speaker, air, and microphone is a
smooth curve). (3) The specified test conditions may be duplicated
relatively easily at various laboratories permitting significant comparison
of test results. The construction of identical test rooms, however
desirable, would be difficult, partly because of differences of opinion on
an "average" room and partly for economic reasons.
By "intended" reflecting surfaces is meant those that are an intended
part of the radiating system. Frequently a cabinet or enclosure is
measured outdoors in the absence of all reflecting surfaces, i.e., radiating
into a solid angle of 4r steradians or a complete sphere. This is usually
undesirable since most enclosures are intended to operate on a floor and
against a wall which adds two intended reflecting surfaces and primary
images (see Radiation Impedance). If the enclosure is intended to
operate in a room corner, there are three important primary images.
The impedance seen looking into these reduced solid angles of ,r and a/2
steradians, respectively, is very different from the 4,r case and usually
results in an error of the order of 6 to 8 db at low frequencies. The error
is especially large in the case of compound sources such as vented enclo-
sures. The measured non -linear distortion usually differs by a much
larger factor.
Outdoor measurements into solid angles of a and x/2 steradians are
made by constructing large rigid non-absorbing surfaces.
Other intended parts of the speaker such as the baffle, horn, enclosure,
etc., should, of course, be specified. The normal impedance or the
impedance looking into the signal terminals of the speaker with the
acoustical load (acoustical environment), used when the response curve
was obtained, should be plotted. Both the angle and modulus of this
See. 221 LOUD-SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 923
impedance are required if the response of the speaker with any source
impedance other than that employed in the test is to be calculated.
If a space average of the pressure is obtained by moving the micro-
phone or by using multiple microphones, details of the method should be
given. If a warble tone or noise generator is used to get a "moving
frequency average" of the transfer admittance, the spectral composition
of the source should be specified. These expedients and the one involv-
ing motion of the loud -speaker, which is usually unsatisfactory, are
recommended only for indoor measurements when the room does not
provide approximately free -field conditions.
Normal listening -room measurements are made with the loud-speaker
mounted in its intended position in a typical listening room. As noted
under Room Acoustics, the room impedance seen by the loud -speaker
depends on the characteristics and location of the source itselfof(dia- the
phragm sizes, locations, and modes of vibration), the geometry
room, and the impedance of its boundaries. This means that thelocation energy
supplied the room depends on the particular room and speaker test.
chosen. This is frequently used as an argument against this type of similar
Since the results obtained in reasonably similar rooms, withthis dis-
speaker locations in each, differ by only a moderate amount, of this type
advantage does not outweigh the many important advantages
of test some of which are (1) the impedance seen by the loud -speaker
(including cabinet or enclosure), averaged over a small frequency interval, than
is closer to the average impedance seen under operating conditions
outdoor test condi-
the impedance seen under the usual (4,r steradians) performance is only
tions; (2) calculation of the indoor from the outdoor are to be obtained,
of academic interest when hundreds of response curves
because of the labor involved; (3) ready comparison ofroom the results of
objective and subjective or listening tests in the same the mercy is possible
of the
if the room is a good listening room; (4) one is not at
weather; and most important (5) test facilities are readily provided in
almost any organization.
Three large laboratories measured one speaker and plotted what they The
would publish as the response- frequency graph of the speaker.
results are shown in Fig. 38. This does not indicateinany error in meas-
urement. Actually different things were measured each case. The
curves indicate that response curves must be interpreted with great
care and then only by a person familiar with the manyorfactors involved.
No speaker expert thinks of choosing a speaker solely even largely on
the basis of a response curve. -pressure
31. Efficiency-frequency Characteristic. If the free- field centered on
response at a sufficient number of points on a spherical surface
may he calculated.
the diaphragm is obtained, the total acoustical output to the re-
The efficiency- frequency curve of a speaker corresponds the efficiency
sponse- frequency curve except that the ordinate indicates
(usually "absolute" or system). In a typical listening environment would be
and listener location the direct incident sound energy, which curve at the
approximately indicated by the free -field responseis-frequency
only a small fraction
listener's location with respect to the speaker, aver-
of the reflected sound energy. A curve which gives the pressure,
probable pressure
aged over the useful listening region, then indicates theroom
the listener will experience. If absorption at the boundary is
924 THE RADIO ENGINEERING HANDBOOK [see. f2
independent of frequency this will be proportional to the total energy
emitted by the speaker. Efficiency- frequency or space-averaged re-
sponse- frequency curves are therefore the most useful in interpreting
indoor operation. Outdoor resporm e- frequency curves at various angles
off the speaker axis, with the speaker radiating into approximately the
solid angle it will see indoors, are also desirable since the listener, owing
to his ability to localize sounds, weights the direct incident sound energy
particularly at high frequencies more heavily than the same energy if in
a reflected wave.
SUBJECTIVE LOUD -SPEAKER TESTS
32. Listening or Subjective Tests. Listening tests are a necessary part
of the complete test of a loud-speaker. While objective measurements
+10
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80 100 1000 2000 5000 10,000
Frequency, c ps
Fie. 38.- Response of one speaker as measured by three different com-
panies, showing the futility of relying on response curves without a complete
knowledge of the specific test, acoustic environment, and method.
are valuable in design work and in quantitatively determining some
performance criteria, they cannot at present completely specify the
subjective performance. Because of the apparent simplicity of listening
tests many important factors are frequently neglected, with the result
that many tests are meaningless and others actually misleading.
In both indoor and outdoor tests all precautions should be taken that
are used in objective tests. The only essential difference is that the
listener is substituted for the microphone. The properties of the ear
and listener must therefore be considered in interpreting the results.
33. Relative-loudness Efficiency. The most common test is one to
determine the relative-loudness efficiency of two speakers. An antenua-
tor in the amplifier which does not alter its response is adjusted (usually
with a relay which also switches the speakers) to attenuate the input
to the louder speaker by the amount required to make the speakers
equally loud. The required attenuation of the louder in decibels is their
relative loudness efficiency in decibels. The relative loudness will
depend primarily on the spectral composition of the test signal, the
response- frequency characteristic of the speakers, and on the sound
Sec. 22] LOUD -SPEAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 925
intensity. Tests on the speaking and singing voice and various types
of music are usually averaged. A valuable signal source for this and
response-frequency tests is a "flat" noise source, or one in which the
energy is uniformly distributed with frequency. This particular spectral
composition ensures energy at frequencies at which significant differences
in the speaker response may occur.
34. Response-frequency Characteristic. Apparent subjective re-
sponse- frequency tests may he made with the sank signal sources used
in the loudness tests. Since the listener is not mobile, "space-averaging"
methods employed with microphones cannot be used and "frequency -
averaging" methods are employed. While noise sources are occasionally
used in objective tests, they have unfortunately been neglected in subjec-
+20
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20 40 60 80 100 150 200 500 1000 5000 10;
Frequency, c p s
Fia. 39.- Variation in total sound power radiated by a bass reflex enclosure
into a room as source impedance (impedance match) is varied. Generator or
source voltage constant for each curve but arbitrarily raised as the source
resistance was raised to maintain constant acoustic output at 400 cycles.
tive tests, where they are of special value because the trained ear can
quickly appraise response differences which are missed if the signal source
contains no energy at the frequencies at which differences occur.
35. Distortion Characteristic. Except with a single- or double -
frequency input (the latter to determine intermodulation) it is difficult
to determine the distortion characteristic of the speaker itself. With
one or two simultaneously applied frequencies the input to the speaker is
readily determined when the normal impedance of the speaker is known.
This is not true of a signal of random energy distribution, and therefore
with such a signal the apparent input to the speaker is not readily deter-
mined unless the normal impedance is relatively independent of frequency.
When the speaker distortion characteristic is desired, the amplifier
should be capable of supplying many times the rated input power to the
speaker without distortion because of the high ratio of peak to average
energy in speech and music (see these sections). Much overload charged
to speakers is amplifier overload.
What is usually measured is the system distortion characteristic.
Since amplifier overload almost invariably occurs at about the level at
which speaker overload occurs in an economically planned system, what

is measured is the combined system overload. In this case the speaker
with the most restricted h -f response (other factors being equal) will
have the best system overload rating since h-f distortion products are
annoying.
There is no standard for speaker input power rating, but in practice a
speaker rated at X watts will "handle' the output of an X -watt amplifier,
R9 = 0 ohms
Fio. 40.- Response of moving -coil speaker with 8 -ohm voice coil to an
electrical pulse as source resistance is varied. Minor irregularities in curves
are due to h-f modes of vibration of diaphragm.
which is not overloaded, with speech or music (complex wave) input

(see Motors, p. 903; and Art. 18, Permanent and Electromagnets).
The rating does not indicate the power the speaker will handle at a single
frequency but takes advantage of the normal (no heavy bass or treble
accentuation) spectral composition of speech and music. To avoid the
trouble in determining the signal level across the speaker, with its
variation in normal impedance, the grid voltage on the output stage
may be measured. The signal input is raised until perceptible distortion
results. The peak grid voltage is then measured with an indicator having
a negligible time constant, such as a cathode -ray tube. A resistance
See. !!J LOUD- SPRAKERS AND ROOM ACOUSTICS 92?
equal in value to the magnitude of the nominal loud -speaker impedance

is substituted for the speaker. The power dissipated in the resistance
load with a 400-cycle signal having the same maximum value as the maxi-
mum signal is the system (since it includes the output stage) speaker
input power rating.
96. Outdoor Tests. These should be conducted so the listener sub-
tends the same or a known angle with each source. The sources should
be mounted so their mutual- radiation impedance does not influence the
Eighlequa//y Four equa //y

spaced ho/es spaced ho /es
(a) (b)
Nominal Hole Mounting Minimum Baffles Hole
Spealtr Diameter, In. Hole Diameter, In.
Sise, In. Arrangement Diameter, In.
314
B 4'M
Ms 12' 33
l s .1g 414
5% A 532 55 43-'y
08§ A 742 Tal Ó3

10 B 932 TTS2 soy
12 B 11Sis t4 103
15 A 143í6 'As 13,11
* Not an adopted standard.

FIG. 41. -RMA standard mounting dimensions for electrodynamic speakers.
result. Separating the sources by several times the diameter of the cone
or horn mouth usually suffices. The energy absorbed by the unused
speaker will be more nearly independent of frequency if the voice coil
of the unused speaker is short-circuited. Unwanted reflecting surfaces
should be avoided.
37. Indoor Tests. The speakers should be separated by several times
the diameter of the cone or horn mouth to minimize mutual- radiation
impedance. This is particularly true if the speakers are mounted on
a common open baffle. Some coupling between the sources will always
exist because of the transfer admittance between the two in the room (see
Room Acoustics). It is important to mount the speakers symmetrically
with respect to the room and listener in order to provide similar coupling
between each source, the room, and the listener.
References
General:
American Standards Association, Tentative Standards, Z24.1, Z24.2, Z24.3 and Z24.4.
Bell System Tech. Jour. (see Cum. Index, vols. 1 -10).
CRANDALL, I. B.: "Theory of Vibrating Systems and Sound."
Electronics (McGraw -Hill Publishing Company, Inc.).
GEIGER, H., and KARL SCHEEL: "Handbuch der Physik" (vol. 8, Akustik), 1927.
I.R.E. Electroacoustic Standards, 1938 (also Proc. I.R.E.).
Jour. Acoustical Soc. Amer. (see Cum. Index, vols. 1 -10).
MOLAOawy, N. W.: "Loudspeakers."
MORSE, P. M.: " Vibration and Sound."
OLSON, H. F.: "Elements of Acoustical Engineering."
, and F. MASSA: "Applied Acoustics." 1939 ed.
RAYLEIGH, LORD J. W. S.: "Theory of Sound."
Soc. Mot. Picture Engrs., Jour.
STEWART, G. W., and R. B. LINDSAY: "Acoustics."
WEIN- HARMS: "Handbuch der Experiment Physik" (vol. 17, parta 1 -3).
Speech, Music, and Hearing:
BEASELY, W. C.: Characteristics and Distribution of Impaired Hearing in the Popula-
tion of the United States, Jour. Acoustical Soc. Amer., 12, 114 -121, 1940; also National
Health Survey, Hearing Study Series Bulls. 1 -7.
FLETCHER, H.: "Speech and Hearing "; also Physical Characteristics of Speech and
Music, Bell System Tech. Jour., 10, 349, 1931; STEINBERG, J. C.: Articulation Testing
Methods, Bell System Tech. Jour., 10, 806, 1929; and MUNSEN, W. A.: Jour. Acoustical
Sor. Amer., 5, 83, 1933.
SIvIAN, L. J.: Speech Power and Its Measurement, Bell System Tech. Jour., 10, 646.
1939; and DUNx, H. K.. and S. D. WHITE: "Absolute Amplitudes and Spectra of Musical
Instruments and Orchestras."
SNOW, W. B.: Audible Frequency Ranges of Music, Speech and Noise, Jour. Acoustical
Soc. Amer., 3, 155 -186, 1931.
STEVENS, S. S., and H. DAVIS: "Hearing, Its Psychology and Physiology."
Loud-speakers:
BOSTWICK, L. G.: Bell System Tech. Jour., 8, 135, 1929. (Tests.)
Coo', E. D.: Gen. Elec. Rev., 33, 50.5, 1930. (Tests.)
GREAVES, V. F., F. W. KRANZ, and W. D. KROZIER: The Kyle Condenser Loudspeaker,
Proc. I.R.E., 18, 1142, 1929.
HALL, W. M.: Jour. Acoustical Soc. Amer., 3, 552, 1932. (Horns.)
KLAPMAN, S. J.: Interaction Impedance of a System of Circular Pistons, Jour. Acous-
tical Soc. Amer., 11, 289, 1940.
KNOWLES, H. S.: Electronics, 4, 154, 1932; also 8, 240, 1933. (Tests.)
OLNEY, B.: Prot. I.R.E., 10, 1113, 1931. (Tests.)
PEDERSEN, P. O.: Jour. Acoustical Soc. Amer.. 8, 227, 1935; and 7, 64, 1935. (Sub -
harmonic theory.)
PHELPS, W. D.: Jour. Acoustical Soc. Amer., 12, 68, 1940. (Horn losses.)
RICE, C. W., and E. W. KELLOG: Jour. A. I. E. E., 44, 982; also 1015, 1925. (Moving -
coil speaker.)
STENZEL, H.: Elektrische Nach. Tech., 4, 239, 1927; 8, 105, 1929; and 7, 90, 1930; also
Zeit. Tech. Physik, 10, 569, 1929; and Ann. Physik 11, 947, 1930. (Directivity of
radiators.)
WEDEL, R. L.: Jour. A. I. E. E., 49, 791, 1921. (Theory.)
WOLFF. I., and L. MALTER:Phys. Rev., 83, 1061, 1929. (Mutual radiation impedance.)
Also Jour. Acoustical Soc. Amer., 2, 201, 1930. (Directivity.)
Room Acoustics:
Jour. Acoustical Soc. Amer., Symposium. July, 1940, Bibliography (see also Cum.
Index, vols. 1 -10).
KNUDSEN, V. O.: "Architectural Acoustics," 1932.
SABINE, P. E.: "Acoustics and Architecture," 1932.
WATSON, F. R.: "Acoustics of Buildings," 1930; and Jour. Acoustical Soc. Amer., 3,
14-43, 1931.
INDEX
A Amplification, i -f, 727 -730
video, 715 -723
Acorn receiving tubes, 265 voltage, 360 -361
Acoustic chart, 772 wide -hand r-f, 726
Acoustics, room, 915-921 Amplifier chart, resistance coupled, 369-
Air Track blind landing system, 619 373
Aircraft radio, 589-627 Amplifier triodes, power, 254 -255
aids to blind landing, 616 -625 Amplifiers, audio frequency, 359-394
antennas, 607 classification of, 359
course navigation and position deter- beam tube, 385
mination, 610 -615 cascade, 404-405
direction finder, 611 -613 cathode coupled, 720 -721
goniometer for, 597 -598 class A, 360 -363
ground-station equipment for, 604-605 class A, 384 -385, 417-418
installation, 607 -610 linear r -f, 827 -828
power equipment, 607-608 for crystal microphone, 782
range- beacon and weather -broadcast degenerative feedback in, 386 -388
stations, 596 -597 d -c, 389 -390
receivers, 610 distortion measurement. 393
remote -control receiver for, 605 -606 Doherty high efficiency, 420-422, 828
shielding and bonding, 608 -609 dynamic coupled, 391
transmitters, 609 -610 equalization in, 391 -392
u.h.f. for, 592 frequency -response control in, 391 -39.2
(See also Landing system) high gain, 390 -391
Airport radio equipment, 606 impedance-capacitance coupled, 366-
Airways, alignment of range- beacon 368,398-400
courses with, 599 design of, 374
A -c-d -c receivers, 454 i-f,430-432
Alternating currents, 31 limiting, SIS -817
effective and average values, 32 linear power, 828-830
permeability, 43 -44 measuring, 392 -394
Alternator, Alexanderson, 571 -573 modulated, 418-420, 832-833
Goldschmidt, 573 multistage, 363-394
Altimeter, capacity, 624 neutralization, 411, 826
reflection, 624-625 noise, 722
sonic, 624 pentode, 385
Ampere -hour capacity, 468-469 power, 256, 362 -363
Ampere -turns, 70 calculations for, 414 -415
Amplification factor, calculation of, 248- design of. 539 -545
264 power supply for, 388-389
measurement of, 247 -248 program, 797
929
Amplifiers, push pull, 382 -385 Antennas, harmonic wire, 666

r -f, 395 -422, 428 -430 harmonic -wire end -fire projectors, 665
regeneration in, 407 -408 h -f, feed methods for, 663-665
resistance-capacitance coupled, 364 -366, h-f reactance of. 46
395-399 ice removal, 575, 577
compensated, 397 -398 input systems, 426-428
compensation in, 157 long wave, 574-575
scanner, circuits, 751 loop, 45 677
screen grid, 257-261 Marconi -Franklin beam, 665, 669-67G
speech input, 797-798 master, systems, 688 -689
television, mixing, 713 measurements of, 654 -656
testing, 392 -394 multiple tuned, 575
three electrode, mechanism of, 252 -253 MUSA, 680
transformer coupled, 377-379 mutual impedance of. 642
design of, 379 radiation from, 642 -645
transient response of video, 721 receiving, 676 -684
tuned -transformer coupled. 400-411 resistance, 46
(See also Preamplifiers) rhombic, 672-673, 678
Amplitude limiters, 353 self-impedance, 637, 639
Amplitude of oscillation, control of, 299- steerable, 680
300 Telefunken, directional. 668
Amplitude -modulated waves in non -linear "pine tree," 665
circuits, 327 -329 terminations for r-f transmission lines,
Amplitude modulation, 323 -324, 329 -337 853
versus f.m., 842-843 terminology, 628-630
Anderson bridge, 227 tower radiators, 652
Antennas. 628 -690 turnstile. 673, 674
airplane, 607 u-h -f, 673 -676
array, for broadcasting, adjustment of. vertical, 44-45
660 Walusley, 668 -669
broadside, 665 -666 wave, 681
mechanical design of directive, 671- Antinode, 629
672 Aperture distortion, 749
sleet -melting on, 872 Arc transmitters, 573-574
Sterha directional, 670-671 Armstrong circuit, 554-555
barrage, 871 Armstrong frequency modulator, 839
Beverage, 681 -683 Army landing system, 621 -623
broadcast, 651 -660 Articulation, 878
receiving. 684-689 Aspect ratio, 692
characteristics of, measuring, 862 Attenuation constant, of r -f line, 166
Chireix-Mesny beam, 670 of transmission line, 159
coil, 45 Attenuator circuits, 794
cone -of- silence marker, 675 Audio circuits (see Circuits)
current distribution in, 635 Audio-frequency amplifiers, 359 -394
curtain, Sterba, 665 Audio-frequency lines, 159 -160
diamond -grid radiator, 665 Audio-frequency range in broadcasting,
directional, 580 770, 775
transmitting, 665 -673 Audio transformers, 42-44, 375-377
directivity diagrams, 646, 648 Austin-Cohen formula, 518, 569
effective height of, 629 Automatic-frequency control for oscil-
fan marker, 875 -676 lators, 316 -317
ground systems for, 652 -653 Automatic pilot, 613
INDEX 931
Automobile radio receivers, 449 -452, 453 Bridge, measurements, d -c, 214-217
Ayrton- Mather electrostatic voltmeter, Owen, 225
200 resonance, 226
Ayrton- Mather universal shunt, 184 Schering, 222
Aviation (see Aircraft radio) slide wire, 215-216
Aviation radio frequencies, propagation stabilization of oscillators, 298 -299
characteristics of, 592 -596 transformers, 219
Wien, 226
B Broadcast antennas, 651 -660
Baffles, 909-910 adjustment of array, 660
Ballast tubes, 274 receiving, 684 -689
Band-pass filters, 405-407 Broadcasting, audio-frequency range in,
of superheterodyne receiver, 424 770, 775
Band-pass r -f circuits, 154-155 international, 826
Band -width requirements, 536 program monitoring, 817 -819
Barkhausen -Kurtz oscillator, 314 station signal coverage, 866-875
Barrage antenna, 671 transmission lines, 657, 660
Barrow oscillator, 311 transmitting system, 771
Bass reflex loud -speaker, 910, 911, 913 radio, 821 -826
Batteries, acid and alkaline cells, 471-472 requirements, 822
dry -cell, primary, 468 -471 volume range in, 775
standards, 470 wire lines in, 815
storage, 471 -480 Broadcasting system, elements, 769-770
charging, 476 high quality, frequencies to be trans-
electrolyte characteristics of, 475-476 mitted in, 774
Battery chargers, 489 -497 C
Beacons, l-f marker, 601
radio landing, 617 -618 CAA Indianapolis blind landing system,
619
u -h -f two course, 599 -601
(See also Radio beacon)
CAA -MIT microwave landing system,
620 -621
Beam -power tubes, 266 -267
amplifiers (see Amplifiers) Cable, facsimile submarine, 765
Beams, electron, deflection of, 739 -740 Camera signal, 701
Beat -frequency oscillators, 304 -305 Camera tube, 692
Bendix landing system, 619 Cameras, television, 705
Beverage antenna, 681 -683 Capacitance, 30-31, 100 -124
Blanking level, 736 calculation of, 109 -110
Blind landing, radio aids to, 616 -625 condenser, effect of frequency on, 111
Blind- landing system, Air Track, 619 direct, 222-223
Bendix, 619 and inductance coupling, combinations
of, 404
CAA Indianapolis, 619
Lorenz, 618-619 interelectrode, 278 -279, 361
Blocking -oscillator-type generator, 740 measurement of, 280-281
Bridge, Anderson, 227
measurement, 122 -124, 202-203
Carey Foster, 216 resistance- capacitance amplifier, 364-
366
Carey Foster mutual inductance, 228
errors in, 219 -221 standards of, 122
guard circuit for, 223 -225 units of, 100
(See also Amplifiers, impedance
Hay, 225 coupled, design of;
capacitance
Kelvin, 216 -217
Maxwell, 225
Impedance -capacitance coupled
amplifier)
measurements, a -e, 217 -228
Capacity altimeter, 624 Circuits, for out -of -phase voltages and
Carbon microphones, 784-786 currents, 156 -157
Carbon recording, 759 parallel resonant, impedance in, 140
Carey Foster bridge, 216 design of, 143-145
Carey Foster mutual-inductance bridge, parameters, 36
228 Q of LCR, 132 -133
Carrier operation, variable, 549 -550 r -f, band pass, 154 -155
Carrier suppression, 324, 550 -551 scanner amplifier, 751
Carrier transmitters, Hapug, 549 -550 series resonant, design of, 138
Cascade amplifiers, 404 -405 as equalizers, 138 -139
Cathode-coupled amplifier, 720 -721 for frequency regulation, 138
Cathode -ray tubes, 275 -278 steady-state currents in, 129 -135
deflection sensitivity of, 277 tapped tank, 147 -148
picture, 734 television, separation, 731 -734
Chargers, battery, 489 -497 transformer rectifier, for transmitters,
wind driven, 485-489 463 -468
Charging storage batteries, 476 transmission-line tank, 547
Chireix-Mesny beam antenna, 670 t -r-f, 447 -448
u -h -f, 547-548
Choke, filter, 508 -509
voltage doubler, 491
design, 509 -511
wire -line telephone facsimile, 765 -766
for d.c., 511 -512
Civil Aeronautics Authority, 589
swinging, 508
(See also CAA)
Circuits, a-e, 34-40 Click filter, 586
applications of LCR, 154 -157 "Clipper" tube, 731
Armstrong, 554-555 Coaxial conductors, 166
attenuator, 794 Codan receiver, 605-606
audio, series losses in, 133 -135 Code, business, 564
shunt impedance losses in, 133 -135 character formation, 566 -567
capacitive, current flow in, 38 commercial receiving- center problems,
time constant of, 38 583
for code, tone control. 585-586 Continental, 565
constants, 5-9 on short waves, 570
coupled, 149 -154 required frequency range for, 567-568
Crosby, 555 -556 speeds attainable, 568
electric and magnetic, 27-47 standard. 564
equations, 36 -38 tone -control circuits for, 585 -586
for transient currents in, 125 -129 transmission, multiplex, 566
facsimile receiving, 762-763 and reception, 564 -588
frequency discriminator, 157 Coefficient, of coupling, 149 -154
f -m, Weir stabilization for, 837 grid current. 251
guard, for bridge, 223 -225 Coercivity, 41
h -f, interstage coupling. 545-546 Coils, calculating inductance of air-core,
inductive, current flow in, 38, 72 -76 90-96
inductive, power in, 76-77 capacity of. effect on inductance, 84
limiter, 561,582-583 and condensers, impedance of, 129 -132
magnetic, 40-44 reactance of, 129-132
Morrison, 556,557 honeycomb, 85,87
neutralizing, 408 -410 inductance, design of, 86-87
non -linear, amplitude -modulated waves iron core, 88
in. 327 -329 inductance of, 81 -83
oscillator tracking, 145 -147 measurement of, 78-80
INDEX 933
Coils, Litz wire, 87 Coupling, coefficient of, 149-154

multilayer, 93 -96 combinations of inductive and capaci-
for short -wave receivers, 88-89 tive, 404
Colpitts oscillator, 284 Coupling circuits, interstage, for h.f.. 545-
546
Communication, point to point, 570 -571
ship to shore and ship to ship, 571 Crosby circuit, 555 -556
Cross modulation, 252, 3 ?7
Concentric-line terminations. 856-863
Crystal microphone, 781 -783
Condenser capacitance, effect of fre-
Crystal oscillators, 287 -294
quency on, 111
Crystal speaker, 908
Condenser microphones. 783-784 Crystals, piezoelectric, mountings for,
Condensers, charged, energy of, 100 -101 292 -294
combinations of, 110 -111 temperature control, 291 -292
design equations for variable air, 117- tourmaline, 291
120
Current-measuring instruments, 180-197
electrolytic, 112 -115 Current meters. h -f, 189 -192
applications of, 115 Current sensitivity of a galvanometer. 183
testing, 115 Currents, alternating, 31
filter, 513 in circuits containing inductance, 72 -76
fixed, types of, 111 -112 continuous, 31
gang. 117 distribution in antennas, 635
loud -speaker, 907 -908 flow of. in capacitive circuit, 38
paper, 111 in inductive circuit, 38
reactance of, 129 -132 grid, 251
variable, types of, 116 -117 normal emission, 245
Conductance, grid, 251 and potentials, measurements of pulsat-
plate, 248 -250 ing, 198 -200
Conductivity table, soil, 516 space, 246-248
Conductors, coaxial, 166 standards of, 179
linear, radiation from, 630 steady state, 36, 129 -135
reactances of, 636 transient, 36, 76
table of materials as, 50 equations for, 125 -129
Cone markers, u -h -f, 601 -603 and voltages, out -of- phase, circuits for,
Cone of silence, 601 156 -157
marker antenna, 675 Cutoff frequencies, 168
Constants, mathematical and physical, 5
Contact potential, 236 D
Contrast of television images, 742 -744
Conversion gain, 339 Damping resistance, critical. 183
Conversion transconductance, 339 Dark-spot signal. 707
Converters, frequency, 338-340,432-433 Davisson, C. J., 245
design of, 433 Decibel. 775
pentagrid. 262-264 chart, 15
superheterodyne frequency, 339 Decibel table, 199
Copper oxide modulators. 335 -337 Decimal equivalents. 1
Copper oxide rectifiers, 495-496 Decoupling filters. 155 -156
Copper sulphide rectifiers, 495 Deflectio-i, of electron beams, 739 -740
Copper wire tables, 10-13 sensitivity of cathode -ray tubes. 277
Core materials for receiver construction. Detection, and modulation, 3 22 -358
42 video. 730 -731
Counterpoise, 653-654 Detectors, 340-353
Coupled circuits, 149 -154 for a-c bridge, null, 218 -219
Detectors, diode, 730 Dry-cell primary batteries, 468 -471

(ale also under Diode) Dynamic speakers, 905
diode peak, 341 -344 Dynamotore, 484
frequency, 352-353
grid, 346 -348
Dynatron oscillator, 3302
infinite impedance, 350 -351 E
null, sensitivity of, 215
phase, 353 Earth currents, 765
plate, 348-350 Eddy currents, 83
square law, 348 Einthoven string galvanometer, 186
Dialogue equalizer, 801 Electric charge, 27
Diamond-grid radiator antenna. 665 Electrical measurements, 179 -230
Diaphragms of loud-speakers, 899-903 Electrical unite, 21, 31
Dielectric absorption, 109 Electrodynamometer, 187
Dielectric constant, 102 Electrolyte characteristics of storage
Dielectric materials, 101 -102 batteries, 475 -476
Dielectric power- factor table for insulat- Electromagnetic field, electrons in, 233
ing materials, 105 -108 Electromagnetic structures, 41-42
Dielectric strength, 104 Electrometer, Kelvin absolute, 200
Diesel- powered electric generating sets, E.M.F., 29
481 Electron, 27. 231
Dingley induction -type landing system, in electromagnetic field, 233
623 in electrostatic field, 231-233
Diode limiters, 353 -354 free, 28
Diode performance, 344 -346 space charge due to, 233
Diode peak detectors, 341 -344, 730 Electron beams, deflection of, 739 -740
Dipole, 628 Electron charge, 5
Direct current, characteristics of, 460 -461 Electron-coupled oscillators, 317 -318
choke design for, 511 -512 Electron emission, 236
measurement of, 460-461 Electron guns, 735
Direction finders, 456-457 Electron -tube meters, 205-210
on airplane, 611 -613 Electron velocities, 232
Lear, 623 Electrostatic field, electrons in, 231 -233
Direction- finding system, Robinson, 611- Electrostatic voltmeters, 200
612 Emission characteristic, 245
Directional antennas, 580 Emission current, normal, 245
Directive antenna arrays, mechanical Equalization, 160 -161
design of, 671 -672 in amplifier systems, 391 -392
Directivity diagrams, antenna, 646, 648 Equalizer, dialogue, 801
Directivity patterns, calculation of, 648 series resonant circuits as, 138 -139
Disk engraving, lateral and vertical, 802- Evaporation process, 293
804 Exponential and hyperbolic functions,
Disk recording, sound on, 801 -802 18-19
Disk records, 807
Distortion, aperture, 749 F
in amplifiers, measuring. 393
calculation of, 256 -257 Facsimile, detail required in, 749 -750
modulation, 252, 327 modulation in, 752
Diversity effect, 678 operating standards in, 767
Diversity reception, 530, 582, 683 -684 phototubes used in, 750
Doherty amplifier, 420 -422, 828 precision required in, 756
Doublet, 828 requirement, for, 589
INDEX 935
Facsimile, scanning in, 748 -751 Force factor, 903

synchronizing in, 763-764 Form factor, 32
wire-line telephone circuits in, 765 -766 Frame- repetition rate, 697
(See also Tape -facsimile system) Frequency, peat operating, 536-538
Facsimile problems, 7648. in high -quality broadcast system, 774
Facsimile receiving circuits, 762-763 maximum usable, 520, 538
Facsimile reception, 757 -763 Frequency allocation, 536
Facsimile submarine cable, 765 in United States, 535
Facsimile systems, typical operating Frequency comparison, 211 -212
standards of, 761 Frequency conversion, 322
Facsimile transmission, 747-768 Frequency converters, 338-340,432-433
Faders, 793, 795 -796 design, 433
Fading, 515, 528 -531 Frequency detectors. 352 -353
selective, 678 Frequency discriminator circuit, 157
Fan marker, u -h -f, 603-604 Frequency measurement, 203
Fan -marker antenna, 675 -676 Frequency meter, vibrating reed, 203
Farad, 30 Frequency modulation, 325
Feedback, in amplifiers, degenerative, versus a.m.. 842 -843
386 -388 Armstrong. 839
in transmitter, degenerative, 830 -832 preemphasized, 555
Feedback oscillators, 284 -286 receivers. 455, 562 -563
Fidelity of receivers, 425 subcarrier, 753
Field -intensity measurements, 868 -869 transmitters, 553-557
Field strength for radiotelegraphy, 569- measurements, 843
570 Weir stabilization circuit for, 837
Filament calculations, 237-239 Frequency -modulation systems, 8358.
Filament characteristic, 245 Frequency monitor, 819 -820
Filter condensers, 513 Frequency multipliers, 354-355,422,540
ratings, 512 -513 static, 573
Filter -design formulas, 173 -177 Frequency range for code, required, 567-
Filter reactors, 42-43 568
Filter section, basic, 168-169 Frequency -range table, 537
Filtering. 441 -442 Frequency ranges of musical instruments,
Filters, band pass. 405-407 882
of superheterodyne, 424 Frequency response control in amplifier
choke, 508 -509 systems, 391 -392
design, 509 -511 Frequency stabilization of oscillators, 286-
click. 586 287
constant -K, 169-171 Frequency standards, 180
decoupling, 155 -156 Frequency tolerances, 537
end terminations of, 172 -173
low pass. 503 -505 G
m derived, 170 -171
multisection, 171 -172 Galvanometer, current sensitivity of, 183
RC, 161
differential, 184
resistor capacitor, 505 -506 d -c, 183
scratch, 139
wave, 168-177 Einthoven string, 186
(See also Tuned -filter oscillators)
moving coil, 181
Fluorescent screens, 276 moving -coil vibration, 185-186
Flutter, 804 Gas -filled tubes. 268-275
Flux density. 70 Gasoline- electric generating sets. 478
Gauss, 40 H -f transmitters, technical features of,

Generator, blocking -oscillator type, 740 538-547
Diesel- powered electric, 481 H -f waves, 514-536
fuel driven, 480-483 "Homing" service, 614
gasoline electric, 478 Horns, 896 -899
motor, 483-485 Hyperbolic functions, 18-19
saw-toothed, 740
shading correction, 714
synchronization signal, 710 -713
video signal, 705 Impedance, 34 -36
wind operated. 485 -489 of coila and condensers, 129-132
Ghosts, television, 685 comparison of. 212-213
Gilbert, 40 input, 361 -362
Goldschmidt alternator. 573 loud -speakers, mutual radiation, 890-
Goniometer, 581 894
for aircraft radio, 597 -598 radiation, 888 -889
Gradation of television images, 742-744 mutual, 39
Greek alphabet. 1 parallel resonance, 148 -149
Grid, effect of, 243-244 power factor of, 213
Grid conductance, 251 r-f line, 164 -165
Grid- current coefficients, 251 at resonance in parallel resonant cir-
Grid detectors, 346-348 cuits, 140
Grid -glow tubes, 270 of transformer and an iron -core react-
Grid modulators, 330 -333 ance, measuring, 394
Ground -station equipment for aircraft of transmission line, 158 -159
radio, 604 -605 vector, 74 -76
Ground systems for antennas, 652-653 Impedance -capacitance coupled amplifier,
Ground wave, 514-515 366 -368
propagation of, 515 -518 design, 374
Guard circuit for bridge, 223-225 Impedance -coupled amplifier, 398-400
Impedance losses, shunt, 133 -135
H Impedance-matching transformers, 380-
382
Half-wave rectification, 192 Impedance measurement, 201 -202
Hammond brake speed control, 756 Impedance stabilization of oscillators,
Hapug carrier transmitters, 549 -550 296 -298
Harmonic, 32 Ice, removal from antennas, 575, 577
suppression of, 848-853 Iconoscope, 705,708
transmission lines for, 850 Ignitron tube, 273, 494 -495
Harmonic content, computing, 21 -25 Image -dissector, 705,708-709
Harmonic-wire antennas, 666 Image- frequency interference, 445
Harmonic-wire end -fire projectors, 665 Image-frequency ratio. 447 -148
Hartley oscillator, 284 Image response, 340
design, 320 Image iconoscope, 708
Hay bridge, 225 Incremental permeability, 82
Hearing characteristics, 884 -888 Indicator, "terrain-clearance," 625
Heaviside layer, 518 Inductance, 30,70-99
Heterodyne oscillator, 211 -212, 304 definition and units, 71 -72
H.f., insulating materials for, 539 effect of, on coil capacity, 84
interstage coupling circuits for, 545 -546 of iron-core coils, measurement, 78-80.
H-f broadcast station coverage, 873 -875 mutual. 30,97
H -f compensation in- television, 716 calculation of, 99
INDEX 937
Inductance, mutual, measurements of, K

97-99
of various windings, 20 Kelvin absolute electrometer, 200
Inductance balance, mutual, 227 Kelvin bridge, 216 -217
Inductance bridge, Carey Foster mutual -, Kennelly -Heaviside layer, 518
228 Kerr cell recording, 799
Inductance coila, design of, 86-87 Keying signals, 712
Inductance measurements, at high fre- King oscillator, 311
quencies, 80-81 Kirchhoff's law, 37
at low frequency, 77 -78 Klystron oscillator, 314-315
Turner constant-impedance method, 80 Klystron tube, 268
Inductance standards, 96-97
L
Inductances, iron core, 81 -83, 89-90, 431
Induction, 40
Induction field, 44, 630 Labyrinth speaker, 914
Induction regulator, use of, 210 -211 LaGuardia Field, radio facilities of, 606
Induction-type landing system, Dingley, Landing beacon, radio, 617-618
623 Landing system, Army, 621-623
Bendix, 619
Inductive and capacitive coupling, com-
CAA Indianapolis, 619
binations of, 404
Dingley induction type, 623
Inductive -output tubes, 268 Lorenz, 618-619
Inductors at radio frequencies, 83 -84
Langmuir's equation, 241
Inductors, types of, 84-85
LC chart, 9
variable, 86-87
700, 737
LC table, 5-9
Infra -black region in television, Lear direction finder, 623
Ink recorder, 587
Light, velocity of. 5
Input impedance, 361 -362 Light-valve recorder, 800
Insulating materials, dielectric constant
Limiters, amplitude. 353
and power- factor table, 105 -108
diode, 353 -354
for h.f., 539
threshold, 354
Insulating oils, properties of, 13
Limiting circuits, 561, 582-583
Integrating meters, 477
Linear conductors, radiation from, 830
Intelligibility tests, 877
reactances of, 636
Interelectrode capacitance, 278 -279, 361
measurement of, 280-281
Litz wire coils, 87
Logarithmic decrement, 38
Interference, "monkey chatter," 455
Logarithms, 16-17
Interference problems, superheterodyne,
Loktal base, 282
444 -446
Loop antennas, 677
Interlaced field, 694
Lorenz blind- landing system, 618 -619
Intermodulation, 327
Loudness level curves, 885
Ion spot. 739 -740
Loud -speaker, baffles, 909-910
Ionization, 28, 234
bass reflex, 910, 911, 913
Ionosphere, 518
Ionosphere characteristics, 525 -528 condenser, 907-908
Iron, magnetic properties of, 41 crystal, 908
Iron -core inductors, 89-90, 431 dynamic, 905
high fidelity, 455
J labyrinth, 914
magnetic armature, 907
Joule, 30 multiple. 890, 893 -899
Loud-speaker, mutual- radiation imped- Meters, electron tube, 205-210

ance of, 890 -894 h -f current, 189 -192
power requirements of, 918 -919 hot wire, 189
radiation impedance of, 888 -889 integrating, 477
shape of, 901 moving diaphragm, 204-205
single piston, 889-890 rectifier, 192 -198
temperature size in, 906 shunt and multiplier data, 25-26
Loud -speaker cone, 901 thermocouple, 189 -192
breakup, 901 -903 VU, 196
Loud -speaker diaphragms, 899 -903 (See also Electrical measurements)
Loud- speaker efficiency, 908 -909 Microphone, calibration and testing, 787-
Loud -speaker horns, 896-899 789
Loud -speaker motor, 903 -908 carbon, 784 -786
Loud -speaker tests, indoor, 927 cardiod directional, 781
listening or subjective, 924 -927 condenser, 783-784
objective, 921 -924 crystal, 781 -783
outdoor, 927 amplifier for, 782
Loud -speakers and room acoustics, 876 moving coil or dynamic, 778 -780
928 parabolic, 786-787
L.I., neutralisation at, 541 -545 placement, 789-791
1.-f compensation in television, 716 studio technique, 789 -798
L-f marker beacons, 601 -unidirectional ribbon, 780 -781
M velocity, 777 -778
Microwave landing system, CAA -MIT,
Magnetic circuits, 40-44 620-621
Magnetic flux, 70 Modulated amplifiers, 418 -420
Magnetic moment, 40 Modulated oscillator, 335
Magnetic motors for loud -speakers, 904 Modulation, amplitude, 323 -324
Magnetic properties of iron and steel, 41 cross, 327
Magnetic saturation, 41 and detection, 322-358
Magnetomotive force, 40 in facsimile, 752
Magnetostriction oscillators. 294 -295 frequency, 325 -326
Magnetron oscillator, 312 -314 high level, 832
Marconi -Franklin beam antenna, 665, low level, 832
669 -670 phase, 325 -326
Marine transmitters. 577 -578 subcarrier frequency, 753
antennas for, 660 -662 velocity, 322
Marker antenna, cone of silence, 675 video, 723 -725
Marker beacons, low frequency, 601 (See also Cross modulation; Inter -
Markers, u -h -f cone, 601 -603 modulation; Velocity-modulated
u -h -f fan, 603 -604 tube)
Mark -to-space ratio, 568 Modulation design, 833 -835
Maxwell, 40 Modulation distortion, 252, 327
Maxwell bridge, 225 Modulation equipment, 832 -835
Meacham, L. A., 298 Modulation monitor, 820 -821
Measuring instruments (see Electrical Modulators, amplitude, 329 -337
measurements; also Power -level in- Armstrong frequency, 839
struments, and Individual headings) balanced. 333, 550
Mechanical -electronic oscillators, 315 -316 class B, 835
Megger, 201 copper oxide, 335 -337
Mercury-arc rectifiers, 494 double balanced, 336
Metal tubes, 264 frequency, 337 -338
INDEX 939
Modulators, grid, 330-333 Noise reduction, 686 -888

phase, 337 Noise voltage table, 534
plate, 333-335 Null detector, for a-c bridge, 218 -219
ring, 338 sensitivity of, 215
variable reactance, 836
"Monkey chatter" interference, 455 O
Monitor, frequency, 819-820
modulation, 820 -821 Octal base, 282
Monitoring, program. 817-819 Octalox base, 282
Morrison circuit, 556, 557 Oersted, 40
Motor, magnetic, 904 Ohmmeter, direct reading, 200 -201
moving coil, 904 Ohm's law, 29-30,48,129
Motor-generator sets, 483-485 Orthacoustic system, 814
Moving -coil a -c measuring instruments, Orthicon. 705,707-708
186 -187 Oscillation, amplitude control of, 299-300
Moving -coil galvanometer, 181 parasitic, 845 -848
Moving -coil (or dynamic) microphone, Oscillators, automatic- frequency control
778 -780 for, 316 -317
Moving -coil motor, 905 Barkhauaen- Kurtz, 314
Moving -coil vibration galvanometers, Barrow, 311
185-186 beat frequency, 304 -305
Moving -diaphragm meters, 204-205 bridge stabilization of, 298 -299
Moving -iron measuring instruments, 188- classification of, 283-284
189 Colpitta, 284
Multiplex telegraphy, 585 dynatron, 300-302
Multipliers, frequency, 354 -355 electron coupled. 317-318
Multivibrator, 307, 740 feedback. 284 -286
MUSA antenna, 680 frequency stabilization of, 286-287
Musical instruments, frequency ranges of, Hartley, 284
882 design, 320
peak power of, 773. 880-881 heterodyne. 211-212,304
Mutual impedance of antennas, 642 h -f, 309-316
Mutual -inductance balances, 227 impedance stabilization of, 296-298
Mutual-inductance bridge, Carey Faster, King. 311
228 klystron, 314 -315
magnetoetriction, 294 -295
N magnetron, 312-314
mechanical electronic, 315 -316
Navigation and position determination, modulated, 335
aircraft, 610 -815 negative resistance, 300, 303-304
Networks, recurrent, 157 -178 Peterson, 310
T, 228-230 piezoelectric crystal, 287 -288
Neutralization at l.f., 541 -545 power, design. 318-319
Night errors. 597 power relations in class C, 319 -320
Nodal point, 629 relaxation, 306 -309
Noise, 884 resistance stabilization of, 296
in amplifiers, 722 resonant line, 309 -311
as limiting factor in reception, 531 -535 Scott, 305 -306
in receiving systems, 439 -441 tracking circuits, design of, 145 -147
thermal agitation, 440,531-532,722 transitron, 302 -303
Noise levels. 885 tuning fork, 316
Noise measurements, 532 vacuum tube, 283 -321
Oscillators, van der Pol, 308 Potential, power, 32 -33

Owen bridge. 225 in inductive circuit, 76-77
Power -amplifier triodes, 254 -255
P Power amplifiers, 256, 362-363
design, 539-545
Parabolic microphone, 786 -787 push pull, 382 -385
Parallel resonance, 139 -145 Power difference, 102 -104
impedance, 148 -149 Power equipment, aircraft. 607 -608
Parallel -resonant circuit design, 143 -145 Power factor, 77, 102 -104
Parameters, circuit, 36 of impedance, 213
Parasitic oscillations, 544- 545, 845-848 measurement of, 203
Peak power of musical instruments, 773, table for electric insulating materials,
880-881 105 -108
Pedestal, 700 Power-level instruments, 195 -198
Pentagrid converters, 262 -264 loss, 102-104
Pentode-tube amplifiers, 255 Power -oscillator design, 318 -319
(See also Amplifiers) Power output, calculation of, 256 -257
Permeability, 40 Power relations in class C oscillators, 319-
a -c, 43-44 320
Peterson oscillator, 310 Power requirements for loud-speaker, 918-
Phase, 32 919
Phase detectors, 353 Power supply, 844-845
Phase inverters, 386 for amplifiers, 388 -389
Phase modulation, 325-326, 337 commercial code receiving equipment,
Phase- rotation system, 552 583-584
Phonograph with radio. 452, 454 and null detector for a-c bridge, 218 -219
Photoelectric emission, 234 picture tube, 738
Photoelectric tubes, 278 Power -supply systems, 459-513
used in facsimile, 750 Power transformers, 42
Photographic recorders, 757 -759 Preamplifiers, 797 -798
Picture elements in television, 694 television, 709, 711
Picture -tube power supplies, 738 Precipitation static, 591 -592, 609
Picture tubes, contrast in, 736 Precision required in facsimile, 756
Piezoelectric crystal oscillators, 287 -288 Printing telegraph equipment, 588
Piezoelectric crystals, 288 -294 Program amplifiers, 797
mountings for, 292 -294 Program monitoring, 817 -819
Propagation characteristics of aviation
Piezoelectric effect, 205
radio frequencies, 592-596
Pilot, automatic, 613
Propagation constant of transmission line,
Piston directivity, 894-896
159
Planck's constant, 5
Propagation curves, sky wave, 871
Plate conductance, 248
Protons, 27
Plate detectors, 348-350
Push -pull power amplifiers, 382-385
Plate modulators, 333 -335
Push -pull recording, 800
Plate resistance, 248 -250
Playback reproducer, 807
Point -to-point communication, 570 -571
Pointer -type measuring instruments, 184- Q of LCR circuits, 132 -133
185
Pool- cathode tubes, 272 R
Potential, 29 Radiation, 44-47
contact, 236 from antennas, 642 -645
INDEX 941
Radiation, from antennas, coil, 45 Receivers, all wave, 449

loop. 45 a- c-d -c, 454
from linear conductors, 630 automobile, 449 -452, 453
Radiation field, 44, 630 Codan, 605 -606
energy in, 47 construction, core materials for, 42
Radiation formula, 631 fidelity of. 425
Radiation impedance of loud -speaker, f -m, 455, 562-563
888 -894 h -f, 454-458
Radiation mass, 888 long wave, 579 -580
Radiation resistance, 636-637, 638, 639, overload level of, 425
888 power supply, television, 461
Radio, aircraft, 589 -627 regenerative. 424, 448
(See also Aircraft radio) selectivity, 425
u -h -f, for aircraft. 592 sensitivity, 425
Radio aids to blind landing, 616 -625 ship to shore, 580-581
Radio-beacon system, rotating, 614-615 single signal, 457-458
Radio broadcasting transmitters. 821 -826 single side band, 561 -562
Radio equipment, airport, 606 superheterodyne. 423-424
Radio facilities, aircraft. 590 superregenerative, 424-425, 448 -449
of LaGuardia Field, 606 tuned r-f. 423
Radio frequencies, for aviation, 591 u -h -f, 558 -559
propagation characteristics of aviation, Receiving antennas, 676 -684
592 -596 broadcast, 684 -689
Radio-frequency amplifiers, 395-422, 428- Receiving circuits, facsimile, 762 -763
430 Receiving equipment, short wave, 581 -582
Radio-frequency power amplifiers, 412- Receiving sets, method of rating, 425
413 Receiving systems, 423-458
Radio installation, airplane, 607 -610 antenna input, 426F -428
Radio landing beacon, 617-618 noise in, 439-441
Radio-phonograph combinations. 452, 454 Reception, code, 564 -588
Itadio range-beacon and weather- broad- diversity, 530. 582, 683 -684
cast stations, 596 -597, 615 facsimile, 757 -763
Radio shielding and bonding in aircraft, Recorders, dimensions, 759
608-609 hot air, 759
Radiotelegraphy, field strength for. 569- light valve, 800
570 photographic, 757-759
Range-beacon courses, alignment of, 599 Recording, carbon, 759
Range- beacon stations and weather - constant amplitude. 803
broadcast stations, radio, 596 -597 constant velocity, 803
Range- beacon system, radio, 615 electrochemical, 759 -760
Reactance, 35 equipment, 789 -799
of antenna, h -f, 46 Kerr cell, 799
coils and condensers, 129-132 mechanisms, 760, 762
inductive, 73 orthacoustic, 814
linear conductors, 636 push pull, 800
(See also Modulators, variable react- sound on disk, 801 -802
ance) variable area, 799
Reactance standards, 180 variable density, 799
Reactance tube, 556 (See also Re- recording)
Revctors, filter, 42-43 Recording head, 810 -811
Receivers, aircraft radio, 610 Recording sheets, 760
remote control, 605-606 Record -reproducing facilities, 812 -814
Recorde, disk, 807 Resistors, test specifications of, 63-65

Rectifier instruments, 192 -195 types of, as to power, 55-56
Rectifier meters, 192-195 variable carbon type, 65-67
Rectifiers, 489 -497 wire wound. 56-57
copper oxide, 192 -195, 495 -496 wire wound, rating of, 55
copper sulphide, 495 Resolution, horizontal, 695
half wave, 192 vertical, 694
mercury arc, 494 Resolution ratio, 695-696
selenium, 496 Retrace ratio. 693,694
Recurrent networks, 157 -178 Resonance, parallel, 139 -145
Reference levels in broadcasting, 775 -776 series, 135 -139
Reflection altimeter, 624-625 Resonance bridge, 226
Regeneration in amplifiers, 407-408 Resonance curves, parallel, 141 -143
Regenerative receivers, 424, 448 Resonance impedance, parallel, 148 -149
Relaxation oscillators, 306 -309 Resonant circuits, parallel, 140
Reluctivity, apparent, 44 design, 143 -145
Remote -control receiver for aircraft radio, Resonant -line oscillator, 309 -311
605 -606 Retardation time of transmission line, 159,
Re- recording, 809-810 166
Resistance, 48-69 Retentivity, 41
antenna, 46 Reverberation, 916 -918
critical damping, 183 Rhombic antenna, 672 -673, 678
effective, 49 Richardson's equation, 234
negative, 33-34 Ring modulator, 336
plate, 248 -250 Robinson direction- finding system, 611-
quarter -deflection method of measuring, 612
213 Rochelle salt crystals, 205
radiation, 636-637,638,639,888 Room acoustics, 915 -921
specific, 49
stabilization of oscillators, 296 S
temperature coefficient of, 49
units of, 49 Saw-toothed generators, 740
(See also Oscillators, negative resist- Saw-toothed waves, 699
ance) Scanner amplifier circuits, 751
Resistance-capacitance coupled amplifier. Scanning, in facsimile, 748 -751
364-366 interlaced, 693
Resistance- coupled amplifier, 395 -399 linear, 692
chart. 369 -373 in television, 740 -742
compensation in, 157 Scanning mechanisms, 754 -757
Resistance pads, 161 -164 Scanning wave forms, 699 -700
Resistance standards, 179 -180 Scanning yokes, 742
Resistance- variation method of measuring Schering bridge, 222
resistance, 213 Schottky effect, 240
Resistivity, volume, 49 Scott oscillator, 305 -306
Resistor-capacitor filter, 505 -506 Scratch filters, 139
Resistors, carbon, 57 Screen -grid amplifiers, 257 -261
composition of, 61 Screens, fluorescent, 276
composition type, 57 Selectivity, adjacent channel, 405
fixed wire wound, 54 adjustable, 407
metalized filament, 57 distant channel, 405
R.M.A. color code, 61-63 of receivers, 425
tapers, 67 variable, 454 -455
INDEX 943
Selenium rectifiers, 496 Static, 533

Self-impedance of antenna, 637, 639 precipitative, 591-592, 609
Sensitivity, of cathode-ray tubes, deflec- Static frequency multipliers, 573
tion, 277 Steady -state currents, 36, 129 -135
of receivers, 425 Steel, magnetic properties of, 41
Series loses in audio circuits, 133 -135
Sterba antenna curtain, 665
Series resonance. 135 -139 Sterba directional antenna array, 670 -671
Series- resonant circuit, design, 138 Storage batteries, 471 -480
as equalizers, 138-139
Subcarrier frequency modulation, 753
for frequency regulation, 138 Submarine cable, facsimile, 765
Superemitron, 705
Shading correction, 707
Superheterodyne, characteristics, 444
Shielding, 441
choice of the i.f., 446 -447
and bonding in aircraft, 608 -609
frequency converters, 339
Ship -to-shore and ship -to-ship communi-
interference problems, 444 -446
cation, 571 spurious responses in, 340
receivers, 580 -581
Superheterodyne receivers, 423 -424
Short wave on code, 570 Superregenerative receivers, 424-425,448-
Short -wave high -speed automatic oper- 449
ation, 582 Suppression harmonics, 848 -853
Short -wave receiving equipment, 581-582 Surge and protector tubes, 273-274
Short -wave technique, 578 -579 Susceptibility K, 40-41
Shot effect, 440, 722 Swinging choke, 508
Shunt, Ayrton -Mather universal, 184 Synchronization, in facsimile, 783 -764
Shunt impedance losses in audio circuits, signal generator, 710-713
133 -135 in television, 740-742
Shunt meters, 25-28 Synchronizing pulses, 704
Side-band transmission, vestigial, 725
Skin effect, 51, 187 T
Skip distance, 520 T networks, 228-230
Sky wave, 515 Tank circuits, transmission line, 547
propagation of, 518 -521 Tape -facsimile system, 766 -767
curves, 871 Tape transmitter, 584 -585
Sleet melting on antenna arrays, 672 Tapped -tank circuits, 147-148
Slide -wire bridges, 215 -216 Telefunken, directional antenna, 668
Soil conductivity table, 518 "pine- tree" antenna, 665
Solenoid, single layer, 92-93 Telegraph equipment, printing, 588
Sommerfeld's formula, 515 Telephone, 204 -205
Sonic altimeter, 624 Telephone circuits in facsimile, 765 -766
Sound on disk recording, 801 -802 Television, 691 -746
Space charge, 233,239-240 pairing in. 694
Space current of three -electrode tube, separation circuits for, 731 -734
calculation of, 248-248 Television cameras, 705
Spark absorber and click filter, 586 Television channels, allocation of, 726
Speakers (see Loud -speakers) Television ghosts, 685
Speech articulation and naturalness, 878 Television receiver power supply. 461
Speech-input amplifiers. 797 -798 Temperature control of piezoelectric
Speech power, 877 crystals, 291 -292
Speed control, Hammond brake, 756 "Terrain-clearance" indicator, 625
Speeds, code, 568 Tetrodes, 255 -256
Sputtering process. 293 Thermal agitation noises, 440, 531 -532,
Square root, evaluation of, 25 722 -723
Thermionic emission, 234 Transmission lines, retardation time. 159,

Thermocouple meter, 189 -192 166
Thermophones, 205 to suppress harmonics, 8.50
Thomson, Sir J. J., 231 wavelength constant, 159
Threshold limiters, 354 Transmitters, aircraft radio, 609 -610
Thyratrons, 269, 270, 272 arc, 573 -574
Time constant of capacitive circuit, 38 asymmetric, 551
Tone control, 139, 392, 434-436 degenerative feedback in, 830-832
Tone -control circuits for code, 585-586 frequency modulation, 553-557, 843
Tourmaline crystals, 291 Hapug carrier, 549 -550
Tower radiators, 652 of h -f, technical features, 538-547
Transconductance, 250 marine, 577 -578
conversion, 339 radio broadcasting, 821 -826
Transfer characteristic of picture tube, for shipboard, 578
735 -736 single -side band, 552 -553
Transformer and iron -core reactor, meas- suppressed carrier, 550 -551
uring impedances of, 394 tape, 584 -585
Transformer constants, calculation of, transformer- rectifier circuit for, 463-468
375 -377 vestigial, 551
Transformer- coupled amplifiers, design Transmitting antennas, directive, 665-
of, 379 673
theory of, 377 -379 transmitting. 660 -662
Transformer- rectifier circuit for trans- Transmitting system, broadcast, 771
mitters, 463 -468 Trigonometric functions. 2-4
Transformers, audio. 42-44, 374 -377 Triodes, general purpose, 253-254
bridge, 219 power amplifier, 254-255
impedance matching. 380 -382 Tube, acorn receiving, 265
low power, 497 -503 ballast, 274
design, 498 bases, 281 -282
power, 42 Loktal, 282
Transient current, 76 Octal, 282
equations for, 125 -129 Octalox, 282
Transient- phenomena studies, 210 beam power, 266-267
Transitron oscillator, 302-303 camera, 692
Transmission, code, 564 -588 cathode ray, 275 -278
facsimile, 747-768 picture, 734
multiplex code, 566 "clipper," 731
sesqui -side band, 725 contrast in picture, 736
side band, 725 gas filled, 268-275
"single," 725 grid glow, 270
vestigial side band, 725 ignitron type, 273
Transmission formula, Austin- Cohen, 569 inductive output, 268
Transmission -line calculations, 853-856 keyers, 586
Transmission -line tank circuits, 547 Klystron, 268
Transmission lines, satenna circuit ter- metal, 264
minations for r -f, 853 mutual characteristic of, 244
artificial. 161 oscillators (see Oscillators)
attenuation constant, 159, 186 photoelectric, 278
audio frequency, 159-160 picture, 735-736
for broadcasting, 6578. power supplies, 738
impedance. 158-159. 164 -165 pool cathode, 272
propagation constant, 159 reactance, 556
r -f, loss in, 864 static characteristics of, 244 -245
INDEX 945
Tube, surge and protector, 273 -274 Voltage amplification, 360 -361
three electrode, space current of, 246- Voltage divider, 502
248 Voltage- doubler circuits, 491
thyratrons, 269, 270, 272 Voltage -measuring instruments, 200
transfer characteristic of, 244 Voltage regulator tubes, 274-275
two electrode, 241 -242 Voltage standards. 180
for u.h.f., 548-549 Voltage wave, saw -toothed, 308
u -h -f, 264 -268 Voltages, comparison, 210-211
vacuum, 231 -282 and currents, circuits for out-of- phase,
velocity modulated, 288. 315 156 -157
voltage regulator, 274-275 shot effect, 440
water cooled, 843-844 Voltammeter, silver, 179
Tuned -filter oscillators, 295 -296 Voltmeters, electrostatic, 200
Tuning, single dial, 442 vacuum tube, 205-207
Tuning controls, push button, 442-443 Volume- control system, 436
Tuning -fork oscillators, 316 Volume controls, 793, 795-796
Tuning indicators, 439 acoustically compensated, 435
Turner constant-impedance method of automatic, 436 -437
measuring inductance, 80 delayed, 437-438
Turnstile antenna, 673, 874 Volume indicators, 796 -797
Volume range in broadcasting, 775
U
VU, 775, 796
U.h.f. for aircraft radio, 592 VU meter, 196
propagation of, 522 -525 W
tubes for. 548 -549
U -h -f antennas, 673 -676 Wagner ground, 224
U -h -f circuits, 547 -548 Walmsley antenna, 668 -669
U -h -f cone markers, 601 -603 Wave antenna, 681
U -h -f fan marker, 603 -604 Wave filters, 168-177
U -h -f receivers, 558 -559 Wave form, 31 -32
U -h -f two-course beacon, 599 -601 scanning, 699 -700
Wave-length constant of transmission
V
line. 159
Vacuum -tube oscillators (see Oscillators) Waves, in non -linear circuits, amplitude
Vacuum -tube voltmeters, 205 -207 modulated, 327 -329
Vacuum tubes (see Tube) saw- toothed, 699
van der Pol oscillator, 308 voltage, 308
Variable-mu effect, 261 Weather-broadcast stations, aircraft, 596-
Variometer, 8.5-86 597
Vector impedance, 74 -76 Weir stabilization circuit for f.m., 887
Velocity of wind, 486 Weston cell, 29
Velocity microphone, 777 -778 Wien bridge, 226
Velocity-modulated tube, 288, 315 Wind velocity, 486
Velocity modulation, 322 Wire -line telephone circuits in facsimile,
Vestigial side -band signal, 324-325 765 -768
Vestigial side -band transmission, 725 Wire lines in broadcasting, 815
Video amplification, 715-723 Wire -table chart, 14
Video amplifiers, transient response of, 721 Wire tables, copper, 10-13
Video detection, 730 -731 Work function, 238 -237
Video modulation, 723-725 Z
Video signal, 700
Video-signal generator, 705 Zero level (see Reference levels in broad-
Voice -frequency carrier control, 585 casting)
Ye- 1111.111r:
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THE

KEITH HENNEY, EDITOR-IN -CHIEF

MCGRAW -HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

All rights reserved. This book, or

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA,

-Fixed and variable condensers -Electrolytic condensers

circuits-Measurement of resonant circuits -Coupled circuits

-Transmission lines- Pads -Wave filters.

Band-pass amplifiers- Regeneration in r-f amplifiers- Neutral-

-Superheterodyne receivers-Volume control-Automatic vol-

transmitters- Marine transmitters-Receivers-Limiter cir-

Propagation of signals- Tape -facsimile system -Operating

technique- Volume indicators- Program recording-Playback

MATHEMATICAL AND ELECTRICAL TABLES

1 0 0.0175 0.0175 57.2900 0.9998 0 89 9 0 0.1564 0.1584 6.3138 0.9877 0 81

2 0 0.0349 0.0349 28.6363 0.9994 0 88 10 0 0.1736 0.1763 5.6713 0.9848 0 80

7 0 0.1219 0.1228 8.1443 0.9925 0 83 15 0 0.2588 0.2679 3.7321 0.9659 0 75

8 0 0.1392 0.1405 7.1154 0.9903 0 82 16 0 0.2758 0.2867 3.4874 0.9813 0 74

16 0 0.2756 0.2887 3.4874 0.9613 0 74 24 0 0.4067 0.4452 2.246010.9135 066

33 0 0.5446 0.6494 1.5399 0.8387 0 57 40 0 0.6428 0.8391 1.1918 0.7680 050

34 0 0.5592 0.8745 1.4826 0.8290 0 56 41 0 0.6561 0.8693 1.1504 0.7547 0 49

35 0 0.5738 0.7002 1.4281 0.8192 0 5 42 0 0.6691 0.9004 1.1108 0.7431 0 48

4. Functions of Angles in Various Quadrants.

- sin xx + cos -± cos

5. Mathematical and Physical Constants.

10.5 cycles and 100 cycles 1.0 10 -' 100 10

Inductive Reactance. To obtain the inductive reactance of an inductance of L henrys

Example. Thus an inductance of 250 mh at 2,500 cycles has a reactance

105 65.974 151.57 285.71 229.75

130 81.882 122.43 230.77 149.88

155 97.389 102.60 193.55 105.44

180 113.10 88.418 168.87 78.179

205 128.81 77.633 148.35 60.274

230 144.51 69.245 130.43 47.880

255 160.22 62.415 117.65 38.954

280 175.93 58.840 107.14 32.307

305 191.84 52.181 98.36 27.229

330 207.35 48.229 90.910 23.280

355 223.05 44.833 84.390 20.099

See multiplying factors on page 5.

Frequency 211 1/fo 1/2.1 Wave length

380 238.76 41.883 78.950 17.542

405 254.47 39.298 74.073 15.442

430 270.18 37.012 69.770 13.699

435 285.89 34.980 65.934 12.238

480 301.59 33.157 62.500 10.994

505 317.30 31.516 59.406 9.9322

530 333.01 30.030 56.600 9.0170

555 348.72 28.678 54.054 8.2234

580 364.43 27.440 51.725 7.5296

605 380.13 26.308 49.588 6.9200

630 395.84 25.262 47.619 6.3820

See multiplying factors on page 5.

655 411.55 24.298 45.801 5.9040

680 427.26 23.406 44.122 5.4777

705 442.97 22.575 42.553 5.0962

730 458.67 21.801 41.096 4.7532

755 474.38 21.080 39.735 4.4436

780 490.09 20.404 38.487 4.1835