Lea - Beef

LEA - Reviewer - BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo, Ph.D.
,
CLSU
TOPICS
A. Terminologies in Beef Cattle & Buffalo Production

B. Overview of the Philippine Large Ruminant Industry
C. Breeds & Breeding
D. Feeds & Feeding
E. Health Management & Housing
F. Review Questions
REVIEWER IN BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION
1. Abortion - premature birth

• 2. Ad libitum - feeding at pleasure, unlimited or liberal
• 3. Afterbirth - the placenta and other membrane expelled after delivery of the fetus or
young
• 4. Anthelmintics - drugs administered as drench, bolus, or mixed in feed to get rid of
internal parasites
• 5. Antibiotics - a metabolic product of one microorganism that is low concentrations
which is detrimental to life activities of other microorganisms
• 6. Antibiotic - chemical products produced by microorganism that destroy or kill infusion
the other organism
• 7. Barrel - the trunk or middle part of the animal body between the fore and the hind legs
• 8. Beef- meat from mature cattle
• 9. Beefy - a term used to designate the desirable physical conformation to a beef animal,
as contrasted with a dairy animal which is lean (not beefy) and more angular
• 10. Bloat - a disorder of ruminants usually characterized by an accumulation of gas in the
rumen
• 11. Boner - an animal yielding low quality meat
• 12. Breeder - an animal used for breeding purposes
• 13. Bull - entire adult male ox
• 14. Bullock - usually a stag used for draft purposes
• 15. Calf - young ox, male or female, under one year of age
• 16. Calving - act of giving birth in cattle
• 17. Cara - term connected to the sex, class and meat of carabao as introduced by the
late Dr. Valente Villegas which was approved for adoption by the Philippine Society of
Animal Science
• 18. Carabao - Philippine water buffalo or swamp buffalo
• 19. Carabeef - the meat of carabao above 2 years of age
• 20. Carabull - breeding male of any age
• 21. Caracalf - young male or female under one year of age
• 22. Caracow - a mature female carabao that has already dropped a calf
• 23. Caraheifer - a female carabao below 2 years of age which usually ready for market
• 24. Casein - the protein precipitated from milk by acid and/or rennin
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LEA - Reviewer - BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo,
Ph.D., CLSU
• 25. Cast down - throwing down of animal for proper restrain

• 26. Castration - a surgical operation during which the sex organs (testes) are removed
• 27. Cattle - general terms for any class of animals of bovine family, genus Bos of either
sex
• 28. Cauterize - to burn with a hot iron
• 29. Chevron - two diagonal stripes on the brisket of the carabao
• 30. Colostrum - the milk secreted in the first day of lactation
• 31. Compensatory Growth - the increased rate of growth which occurs when an animal is
realimented after a period of under nutrition
• 32. Concentrates - any feed that are low in crude fiber but having high digestible nutrient
content
• 33. Conception - pregnancy
• 34. Cow - adult female ox
• 35. Crude Protein - include the true proteins and all other nitrogenous compounds in
feeds
• 36. Culling - the process of eliminating the unproductive animals from the herd
• 37. Dam - female parent
• 38. Dairy beef - steers of dairy breeds grown and finished the same way as beef steers.
It also includes all cows, heifers, culls and calves including real calves
• 39. Digestible - the total nitrogenous compound protein fed to livestock, digested and
protein absorbed
• 40.Docile - easily handed or managed, obedient
• 41. Draft animal - animal used for work
• 42. Drench- to give liquid or medicine to animals by pouring down the throat through the
mouth
• 43. Emasculator - an instrument used in castration
• 44. Estrus- the sexual period of female during which they are receptive to males for
mating
• 45. Excreta - waste matter such as urine, feces, and sweat expelled by the body of an
animal
• 46. Feeder - animal for fattening
• 47. Flaying - deskinning or removal of the hide
• 48. Free-martin - the female twin in mixed sexed twins. The male is usually normal but
9/10 of the females are sterile
• 49. General Herd - herd composed of all the animals in the farm
• 50. Grade - the offspring of a scrub and purebred
• 51. Grazing Pressure - the relationship between the amount of pasture present and the
number of animal present
• 52. Heifer - sexually mature female cattle but has not yet calved
• 53. Heifer calf - young female ox under one year of age
• 54. Herd - a group of animals kept feeding and traveling together
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Ph.D., CLSU
• 55. Hindquarters - the back or posterior region of the animal, including the parts
supported by the hind legs
• 56. Hooks - the joint in the hind legs of the animal which corresponds to the knee
• 57. Hoof - the entire part of the foot of the animal covered by the horny covering
• 58. I.M. - intramuscular injection
• 59. I.V. - intravenous injection
• 60. Lactation - the period during which the dam produce milk from the time of period
delivery of her young until normal milk production ceases
• 61. Let-down - the voluntary release of milk from the udders of the lactating female,
also referred as milk ejection
• 62. Matador - a double bladed knife used for stunning
• 63. Net energy - ultimate measure of energy in the feed
• 64. Nutrient - applied to any food constituent, or group of food constituents of the
same general chemical compositions, that aids in the support of life
• 65. Optimum Stocking rate - the carrying capacity of a pasture
• 66. Oxytocin - the hormone responsible for the release of milk
• 67. Parturition - act of giving birth
• 68. Pasture - land with herbage or forage crops for grazing animals
• 69. Pasteurized - milk heated at 63 degree Celsius for 30 minutes or 72 degree
Celsius for 15 seconds to destroy milk any harmful organism, while causing few changes
in the composition, flavor and nutritive value
• 70. Pendulous - hanging and freely swinging
• 71. Post-partum - mating after calving or when uterus and other parts of the reproductive
breeding system have returned to normal
• 72. Progeny - offspring
• 73. Proven Sire - bull about whom there is a sufficient unselected information to indicate
his transmitting ability
• 74. Purebred - bred from pure blood and are qualified for registration
• 75. Ration - feed allowed for a given animal for a day of 24 hours whether it is fed
• 76. Rectal Palpation- a method of pregnancy diagnosis
• 77. Roughage - any feed high in crude fiber and low in digestible nutrients, on an air-dry
basis
• 78. Ruminant - one of the order of animals having a stomach with four complete cavities
through which food passes in digestion. These animals chew their cud
• 79. Rumen - the first compartment of the ruminant stomach
• 80. Silage - the feed resulting from the storage and fermentation of green or wet
crops under anaerobic conditions or conditions without oxygen
• 81. Silent heat - undesirable characteristics of some animals of not manifesting heat
openly
• 82. Sire - male parent
• 83. Skim milk - that portion of milk which remain after the removal of the cream in
whole or in part
Ph.D., CLSU
• 84. Soilage - fresh forage cut to feed animals tethered or kept in sheds
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• 85. Sporadic - incidental or scattered occurrence of a disease
• 86. Stag - old bull or bull castrated late in life
• 87. Steer - castrated male before the secondary sex characteristics have developed
• 88. Stock density - the number of animal per unit area in a field at a given time.
• 89. Stocking Rate - the over-all number of animals carried per unit of pasture
• 90. Stunning - to render the animal unconscious but not dead
• 91. Stocky - thick-set sturdy or firm built
• 92. Tether - to tie an animal with a rope or chain to allow grazing but prevent straying
• 93. Toggle - to fix the hide on board or bamboo frames to dry
• 94.Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) - the sum of its digestible protein, crude fiber,
nitrogen free extract (NFE), and fat multiplied by 2.25
• 95. Upgrading - mating of unimproved animal to one that is highly improved
• 96. Veal - meat from veal calves
• 97. Viscera - soft interior organs in body cavities; it includes the intestines, heart, lungs,
etc.
• 98. Wallow - to roll in mud or water
• 99. Whole milk - milk which has not has any of its constituent part removed
• 100. Yolk - a piece of arched or curved timber fitted on the neck of the draft animal to
connect sleds, carts and other farm implements
Overview of the Philippine Large Ruminant Industry
• Population
-Cattle- 2.6 M
-Buffalo- 3.3 M
• Production System
and distribution:
Cattle: Backyard- 92.8%;
Commercial- 7.2%
Buffalo:
Backyard 99.7%
Commercial- 0.3%
• Mean Annual Growth Rate
- Cattle: 6.29%
- Buffalo: 2.1%
• Meat Production
- Beef: 200 thousand tonnes
- Carabeef: 76.5 thousand tonnes
• Meat Import
- Beef: 43.88%
thousand MT
LEA - Reviewer - BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo, Ph.D.,
CLSU
- Value: P2.6 B
• Per capita
- Beef: 2 to 2.81 kg
- Carabeef: 0.36 kg
• Recommended Allowance: 4.6 kg
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• No. of Cattle Slaughtered
- Yearly: 500 Thousand head
• Accredited Feedlots
• Capacity – 85,000 head
• Commercial Operations – 2,500-14,000 head
• Per capita (kg)
- Meat- 43.13
- Milk- 24.40
- Egg- 10.58
Leading Cattle Regions
• Ilocos Region
• Southern Tagalog
• Northern Mindanao
• Central Visayas
• Cagayan Valley
Major Beef Consuming Regions
• NCR
• Ilocos Region
• Central Visayas
• Northern Mindanao
Leading Buffalo Region
• Central Mindanao
• Cagayan Valley
• Southern Tagalog
• Western Visayas
• Bicol Region
• Phil. Land Area : 30 M has.
• Grassland: 5.2 M
• Pasture Land : 997,000 has.
• Improved Pasture : 10,000 has.
• Rice Land : 3.5 M
LEA-Reviewer -BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo,
Ph.D., CLSU
• Corn Land : 3.3 M

• Coconut Land : 3.1 M
• Sugarcane Land : 450,000 has.
POTENTIALS OF BEEF/BUFFALO PRODUCTION
1. There is a big deficit in beef/carabeef supply

2. There are 3.4 M has. Of marginal grasslands
3. There is abundant forage and feed resources
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4. Many farmers are interested into the business
5. Sufficient breeder base and technical know-how
6. Many institutions are engaged in beef/ carabeef research
7. ROI in cattle is high
8. There is a comparative advantage of raising in some specific areas
STRATEGIES
1. Massive launching of beef/ carabeef programs

2. Priority government support must be accorded
3. Production, marketing, support services and credit must be available
4. Focus on backyard sector
C. Breeds & Breeding
Breeds of Beef Cattle

• Tropical Breeds
Brahman, Indu-Brazil, Guzerat, Gir, Kankrej. Hariana, Krishna Valley, Ongole, Red Sindhi,
Tharparkar, Bhagnari, Sahiwal, Boran, Tuli, Nguni, Ankole, Fulani, Africander
• Temperate Breeds
Charolais, Limousin, Maine- Anjou, Chianina, Shorthorn, Hereford, Angus
Beef Breeds and Strains from Crossbred Foundations
1. Santa Gertrudis- 5/8 short horn, 3/8 Brahman-U.S.A.

2. Brahman- a mixture of four breeds: Guzerat, Nellore, Khrisna Valley and Gir- U.S.A.
3. Indu-Brazil-cross of Guzerat and Gir and other Zebu breeds like Nellore- Brazil, South
America
4. Beefmaster- ½ Brahman, ¼ Hereford, ¼ Shorthorn-U.S.A.
5. Brangus- 5/8 Angus, 3/8 Brahman-U.S.A.
6. Braford- 5/8 Hereford, 3/8 Brahman-U.S.A.
7. Charbray-3/4 Charolais, ¼ Brahman-U.S.A.
8. Simbrah- 3/8 Simmental, ¼ Brahman, 3/8 other breeds
LEA-Reviewer -BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo,

Ph.D., CLSU
9. Beefalo- 3/8 Bison, 3/8 Charolais, 2/8 Hereford-U.S.A.

10. Belmont Red- ½ Africander,1/4 Hereford,1/4 Shorthorn-Australia
Breeds of Buffaloes
Types of Buffaloes
A. Riverine Buffalo Breeds(chromosome no.-50)
1. Indian Buffalo
2. Murrah
3. Nili-Ravi
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4. Kundi
5. Surti
6. Jafarabadi
7. Egyptian Buffalo
8. Mediterranean Buffalo
9. Caucasian Buffalo
10. Bulgarian Murrah Buffalo
11. Bufalypso
B. Swamp Buffalo Breeds (chromosome no.-48)

1. Cambodian Buffalo
2. Philippine Carabao
3. Chinese Buffalo
4. Thailand Buffalo
5. Vietnamese Buffalo
• The Murrah breed of buffalo (Bubalus bubalus) is the premier milking buffalo. It is
originally from Haryana and Punjab states of India, but has been used to improve the milk
production of dairy buffalos in other countries, such as Italy, Bulgaria, Egypt and
Pakistan. In Italy, it is the basis of Mozzarella cheese production, and therefore Italian
Pizza.
• The Anatolian buffalo is a domestic breed of Water buffalo that originated in Turkey. They
are used for milk production and as a draught animal.
• The Egyptian buffalo is a domestic breed of Water buffalo, used in milk production and as
a draught animal.
• The Malaysian buffalo is a domestic breed of Water buffalo, primarily used as a draught
animal.
• Pandharpuri buffalo are a domestic dairy breed of Water buffalo, originally from India.
LEA-Reviewer -BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo, Ph.D.,
CLSU
Surti buffalo are found in Anand, Nadiad and Baroda districts of Gujarat. They are also
distributed in Udaipur and Chittorgarh districts of Rajasthan, according to Prof. R.K.
Nagda, Officer-in-Charge, LRS.
• Both the sexes have a fairly broad and long head with characteristic convex curve at the
top in between the horns.
• The neck is long, thick with a white collar like appearance. In females, the udder is well
developed
• The animals are medium in size with a straight back and generally docile in nature. The
skin colour is black or brown.
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• Surti buffalo are found in Anand, Nadiad and Baroda districts of Gujarat. They are also
distributed in Udaipur and Chittorgarh districts of Rajasthan, according to Prof. R.K.
Nagda, Officer-in-Charge, LRS.
• Both the sexes have a fairly broad and long head with characteristic convex curve at the
top in between the horns.
• The neck is long, thick with a white collar like appearance. In females, the udder is well
developed
REPRODUCTIVE PHENOMENA
• Estrus cycle
• Estrus Period
• Ovulation
• Signs of Estrus
• Time of breeding
• Bull to Cow Ration (sys. of breeding)
• Age/wt. to breed
• Signs of pregnancy
• Gestation period (table)
• Post-partum heat/breeding
TECHNICAL COEFFICIENT DATA OF A WELL-MANAGED CATTLE FARM
Conception rate at 1st service 75%

Net Calf Crop 90%
Weaning weight (Bx crosses) 150 kg
Birth weight 25kg
CLSU
Pre-weaning Mortality 3%
Post-weaning Mortality 1%
Post Partum Bleeding 45-60 days
Calving Interval 12-15 months
Optimum Time of Palpation 60-90 days
Bull Culling (Continuous Breeding) every 2 years
TECHNICAL COEFFICIENT DATA OF A WELL-MANAGED CATTLE FARM
Conception rate at 1st service 75%

Net Calf Crop 90%
Weaning weight (Bx crosses) 150 kg
Birth weight 25kg
Pre-weaning Mortality 3%
Post-weaning Mortality 1%
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Post Partum Bleeding 45-60 days
Calving Interval 12-15 months
Optimum Time of Palpation 60-90 days
Bull Culling (Continuous Breeding) every 2 years
Bull to Cow Ratio (Normal) 1:20
Bull to Cow Ration (Ext. Ranching) 1:12-15
ADG (Feedlot) 0.70 kg
Dressing % (ranch cattle) 40-45%
Dressing % (feedlot cattle) 55-60%
Rebreeding before a cow must be culled 3x
TOOLS OF IMPROVING REPRODUCTIVE EFFICIENCY
1. Observe year-round reproductive health program

2. Give the cow proper care at calving anytime
3. Prepare cow for breeding
4. Detect cow in heat and record all dates
5. Isolate in heat cows
6. Animals must be tested for abnormal conditions
7. Keep nutrition level high
8. Follow recommended breeding time
9. Study the breeding records in detail
10. Observe abortion cases
11. Consult beef cattle expert
CLSU
COMMON REPRODUCTIVE FAILURES
I. ANESTRUM
II. REPEAT BREEDING
TYPES OF ANESTRUM
1. SILENT/SUB-ESTRUM
2. TRUE ESTRUM
CAUSE OF ANESTRUM
1. PREGNANCY
2. NUTRITION
3. STRESS FACTORS
4. INFECTIONS
5. HORMONAL IMBALANCE
6. CALVING HORMONES
7. GENETIC
CAUSES OF REPEAT BREEDING
1. SEMEN QUALITY
2. TIME OF INSEMINATION
3. INFECTIONS
4. HORMONAL
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5. GENETIC
Heritability Estimates for Beef Cattle Traits

Performance %H
C.I 8
Bt. Wt. 41
Weaning Wt. 30
Cow Maternal Ability 40
Post W. Feedlot Gain 45
Post W. Pasture 30
Eff. Feedlot 39
% Dressing 71
Carcass grade 34
Rib eye area 69
Tenderness 61
% H= Var. Due to heredity x 100

Var. Due to H. & E.
LEA-Reviewer - BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo, Ph.D.,
CLSU
Methods of Selection
1. Mass or Individual- It is applicable to characters of high heritability.

2. Progeny Testing- Applied to characters of low heritability.
3. Pedigree- Individuals are assessed based on the performance of the ancestors.
Types of Selection
1. Tandem- selection for one trait at a time and is the least effective of the 3 types.
2. Independent Culling Levels- it requires specific levels of performance in each trait before
an animal is kept for replacement.
3. Selection Index/Total Score- the most effective type of selection.
D. Feeds and Feeding
DRY MATTER REQUIREMENT FOR BEEF CATTLE

Animal classification % Body weight
Young 3.00
Fattener 2.50
Mature 2.00
Example : Fattener
1. Body weight : 250
x.025
6.25 kg DM per day
D. Feeds and Feeding
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DRY MATTER REQUIREMENT FOR BEEF CATTLE
Animal classification % Body weight
Young 3.00
Fattener 2.50
Mature 2.00
Example : Fattener
1. Body weight : 250

x.025
6.25 kg DM per day
2. Soilage- 31.25 kg per day
3. R:C- 80:20
6.25 kg DM
.80
5.00 kg Dm per day- Roughage
CLSU
6.25 kg DM
.20
1.25 kg DM- Concentrate
Animal Unit Equivalent (AU)

1. Bull-1.25 to 1.5 AU
2. Cow-1.0 AU
3. Heifer/Steer-0.75 AU
4. Yearling-0.50 AU
5. Calf-0.25 AU
E. Health Management & Housing
DISEASES AFFECTING REPRODUCTION
Diseases Time of Abortion
1. Brucellosis (Bang’s Diseases) 7-9 mos.(30%)
2. Leptospirosis 7-9 mos.(6 weeks after infection)
3. Salmonellosis 6-9 mos.
4. Vibrosis (15%) 2-6 mos.
5. Mycotic Abortion 6-8 mos.
6. Toxoplasmosis Anytime
7. Trichomoniasis 2-4 mos.
8. Mycoplasmosis Under Investigation(7-9 mos)
ABNORMAL CONDITONS AFFECTING REPRODUCTION
1. FREE-MARTIN
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2. FALSE HEARTS
3. ABNORMAL VAGINAL DISCHARGE
4. SALPINGITIS
5. MUMMIFIED FETUS
6. NITRATE POISONING
7. DOUBLE CERVIX
8. EVERTED UTERUS
9. RETAINED PLACENTA
10. VAGINITIS
11. PYOMETRIA AND METRITIS
LEA-Reviewer - BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo, Ph.D.,
CLSU
Schedules for vaccination against common diseases of livestock and poultry

Diseases Causative Vaccine Route of 1st 2nd Dose Subsequent Remarks
Agent Types Administration Dose Dose
Cattle and Carabao
Foot and Aphthovirus Inactivate IM 2-3 4-5 Every six In FMD
mouth types d months months months affected
disease A, O, C Phil. areas
Hemorrhagic Pasteurella Bacteria IM 2-3 6-8 annually
septicemia multocida months months
Anthrax Bacillus Spore IM 4-6 Annualy In anthrax
anthracis vaccine months zones
Blackleg/ Clostridium Mixed IM 4-6 Annualy In blackleg
malignant Chauvei/ bacteria months zones
edema Speticum
Tetanus Clostridium Tetanus IM Preventive
tetani toxoid during
open
castrations
Sheep and Goat
Foot and Aphthovirus Inactivate IM 2 4-5 Every six In FMD
mouth disease types d months months months affected
areas
Hemorrhagic Pasteurella Bacterin IM 2 4 annualy
septicemia Multocida month months
s
Housing (Space Requirement)

Bull - 3.5-4 sq. m.
Cow - 3-4 sq. m.
Yearling - 2.5-3.5 sq. m.
Height of Ceiling - 3-3.5 m.
Height of Feeding trough - 50-76 cm.
Length/Animal - 50-80 cm.
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Questionnaire - Beef Cattle Aspect
1. A tropical breed of beef cattle a. Brahman b. Chianina c. Charcoals d. Hereford
2. Usually the weaning weight of Brahman and its crosses is a. 125 kg b. 150 kg c. 175 kg d. 200
kg
3. Rebreeding before a cow must be culled a. 2 times b. 4 times c. 5 times
4. Bull culling under continuous breeding program

a. yearly b. every 2 years c. every 4. Yrs d. every d. every 5 yrs.
CLSU
5. The variety meat from beef cattle a. tripe b. insulin c. rennet d. heparin
6. The average estrus cycle of Murrah Buffalo a. 21 days b. 30 days c. 25 days d. 45 days
7. The bull to cow ratio under normal situation a. 1:20 b. 1:30 c. 1:40 d. 1:50
8. The average bodyweight of a ready to breed heifer a. 250 kg b. 300 kg c. 350 kg d. 400 kg
9. The two diagonal stripes on the brisket of the carabao a. chevon b. chevron c. stripers d. liners
10. Animal that is used for work a. drop animal b. draft animal c. field animal d. farm animal
11. An instrument used in castration a. emasculator b. elastrator c. castrator d. matador
12. The removal of hide during slaughtering a. flaying b. playing c. evisceration d. stunning
13. The female twin in mixed sexed twins a. pre-martin b. free-martin c. mixed twins d. martins
14. The accumulation of gas in the rumen a. Trocar b. bloat c. cannula d. rumination
15. Usually a stag used for draft purposes a. bull b. sire c. bullock d. steer
16. The gap or length of time a. parturition b. calving interval c. conception d. dystocia
17. The total number of animals carried per unit pasture

a. stocking rate b. grazing pressure c. buller d. nymphomania
18. The undesirable characteristics of some animals of not manifesting heat

a. silent heat b. standing heat c. buller d. nymphomania
19. Recommended post-partum breeding for beef cattle a. 45-60 days b. 30 days c. 21 days d. 3
months
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20. A double bladed knife used for stunning a. emasculator b. Matador c. elastrator d. stunner
21. To render the animal unconscious but not dead before slaughtering
a. scanning b. Stunning c. flaying d. evisceration
22. Fresh forage weight to feed animals under zero grazing a. silage b. soilage c. cut and carry d.
silo
23. Pulse rate of beef cattle a. 40-60/min b. 20-40/min c. 10-20/min d. 80/min
24. Respiration rate of beef cattle a. 12-16/min b. 20-25/min c. 40/min d. 50/min

BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo, Ph.D., CLSU
25. Recommended height of ceiling for a cattle shed a. 3-3.5 m b. 5 m c. 8m d. 5-10m
Other Management Practices
1. Record keeping
2. Animal identification (Earnotching, Branding, Tail cutting, Neck chain, Tatooing, Natural
marks)
3. Herd division
4. Health management (Vaccination, Injection of Vitamins A, D, E, Deworming, Delousing,
Hoof Trimming, etc.)
5. Castration
6. Culling
LEA-REVIEWER -Diseases and Parasites of Food Animals and Poultry By OF CELESTINO CLSU
INTRODUCTION
 Disease (negative-ease) is a finite abnormality of structure or function with an identifiable

pathological or clinicpathological basis and with a recognizable syndrome of clinical signs.
 Health refers to a state of physical and psychological well-being and of production
 Incubation period is the interval of time required for development of disease; time between the
invasion of the body by a pathogenic organism and appearance of the first signs of disease
 Clinical Signs (Symptoms) are abnormalities of structure or function observed in the animal
 Morbidity rate refers to the number of animals in a herd or flock which are affected by the
disease but do not die
 Mortality rate refers to the number of animals dying from a disease in a population
Terms used to denote the presence of disease in a population

 Epizootic / Epidemic
 Pandemic
 Enzootic / Endemic
 Sporadic
Classification of Disease
 according to its duration
 according to location in the body
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 according to cause
Classification of disease according to its duration

 peracute
 acute
 subacute
 chronic
Classification of disease according to location in the body

 respiratory diseases
 circulatory diseases
 gastrointestinal diseases
 urogenital diseases
 neural diseases
 systemic diseases
Classification of disease according to cause

 non-infectious
LEA-REVIEWER -Diseases and Parasites of Food Animals and Poultry By OF CELESTINO
CLSU
 infectious
 parasitic
Body’s defenses against disease

 skin and mucous membrane
 sweat and tears
 filter organs
 body’s various reactive defenses
 Inflammation
 Fever
 Immunity
Types of immunity
 Active immunity
 Antigen being given to the animal and the body produced antibodies
 recovering from a disease(natural) or injection of biological agent or vaccine (artificial)
 Longer duration
 Passive immunity
 animal’s body given antibodies
 sucking of colostrum and placental transfer (natural) and injection of antiserum
(artificial)
 duration is usually relatively short
Causative Agents of Diseases
1. Bacteria
Classification:
 Gram-positive or gram-negative
Bacteria
 Aerobic or anaerobic
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 Spore forming or non-spore forming
 Acid fast or nonacid-fast
Morphology:
 Coccus
 Bacillus
 Spirochetes
2. Fungi – are eukaryotic, non-photosynthetic, filamentous or

 unicellular organism that reproduce asexually or sexually (spores).
CLSU
3. Virus – are submicroscopic

 organism that can be grown
 using living tissue. It has a
 DNA or RNA protein capsid
 Classification:
 a. DNA viruses
 b. RNA viruses
4. Mycoplasma – are tiny bacteria which has a size between a virus and
 bacteria. They do not grow or stain like other bacteria but they will grow on special media if
blood serum is added.
5. Rickettsia – are true bacteria but they are non-filterable and are gram-negative. They can be cultivated
outside the host only in living tissues. They are usually associated with the tissues of some arthropods.
6. Protozoa – it is single-celled organism and eukaryotic. They are intracellular parasites
7. Metazoan parasites
 flatworms/tapeworms
 flukes
 roundworms
8. Arthropods (external parasites) – these are referred to as jointed legs

parasites.
 In this category belongs the mites, ticks, flies, lice, fleas, mosquitoes etc.
PARASITES OF POULTRY AND LIVESTOCK
 Parasites – are organisms that live in or on other organisms known as hosts and
at whose expense they (parasites) obtain some advantage without compensation.
 Endoparasites - parasites that live within the host
 Ectoparasites - parasites that live outside the body of the host
Host – the organism that harbors a parasite
a. Definitive host - a host harboring the sexual, adult stage of the parasite
b. Intermediate host – a host harboring an asexual or larval stage of the parasite

Vector – arthropod or other invertebrate that transmits the parasite from one host to another
Host – the organism that harbors a parasite
18
a. Definitive host - a host harboring the sexual, adult stage of the parasite
b. Intermediate host – a host harboring an asexual or larval stage of the parasite
Vector – arthropod or other invertebrate that transmits the parasite from one host to another
Parasitosis – association between two organisms in which one injures the other causing signs and lesions
of disease
Parasitiasis- association between two organisms in which the parasite is potentially pathogenic but does
not cause signs of disease
Parasites may injure their hosts in several ways:

 they may suck blood, lymph or exudates
 they may feed on solid tissues
 they may compete with the host for the food
 they may cause mechanical obstructions
 they may cause pressure atrophy
 they may destroy host cells by growing in them
 they may produce various toxic substances
 they may cause allergic reactions
 they may stimulate the development of cancer
 they may carry diseases and parasites
 they may reduce their host’s resistance to other diseases and parasites
ECTOPARASITES
Flies
 have two wings as adults and they vary greatly in size
 adults may intermittently feed on vertebrate blood or on saliva, tears or mucus
 may serve as vectors for bacteria, viruses, spirochetes etc.
 Can cause the condition known as myiasis (infestation of tissue with fly larvae)
Life cycle of a Fly
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Musca domestica (common housefly)
Tabanus sp. (horsefly)
Stomoxys calcitrans (stable fly)
Culicoides sp. (biting midges or punkies)
Haematobia irritans exigua (buffalo fly)
Simulium sp.(black flies, buffalo gnats)
Myiasis flies
ECTOPARASITES
Control:
 Drain possible breeding places
 Use organophosphate/insecticides
 Proper disposal of manure and garbage
Mosquitoes
 most voracious of the blood-feeding arthropods
 Injuries that mosquitoes inflict on livestock are mostly severe annoyance, blood loss and
transmission of several blood diseases

CLSU
Life cycle of Mosquitos
Culex pipiens (house mosquito)

Aedes aegypti (yellow fever mosquito)
Anopheles sp. ( malarial mosquito)
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ECTOPARASITES
Control:
 Proper drainage
 Use of insecticides
 Biological control (use of larviparous fish e.g. Gambusia affinis
Ticks (giant mites)

 live on the skin or fleece of animals.
 two families of ticks, the hard ticks (Ixodidae) and the soft ticks (Argasidae)
 Harmful effects of ticks: local irritation, discomfort and blood loss, loss of meat production, milk,
wool and eggs.
 transmit babesiasis, anaplasmosis, viral and bacterial diseases
 cause tick paralysis
Life cycle of ticks
Argas persicus (fowl tick)

Boophilus microplus (tropical cattle tick)
Control:
 cultural and biologic control – this measure is directed to destroy the microhabitat of ticks.
 elimination of cracks in walls and perches for fowl tick
 rotation of pasture or pasture spelling (cattle tick)
 use of resistant cattle
 chemical control – control by acaricide treatment on vegetation and hosts
21
 vaccination
Mites
 are obligate parasites, spend their entire life cycle on the host
 transmission is mainly by contact
 disease condition is called mange
 Demodex sp
 Sarcoptes scabiei
 Psoroptes sp.
 Ornithonyssus bursa (tropical fowl mite)
Control:
 Spraying or dusting the birds/animals with insecticides/acaricide
 Spray the inside of the house and all hiding places with an effective insecticide/acaricide
 Use of injectable ectoparasiticide
Lice
 Lice are wingless, flattened ectoparasites

 Highly host specific
 Two suborders in this family: the sucking lice (Anoplura) and the biting lice (Mallophaga)
 Can cause severe anemia, source of irritation and skin damage
 The disease condition caused by lice is called pediculosis.
Life cycle of lice
Lipeurus caponis (wing louse of chicken)

Menacanthus stramineus
(yellow body louse)
Menopon gallinae (shaft louse)
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Goniocotes gallinae (fluff louse)
Goniodes dissimilis (brown louse)
Damalinia bovis (biting louse of cattle)
Damalinia ovis (biting louse of sheep)
Damalinia caprae (biting louse of goat)
Haematopinus eurysternus
(short-nosed cattle louse)

Linognathus vituli
(long-nosed or blue louse of cattle)
Haematopinus tuberculatus
(sucking louse of buffalo)
ENDOPARASITES
A. Flukes (trematodes)
 occur primarily in the bile ducts, alimentary tract and vascular system
 their development occurs in at least two hosts. The first is a mollusk or very rarely, an annelid.
Life cycle of Liverfluke
Fasciola gigantica (liver fluke)

 Occurs in the bile ducts of cattle, sheep and other mammals
 Intermediate host: snail (Lymnae sp)
 The metacercaria occur on vegetation and host become infected through ingestion of the
infected vegetation
Clinical signs: distended painful abdomen with anemia and sudden death
Treatment: rafoxanide, albendazole, triclabendazole, closantel
Control: a. elimination of intermediate host using molluscides
b. biological control of intermediate hosts using ducks
23
c. rotational grazing
Life Cycle of Bloodfluke
Schistosoma japonicum(blood fluke)

 Lives in the portal and mesenteric veins of both man and animals
 Intermediate host : water snails
(Oncomelania sp.)
 Infection is through skin penetration of cercaria
Clinical signs:
 profuse diarrhea or dysentery
 anemia with edema
 marked decrease in production or loss of weight
Treatment: praziquantel
Control: a. Control of intermediate
hosts using molluscicides
(copper sulfate, niclosamide)
b. Fencing of contaminated bodies of water and provide clean drinking
water
Paragonimus westermani (lung fluke)

 Occurs in the lungs and more rarely in the brain, spinal cord and other organs of pig, dog, cat,
ruminants, carnivores and man
 First intermediate host : snail
 Second intermediate host: crab or crayfish
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Life Cycle of Lungfluke
Clinical signs:
 animals become lethargic
 intermittent coughing and dyspnea
Treatment: albendazole and bithional
Control: freshwater crustaceans
should not be eaten raw and elimination of snails
Tapeworms/Flatworms (Cestodes)
 life cycle of these cestodes is indirect with one intermediate host
 adult is usually found in the small intestine of the final host
Raillietina tetragona
• found in the small intestine of chicken
• Intermediate host: ants
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Life Cycle of Taenia Solium
Taenia solium (“pork tapeworm”)
 The definitive host is man
 The intermediate host is pig ;the larval stage (Cysticercus cellulosae) are found in the muscles of
pig
Monieza expanza
• Ruminants are the definitive host
• Mite belonging to the family Oribatidae is the intermediate host

CLSU
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Stages of the life cycle of roundworms
ENDOPARASITES
Threadworms
Strongyloides ransomi (threadworm of pig) occurs in the small intestine
 Mode of infection: skin penetration, ingestion, prenatal infection
 Clinical signs: diarrhea which soon becomes continuous and hemorrhagic
 Strongyloides ransomi
 Stephanus dentatus – adultworms in situ in the perirenal fat
 Kidneyworm
Stephanurus dentatus (kidneyworm of swine)

 Occurs in the perirenal fat, kidney, liver, pancreas and other organs and muscles of pig
 Mode of infection: ingestion and skin penetration
 Clinical signs: failure to gain weight or in severe cases, weight loss and ascites if there is severe
liver damage
Stomach worm
Haemonchus contortus (barberpole worm or wireworm)

 Occurs in the abomasum of ruminants
 Clinical signs: severe anemia, dark colored feces and sudden death due to acute blood loss
Stomach worm
Haemonchus contortus (barberpole worm or wireworm)
 Occurs in the abomasum of ruminants
Clinical signs: severe anemia, dark colored feces and sudden death due to acute blood loss
Lungworm
Dictyocaulus viviparus (lungworm of cattle)

 Occurs in the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles of cattle and buffaloes
Clinical signs: coughing, dyspnea
Metastrongylus apri (lungworm of swine)

 Occurs in the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles of pig
 Intermediate host: earthworm
Clinical signs: persistent coughing
27
Ascarids
Ascaris suum (common largeworm of pig)
 Occurs in the small intestine of pig
 Mode of infection: ingestion of infective egg
Clinical signs: coughing, stunted growth, pneumonia
Neoascaris vitulorum (Toxocara vitulorum)

 Occurs in the small intestine of cattle and buffalo
 Mode of infection: transplacental, transcolostral, ingestion
Clinical signs: diarrhea
Ascaridia galli
 Occurs in the small intestine of chicken, turkey, goose etc
Clinical signs: hemorrhagic enteritis, anemia
Cecal worm
Heterakis gallinarum (cecal worm of chicken)
 Occurs in the ceca of chicken
 Carrier of Histomonas meleagridis (causal agent of blackhead)
Whipworm
 Trichuris suis (whipworm of swine)
 Trichuris vulpis (whipworm of dog)
 Occurs in the cecum and large intestine
Clinical signs: watery diarrhea which contains blood
Oesophagostomum sp. (nodular worm)

 Occurs in the small intestine
Clinical signs: dark persistent fetid diarrhea; nodular formation on the intestine on older cattle
REVIEW QUESTIONS ON PARASITES AND DISEASES OF POULTRY AND LIVESTOCK

BY DR. ALONA T. BADUA
CLSU-DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE
1.A newly castrated piglet was found dead with extended stiff limbs, erect ears and the tail was also stiff.
The piglet is suffering from what disease?
A. Blackleg B. Parturient Paresis C. Tetanus D. Pseudorabies
2. Foot and Mouth Disease is a contagious viral disease of ruminants and pigs which is characterized by
fever, vesicles in the mouth and foot areas. The following are the recommended preventive measures for
FMD except:
A. vaccination
B. slaughter of all affected and in-contact susceptible animals
C. strict restriction on movement of animals and vehicles around the infected premises
D. none of the above
3. Blackleg is a bacterial disease characterized by emphysematous swelling in the heavy muscles of what
animal? A. cattle B. pig C. horse D. chicken
4.Infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms and could be classified as contagious or non-
contagious. Which of the following diseases is considered as non-contagious infectious disease?
A. Hog Cholera B. Tetanus C. Pseudorabies D. Tuberculosis
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5.Coccidiosis is common in chicken and can cause decreased growth rate to high percentage of sick birds,
severe diarrhea and high mortality. The causative agent of this disease is
A. roundworm B. flatworm C. bacteria D. protozoa
6.Toxoid is the recommended preventive measure for Tetanus in pigs, ruminants and horses. Giving of
toxoid will confer what type of immunity?
A. natural passive immunity B. natural active immunity
C. artificial passive immunity D. artificial active immunity
Types of immunity
 Active immunity
 Antigen being given to the animal and the body produced antibodies
 recovering from a disease(natural) or injection of biological agent or
vaccine (artificial)
 Longer duration
Types of immunity
 Passive immunity
 animal’s body given antibodies
 sucking of colostrum and placental transfer (natural) and injection of antiserum
(artificial)
 duration is usually relatively short
6.Which of the following animals is most sensitive to the neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani?
A. chicken B. horse C. dog D. pig
7.The chronic form of this disease in chicken is characterized by swollen wattles, joints and footpads. It is
also called pasteurellosis in chicken
A. Fowl Typhoid B. Fowl Cholera C. Fowl Pox D. Fowl Erysipelas
8.Outstanding lesions observed in this contagious viral disease in chicken include a swollen and edematous
cloacal bursa and hemorrhagic pectoral, thigh and leg muscles. This disease is
A. Fowl plague B. Diptheria C. Gumboro Disease D. Avian Pest
9.Avian pneumoencephalitis is a common poultry disease that is characterized by respiratory signs like
coughing and sneezing and nervous signs like twisting of the neck, paralysis and drooping wings. This
disease is caused by
A. poxvirus B. birnavirus C. coronavirus D. paramyxovirus
10. Which of the following is not considered as a zoonotic disease?

A. Tuberculosis B. Anthrax C. Infectious Bursal Disease D. Rabies
11. Pullorum Disease is also called Bacillary White Diarrhea in poultry. This is chiefly transmitted directly
through the egg but also by direct or indirect contact. This disease is best prevented by
A. use of antibiotics B. vaccination C. routine testing of breeding stock
D. all of the above
12. Fowl pox is a common disease of chicken which is characterized by proliferative lesions in the skin that
progress to thick scabs and by lesions in the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract. Which of the
following is not vaccinated against Fowl Pox?
A. layers B. broilers C. breeders D. none of the above
13. Brooder pneumonia is a mycotic disease affecting the respiratory system of chickens. This is caused by
A. Aspergillus fumigatus B. Bordetella avium C. Clostridium botulinum D. Eimeria
tenella
14. This is an acute respiratory disease of chicken characterized by nasal discharge, sneezing and swelling
of the face under the eyes
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A. Infectious Coryza B. Chronic Respiratory Disease C. Newcastle Disease D. Fowlpox
15. Which of the following endoparasites is transmitted prenatally?

A. Strongyloides ransomi B. Ascaris suis C. Trichuris suis D. Dioctophyma renale
16. The infective stage of Fasciola gigantica (liverfluke) in ruminants is the
A. miracidium
B. rediae
C. metacercaria
D. cercaria
17. The mode of infection of Schistosoma japonicum (blood fluke) in both man and animals is through
A. ingestion of the metacercaria
B. skin penetration of cercaria
C. ingestion of the cercaria
D. skin penetration of the rediae
18. Which of the following endoparasites has a direct life cycle?
A. rumen fluke
B. broadfish tapeworm of carnivore
C. liverfluke
D. stomach worm of ruminant
19. Haemonchus contortus is a common roundworm that causes severe anemia in ruminants. This
endoparasite is found in the
A. rumen
B. small intestine
C. abomasum
D. cecum
20. Trichuris suis is a whipworm of pig and the adult worm could be located in the
A. liver
B. small intestine
C. cecum
D. stomach
21. Which of the following ectoparasites does not parasitize ruminants?
A. mite
B. flea
C. tick
D. lice
22.The disease condition cause by mite in animals is known as
A. pediculosis
B. mange
C. dermatitis
D. surra
23.This is the common antidote given to animal that have suffered allergic reactions to a vaccine
A. sugar
B. glycine
C. epinephrine
D. acetylcholine
24.Surra is a protozoan disease of horse and ruminants which is commonly transmitted by biting flies. It
causes intermittent fever and anemia, the causative agent for this disease is
A. Trypanosoma evansi
B. Trypanosoma cruzi
C. Trypanosoma equiperdum
D. Trypanosoma brucei
25.Which of the following dewormers is best used for roundworms?
A. rafoxanide
B. praziquantel
C. levamisole
D. triclabendazole
30
26. Newcastle Disease vaccine LaSota is given to chicks using this route of administration
A. intraocular
B. wing web
C. intramuscular
D. subcutaneous
27. Fowl Pox vaccine is given in poultry through this route of administration
A. drinking water
B. wing web
C. intramuscular
D. spray
28.Which of the following is not a reason for vaccination failure?

A. presence of maternal antibodies B. immune suppression C. presence of disease D. none of the
above
Reasons for vaccination failure

 presence of maternal antibodies
 the animal is already affected with the disease
 there is immunosuppression
 used of expired vaccines
 mishandling of vaccines
 the strains used in the vaccine are not the same as those from the pathogens in the field
29. The following are characteristics of an ideal disinfectant except

A. non-corrosive B. low surface tension
C. has minimal toxicity D. none of the above
Antiseptics – are preparations that are applied to living tissues that kill or prevent the growth of
microorganisms
Disinfectants – are preparations applied to inanimate objects that prevent infection by destruction
of pathogenic microorganisms
30. Which of these could be considered both as an antiseptic and disinfectant?
A. ethyl alcohol B. cresol C. hydrogen peroxide D. formalin
31.Which of the following vaccines is considered as live vaccine?

A. NCD vaccine B. Rabies vaccine
C. Hemorrhagic Septicemia vaccine D. Infectious Coryza vaccine
32.This nutritional deficiency cause rickets in young and osteomalacia in adults

A. vitamin A deficiency B. vitamin D deficiency
C. vitamin E deficiency D. vitamin K deficiency
33.This disinfectant is often used to cover dead carcasses when burying

A. phenol B. chlorine C. quicklime D. formalin
34. Deficiency of this vitamin can lead to excessive bleeding

A. vitamin A deficiency B. vitamin D deficiency
C. vitamin E deficiency D. vitamin K deficiency
35. This metabolic disorder is seen just before or during parturition because of a decrease in calcium serum
level A. milk fever B. bloat C. tetany D. ketosis
31
36. Non-infectious diseases are those diseases not cause by microorganisms, which of those listed below is
not a non- infectious disease?
A. fracture B. snake bite C. hernia D. none of the above
37. Parturient paresis in cattle is treated by giving calcium gluconate, which is best given through this route
A. intramuscular B. subcutaneous C. intravenous D. orally
38. Which of the following diseases could be hereditarily acquired?

A. scrotal hernia B. diabetes insipidus
C. white muscle disease D. rickets
39. This hormonal disease is caused by the absence or lack of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
A. diabetes insipidus B. diabetes mellitus C. goiter D. pernicious anemia
This ectoparasite is responsible for the mechanical transmission of enteric diseases in human
A. common housefly B. horsefly C. blackfly D. biting midges
Mosquitos could cause severe annoyance and blood loss in livestock, the house mosquito is also known as
A. Anopheles gambiae B. Culex pipiens C. Aedes aegypti D. Psorophora columbiae
Culex pipiens (house mosquito)
Aedes aegypti (yellow fever mosquito)
Anopheles sp. ( malarial mosquito)
The larvae of mosquitos are also known as

A. tumblers B. wrigglers C. snorkets D. nits
The larvae of biting flies could develop in the subcutaneous tissue of the skin or organs of domestic animal
and develop the condition called
A. mange B. breech C. myiasis D. psoriasis
The following are the harmful effects of ticks to poultry and livestock except
A. local irritation B. blood loss C. can cause paralysis D. none of the above
This refers to the louse eggs found glued in the hairs of its host
A. maggot B. merozoite C. nits D. oocyst
A reactive defense of the body that results from increase in body temperature brought by the presence of
microorganisms in the body of the animal is termed
A. hypothermia B. fever C. hyperthermia D. chill
Which of the following animals are prone to heat stroke because of the absence of sweat glands in their
body? A. cow B. goat C. chicken D. pig
Hardware disease occurs as a consequence of perforation of this structure by foreign objects ingested by
ruminants
A. rumen
B. reticulum
C. abomasum
D. trachea
The following are causes of bloat in ruminants except

A. high grain diets
B. pure legume pasture
C. esophageal obstruction
D. none of the above
This is a common parasite of pigs whose larvae migrate to the liver causing “white spots” and in the lungs
causing abdominal breathing or thumps
32
A. Strongyloides ransomi
B. Ascaris suum
C. Stephanurus dentatus
D. Trichuris suis
Contagious Ecthyma is an infectious dermatitis of sheep and goat that affects primarily the lips of young.
Another name for this disease is
A. Foot and Mouth Disease
B. Orf
C. Sore blister
D. pyoderma
Pseudorabies is a viral disease of pigs and ruminants affecting the respiratory and nervous systems. This
disease is also known as
A. Orf
B. Mad itch
C. Le rage
D. Splenic fever
Rabies is an acute viral disease that principally affects carnivores, it can cause the so called mad dog
syndrome. The common transmission of this disease is
A. coitus
B. bite of rabid dog
C. ingestion
D. inhalation
If there are 2000 layers in the project and 250 birds got infected with Infectious Bursal Disease and 50 birds
died, what is the morbidity rate of the flock?
A. 25 %
B. 12.5%
C. 30%
D. 12%
This refers to a disease that spreads rapidly over a large area

A. endemic
B. epizootic
C. sporadic
D. enzootic
The body’s reactive defenses against disease are the following except
A. allergy
B. inflammation
C. immunity
D. fever
This refers to the substance comprising the exoskeleton of arthropods
A. scutum
B. chitin
C. fleece
D. haltere
The following are ways wherein parasites injure their host except
A. suck blood, lymph or exudates
B. compete with the host for the
food
C. causes mechanical obstruction
D. increase host’s resistance
33
 they may suck blood, lymph or exudates
 they may feed on solid tissues
 they may compete with the host for the food
 they may cause mechanical obstructions
 they may cause pressure atrophy
 they may destroy host cells by growing in them
 they may produce various toxic substances
 they may cause allergic reactions
 they may stimulate the development of cancer
 they may carry diseases and parasites
 they may reduce their host’s resistance to other diseases and parasites
 Heterakis gallinarum is a very small roundworm of poultry that serves as carrier of Histomonas
meleagridis. The adult worm could be found in the
 A. small intestine
 B. large intestine
 C. ceca
 D. proventriculus
 Anthrax is an acute febrile disease of warm blooded animals including man. This disease in man is
called
 A. Bang’s disease
 B. Woolsorter’s disease
 C. Lockjaw
 D. Conjunctivitis
 Deficiency of riboflavin in chicks could results to the development of this condition
 A. polyneuritis
 B. curled toe paralysis
 C. goose stepping
 D. perosis
 When treating an animal with chemotherapeutic agent, the following should be considered except:
 A. animal
 B. pathogen
 C. environment
 D. drug
 The following are considered as narrow spectrum antibiotic except
 A. penicillin
 B. streptomycin
 C. tetracycline
 D. tylosin
 Which of these antibiotics is considered bactericidal?
 A. penicillin
 B. tetracycline
 C. sulfonamides
 D. erythromycin
 This drug is used against coccidiosis in chicken and thus considered as anticoccidial drug
 A. carbamate
 B. amprolium
 C. ivermectin
 D. levamisole
 These are all used in controlling external parasites in poultry and livestock except
 A. ivermectin
 B. organophosphate
 C. pyrimethamine
 D. pyrethroids
34
 Potassium permanganate can be used as disinfectant for fumigation if use in conjunction with this
chemical
 A. nitric acid
 B. hydrogen peroxide
 C. formaldehyde
 D. ethyl alcohol
 A type of quarantine wherein animals were separated by as much as two fences so direct contact
cannot be made by animals
 A. simple quarantine
 B. absolute quarantine
 C. official quarantine
 D. all of the above
 The following are considered part of a biosecurity measures in the farm except
 A. restriction of entry of non-farm
 personnel
 B. provision of footbath at the
 entrance of houses
 C. washing and disinfection of
 equipment
 D. none of the above
 This is the subtype of influenza A virus which is considered very contagious to birds and can
cause infection to human
 A. H1N1
 B. H5N1
 C. H1N2
 D. H3N2
 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy or Mad cow disease is a neurodegenerative disease of cattle
and this is cause by a
 A. virus
 B. bacteria
 C. rickettsia
 D. prion
 Diseases could be spread to animals through the following ways except
 A. immune carrier
 B. people
 C. carrion eaters
 D. none of the above
 Another name for this viral disease of pig is Classical Swine Fever
 A. Pseudorabies
 B. Swine dysentery
 C. Hog Cholera
 D. Foot and Mouth Disease
 Brucellosis is a contagious disease of cattle, pig, sheep, goats and dogs characterized by abortion,
orchitis and infection of the accessory sex glands in males. The disease in man is referred to as
 A. Malignant carbuncle
 B. Chagas’ disease
 C. Bang’s Disease
 D. Charbon
ANSWER KEY
LEA - Animal Nutrition Reviewer: Dr. Ernesto A. Martin Department of Animal Science, CLSU
Nutrition
35
 Nutrition - is a science that deals with the kind and amount of feeds, their composition of
nutrients, the animal performance desired, and digestion and metabolism of nutrients.
 Nutrigenomics - deals with the study of how foods may interact with specific genes to
increase the risk of common chronic diseases; the goal of this science is the
development of foods that match individual genotypes for better health.
 A good understanding of the principles of nutrition and nutrition management or practices

are necessary for the efficient production of meat, milk, wool and eggs and also for the
attainment of desired level of performance of working and breeding animals. Supplying
feeds, as source of nutrients, is a major concern in the profitability of animal production
since feed cost accounts for 70 to 80% of the total production cost.
Nutrient
 A nutrient is feed constituent that aids in the support of life (body systems function well –
cells, tissue, organs function). The nutrient can be a single chemical or a large, complex
chemical compound of many different units. Of the more than 100 chemical elements
(118), more than 20 (20-24) enter into the make up of the essential nutrients.
Nutritive Elements
Arsenic Iodine (I) Potassium (K)
Calcium (Ca) Iron (Fe) Selenium (Se)
Carbon (C) Magnesium (Mg) Silicon (Si)
Chlorine (Cl) Manganese (Mn) Sulfur (S)
Chromium (Cr) Molybdenum (Mo) Tin (Sn)
Cobalt (Co) Nickel (Ni) Vanadium (V)
Copper (Cu) Nitrogen (N) Zinc (Zn)
Flourine (F) Oxygen (O)
Hydrogen (H) Phosphorus (P)
Nutritive Elements
 Nutritive - found in animal’s body and with known function(s)

 Semi-nutritive
 Also found in animal’s body
 Some functions have been demonstrated in some animals (e.g. Vanadium,
Silicon, Tin, Chromium)
 Adventitious
 Found in animal’s body
 Without known function (e.g. Gold)
Gen. Functions of Nutrients
 structural material for building and maintaining the body structure (CHON for muscle; Ca,
P, Mg for bones);
 source of energy for heat production, work and fat deposition (C H O – ATP); and
LEA - Animal Nutrition Reviewer: Dr. Ernesto A. Martin Department of Animal Science,
CLSU
 regulating body processes or in the formation of body regulators (enzymes, coenzymes,

hormones)
Basic Nutrient Groups
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1. Water
2. Carbohydrates
3. Proteins
4. Fats
5. Vitamins
6. Minerals
Water
 Water is made up of two atoms of Hydrogen (H) and one atom of Oxygen (O). It is the
cheapest and most abundant nutrient. Animals obtain water from drinking water, feed,
and metabolic water. The latter is formed from the oxidation of compounds, such as
sugars, as illustrated below:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ® 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

Water has the following functions to the animal:

 as a solvent, it functions in the transport of nutrients to the cell and excretion of waste
products of metabolism;
 it is extremely important in temperature regulation;
 it cushions the nervous system; and
 it lubricates joints and acts as a cerebrospinal fluid.
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are made up of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen, with Hydrogen
and Oxygen found in the same ratio as in water. In the plant, carbohydrates are formed
by photosynthesis, chemically illustrated as follows:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 673 kcal (sun) ® C6H12O6 + 6 O2

 Plants, the chief source of animal feeds, contain about 75% carbohydrates (dry matter).
The bulk of nutrients found in the animal’s diet are carbohydrates. However, only less
than 1-1.5% is found in the animals’ body as the nutrient is continuously metabolized by
the animal. The uses of carbohydrates are as follows:
 Metabolized as a source of energy (Adenosine Triphosphate, ATP)

 Converted into glycogen which is sometimes called “animal starch.”
 Converted into fat and stored in the body for future use as a source of energy (when
intake exceeds needs and glygogen deposit).
The basic unit of carbohydrate structure in livestock and poultry feeds is the hexose unit
LEA - Animal Nutrition Reviewer: Dr. Ernesto A. Martin Department of Animal Science, CLSU
(6-carbon atom molecule). Smaller amount of pentose (5-carbon atom molecule) are
found in animal feeds; usually, these are less digestible than the hexoses but some animals
(especially ruminants) can utilize these fairly well. Much smaller amounts of diose, triose,
and tetrose (2, 3 and 4 carbon sugars, respectively) are present and are generally
unimportant.
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 The classification of carbohydrates is as follows:
 Monosaccharides. It contains one sugar unit; not usually found as such in feedstuffs but
serves as a building unit for more complex carbohydrates.

 Pentoses – arabinose, xylose, ribose
 Hexoses - glucose, fructose, galactose
 Disaccharides - it is formed by two monosaccharides.
 Sucrose – glucose + fructose; found in cane sugar
 Maltose – two glucose units; obtained from hydrolysis of starch
 Lactose – glucose + galactose; sugar found in milk
Carbohydrates
 Starch – long chains of glucose units joined by alpha linkage between glucose
units; cereal grains and tubers are rich sources of starch.
 Polysaccharides - it is composed of long chains of hexose or pentose units.
 Cellulose – composed of long chains of glucose units that are joined together by
beta linkage; found in cell walls of plants, especially in mature grasses.
 Hemicellulose. It is made up of both 5-carbon and 6-carbon sugar groups; also a
part of plant cell walls but is more digestible than cellulose.
 Lignin – is a compound associated with complex carbohydrates; not a
carbohydrate
 The kind of carbohydrate unit influences the ability of an animal to digest sugars from a
given feedstuff. Generally, starches such as those found in cereals and tubers are well
utilized by animals. Some feedstuffs (e.g. barley) containing high amounts of non-starch
polysaccharides (arabinoxylans, beta-glucans), however, are poorly digestible and cause
viscous condition in the intestine (most especially non-ruminants). Only ruminant animals
could well utilize feedstuffs with high amounts of cellulose and hemicellulose (e.g.
grasses).
Fats/Oil (Lipids)
 Lipids are made up of chemical elements C, H, and O. Oxygen comprises a much

smaller proportion of their molecule. For this reason, lipids release more energy upon
oxidation than carbohydrates or proteins.

 Lipids are composed of one molecule of glycerol (a carbohydrate) and three molecules of
fatty acids. Fatty acids are long chain organic compounds, usually containing an even
CLSU
number of carbon atoms; they may be saturated (only single bond between carbon
atoms) or unsaturated (double bond between some of the carbon atoms).

The functions of fat in the body are the following:

 Concentrated source of energy (2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates and
proteins).
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 Source of essential fatty acids (vitamin-like role) such as linoleic, linolenic and
arachidonic acid that are needed in the formation of certain regulatory hormones.
 Carrier of fat-soluble vitamins.
 Heat, insulation and protection.
 Structural component of tissues such as brain and liver.
 Plants and animal by-products are rich sources of lipids. Animal fats (e.g. tallow) tend to
contain more of the saturated fats, which are solid at room temperature. Vegetable oils
(e.g. coconut, corn oil and soybean oil) are high in unsaturated fats, which are liquid at
room temperature. This is considered to be the main difference between fat and oil. In
general, oil is more digestible than fat.
Proteins
 Proteins are complex group of compounds, which contain the elements C, H, O, nitrogen
(N), sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P). They are made up of long chains of amino acids,
which vary in relative amounts and kind (among different proteins), joined together by a
peptide bond. Amino acids are organic acids, which contain one or more amino group
(NH2).
 These are classified, based on the dietary need of the animal, as dispensable (non-
essential) and non-dispensable (essential) amino acids. The former (dispensable) is
essential to the animal but are normally synthesized by them or in sufficient amount in the
diet.
 These include alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, cystine, glutamic acid,
glutamine, glycine, hydroxyproline, praline, and tyrosine. The latter (non-dispensable)
cannot be synthesized by the animal and must always be present in adequate amounts in
the diet to attain optimum performance of an animal. The essential amino acids are:
phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, arginine,
leucine, and lysine (PVT TIM HALL).
 Proteins are in highest concentration in muscle tissues of animals. It is the most

expensive nutrient to furnish in an animal’s diet.
Functions
It is the basic structural unit of the body.

 Collagen (cornea and connective tissue)
 Elastin (tendons, arteries and elastic tissues)
 Keratin (hair, horn and wool)
 Body metabolism.
CLSU

Hormones

Enzymes

Immune bodies

Hereditary transmission (DNA)

 Excess proteins are deaminated and used by the animal as a source of energy
.
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 Animals’ diet must satisfy a minimum level of crude protein with adequate and well-
balanced amino acids. A crude protein is composed of true proteins and nitrogenous
products (non-protein nitrogen) or amides. True protein is made up of amino acids only
while non-protein nitrogen (NPN) contains N that can be converted to protein by bacterial
action.
 Quality proteins are found in feedstuffs of animal origin. This is because the amino acid
content of these feeds approximates those that are found in animal tissues. These are
usually the best protein source for non-ruminant animals. Ruminant animals have the
capacity to utilize protein sources containing high amounts of NPN, with the help of the
rumen bacteria.
Vitamins
 A vitamin is an organic nutrient required in small quantities necessary for regulating

metabolic processes, but does not become an actual component of body structures.

 Vitamins function as accessory nutritional factors with no structural or energy-yielding
role.

 Vitamins are generally divided into two groups. These are the fat-soluble and water-
soluble vitamins. Letters of the alphabet were used to describe vitamins when their
chemical nature was not yet known; this nomenclature still exists today.
 Fat-soluble vitamins

 Vitamin A – Retinol
 Vitamin D – Ergosterol (plants); D3-7 – dehydrocholesterol (animals)
 Vitamin E – Alpha-tocopherol
 Vitamin K – Phyloquinon (K1); Menaquinone-7 (K2); Menadione (K3)
 The fat-soluble vitamins are found in feedstuffs in association with lipids and are
absorbed in association with these nutrients (lipids). These usually exist in nature as
precursor vitamin (inactive form) and must be converted into active form, through
biochemical processes, before being useful to the animal. Fat-soluble vitamins are
involved in the regulation of structural portion of the body (e.g. vitamin D regulates
calcium and phosphorus metabolism; vitamin A maintains the structural integrity of the
photoreceptors of the eye).
CLSU
Water-soluble vitamins
 Vitamin B1 – Thiamine
 Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin
 Vitamin B6 – Pyridoxine; Pyridoxal; Pyridoxamine
 Vitamin B12 – Cobalamine; Cyanocobalamine
 Niacinamide – Nicotinamide
 Panthothenic acid – Panthothenate
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 Vitamin H – Biotin
 Folic acid (M) – Folacin; Pteryglutamic acid
 Vitamin C – Ascorbic acid
 Inositol – vitamins of the B-group
 Choline
 Para-amino benzoic acid (an essential group in folic acid)
 The water-soluble vitamins are usually abundant in feeds and these can be readily
utilized by the animal since these are already in active form. They are involved in
enzyme systems which function in the direct metabolism of fats, proteins and
carbohydrates as well as transfer of energy throughout the body (B-complex),
transmission of nerve impulses (choline) and red blood cell formation (B 12). Vitamins are
involved in the prevention of gross deficiency symptoms such as:
 Thiamine – beriberi
 Nicotinamide – Pellagra (corn-eater disease)
 Folic – sprue (a tropical disease)
 Cyanocobalamine – anemia (macrocytic)
 Vitamin C – scurvy
 Vitamin A – night blindness
 Vitamin D – Rickets (young animals); Osteomalacia (adult animals)
 Vitamin E – white muscle disease
 Vitamin K – bleeding disease (sweet clover poisoning)

 Feedstuffs in their fresh form as well as fermentation by-products contain appreciable
quantities of vitamins. However, processing and improper handling may cause
substantial reduction in biopotency (vitamin activity) of these vitamins. Although some
vitamins may be synthesized by some animals (e.g. B-complex by ruminant animals;
ascorbic acid by poultry), amounts are not sufficient to meet their requirement when
these animals are under stress. Hence, dietary vitamin supplements are needed.
Minerals
 Minerals represent the inorganic nutrients required by an animal. A number of mineral

elements are found in the animals’ body. However, their mere presence in the body does
not necessarily indicate that the mineral is essential. A nutritionally essential mineral has
the following features:
CLSU
 an active part of the structure of the body;

 plays an important role in some enzymes, hormones or other such compounds; and
 its removal from the diet may cause specific deficiency symptom to which could be
reversed by the addition of the mineral in question.
 Minerals are classified into two groups, based primarily on the amounts needed by the
animals: (1) macro minerals; and (2) micro minerals.
Minerals
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 Macro minerals. These are minerals needed in large amount; requirement is expressed
as percentage of the diet.

 Calcium (Ca) – required for bone formation; needed for muscle and nerve
function.
 Phosphorus (P) – required for bone formation and for proper energy utilization.
 Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), and Potassium (K) – required for maintenance of
osmotic pressure and maintenance of acid-base balance (pH).
 Magnesium (Mg) – required for bone formation and activation of certain
enzymes.
 Sulfur (S) – a component of amino acids methionine and cystine.
Minerals
 Micro minerals. These are minerals needed small amounts; requirement is expressed in
parts per million or parts per billion.

 Cobalt (Co) – component of the molecule of vitamin B12.
 Iron (Fe) – component of the hemoglobin molecule which is involved in oxygen
transport in the blood.
 Copper (Cu) – required for absorption of iron from the intestine.
 Iodine (I) – component of thyroxine which controls metabolic rate.
 Manganese (Mn) – involved in bone and cartilage formation.
 Molybdenum (Mo) – involved in uric acid formation in poultry.
 Selenium (Se) – involved in proper absorption and retention of vitamin E.
 Zinc (Zn) – component of carbonic anhydrase which is involved in the transport
of carbon dioxide from the cell to the lungs.
 Flourine (Fl) – it increases hardness of bones and teeth.
 Nickel (Ni) and Chromium (Cr) – involved in glucose metabolism.
For some minerals, the borderline between safety and toxicity is very small. Toxicity does not
necessarily mean death but can also mean greatly reduced performance. Cu, Se, and F are toxic
at relatively low dietary levels.
Terms used in Animal Nutrition
 Feed - is a term given to a particular product that provides nutrient. Specifically, these
are materials consisting of grains; fodder or by-products of animal or plant origin which
when properly used have nutritional value to the animals. They are edible materials
CLSU
which are consumed by animals and contribute energy and/or nutrients to the animal’s
diet.
 Food - is an article used for food or drink for man or other animals. It is a substance that
provides taste, flavor or nutritive value.

 Feedstuff - is commonly used when a group or list of feeds is being referred to. It is a
term similar to feed or food but is broader covering all materials in the diet. It may consist
of products that are of natural or artificial in origin.
 Meal - is processed nutritive materials that are intended for feeding.

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 Diet - is composed of a number of individual feeds selected to make a balance ration for
feeding to stocks; sometimes known as mixed feed or formula feed.

 Ration - is the quantity of feed being offered (daily) to an animal (e.g 100 g/layer/day, 2%
body weight for dry matter requirement)

Classification of Feeds
Concentrates. These are feeds low in fiber (<20%) and high in total digestible nutrients (TDN,
>60%) on an air dry basis. Also, a concentrated source of one or more nutrients used to enhance
the nutritional adequacy of a supplement mix. The following are examples of concentrates:

 Energy sources – feedstuffs used primarily as a source of energy.

 Examples: Cereal grains (corn, rice, wheat, and barley), liquid energy sources (oil and
molasses), by-products (rice bran, rice middling, wheat pollard).

Protein sources – feedstuffs used primarily as a source of protein/amino acids.

 Examples: Protein of plant origin (soybean meal, copra meal, ipil-ipil leaf meal,
mungbean meal, peanut meal, sunflower meal, corn gluten meal), distiller’s dried grain
solubles from ethanol production using cereal grains; protein of animal origin (fish meal,
meat meal, poultry by-product meal, blood meal, feather meal, skim milk), non-protein
nitrogen (urea, biuret).

Mineral supplements – used as a source of macro or micro minerals.

 Examples: Monocalcium phosphate and bone meal (sources of calcium and
phosphorus); limestone and oyster shell (source of calcium); salt (source of sodium and
chlorine); cobalt sulfate (source of cobalt).

 Vitamin supplements – used as a source of specific vitamins.

 Examples: Choline chloride (source of choline); tocopheryl acetate (source of vitamin E);
menadione sodium bisulphate (source of vitamin K).
CLSU
Classification of Feeds
Roughages - these are feeds containing more than 20% crude fiber and less than 60% TDN on
an air dry basis. Roughages are needed to promote bulk in ruminants’ diet. The following are
examples of roughages:

 Proteinaceous roughages – it contains more 10% crude protein on a dry matter basis.

 Examples: Centrocema (Centrocema pubescens), Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), Stylo
(Stylosanthes guyanensis), and Siratro (Macrophilium antropurpureum)

 Carbonaceous roughages – it contains less than 10% crude protein on a dry matter
basis.

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 Examples: Improved grasses such as Napier/Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum),
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), Paragrass (Brachiaria mutica), African stargrass
(Cynodon plectostachyus); native grasses such as Cogon (Imperata cylindrica),
Bagokbok (Themeda triandra), Amorseco (Chrysopugun aciculatos); farm waste and by-
products such as rice straw, corn cobs, sugarcage bagasse, and banana rejects.
Feed Additives
1. Feed additives - refer to the drugs or other compounds added to feeds of non-nutritive
nature (does not supply nutrients such as protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins or
minerals) but elicit positive effect on animal performance.

2. Antibiotics - these are chemicals produced by microbial fermentation or chemical
synthesis, which possess bacteriostatic or bacteriocidal properties and are added to the
feed at sub-therapeutic and therapeutic levels (e.g. bacitracin, penicillin, aureomycin and
terramycin).
3. Probiotics - these are beneficial bacterial species are introduced into the intestine so
as to enhance production of desirable by-products and consequently improve
performance.
3. Arsenical - this is a mineral which has been found to be effective against certain
diseases.
4. Hormones -these are natural or synthetic hormone preparation which increases

nitrogen retention (e.g. progesterone and estradiol).
5. Antioxidants - it protects feed components (fats and oil and fat soluble vitamins) that
are susceptible to oxidation (e.g. ethoxyquin and BHT).
6.Feed Enzymes - it enhances digestion by augmenting endogenous enzymes

(especially at young age) and facilitating digestion of poorly digestible feed components
such as fiber and phytic acid (mostly for non-ruminant animals). The feed enzyme can
be used as single preparation (e.g phytase for phytic acid; cellulase for cellulose) or
CLSU
combination of many enzymes or enzyme cocktail (e.g. cellulase + beta-glucanase +

amylase + lipase + protease).
7.Acidifying agents (Acidifiers) - these are chemical products added to the feed to
decrease the pH in the gut, thus, improving digestion in the stomach.
8.Flavoring Agents - it conceals unattractive natural smells, tastes or structures of feed

to enhance feed intake.
9. Pigmenters - it is added to the feed to improve color of products (e.g. egg yolk; broiler
skin).
10.Prebiotics - it is composed of small fragments of carbohydrates (oligosaccharides)

which are used to manipulate the gut ecosystem. It can selectively stimulate some of all
of the beneficial organisms in the gut, bringing about balance which in turn affects the
host in a beneficial way.
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11.Antitoxins (Toxin Binders) - these usually are inert chemical compounds with large
internal surfaces, which can absorb or fix toxins in feeds.
12.Pellet Binders - additives that are used to improve pellet quality.
13.Surfactants - these are chemical agents that facilitate uniform dispersion of molecules
in feeds or feed mixtures.
14. Anthelmintics (Dewormers). These are drugs used in controlling or eliminating

intestinal parasites.
15. Anti-molds - these are chemical preservatives added to the feeds to prevent mold
development.
16. Anti-malarials -these are chemical products used in the prevention and treatment of
malaria.
17. Anti-caking Agents - these are chemical products used to prevent formation of lumps
in feeds.
18. Coccidiostats - these are chemical products added to the feed to prevent and control
coccidiosis.
19. Nutraceuticals/Phytogenic Additives - these are preparations obtained usually from

herbs that contain important phytochemicals (e.g phenols, thymol, menthol, allicin,
capsaicin, gingerol, carvacrol, eugeno, linalool limonene) which enhance performance
and health of animals. Examples of phytochemical plant sources include capsicum
(pepper), ginger, onion, and oregano.
CLSU
Problem Solving
1. A feed was analyzed to contain 3% nitrogen. How much crude protein does the feed contains?

Solution ► 3 x 6.25 (conversion factor; 100/16 N) = 18.75% CP

2. The recommended inclusion rate of a feed enzyme is 2 kg per ton of diet. How much enzyme
is needed for 200 kg diet?

Solution ► 2 kg ÷ 1,000 kg = x ÷ 200 kg
x = (2 x 200 kg) ÷ 1,000 kg
x = 0.40 kg or 400 g
3. A diet is deficient in protein. How much fish meal (65% CP) is needed to correct 2.0% crude
protein deficiency?

Solution ► Fish meal = (0.02 ÷ 0.65) x 100
= 3.08% or 3.08 kg per 100 kg
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4. A goat weighing 30 kg needs a daily ration equivalent to 2% of its body weight (DM
requirement). How much roughage should be offered to the animal if such constitutes 70% of the
ration?

Solution ► Roughage = (30 kg x 0.02) x 0.70
= 0.42 kg or 420 g (on DM basis)

5 . A hen that consumes 0.10 kg (per day) of diet containing 18% protein gets this amount protein
for maintenance and production.

Solution ► Protein = 0.10 kg x 0.18
= 0.018 kg or 18 g
6. A feed containing 18% crude protein on as “as fed basis” (90% dry matter). How much crude
protein does the feed contains on dry matter basis?

Solution ► Crude Protein (Dry matter basis) = (0.18 ÷ 0.90) x 100
= 20%
7. A feed contains 10% moisture. How much is the dry matter content of 200 kg of such feed?

Solution ► Dry matter = 200 kg x [(100% - 10%) ÷ 100]
= 200 kg x 0.90
= 180 kg
8. A 100 kg ration is deficient in metabolizable energy of 100 kcal. How much coconut oil (8,600
kcal/kg) is needed to supplement the deficiency?

Solution ► Oil supplement = (100 kcal ÷ 8,600 kcal) x 100
= 1.163% or 1.163 kg per 100 kg

9. The total roughage requirement of a buffalo is 6 kg on a dry matter basis. How much Napier
grass soilage (25% dry matter) is needed to satisfy the roughage requirement of the animal.

Solution ► Napier soilage = 6 kg DM ÷ 0.25
= 24 kg
LEA - Review Session For Poultry Production by Dr. Ernesto A. Martin
Poultry Production
Poultry Terms
CHICKEN DUCK GOOSE TURKEY PIGEON QUAIL

Mature Cock/Cockerel Drake Gander Tom/ Pigeon
male cock
Mature Hen/pullet Duck Goose T. Hen Pigeon hen Hen
female
Young Baby chicken Duckling Goding Poult Squab Chick
Group Brood/Flock Paddling Gaggle Flock Flight Covey
1. Poultry - species of birds (class aves) man has domesticated for meat and eggs, ornament,
and other economic purposes
2. Keet - young guinea of either sex
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3. Down feathers - refers to feathers of newly hatched fowl
4. Plumage – mature feathers of fowl
5. Pullet chicks – sexed chicks, all female
6. Straight-run-chick - group of male and female chicks; unsexed
7. Capon – fattened male, testicles removed at 2-3 months old
8. Peeper - pigeon ready to leave nest
9. Squeaker - ready to leave nest and starting to eat
10. Pigeon - predigested food of pigeon’s crop intended for young
11. Poulard - ovariectomized pullet; synonym of capon in male
12. Oviposition - laying of fully developed eggs
13. Fertile eggs - eggs from mated flock
14. Table eggs - eggs for cuisine purposes; came from unmated female
15. Candling – holding the egg infront of a bright light
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SOME INFORMATION ABOUT POULTRY SPECIES
INCUBATION PERIOD
POULTRY SPECIES SC. NAME EGG WT (grams)
(days)
1. Chicken Gallus domesticus 58 21
2. Mallard duck Anas platyrynchos 60 28
3. Muscovy Cairina moschata 70 33-35
4. Quail Coturnix coturnix 10 16-18
5. Bobwhite quail Colinus virginianus 11-12 22-24
6. Turkey Meleagris gallopavo 85 28
7. Geese Anser domesticus 130-200 28-32
8. African geese Cygnopsis cygnoides 130-150 28-32
9. Guinea fowl Numida meleagris 40 26-28
10. Pigeon Columbia livia 17 18
11. Peafowl Pavo cristatus 95 28
12. Pheasants Phasianus colchicus 32 20-24
13. Ostrich Struchio australis camlus 1400 42
14. Emu Dromecens norahollandia 1200 50-63
STRAINS (HYBRIDS/COMMERCIAL) OF CHICKENS
STRAINS OF EGG TYPE STRAINS OF MEAT TYPE

1. Babcock 1. Cobb
2. Arbor acre 26 2. Magnolia
3. H&N 3. Heisdorf and Nelson (H & N)
4. Hyline 4. Hybro
5. Starcross 5. Starbro
6. Bovans 6. Avian
7. Hisex 7. Anak 2000
8. Ross layers 8. Ross
9. Lohman LSL 9. Lohmann
10. Dekalb 10. Hubbard
11. Manina Brown 11. Peterson
Native Philippine Chicken
1. Labuyo 4. Camarines of Bicol

2. Bolinao of Pangasinan 5. Paraokan of Palawan
3. Banaba of Batangas 6. Darag of Cebu
Mongrels/Scrub – Unknown ancestry
Modern Chicken Type (Utility/Purpose)
EGG TYPE MEAT TYPE DUAL PURPOSE FANCY/ORNAMENTAL
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Leghorn Cornish Rhode Island Red Bantam
Minorca Brahma New Hampshire Yokohama
Ancona Langshan Plymouth Rock Frizzles
Mikawa Cochins Australorp Silkies
Spanish White rock Wyandotte
Andalusian Cina Nagoya
Buttercup Cantonese
Orpington
Sussex
Dorking
1. Turkey breed - Bronze, Broad breasted white, Slate, Nittanny Black, Beltsville
2. Goose - African, Chinese, Toulouse, Canadian. Embden, Pilgrim
3. Quail - Tuxedo, Jap. Seattle, Taiwan, Negro, Silver, Brown cross
4. Pigeon – Racing homer, Fantail, White king, Silver king, Pigeon owl
5. Guinea fowl - Pearl, White guinea
DUCK BREED
EGG TYPE MEAT TYPE FANCY
Pateros Muscovy Shelrake Meta
Khaki Campbell Pekin Calls
Indian Runner Roven Black Indies
Tsaiya Ayslesbury
Cherry Valley 2000 Cherry Valley
Alabio Laguna
Tegarl Mollard
Bali
Pasture/Ranged Chicken
- Sasso, Kabir Giant, Sunshine, Grimaud freres
Parts of Poultry House
1. Frame – wooden/steel
2. Walls – mesh wire/screen
3. Roof types – shed, gable, combination, semi monitor, monitor, A type
4. Flear - concrete floor in litter prevents coccidiosis
5. Insulation
Types of Poultry House
1. Controlled environment house – temperate countries; tunnel ventilated houses
2. Open sided poultry house – conventional
Systems of Poultry Housing
1. Litter floor – rice hull, rice straw, saw dust, peanut hay
2. Slat and litter floor combination – breeder
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3. All-slatted house – broiler
4. Cages – flat deck, stair-step (Californian); compact, pyramid, tier battery cages
Equipment
1. Feeder – straight feeder (trough) and round feeders

2. Waterer – trough; cups, round waterer, nipple
3. Nest – individual, colony nest
4. Manure handling equipment
5. Lighting – bulb or tube light 1 watt/square meter (3-4 watt/square meter)
Floor space requirements

Egg type Age Rate Bird/m2
1-3 wks 0.3 sq.ft./bird 35
3-8 wks 0.5 sq.ft/bird 21
8-12 wks 1.0 sq.ft./bird 10
Meat type
1-2 wks 0.3 35
2 to market 1.0 10
After 12 wks
Litter floor 2-2.5 sq.ft./bird 4-5
Slat 1.5 – 2 sq/ft./bird 4-7
Cages 0.75 – 1.0 sq.ft./bird 10-14
Feeder (Linear) Per bird Waterer

Day-old – 2 wks 2.5 cm 0.5 cm (1gal/100 doc)
2-6 wks 4.5 cm 1.0 cm
6-10 wks 7.5 cm 2.0 cm
11-20 wks 7.5 cm 2.0 cm
20 wks or more 8.0 cm 2.5 cm
Layer 10 cm 3.0 cm
Biological features:
1. Kingdom – animalia , subkingdom – metazoan
2. Class – Aves ; Phylum – Chordata
3. Order – Anseriformes Galliformes
4. Family – Anatidae Phasianidae
5. Genus - Anas Cairina Anser Gallus Meleagris Numida

Coturnix
6. Species - Platyrynchus moschata anser gallus gallopavo meleagris

japonica (domestic duck) (muscovy) (geese) (fowl) (Turkey) (guinea) (quail)
Unique biological characteristics of fowl
1. Body temp. – 105-109oF

2. Pulse rate – 300 beats per minute (rest)
3. Respiration rate – 14-22 per minute (rest)
50
4. Food passage – 2.5 hours to pass from mouth to anus
5. Fusion of bones to provide rigidity for flight
6. Adaptation of forelimbs into wings
7. Dubbing – removal of comb and wattles
8. Dewattling – removal of wattles
9. Preen gland/uropygial gland – oil gland located on top of the rump; used for water-proofing of
feathers
10. Molting – natural loss of feather, usually after 8 -12 mos. of laying
11. Gastrocnemius muscle – roosting muscle, birds can sleep on trees without falling
12. Clavicle – wish bone
13. Sternum – breast or keel bone (piso)
14. Senses of sight and hearing – well developed in fowl
15. Senses of taste and smell – poorly developed
16. Syrinx – voice box of bird located where the trachea divided into bronchi
17. Heart of chicken – has greater percentage of body weight in chicken compared to mammalian
heart (4-8% bird vs. 1.5-1.7% mammals)
18. Crop (ingluvies) – stones and softens food
19. Proventriculus – true stomach with gastric juices and enzyme
20. Gizzard or ventriculus – muscular stomach
21. Ceca – junction of small and large intestines; site of undigestible materials
22. Cloaca – common cavity for entrance of genital, urinary and digestible tracts
Reproduction in female
SECTION TIME EGG SPENDS LENGTH FUNCTION

Funnel/infudibulum 15 minutes 9 cm Engulfing of yolk, site of
fertilization
Magnum 3 hours 33 cm Secretion of thick white
(albumen)
Isthmus 1 ¼ hours 10 cm Shell membranes
Uterus 20-21 hours 12 cm Thin albumen, shell and
pigment ooporphyrin
Vagina - 12 cm Passage of egg
Birds lack an external penis but small papilla. Sex in day old chicks and poult can be determined
by examining their everted rudimentary organs
Uric acid - pasty white urine of chicken
51
Major hormones in chicken
1. Follicle stimulating hormone – growth and maturation of ovarian follicles (eeg yolks); influence
by photoperiod
2. LH – ovulation, influenced by dark-light or diurnal sequence
3. Oxytocin – stimulates laying of egg
4. Prolactin – stimulates female to go broody
5. Thyroxine – metabolism, pigmentation, structure and molting of feathers.
6. Parathyroid – calcium levels of blood
7. Table eggs – eggs from unmated flock for cuisine purposes
8. Hatching eggs – eggs from mated flock to produce chicks or duncklings
9. Balut – embryonated egg from ducks
10. Penoy – incubated infertile duck eggs
11. Century eggs – salted eggs treated with NaOH
12. Bakers dozen egg – 13 pieces of eggs used in bakery per dozen
13. Candling – test of fertility by holding pre-incubated eggs infront of beam of light in darkened
room.
Factors affecting
Fertilization Hatchability
1. Condition of sperms 1. Heredity

2. Nutrition 2. Nutrition
3. Temperature 3. Rate of lay
4. Age 4. Age
5. Preferential mating 5. Temperature
6. Breeding
Size and Weight of Eggs

Size of eggs Weight
Jumbo 70 g and above
XL 65-70 g
Large 60-65 g
Medium 55-60 g
Small 50-55 g
Pullets 45-50 g
Peewee 40-45 g
First egg Below 40 g
1. Shape of egg – ovoid, oblong, round

2. Blood spots – caused by hemorrhage in oviduct
3. Meat spots in egg – tissue in ovary
4. Body-checked eggs – eggs with ridge at the middle of egg
52
5. Pimpled egg – egg with calcareous deposits
6. Storage temperature for eggs – 50-65oF with RH of 70-80%
Cholesterol in eggs and others
CHOLESTEROL, mg per 100 gram

Domestic chicken 548
Turkey egg 933
Quail 844
Mallard duck 844
Brains 3150
Liver and kidney 400-500
Butter 250
Shrimps 250
Eel 225
Liver sausage 175
Meat 60-100
Herring 70
Milk 14
1. Caruncle – red portion in ducks head, (comb in chicken)
2. Snood – portion of turkey head
3. Dewlap – in goose but wattle in chicken
4. Clutch – a number of successive days that a hen lays eggs, 3-4 days/week
5. Double yolk – two ova are ovulated at the same time
6. Chalazae – two twisted cords holding yolk at the center
7. Air cell – location where space between the inner and outer shell membrane; formed after egg
is laid
8. Pores of egg – ranging from 2000-13,000 pores/egg an average of 7,500 pores, found mostly
on blunt end of egg
9. Flat sided eggs – egg shell is fattened due to bronchitis and abnormal pressure
10. Soft shelled eggs or shell-less eggs – due to calcium deficiency bronchitis or stress
11. Misshapen eggs – ribbed, grooved, elongated, round egg due to oviduct malfunction or
bronchitis
Composition of eggs and egg number per year Egg components (% of total egg weight)
EGG NET EGG NO. IN

SPECIES ALBUMEN YOLK SHELL
(g) ONE YEAR
Chicken-layer 57 63.8 27.2 9 310
Broiler 61 59.4 29.1 11.5 160
Turkey 89 57.4 32.6 10.0 110
Guinea fowl 40 52.3 35.1 12.6 160
Quail 13 59.5 32.2 8.3 240
Mallard duck 65 52.6 35.4 12.0 270
Goose 130 52.5 35.1 12.4 40
53
Nutrient composition of eggs from diff. species
EGG WT WATER PROTEIN LIPID CHO MINERALS

SPECIES
IN GMS (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Chicken 57 74.6 12.1 11.1 1.2 1.0
Turkey 79 72.5 13.7 11.9 1.1 0.8
Quail 10 74.3 13.1 11.1 1.4 1.1
Mallard 70 70.8 12.8 13.8 1.4 1.2
duck
Goose 144 70.4 13.9 13.8 1.3 1.1
1. Xanthophyll – pigment in yellow color of yolk

2. Ovomucin – protein in albumen
3. Lysozyme – enzyme in albumen which protect egg from bacteria
4. Haugh units – unit for albumen height connected fro egg weight
5. Calcium carbonate – component of egg shell
6. Egg mass output – calculated from the number of eggs produced by a flock multiplied by the
average egg weight
Factors that stop egg laying
1. Photo refractoriness – loss of photostimulation in birds due to decrease day length

2. Broodiness – time when female bird incubates her egg and brooding her young
3. Moulting – shedding of feathers; rest from egg production
Hatchery practices Standard in Hatchery

Grading and traying
Hatching eggs 1000 eggs/person/hours
Grading, counting and placing
Chicks in boxes 1200 chicks/person/hour
Sexing chicks 1000 chicks/person/hour
Debeaking chicks 600 chicks/person/hour
Marek’s vaccination
of chicks 600 chicks/person/hour
Dewinging chicks 600 chicks/person/hour
Qualitative traits in poultry
1. Comb type – single comb, rose, walnut, pea

2. Feather color – white, brown
3. Skin and shank color – yellowpigmentation and green colored shank
4. sex linkage – barred plumage, rate of feathering, silver and gold plumage
Quantitative traits in poultry

High heritability (above 40%) Moderate (15-40%) Low (below 15%)
Mature body weight Age at sexual maturity Fertility
Egg weight Egg production Hatchability
54
Shell color Growth rate Disease resistance
Conformation Albumen quality
Shell thickness
Traits affecting egg production
1. Sexual maturity- pullet is mature when she lays her first egg; influenced by
a. selection
b. feeding program
c. lighting program
d. disease
2. rate of lay (intensity) – peak egg production
3. length of lay – 12-14 months, 85-90%
4. livability – 10% mortality per year
brooding mortality – 5%
growing mortality – 3%
culling percentage – 2%
(sexing mistakes)
5. body size – 1.3-1.5 at laying time
6. Egg size – large, medium

a. rate of lay – as rate of lay increases, egg sze decreases
b. sexual maturity – as age of sexual maturity increases, egg size increases
Traits affecting meat production

1. rate of growth
2. body comformation – breast angle by caliper
Dressing % of meat – carcass/live weight

Cattle, sheep, goats – 45-50%
Pig, poultry – 65-70%
Composition of poultry carcasses

OTHER
BODYWEIGHT EVISCERATED EDIBLE
EDIBLE
(kg) CARCASS (%) MEAT
PARTS
Broiler 1.8 73.7 42.7 16.0
Layer chicken 1.7 66.5 37.1 16.7
Turkey 5.0 78.9 51.3 11.6
Mallard 2.7 71.2 28.8 29.1
Muscovy 2.5 71.4 36.3 21.2
Geese 5.5 72.9 34.3 26.6
Brooding – refers to the period of growth during which supplementary heat is given to young birds
comfort; depends on type of housing and season of year; 1-6 wks.
Rearing – interval of time between brooding and when the birds are placed in laying house, 15-20
wks
55
Requirements for brooding and rearing
1. good stock
2. temperature – 60-95oF
3. Ventilation – CO2, ammonia, CO
4. Humidity – low RH – dustiness (below 30%)
high RH – wet litter (above 75%)
5. Space – floor space, hover, feeder and waterer
Common management problems in brooding
1. starve outs – mortalities due to lack of water and feed intake

2. Piling – caused by insufficient heat and fright
3. Feed wastage – feeder design, filling too full

4. cannibalism – caused by stresses like high brooder temp, over crowding, too high light intensity
5. wet litter – result of poor ventilation
Management practices in brooding and rearing
1. lighting – light intensity during brooding

- never increase day length during growing period
2. debeaking – measure against cannibalism
3. vaccination – marek’s disease, avian pest, bursal disease, fowl pox
4. installation of roosting bars
Lighting Program in Laying chicken
Age in weeks Lighting duration in hours

1 24/24
2 14
3 10
Growing birds (6 weeks to 15 weeks) – 13 hours/d

Laying birds – 16-18 hours/d
Weighing of flock – weekly; 2-4% of population with minimum number of 50 birds per house;
uniformity
Sexing mistakes – 2%
Basic poultry records
1. Daily flock report – egg collected, % egg production, feed intake, mortality
Weekly report – total weekly records of egg, feed, average egg wt., grit, oyster shell
Periodic report (4 wks) – total eggs, average body weight of hens
2. Receipt and expense records
3. Flock history – drug administration, vaccination
4. cash flow – cash needs of poultry
5. Periodic performance summaries
- % egg production
- feed intake
56
- feed conversion per dozen egg
- feed conversion = kg feed
---------
kg eggs
1 kg egg = 12-16 pcs.
Protein requirements of feeds

1. Egg type chicken CP (%)
Starter chicks 0-8 weeks 20-22

Grower 9-20 wks 14-16
Layer diet 16-18
2. Turkey 0-8 wks 26-32

Grower turkey 8-16 wks 20-24
Turkey (16 wks-market) 14-20
Turkey breeders 16-18
3. Broiler booster 24
Broiler starter 21
Broiler finisher 18
4. Ducks – 0-3 wks 21-24

4 wks-on 15-17
5. Geese 0-3 wks 16-19

7 wks – on 10-14
6. Quail 0-3 wks 23-27

4 wks – on 18-22
Feedstuff for poultry
1. Cereals – wheat, maize, barley, rice

2. Cereal by products – wheat feed (pollard), rice bran, corn gluten meal, corn germ meal
3. Protein concentrates – soybean meal, peanut meal, fish meal, meat and bone
4. Oil and fats – soybean oil, rapeseed oil, fish oil, tallow (beef fat)
5. Minerals and vitamins – limestone, dicalcium phosphate, salt
Disease prevention
1. prevention of contact between host and disease organism
57
a. isolate building and units
b. bird segregation by age, species and source
c. control traffic of birds, human and vectors
d. purchase healthy stock

e. cleanliness and disinfection
f. dead birds disposed by burning or burying
2. Strengthen host
a. select for disease resistance
b. reduce stress – overcrowding, culling, poor ventilation, social competition, inadequate
feeding and watering space
c. proper nutrition
d. use medication properly
e. follow recommended vaccination program
methods – drinking water, dust, intranasal, intraocular, wing-web stab,
feather follicle, subcutaneous and intramuscular injections
Example of broiler health program
AGE VACCINE METHOD

1st day Marek’s disease, Avian pest Drop in eye or intranasal or
(Hitcher B1) IBD spray or Subcutaneous
8th day IBD (mild or intermediate) Eye drop r subutaneous
10th day IBD (intermediate Drinking water
12th day Avian pest Drinking water or aerosol spray
14th day Infectious bronchitis Drinking water
21st day IBD Drinking water
Poultry diseases of current concern
1. Marek’s disease 5. Respiratory complex – CRD, PPLO

2. Avian influenza/Avian flu 6. New Castle (NCD)
3. Coccidiosis 7. Leg weakness
4. Fowl cholera 8. Infectious bursal disease
9. Avian flu/influenza (infects human as well)
10. Egg drop syndrome
11. Infectious laryngotracheitis
58
Layer Health
OTHER
AGE VACCINE METHODS
PREPARATIONS
Before chick arrival Mareks (in hatchery) Intramuscular Washing & disinfection
1st day Hitcher B1 + Bursal Drop in eye or Pre-starter feed
vaccine intranasal
18th day Mixed hitcher & Water Debeaking
bursal vac.
6th wks Avian La Sota Water Coccidiostat
7th week Infectious coryza Intramuscular
10th week Infectious coryza
12th week La Sota Water Coccidiostat
13th week Worming
14th week Fowl pox Wing web
15th week Egg drop syndrome Intramuscular
18th week La Sota Water Redebeaking
Intramuscular injection
Diseases prevented by immunization (Vaccine/Bacterin)
1. Newcastle disease (NCD) 5. Epidemic tremor

2. Infectious bronchitis (IB) 6. Marek’s disease
3. Fowl pox 7. Coccidiosis
4. Laryngotracheitis 8. Egg drop syndrome (EDS)
9. E. coli
Disease caused by poor management
1. ammonia blindness (keratoconjunctivitis – ventilation

2. bumble foot – equipment
– dead bird disposal
4. nutritional deficiencies
5. breast blisters
Disease that have adverse effect on man
1. new castle
2. salmonella
3. ornithosis
4. erysipelas
5. avian flu – H5N1, strain
Hemaglutinnin nutrasaminase strain
Disease affecting product quality
59
1. egg quality – NCD, bronchitis
2. meat – chiggers, breast blisters, chronic respiratory disease (CRD)
Major parasites
1. internal – roundworms, cecal worms, tapeworms

2. external – lice, mites, chiggers, flies
Production management: trouble shooting
1. Cannibalism – habit of bird picking the feathers, comb, toes or vent of another bird
- prevented by debeaking
broiler – day-old debeaking
egg type – 7 days or 4-5 weeks
turkeys – 2-4 weeks
- removal of combs (dubbing)
2. Flight prevention – clip flight feathers; wing notch
3. toe clipping – turkey and ducks
4. force molting
5. light management
6. feeding to reduce cost
a. on-farm mixing
b. purchase methods
c. reduce feed wastage – feeder design, filling feeders too full, inadequate rodent control,
carelessness
d. least cost formulation and proper formulation
Specialized poultry enterprises
1. Hatching egg production – duck

2. Growing ready to lay pullet – P150-170 each
3. Duck production for balut and meat – 3-35 kg at 7-9 wks.
4. Good production – 5-6 months of age weighing

5-7 kg; weeders; lay 25-40 egg per hen
5. Heavy broilers/roosters – 12-18 wks at 2.5-3.0 kg
6. Capon production – sunshine chicken
3-5 week of age – caponizing age

4-5 month raising to reach 4-6 kg
FCE = 3.5-4:1 kg bodyweight
7. Game bird production – pheasants, quail, bantam chicken, pigeons, fighting cocks/game fowl
(Texas)
Egg production/season
60
Wild quail – 60-80 eggs
Chukar – 50-80 eggs
Pheasant – 75-90 eggs
Wild turkey – 60-70 eggs
Poultry Processing Procedures
1. Stunning – electric shock

2. Killing/bleeding – outside cut
- sticking through mouth
3. Scalding – dragging birds in hot water < 130 oF temp.
4. Feather removal method
a. wet – rubber finger
b. dry
c. wax – for ducks and geese
5. Evisceration – removal of head, feet, entrails and other parts (lungs, intestines, etc.)
6. Chilling – prevent bacterial growth and aging of muscle below 40 oF for 1 hour
7. Further processing/preparations – packed in whole, half, quartered or cut into parts as rolls
roasts, steak or ground meat
8. Preservation procedures
a. Fresh chilled – ice pack or chill-pack
b. fresh frozen – blast freezing or liquid freezing
c. Packaging – plastic shrinkage bags
- stored for 6 months
d. other methods – canning, smoking and freeze drying
Composition and Diets

Ingredients Booster Starter Finisher
Yellow corn 625.0 630.0 635.0
US Soya (GMC Hi-Pro 300 285 289
Fishmeal 25.0 ___ ___
Copra meal ___ 7.0 ___
Coco oil 6.7 29.80 35.60
MDCP 10.0 11.60 10.60
Limestone 6.0 11.30 9.00
Salt 4.0 5.00 4.70
Lysine 3.6 2.40 2.50
Methionine 3.30 2.40 2.55
Threonine 1.00 0.60 0.60
Choline chloride (60%) 2.10 1.90 1.70
Vitamin (Miavit) 0.75 .800 .800
Nopcozyme 0.500 0.500 0.500
61
Capsozyme SB (b-galactosidase) .500 .500
Capsozyme P (phytase) .150 .150 .150
Fungicap (mold inhibitor) 1.00 1.00
Ethoxyquin powder 0.150 0.150 0.150
Cobind regular (toxin binder) 2.5 2.5 2.00
Zinc bacitracin 0.300 0.300
Salinomycin 0.500 0.500
LEA REVIEW QUESTIONS IN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

By DR. ALONA T. BADUA - DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE - CLSU
1) The parasympathetic nervous system is called the craniosacral system because the nerve fibers arise
from the cranial nerves and sacral portion of the spinal cord. The following are the effects of
parasympathetic stimulation of a given organ except:
A. contracts pupil of the eye B. dilate blood vessels C. accelerates heartbeat D. excites gastrointestinal
motility
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Accelerates heartbeat and amplitude Slows heartbeat and amplitude

Dilates pupil of eye Contracts pupil of eye
Constrict blood vessels Dilate blood vessels
Inhibits gastrointestinal motility Excites gastrointestinal motility
2) Reflex centers are located throughout the central nervous system and are involved with the integration of
more complex reflexes. When the animal sneeze and cough, the reflex center involved in these reactions is
the: A. hypothalamus B. cerebellum C. medulla oblongata D. cerebrum
Reflex centers
• medulla oblongata - for control of heart action, vessel size, coughing and sneezing
• cerebellum - associated with locomotion and posture
• hypothalamus - temperature regulation and water balance
• cerebrum - pupillary reflex and general startle reaction to loud voices or frightening objects
3) The retina is the innermost tunic of the eye which is composed of the light-sensitive cell layer consisting
of the rods and cones. Which of the following is not true about the rods and cones?
A. rods are more sensitive to light than cones B. cones are responsible for the color vision
C. at dusk or when light intensity is low, the cones are sensitive D. none of the above
Rods and Cones
• The retina contains the rods and cones which are receptive to light stimuli
• The rods are more sensitive to light than the cones and are important for visual perception when
the light is of low intensity as at dusk and after dark
• Cones are not as sensitive to light as the rods and they are important when the light intensity is
high as in day light
• Cones are also responsible for color vision in animals
4) The following statements described the similarities and differences of muscle cells of the body except:
A. both skeletal and visceral muscles are striated
B. all muscle cells are capable of contraction or shortening of cell
C. cardiac and visceral muscles are involuntary in action
D. all muscle cells are capable of undergoing hypertrophy
62
Types of Muscles
A. Smooth (involuntary, visceral, unstriated) muscle

– no visible striations
– found in the wall of the gastrointestinal tract, urogenital system, walls of blood vessel
– muscle contractions are involuntary
B. Cardiac (involuntary, striated) muscle

- contraction is inherent and rhythmic , requiring no nerve stimulus
- it possess cross striations of striped muscle but the nuclei are located centrally rather than on the
periphery of the muscle bundles
C. Skeletal (voluntary, striated) muscle

- composed of long, unbranched, multinucleated fibers
- each muscle fiber is crossed transversely by dark bands or striations
4) Water is the most abundant constituent of the body fluids comprising 60% of the total body weight. The
following statements best described the functions of water except:
A. it functions as a lubricant B. helps regulate body temperature
C. transport glandular products D. none of the above
Functions of water
• Solvents for all water-soluble substances in the body

• Transports nutrients to the cells and waste products and secretory products from the cells
• Involves in many biochemical reactions in the body
• Temperature regulation
• Acts as lubricant for body surfaces
5) If certain organ reached normal size and it decrease its size, the term for this is
A. atrophy B. hypertrophy C. aplasia D. hypoplasia
Definition about terminologies on growth
Growth – refers to increase in size usually by increasing in the amount of protoplasm

Hypertrophy - increase in size of a cell or organ beyond normal
Atrophy – decrease in size from normal
Aplasia - failure of a tissue or organ to develop
Hypoplasia – incomplete development or defective development of a tissue or organ
6) If an animal had an allergic response, what kind of white blood cells will increase in number in respond
to the allergens? A. neutrophils B. lymphocytes C. eosinophils D. basophils
White blood cells
1. Granulocytes – contain granules within the cytoplasm that are easily stained
•
63
• neutrophils – first line of defense against infection and constitute the greatest number of all the
white blood cells
• eosinophils – increases in number during allergic reactions
• basophils – mast cell formation
2. Agranulocytes – these are cells that do not contain or contain very little granular material in their
cytoplasm
• monocytes – largest white blood cells and involved in phagocytosis

• lymphocytes – it produces antibodies, neutralize or fix toxins
7) Ions are inorganic substances that maintain a constant pH and help regulate osmotic pressure. Which of
the following is not considered a major ion?
A. phosphorus B. potassium C. sodium D. chloride
Ions in the body
Functions:
• maintain a constant pH and help regulate osmotic pressure
• essential to nerve and muscle function
• major ions found within the cells: potassium, phosphate, magnesium, sodium, bicarbonate,
chloride
8) What will happen to a red blood cell when its bathing fluid has lower osmotic pressure than the cell?
A. the cell will move B. the cell will shrink C. the cell will burst D. the cell will grow
Concentration of solution in relation to the cells:

• isotonic – if the concentration of solutions on each side of a membrane is the same
• hypotonic – is the bathing fluid has a lower osmotic pressure than the cells and water tend to cross
the membrane and enter the cells
• hypertonic – if the bathing fluid has a higher osmotic pressure than the cells and the cell will lose
water and become wrinkled
9) What part of the bone is responsible for the increase in the length of a growing bone?
A. the epiphysis B. the epiphyseal cartilage C. the marrow cavity D. the diaphysis
Part of the bone
• Epiphysis – refers to either extremity of the long bone

• Diaphysis - cylindrical shaft of a long bone situated between the epiphyses
• Epiphyseal cartilage or disk (physis) – layer of hyaline cartilage that separates. This is the only
area in which a bone can increase in length
• Periosteum - fibrous membrane that covers the surface of the bone. It is responsible for increase
in the diameter of bones and it functions in the healing of fractures
10) The carpals correspond to the knees of horse, these are involved in absorbing the pressure when the
horse kneel, what type of bones are the carpals?
A. long bone B. short bone C. irregular bone D. flat bone

Classification of bone according to gross appearance
1. long bone - humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula

2. short bone - tarsus and carpus
64
3. flat bone - scapulae and pelvic bone
4. sesamoid bone - patella
5. irregular bone - vertebrae
11) The following statements describe the physiological response of bone except:
A. bone can decrease in size B. bone can increase in size C. bone can undergo repair D. bone cannot
reshape itself
Physiology of the bone
• Bone can decrease in size, increase in size, repair bone, can reshape itself according to good
engineering principles to sustain a maximum of stress with a minimum of bone tissue
• Atrophy of the bones occurs when pressure is constant and excessive, when periods of pressure
exceed periods of release and when there is little or no stress
• Excessive pressure on growing bone will slow down or stop bone growth while in mature bone it
may stimulate a response of either excess growth or rearrangement of structure
12) The enarthrodial joint moves just like a ball and a socket, which of the following is the best example of
this joint: A. atlanto-axial joint B. carpal joint C. hip joint D. fetlock joint
Types of movable joints
1. ginglymus (hinge) joint – move only in the sagittal plane. e.g. fetlock joint
2. arthrodial joint – have only a slight gliding movement between relatively flat opened surfaces. e.g. joints
between adjacent carpal bones
3. trochoid (pivot) joints – rotary movement occurs around one axis e.g. atlanto-axial joint
4. enarthrodial or ball and socket joint – permit movement in nearly any direction e.g. coxo-femoral or
hip joint
13) The cardiovascular system is composed of the blood vessels together with the heart, the following are
the functions of this system except:
A. carries oxygen to the lungs from the different tissues B. transports hormone
C. assists in overcoming diseases D. helps maintain water equilibrium in the body
Functions of the cardiovascular system

• Assist in body temperature control
• Assist in maintaining a constant pH of body fluids
• Assist with the defense of the body against diseases
• Distribution of nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract
•
•
• Transport of oxygen from the lungs to cells and transport of carbon dioxide from metabolizing
cells to the lungs
• Transport of waste products from metabolizing cells to the kidneys for excretion
• Transport of hormones from endocrine glands to target cells
14) This type of blood circulation functions to transport nutrients from the digestive tract to the liver.
A. pulmonary B. systemic C. portal D. cardiac
Types of blood circulation
65
1. cardiac – which involves the heart
2. pulmonary – which involves the lungs

3. systemic – which involves the general body area
4. portal – which involves the intestines and the liver
15) The respiratory system is a complementary system of the cardiovascular system which is involved in
the following functions except: A. supply oxygen to the blood and remove carbon dioxide from the blood
B. temperature regulation C. elimination of water D. overcoming diseases
Functions of the respiratory system
• Supplies oxygen to the blood

• Removes carbon dioxide from the blood
• Assist in the regulation of the acidity of the extracellular fluid of the body
• Temperature regulation
• Elimination of water
• Phonation (voice production)
16) The mouth is the beginning of the digestive system, and it functions as follows except:
A. initial breakdown of food B. use for grasping mechanism
C. use as offensive and defensive weapon D. for chemical digestion of food
The mouth
• beginning of the digestive system

• includes the lips, tongue, teeth and salivary glands
• responsible for the initial breakdown of food materials and serves as a prehensile (grasping)
mechanism and as a defensive and offensive weapon
17) The front cutting teeth of animals are referred to as the: A. canine B. premolars C. incisors D.
tusks
Types of teeth according to function
• cutting teeth (incisors)

•
• LEA REVIEW QUESTIONS IN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
• By DR. ALONA T. BADUA - DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE - CLSU
• tearing or seizing teeth (canines)

• grinding or shearing (premolars and molars)
18) This is considered as the first glandular portion of the ruminant digestive system
A. rumen B. omasum C. reticulum D. abomasum
Compartment of the ruminant stomach
1. rumen (paunch) – largest part in adult and serves as a fermentation vat, organ of maceration, site of
bacterial digestion and organ of absorption
2. reticulum (honeycomb) – smallest and it receives heavy matter in food and act as a liquid reservoir to
soften these materials
3. omasum (manyplies) – spherical organ filled with muscular
laminae and this grind roughage before it enters the abomasum
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4. abomasum (true stomach) – secretes gastric enzymes and
hydrochloric acid
19) Which is not true about the digestive system of chicken?

A. prehension is a function of the beak B. the crop serves as temporary storage for food
C. there are two cecae and no rectum in chicken D. the stomach is divided into a glandular and muscular
portion
The avian digestive system
• Prehension is a function of the beak

• The tongue is hard and relatively inflexible
• The esophagus dilates near the thoracic inlet to form the crop that serves as a temporary storage
for food
• The stomach is divided into two parts: the glandular stomach (proventriculus) and the muscular
stomach (ventriculus or gizzard)
• Small intestine does not differ in function and structure as in mammals
• There are two cecae and the rectum is short and straight and expands rapidly to form the cloaca
20) Rennin is an enzyme that coagulates milk and reduces its rate of passage through the gastrointestinal
stomach. It is secreted in the stomach of what animal? A. pig B. dog C. horse D. cow
21) There are three processes involved in urine formation, which of the following is not included:
A. glomerular filtration B. selective tubular reabsorption
C. selective tubular absorption D. selective tubular secretion
3 processes involved in urine formation
• Glomerular filtration – blood being filtered in the glomerulus

• Tubular reabsorption – substances pass through the tubular epithelial cells, diffuse to the
interstitial fluid and enter the capillary
• Tubular secretion – substances leave the capillary, diffuse through the interstitial fluid and pass
through the tubular epithelial cell into the tubular lumen
22) This hormone is involved in the regulation of kidney function by increasing the reabsorption of sodium
ions to decrease urine volume. A. ADH B. aldosterone C. renin D. pitocin
Hormones in urine control
• ADH stimulates increase absorption of water, which in turn produces decrease fluid excretion
• Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of sodium ions and acts on all parts of the tubules
• Renin is secreted by the cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus whenever the mean arterial
pressure or blood flow volume through the kidneys is reduced
• Oxytocin or pitocin stimulates the muscular coats of the uterus, gut and urinary bladder and in
addition stimulates milk let down of milk in lactating animals
23) The testis is consists of a mass of coiled seminiferous tubules which contains what type of cells that
secrete the hormone testosterone?
A. Sertoli cells B. sustentacular cells C. Leydig cells D. sperm cells
• The testes or testicles consists of a mass of seminiferous tubules surrounded by a heavy fibrous
capsule called the tunica albuginea. The cells of Leydig, which secrete the male hormone, are
located in the connective tissue between the seminiferous tubules
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• Sertoli or sustentacular cells or nurse cells are cells found scattered among the sex cells within the
seminiferous tubules. They apparently supply nutrition to the maturing spermatids.
24) Which statement is not true about animals whose testis/testes failed to descend into the scrotum?
A. a cryptorchid is likely to be sterile C. both cryptorchid and monorchid produce testosterone
B. a monorchid is fertile D. both cryptorchid and monorchid could be used as breeders
Descent of testes
• Descent of the testes is complete by birth or soon after but there are some wherein the descent is
incomplete
• individuals who have this defect involving both testicles are called cryptorchid
• If only one testicle fails to descent completely, the animal is called a monorchid
25) If a castrated male pig is termed barrow, a castrated chicken is capon, the term for a male sheep with
intact testicles is: A. steer B. wether C. ram D. buck
• Steer – a male cattle castrated before the development of secondary sex characteristics
• Wether – a castrated young male sheep or goat before puberty
• Ram – a male sheep with intact testicles
• Buck – a male goat with intact testicles

26) Ampullae are glandular enlargements associated with the terminal parts of the ductus deferens. They
are well developed in the following animals except: A. stallion B. boar C. bull D. ram
27) Spermatids are the cells resulting from the second meiotic division in the seminiferous tubules. What is
the term for series of functional and structural changes undergone by a spermatid to become a
spermatozoa? A. spermatogenesis B. spermiogenesis C. acrosome reaction D. mitosis
Spermatogenesis – the process by which primary sex cells in the testis produce spermatozoa
Spermiogenesis – refers to series of functional and structural changes undergone by a spermatid to become
a spermatozoa
28) The muscular portion of the uterine wall which usually contracts during parturition is called
A. epimetrium B. myometrium C. perimetrium D. endometrium
• The complete uterus consists of two horns, a body and a neck. It functions as site of placental and
fetal development.
• The endometrium is the mucous membrane lining of the uterus and the myometrium is the
muscular portion of the walls of the uterus
29. There are different types of uterus; one of this is the bicornuate type which is found in
A. cow B. sow C. mare D. ewe
Types of uterus
1. Didelphic – with two separate vagina, cervices and uterine horns e.g.opossum
2. Duplex - with a vagina, two cervices and uterine horns e.g. rats
3. Bicornuate – with vagina, cervix and uterine horns e.g. sow
4. Bipartite – with vagina, cervix, a body, neck and horn of uterus e.g. mare, cow,ewe
5. Simplex- with a vagina, cervix and body of uterus e.g. human and primate
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29) This hormone is responsible for the rupture of fully grown follicles in the ovary
A. Follicle Stimulating Hormone B. Luteinizing Hormone C. estrogen D. progesterone
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

• stimulates the growth of Graafian follicles in the ovary and the production of spermatozoa in male
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• stimulates ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum in the ovary and causes the
secretion of testosterone in male
Estrogen
• responsible for the development of the female secondary characteristics and body conformation
Progesterone
• prepared the uterus for reception of a fertilized ovum, suppress the development of new graafian
follicles, prepare the mammary gland for lactation and suppress heat or estrus

30) The most important factor associated with seasonal breeding in domestic animals is:
A. nutritional status of the animals B. the specie characteristics
C. photoperiod D. the age of the animals
31) Which of the following animals has a mushroom-like projection from the endometrium for attachment
of the placenta? A. doe B. sow C. mare D. bitch
Types of placentation
• non-deciduous- the uterine wall is not shed at birth
– diffuse – placenta is loosely attached over the entire wall e.g. horse, pig
– cotyledonary – placenta is well attached to the uterus by means of caruncles or
cotyledons e.g. ruminants
• deciduous – placental portion of the uterus is shed at birth with resistant hemorrhage
– zonary – placenta is firmly and intimately attached to the uterus along a narrow
cylindrical zone passing around the inner surface of the uterus e.g. dog, cat
– discoidal – placenta is firmly and intimately attached to the uterus at a disc-shaped area
e.g. man, guinea pig, rat
32) These are basket cells that surround the alveoli and ducts that causes contraction during milk let down
- A. glomerulus B. myoepithelial cells C. lacteals D. capillaries
The alveoli and ducts are surrounded by contractile myoepithelial cells, which are also called basket cells.
These cells contract when the milk letdown occurs.
33) The major protein constituent of milk that comprise the known curd is A. rennin B. casein C.
albumin D. inhibin
• Caseins constitute the major part of the milk proteins.

• These protein fractions are insoluble at a pH of 4.6 and comprise what is known as the curd.
34) In ruminants, dietary carbohydrates are fermented in the rumen to become volatile fatty acids. What
VFA is the major source of glucose and glycogen in the ruminant?
A. propionic acid B. acetic acid C. lactic acid D. butyric acid
• Ruminant microflora break down cellulose into digestible polysaccharides (Volatile Fatty Acid) –
acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid
• These substances pass into the bloodstream through the rumen wall.
• Utilization of volatile fatty acid acetate provides nonspecific source of energy and can be
synthesized into fatty acid or ketone bodies
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• Propionate is synthesized into glucose by the liver and provides about half the total glucose,
which enters a ruminant metabolism. Butyrate can give rise to acetate and form ketone bodies.
35) In newborn ruminant, the largest compartment of its stomach is the:

A. omasum B. rumen C. abomasum D. reticulum

36) Only the exocrine secretions of the pancreas are involved in the digestive process. Which of the
following secretions are involved in the neutralization of the chyme from the stomach?
A. protease B. lipase C. bicarbonates D. amylase
Pancreatic protease – enzyme that acts on proteins

Pancreatic lipase – enzyme that hydrolyzes dietary triglycerides (fats)
Pancreatic amylase – enzyme that hydrolyzes starch
Bicarbonates – neutralize acidity of chyme from stomach
37) When an animal is exposed to extreme environmental heat, which will not be a physiologic response of
its body? A. there will be vasodilation B. there will be vasoconstriction
C. there will be an increase in evaporation loss like sweating and panting D. all of the above
Response to heat stress

• Peripheral vasodilation
• Increased evaporative cooling
• Behavioral methods
38) The epididymis is a male structure with the following functions except:
A. serves as storage space for spermatozoa B. reabsorbs seminiferous tubular fluid
C. site of maturation for spermatozoa D. none of the above
Functions of epididymis
• Serves as storage depot of spermatozoa

• Allows spermatozoa to reach maturity and become motile
• Reabsorption of seminiferous tubular fluid which occurs in the head of the epididymis
39) The S-shape structure in the penis is called the sigmoid flexure. Erection causes extension of this
structure. Sigmoid flexure is located pre-scrotally in what male animal? A. boar B. stallion C. bull D.
ram
Ruminants – Sigmoid flexure is located post-scrotally

Pig – Sigmoid flexure is located pre-scrotally
40) Which of these muscles pull the flaccid penis back into the prepuce during ejaculation?
A. bulbospongiosus muscle B. retractor penis muscle C. ischiocavernous muscle D. cremaster muscle
Muscles of Male Genitalia
• Cremaster muscle – this muscle pulls the testis up against the external inguinal ring particularly in
cold weather
• Bulbospongiosus muscle – helps in transport of urine or semen through the pelvic urethra
• Ischiocavernous muscles – pull the penis upward against the floor of the pelvis
• Retractor penis muscles – pull the flaccid penis back into the prepuce
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41) Testosterone is the hormone secreted by the male animal. The following are the functions of this
hormone except:
A. development and maintenance of libido C. responsible for the secretory activity of the accessory organs
B. development of Leydig cells D. development of body features associated with the male
Functions of testosterone
• It is responsible for the male secondary sex characteristic, body conformation, muscular
development and libido or sex drive
• They also stimulate growth and development and activity of the male accessory sex glands,
activate spermatogenesis and the development of the testicles
• Maintain the viability of the spermatozoa in the testicle duct system and stimulate growth of the
penis
42) Estrogen is the female hormone secreted by the ovarian follicle, it is involved in the following
functions except:
A. initiation of sexual receptivity B. regulation of secretion of luteinizing hormone
C. promotion of the lobuloalveolar growth in the mammary gland D. stimulation of duct growth in the
mammary gland
Functions of Estrogen
• Stimulation of endometrial gland growth

• Stimulation of the duct growth in the mammary gland
• Initiation of sexual receptivity
• Regulation of secretion of LH
43) Ovulation is spontaneous in all domestic species except for this animal which are considered reflex
ovulators: A. sow B. queen C. cow D. bitch
44) The following are the different alternatives after metestrus in domestic animals except:
A. pregnancy B. sexual receptivity C. anestrus D. diestrus
The estrous cycle
Phases of estrous cycle: Proestrus, Estrus, Metestrus, Diestrus
Alternatives after metestrus –Pregnancy, Diestrus, Anestrus, Pseudopregnancy
45) A depraved appetite is recognized in animals when they are eating dirt, wood and other materials not
usually considered to be foodstuffs. The depraved condition is termed
A. dehydration B. starvation C. pica D. bolemia
46) Animals use odors to communicate with each other. What do you call the chemicals secreted by the
animal that is use for marking trails or boundaries, recognizing individuals from the same herd or nest,
marking the location of food sources and emitting alarms?
A. hormones B. scent glands C. pheromones D. musk

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47) An afterbirth is delivered soon after birth but it may accompany the fetus or precede it. Another name
for the afterbirth is
A. trophoblast B. extra-embryonic membranes C. epitheliochorial D. yolk sac
Fetal placenta or extra-embryonic membranes
• chorion – outer most membrane which is in contact with the maternal uterus
• amnion – innermost membrane closest to the fetus
• allantois – located between the amnion and chorion and sometimes called the first water bag
48) Ventilation is the process by which air is moved in and out of the lungs. The volume of air that moved
during each breath is known as
A. Residual Volume B. Inspiratory Reserve Volume C. Tidal Volume D. Expiratory Reserve Volume
Lung volumes
• the amount of air that enters or leaves the lungs during one respiratory cycle is the tidal volume
• during forced inspiration, an additional volume, the inspiratory reserve volume, can be inhaled
into the lungs
• during a maximal forced expiration, an expiratory reserve volume can be exhaled, but there
remains a residual volume in the lungs
49) This structure is considered as site of exchange between blood and the interstitial fluid that surrounds
all cells A. alveoli B. glomerulus C. capillaries D. lymph vessels
Capillaries – minute blood vessels that lie between the terminal arteries and the beginning of veins. This is
where the transfer nutrients from blood to tissues and waste products from tissues (interstitial cells) to
blood occurs
Alveoli – functional unit of the lungs
Glomerulus - tuft of capillaries interposed on the course of an arteriole in the nephron
Lymph vessels – vessels involved in the lymphatic system
50) This cuplike leaflet structure of the heart allows only blood flows from the ventricle into the artery and
not in the opposite direction.
A. atrioventricular valve B. sino-atrial valve C. semilunar valve D. auricular valve
51) Digestion of roughages in ruminant happens in the rumen, however in young ruminants, this structure
causes milk to bypass the rumen and reticulum and pass through the omasum directly to the abomasum.
A. esophageal groove B. ruminoreticular groove C. ruminal pillar D. esophageal sphincter
52) Hormones have different modes of transmission, if a hormone is transported through blood circulation,
this is referred to as A. neurocrine transmission B. paracrine transmission C. endocrine transmission
D. exocrine transmission

Modes of transmission of hormones
• Neurocrine – hormones diffuse through synaptic clefts between neurons (oxytocin)

• Paracrine – hormones diffuse through interstitial fluid (prostaglandin)
• Endocrine – hormones transported through blood circulation (FSH)
• Exocrine – hormone is secreted to the exterior of the body (enterogastrone)
53) Erythropoietin is a hormone which regulates erythrocyte production in normal animal; this hormone is
secreted by what organ of the body? A. stomach B. bone C. kidney D. liver
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• Erythropoietin (Erythrocyte Stimulating Factor or ESF) is a hormone secreted by the kidneys
responsible for the regulation of erythrocyte production in normal animal
54) The skull, vertebral bones, ribs and sternum belong to what division of the body skeleton?
A. axial skeleton B. appendicular skeleton C. visceral skeleton D. irregular skeleton
Divisions of the body skeleton
• axial skeleton – composed of the bones of the skull, vertebrae, ribs and sternum
• appendicular skeleton – composed of the bones of the anterior and posterior limbs
• visceral skeleton – bones that developed in the soft tissues of the body
55) Synarthrodial joints are joints which are united by fibrous tissue or cartilage. The joint between a tooth
and its socket is an example of what type of immovable joint?
A. sutures B. syndesmoses C. synchondroses D. gomphosis
Types of immovable joints
1. sutures – joints where bones are united by fibrous connective tissue (ligaments) along lines which can be
extremely irregular. e.g. joints found in the skull
2. syndesmoses – joints in which white fibrous and/or yellow elastic tissues unite the bones. e.g. union of
the shafts of the metacarpals in horse
3. synchondroses – joints in which bones are united by cartilage. e.g. union of the diaphysis and epiphysis
of an immature bone
4. symphysis – joints in which bones are united by flattened discs of fibrocartilage. e.g. between bodies of
adjacent vertebrae
5. gomphosis – joints between a tooth and its socket
56) This portion of the brain does not subdivide during development from embryo to adult
A. forebrain B. midbrain C. hindbrain D. pituitary stalk
Parts of the brain

• The three main regions of the brain are the hindbrain (rhombencephalon), midbrain
(mesencephalon) and the forebrain (prosencephalon).
• Hindbrain- composed of the cerebellum, pons,
medulla oblongata and the fourth ventricle.
• Midbrain - portion of the brain that does not
•
•
• LEA REVIEW QUESTIONS IN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
• By DR. ALONA T. BADUA - DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE - CLSU
subdivide during the development from embryo to adult and composed of the two cerebral peduncles
and the four quadrigeminal bodies
• Forebrain- composed of the thalamus, hypothalamus,
third ventricles, cerebrum, olfactory tracts and bulbs
57) Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals which relay, amplify, and modulate signals between a a
neuron and another cell. The following are examples of neurotransmitters except:
A. acetylcholine B. norepinephrine C. gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) D. glycerol
Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine (parasympathetic neurotransmitter)
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• Norepinephrine or noradrenalin (sympathetic neurotransmitter)
• Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
• Glycine
58) The blood is composed of cellular and fluid elements, if a blood was collected from the animal and was
allowed to clot; the fluid found on the clotted blood is termed
A. plasma B. serum C. fibrinogen D. thrombin
59)This refers to the range of temperature in which the animal’s performance could be maximized:
A. comfort zone B. critical temperature C. adaptation zone D. acclimatization temperature
• Comfort zone – range of temperature at which the animal’s performance is maximized

• Critical temperature – temperature at which an animal must increase or decrease the oxidation of
energy sources in order to maintain body temperature
60) The structures of the integumentary system have these functions except:
A. protective envelope B. secretory and excretory mechanism
C. temperature regulation D. serve as levers
Functions of the integumentary system
• functions as a protective envelope

• as a secretory and excretory mechanism
• as a sense organ
• temperature-regulating device
• as a respiratory structure
61) The water content of the animal is distributed on the different parts of the body. The largest distribution
is found in the A. intracellular fluid B. blood plasma C. extracellular fluid D. interstitial fluid
The total body water can be divided into two major parts:
intracellular fluid – 70%; extracellular fluid – 30%

– transcellular fluid – found in special locations in the body e.g. pericardial fluid, peritoneal
and pleural fluid, cerebrospinal fluid
– interstitial fluid – forms bulk of the ECF and found in the tissue spaces surrounding the
cells
– digestive fluid (gut water)
– blood plasma
62) During panting, there is an increase in ventilatory rate but reduced tidal volume because the increase in
air movement is primarily in the upper airways that are not sites of gas exchange. These airways are called:
A. atmospheric dead space B. lung dead space C. anatomic dead space D. physiologic dead space
63) This condition results when gas in the rumen of ruminants is not eliminated by eructation or belching
A. emphysema B. tetany C. bloat D. colic
64) The following hormones are involved in lactogenesis except:

A. prolactin B. ACTH C. progesterone D. estrogen
65) Which of the following lymphoid organs is necessary during the early life of an animal?
A. spleen B. tonsils C. liver D. peyer’s patches
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66) This mineral is needed in the proper function of the thyroid gland and present in the hormone
thyroxine. A. copper B. iron C. iodine D. calcium
67) The main structures involved in Angiology

A. heart and blood vessels B. joints and bones C. stomach and intestines D. eyes and nose
68) Which is not a function of proteins?

A. permits muscle contraction B. maintains osmotic pressure
C. transmit genetic information D. temperature regulation
69) The influx of sodium ions inside the nerve cell results to ___________ of the resting membrane
potential A. polarization B. depolarization C. hyperpolarization D. inverse polarization
70) The part of the chicken’s oviduct where the egg stays longest is in the
A. vagina B. magnum C. isthmus D. uterus
71) In the nervous system there is a tiny gap between two neurons which nerve impulse can pass and this
cannot normally be bridged unless there is a conducting medium present. This gap is known as
A. vesicular knob B. dendrite C. synapse D. reflex arc
LEA REVIEW QUESTIONS ON DAIRY PRODUCTION AND MILK PROCESSING

by Dante D. Lorenzo, Ph.D, Department of Animal Science CA-CLSU
Philippine Dairy Industry Aspect
Q. The agency mandated to ensure accelerated development of the Philippine dairy industry; created
through the National Dairy Development Act of 1995 (Republic Act 7884).
A-National Dairy Authority
Q. Another agency committed to improve the dairy industry by developing the carabao to become meat
and milk-producing animal.
A-Philippine Carabao Center
Q. An institution mandated to carry out research and training in dairy production and milk technologies.
A-Dairy Training and Research Institute at UPLB
Q. The Philippine Dairy Industry is sometimes regarded as . . .

A-Milk Reprocessing/Repacking Industry
Q. Per capita requirement of Filipinos for milk.

A-32 kg
Q. Per capita consumption of Filipinos for milk.

A-18 kg
Q. Most of the major dairy cattle and goats’ breeds originated from . . .
Breeds and Breeding Aspect
A-Europe/North America
Q. Majority of the dairy buffaloes in the world are found in . . .

A-India and Pakistan
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Q. Some countries in Europe also known to raise buffaloes
A-Italy and Bulgaria
Q. A milk producing country noted for its cheap milk; where majority of the milk imported by the
Philippines comes from.
A-New Zealand
Q. Group of animals belonging to the Mammalia possessing mammary glands that are used to nourish
their young ones.
A-Mammals
Q. The shape of dairy cattle that differs with the rectangular shape of beef cattle.
A-Triangular/Wedge shape
Q. The dairy-type water buffalo.

A-Riverine/River buffalo
LEA REVIEW QUESTIONS ON DAIRY PRODUCTION AND MILK PROCESSING

Q. A famous milk type buffalo from India.

A-Murrah Buffalo
Q. Milk-type buffalo originating from Pakistan.

A-Nili-Ravi
Q. A popular dairy cattle breed from Pakistan.

A-Sahiwal
Q. Buffalo breed developed in Bulgaria.

A-Bulgarian Murrah buffalo
Q. A buffalo breed whose horns coil downward and upward and streaks of white markings found around
its jaw and brisket.
A-Japarabadi
Q. The “mestizo” or hybrid buffalo used partly for milk production in the Philippines is a cross between:
A-Phil. Carabao X Murrah buffalo
Q. A popular crossbred dairy cattle raised by many dairy raisers in the Philippines.
A-Holstein Friesian X Sahiwal
Q. Dairy cattle breed which is also known as the “black and white” cattle.
A-Holstein Friesian
Q. A dairy cattle breed with light to dark brown body color and it originated from Switzerland.
A-Brown Swiss
Q. A dairy cattle breed with a face having “double dish” appearance that originated from the island of
Jersey.
A-Jersey
Q. A dairy cattle breed with red and white markings coming from Scotland.
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A-Ayrshire
Q. Also have a “double dish” appearance and it originated from the island of Guernsey.
A-Guernsey
Q. Type of cattle intended both for meat and milk purposes, e.g. most Indian and Pakistan cattle breeds.
A-Dual purpose
Q. A cattle breed with practically red color and it is popular in India or Pakistan.
A-Red Sindhi
EA REVIEW QUESTIONS ON DAIRY PRODUCTION AND MILK PROCESSING

Q. A double-purpose type goat characterized by large pendulous ears and convex Roman nose.
A-Anglo-Nubian
Q. A dairy goat breed which originated from France.

A-Alpine
Q. A dairy goat breed characterized by its white or creamy body color.

A-Saanen
Q. A milk-type goat, which originated from the Toggenburg valley of Switzerland.

A-Toggenburg
Q. Breeding of closely related animals.

A-Inbreeding
Q. Elimination of low milk yielder cows from the herd

A-Culling
Q. An attempt to rank or place animals in the order of their excellence in their body type.
A-Judging
Q. The instrument used in judging dairy cattle.

A-Dairy Cow Unified Score Card
Q. A criterion used to evaluate the milking ability, lactation, health characteristics and others of a dairy
animal during judging.
A-Dairy character
Q. Aside from the criterion mentioned in item 34, the other criteria used in judging dairy animals are:
A-Gen. appearance, body capacity and mammary system
Q. Absence of estrus in female animal.

A-Anestrus
Q. A condition wherein estrus or ovulation occurs without full behavioral manifestation of heat.
Silent estrus
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LEA-REVIEWER LARGE RUMINANT DISEASES BY OF CELESTINO, CLSU
BRUCELLOSIS
 Bang’s disease, Contagious abortion, undulant fever in man
 caused by Brucella abortus and is characterized by abortion, retained placenta, orchitis
and infection of the accessory sex glands in males
 Organisms are shed in milk and uterine discharges, and the cow may become
temporarily infertile.
 Natural transmission occurs by ingestion of organisms from aborted fetuses, fetal
membranes, and uterine discharges.
 Venereal transmission is rare
 Brucellae may enter the body through mucous membranes, conjunctivae, wounds, or
intact skin
 Abortion is the most obvious manifestation and usually occurs on the last 3 months of
pregnancy.
 stillborn or weak calves, retained placentas, and reduced milk yield.
 Infected seminal vesicles, ampullae, testicles, and epididymis
 Testicular abscesses may occur.
 Longstanding infections may result in arthritic joints in some cattle.
Diagnosis:
 Serum agglutination tests and this detect antibodies in milk, whey, semen, and plasma.
 ELISA has been developed to detect antibodies in milk and serum.
Screening Tests:
 Brucella milk ring test (BRT)
 Brucellosis card (or rose bengal) test and plate test
Control:
 Testing and eliminating reactors using the screening test
 Use replacement stocks from brucellosis-free areas or herds
 Vaccination
Hemorrhagic Septicemia
 acute pasteurellosis, caused by particular serotypes of Pasteurella multocida and
manifested by an acute and highly fatal septicemia in cattle and water buffaloes
 Animals are infected by direct or indirect contact.
 The source of infective bacteria is thought to be the nasopharynx of bovine or buffalo
carriers.
 Natural infection is acquired by ingestion or inhalation
 The heaviest losses occur during the monsoon rains in southeast Asia,
 the organisms can survive for hours and probably days in the moist soil and water
 Animals first show dullness, then reluctance to move, fever, salivation, and serous nasal
discharge.
 Edematous swelling in the throat region and spreading to the parotid region, neck, and
brisket.
 There is respiratory distress, and usually the animal goes down and dies within hours.
Lesions:
 Edema or widely distributed hemorrhages, and general hyperemia.
 there is an edematous swelling of the head, neck, and brisket region.
Treatment:
 Sulfonamides, tetracyclines, penicillin, and chloramphenicol
Prevention:
 Vaccination using bacterin
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Foot and Mouth Disease (Apthous Fever)
 It is a highly infectious viral disease of cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, buffalo, and artiodactyl
wildlife species.
 It is characterized by fever and vesicles in the mouth and on the muzzle, teats, and feet.
 It is caused by an aphthovirus (Picornavirus); 7 distinct serotypes: A, O, C, Asia 1, and
SAT (Southern African Territories) 1, 2, and 3
 virus is quickly inactivated outside the pH range of 6.0-9.0 and by desiccation and
temperatures >56°C
 Virus resistant to lipid solvents such as ether and chloroform
 Transmitted by contact between susceptible and infected animals.
 Can be transmitted respiratory or oral routes
 All excretions and secretions from the infected animal contain virus
 Another method of transmission is the feeding of imported food derived from an infected
animal (as meat, offal, or milk)
 The primary site of infection and replication is usually the mucosa of the pharynx
 The incubation period for FMD is 2-14 days.
 Cattle salivate and stamp their feet as vesicles develop on the tongue, dental pad, gums,
lips, and on the coronary band and interdigital cleft of the feet.
 Vesicles may also appear on the teats and udder
 Lesions on the mammary gland and feet frequently develop secondary infections
Control:
 Vaccination and quarantine and restriction on the movement of animals are best
considered in controlling FMD in the Philippines.
Ephemeral Fever (Three-day Sickness)
 It is an insect-transmitted, noncontagious, viral disease of cattle and water buffalo
 Caused by rhabdovirus which is most prevalent in the wet season in the tropics
 Biphasic to polyphasic fever, shivering, inappetence, lacrimation, serous nasal discharge,

drooling, dyspnea, atony of forestomachs, depression, stiffness and lameness, and a
sudden decrease in milk yield.
 Affected cattle may become recumbent and paralyzed for 8 hr to >1 wk.
 Abortion of pregnant cows (8-9 months)
Control:
 Complete rest is the most effective treatment
 Anti-inflammatory drugs given early and in repeated doses for 2-3 days are effective.
 Antibiotic treatment to control secondary infection and rehydration with isotonic fluids can
be done.
 Vaccination is an effective control
Mastitis
 Mastitis is the inflammation of the mammary gland due to infection by bacterial or mycotic
pathogens.
79
 caused by streptococci (Streptococcus agalactiae), staphylococci (Staphylococcus
aureus), and gram-negative rods (coliforms).
 spread from cow to cow through aerosol transmission
 contagious pathogens are spread during milking by milkers’ hands or the liners of the
milking unit.
Clinical Signs:
 Subclinical mastitis is the presence of an infection without apparent signs of local

inflammation or systemic involvement.
 Detection is best done by examination of milk for somatic cell count using the California
Mastitis Test.
 Clinical mastitis is an inflammatory response to infection causing visibly abnormal milk
(eg, color, fibrin clots).
 Causes inflammation of the udder
Treatment:
 Subclinical mastitis: use of antibiotics like amoxicillin, penicillin, and erythromycin given
intramammary are recommended.
 Clinical Mastitis: give fluids, electrolytes, and anti-inflammatory drugs. Administration of
dexamethasone can reduce mammary gland swelling
Prevention:
 New infections can be prevented by following proper milking technique and hygiene.
 LEA-REVIEWER LARGE RUMINANT DISEASES BY OF CELESTINO, CLSU
 Clean and dry bedding, clean and dry udders at the time of milking, and lack of teat-end
lesions all have a positive effect on control.
 use of an effective germicide (eg, 1% iodophor or 4% hypochlorite) as a postmilking teat
dip.
Anthrax (Splenic fever, Siberian ulcer, Charbon, Milzbrand)
 zoonotic disease caused by the sporeforming bacterium Bacillus anthracis and most
common in wild and domestic herbivores and in humans exposed to tissue from infected
animals, contaminated animal products or directly to spores
Anthrax
 Biting flies may mechanically transmit B anthracis spores from one animal to another.
 Feed contaminated with bone or other meal from infected animals can serve as a source
of infection
 heavily contaminated soil
Anthrax in humans:
 cutaneous
 GI anthrax following consumption of contaminated raw or undercooked meat.
 inhalational anthrax or woolsorter’s disease.
 The incubation period is 3-7 days (range 1−14 days).
 The peracute form is characterized by sudden onset and a rapidly fatal course
 In acute anthrax , there is an abrupt fever and a period of excitement
 There may be bloody discharges from the natural body openings.
 Chronic infections are characterized by localized, subcutaneous, edematous swelling in
the ventral neck, thorax, and shoulders.
 Lesions:
80
 Rigor mortis is frequently absent or incomplete.
 Dark blood may ooze from the mouth, nostrils, and anus
Prevention:
 Anthrax is controlled through vaccination programs, rapid detection and reporting,
quarantine, treatment of asymptomatic animals (postexposure prophylaxis), and burning
or burial of suspect and confirmed cases.
Leptospirosis (Redwater of calves
 this bacterial disease is caused by Leptospira hardjo, Leptospira pomona

 Infection is acquired by contact of skin or mucous membranes with urine and by intake of
urine-contaminated feed or water
 LEA-REVIEWER LARGE RUMINANT DISEASES BY OF CELESTINO, CLSU
 Ingestion and venereal transmission

 Infections can be readily established via the conjunctiva, vaginal mucosa, or skin
abrasions.
 Persistence in the kidneys results in a carrier state
 Humans are infected after contact with tissues of infected animals or surface waters
contaminated by urine from infected animals.
 In human infection it can result to renal or hepatic failure
 Acute leptospirosis – calves have fever, pulmonary congestion, icterus, hemoglobinuria,
and hemolytic anemia
 In older cattle, signs include an abnormal milk that is thick, yellow, and blood-tinged, with
thick clots and a high somatic cell count
 The chronic forms of leptospirosis manifest as abortion and stillbirths
Lesions:
 In the acute form, anemia, icterus, hemoglobinuria, and submucosal hemorrhages are
prominent.
 The kidneys are swollen and dark, with multifocal petechial and ecchymotic hemorrhages
 The liver may be swollen, pale, and friable, with minute areas of focal necrosis.
Treatment:
 Tetracycline and oxytetracycline, erythromycin, enrofloxacin, tiamulin, and tylosin in
acute cases
 Oxytetracycline, amoxicillin, and enrofloxacin may be useful to treat chronic infections.
Prevention:
 Vaccination of the entire herd and simultaneous treatment of all animals with appropriate
antibiotics is recommended.
Blackleg
 Blackleg is an acute, febrile disease of cattle and sheep caused by Clostridium chauvoei
(feseri) characterized by emphysematous swelling, usually in the heavy muscles.
 The organism is found naturally in the intestinal tract of animals and can remain viable in
the soil for many years
 Disturbance of soil may activate latent spores.
 The organisms probably are ingested, pass through the wall of the GI tract, and after
gaining access to the bloodstream, are deposited in muscle and other tissues.
 More common in beef breeds that are in excellent health, gaining weight, and usually the
best animals of their group.
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 Acute lameness and characteristic edematous and crepitant swellings develop in the hip,
shoulder, chest, back, neck, or elsewhere
Lesions
 Crepitant swellings of the heavy muscles beef breeds
 affected muscle is dark red to black and dry and spongy; it has a sweetish odor and with
small bubbles but with little edema.
Prevention:
 Calves should be vaccinated twice, 2 wk apart, at 2-6 mo of age;
 Penicillin could be used for prophylactic treatment
Malignant Edema
 It is an acute, generally fatal toxemia of cattle usually caused by Clostridium septicum

 The organism is found in soil and intestinal contents of animals
 Infection ordinarily occurs through contamination of wounds
 Lesions develop within a few hours to a few days after predisposing injury.
 soft swellings that pit on pressure and extend rapidly because of the formation of large
quantities of exudate that infiltrates the subcutaneous and intramuscular connective
tissue of the affected areas.
 The muscle in such areas is dark brown to black.
Treatment:
 Treatment with high doses of penicillin or broad-spectrum antibiotics is indicated early in
the disease.
Prevention:
 Bacterins are used for immunization.
 In endemic areas, animals should be vaccinated before they are castrated, dehorned, or
docked
Tetanus
 caused by a specific neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani in necrotic tissue
 Birds are quite resistant while horses are the most sensitive of all species
 The organism is found in soil and intestinal tract
 it is introduced into the tissues through wounds, particularly deep puncture wounds’ or
wounds that are minor or healed
 Localized stiffness, often involving the masseter muscles and muscles of the neck, the
hindlimbs, and the region of the infected wound
 Spasms of head muscles cause difficulty in prehension and mastication of food(lockjaw)
Prevention:
 Vaccination with tetanus toxoid
Treatment:
 curariform agents, tranquilizers, or barbiturate sedatives, in conjunction with 300,000 IU
of tetanus antitoxin
 Drain and clean the wounds and administer penicillin or broad-spectrum antibiotics.
Footrot
 It is a subacute or acute necrotic infection originating from a lesion in the interdigital skin
that leads to a cellulitis in the digital region
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 Fusobacterium necrophorum is considered to be the major cause of footrot and can be
isolated from feces
LEA-REVIEWER POULTRY DISEASES BY OF CELESTINO, CLSU
Fowl Pox
-Synonyms : chicken pox, sore head, avian diphtheria, bird pox
-Etiology: avipoxvirus (pox virus)
-Transmission : direct contact, by mosquitos
-Clinical signs : There are two forms of fowl pox:
a. dry form (cutaneous form)
b. wet form (diptheric form)
-Treatment : No treatment is available
-Prevention: vaccination, control mosquitos.
Newcastle Disease
-Synonyms: pneumoencephalitis
-Etiology: Paramyxovirus -1
3 groups:
a. velogenic strains
b. mesogenic strains
c. lentogenic strains
Clinical signs:
-hoarse chirps (in chicks), watery discharge from nostrils, labored breathing
-facial swelling, paralysis, trembling, and twisting of the neck
-mortality ranges from 10 to 80 percent
-laying birds, decreased feed and water consumption and a dramatic drop in egg production.
Transmission:
-airborne route
-contaminated feed and equipment
-through the egg
Lesions:
-petechial hemorrhages on the proventricular mucosa
-hemorrhagic and necrotic areas in the cecal tonsils
Treatment: There is no specific treatment

Prevention: vaccination, good sanitation, and implementation of a comprehensive biosecurity
program.
Infectious Bursal Disease
-Synonyms: Gumboro, IBD, infectious bursitis, infectious avian nephrosis

-Etiology: birnavirus (IBDV)
-Shed in the feces
-Stable and difficult to eradicate

-Target the Bursa of Fabricius
Clinical signs:
-Chickens > 3 weeks of age -watery droppings, soiled vent and vent pecking, ruffled feathers
83
-Chicks are listless and sit in a hunched position and become severely and permanently
immunosuppressed
-Transmission: bird-to-bird contact, contaminated people and equipment
-Lesions:
-Cloacal bursa is swollen, edematous, yellowish and occasionally hemorrhagic
-Congestion and hemorrhage of the pectoral, thigh and leg muscles
-Treatment: There is no specific treatment.
-Prevention: Vaccination
Avian Influenza
-Synonyms: AI, flu, influenza, fowl plague

-Etiology: type A influenza virus
-Transmission: infected carcasses and manure, contaminated clothing and equipment,
mechanical transmission
-Clinical signs:
- mild form - listlessness, respiratory distress, diarrhea, transient drops in egg production, and
low mortality.
- highly pathogenic form- facial swelling, blue comb and wattles, and respiratory distress, dark
red/white spots develop in the legs and combs of chicken, blood-tinged discharge from the
nostrils
-Treatment: There is no effective treatment for avian influenza.
-Prevention: vaccination (mild form) but for lethal forms, strict quarantine and rapid destruction
of all infected flocks
Infectious Bronchitis
-Synonyms: IB, bronchitis, cold

-Etiology: coronavirus
Clinical signs:
-chirping, with a watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils, and labored breathing with some
gasping in young chickens.
-Egg production drops dramatically. Eggshells become rough and the egg white becomes watery
-Transmission: aerosol, infected dead birds and infected houses and rodents, thru the egg
-Lesions: mucoid exudate in the trachea and bronchi, generally without hemorrhage. Air sacs are
thickened and opaque
-Treatment: no treatment
-Prevention: Establish and enforce a biosecurity program. Vaccination
Infectious Coryza
-Synonyms: roup, cold, coryza

-Etiology: Haemophilus paragallinarum (gallinarum)
-Clinical signs: Swelling around the face, foul smelling, thick, sticky discharge from the nostrils
and eyes, labored breathing, and rales. The eyelids are irritated and may stick together.
-Transmission: direct bird-to-bird contact, inhalation of airborne respiratory droplets, and

contaminated feed and/or water
-Lesions: copious, tenacious, grayish, semifluid exudate on the infraorbital sinuses, exudate may
become consolidated and yellowish
84
-Treatment: Water soluble antibiotics or antibacterials can be used like sulfa drugs, erythromycin,
or tetracycline.
-Prevention: Good management and sanitation are the best ways to avoid infectious coryza.
Vaccination.
Chronic Respiratory Disease
-Synonyms: MG, chronic respiratory disease(CRD), infectious sinusitis, mycoplasmosis

-Etiology: Mycoplasma gallisepticum
-Clinical signs: sticky, serous exudate from nostrils, foamy exudate in eyes, and swollen sinuses.
Infected birds can develop respiratory rales and sneeze.
-Treatment: use of antibiotics (erythromycin, tylosin, spectinomycin, and lincomycin)
-Prevention: Eradication is the best control of mycoplasma disease.
-Transmission: MG can be spread through the egg.
-Lesions: mild sinusitis, tracheitis, and airsacculitis. Complications with Escherichia coli could
result to severe air sac thickening and turbidity, with exudative accumulations, pericarditis and
perihepatitis
-Treatment: use of antibiotics (erythromycin, tylosin, spectinomycin, and lincomycin)
-Prevention: Eradication is the best control of mycoplasma disease.
Fowl Cholera
-Synonyms: avian pasteurellosis, cholera, avian hemorrhagic septicemia.

-Etiology: Pasteurella multocida
-Clinical signs: Fever, reduced feed consumption, mucoid discharge from the mouth, ruffled
feathers, diarrhea, and labored breathing may be seen. Lameness from joint infections, and
develop rattling noises from exudate in air passages. Abscessed wattles and swollen joints and
foot pads.
-Transmission: Flock additions, free-flying birds, infected premises, predators, and rodents
-Lesions: Petecchial and ecchymotic hemorrhages in the subepicardial and subserosal locations.
Swollen liver with multiple, small and necrotic foci
-Treatment: sulfa drug (sulfonamides, sulfadimethoxine, sulfaquinonxalene, sulfamethazine, and
sulfaquinoxalene)
-Prevention: vaccination and rodent control
Aspergillosis
-Synonyms: brooder pneumonia, mycotic pneumonia, fungal pneumonia,

-Etiology: Aspergillus fumigatus
-Clinical signs: Young birds have trouble breathing and gasp for air. Occasionally there is paralysis
or convulsions caused by the fungal toxin. Mature birds also have respiratory distress, reduced
feed consumption, and may have a bluish and dark color of the skin (cyanosis), nervous disorders
-Transmission: All litter and nest materials
-Lesions: pulmonary lesions are characterized by cream colored plagues
-Treatment : There is no cure for infected birds
-Prevention: thorough cleaning and disinfection of the brooding area, use of clean litter, adding a
fungistat (mycostatin, mold curb, sodium or calcium propionate, or gentian violet) to the feed
and/or copper sulfate or acidified copper in the drinking water for 3 days.
85
Marek's Disease
-Synonyms: acute leukosis, neural leukosis, range paralysis, gray

-Etiology: herpesvirus
-Clinical signs: Tumors in nerves cause lameness and paralysis. Tumors can occur in the eyes and
cause irregularly shaped pupils and blindnes.Incoordination, unthriftiness, paleness, weak
labored breathing, and enlarged feather follicles.
-Transmission: aerosol, infected birds carry the virus in their blood for life and are a source of
infection for susceptible birds
 LEA-REVIEWER POULTRY DISEASES BY OF CELESTINO, CLSU
-Lesions: enlarged peripheral nerves (vagus, sciatic, brachial nerves), enlarged feather follicles
(skin leukosis), lymphoid tumors on various visceral organs
-Treatment: none
-Prevention: Chicks can be vaccinated at the hatchery
Avian Encephalomyelitis
-Synonyms: epidemic tremor, AE

-Etiology: picornavirus
-Clinical signs: Affected chicks show a progressive incoordination, sitting on hocks, tremors of the
head and neck, and finally paralysis or prostration.
-Transmission: through the egg from infected hen to chick, through direct contact
-Treatment: There is no treatment for outbreaks.
-Prevention: Vaccination
Infectious Laryngotracheitis
-Synonyms: LT, ILT, trach, laryngo

-Etiology: herpesvirus
-Clinical signs: watery eyes, difficult breathing, coughing, sneezing, and shaking of the head to
dislodge exudate plugs in the windpipe follow. Birds extend their head and neck to facilitate
breathing (commonly referred to as "pump handle respiration").
-Transmission: respiratory route, contaminated clothing and equipment. Birds that recover
should be considered carriers for life
-Lesions: blood, mucus and yellow caseous exudate or a hollow caseous cast in the trachea
-Treatment: Administer antibiotics to control secondary infection
-Prevention: vaccination
Egg Drop Syndrome
-Synonyms: egg drop, egg drop syndrome 76, EDS-76

-Etiology: adenovirus
-Clinical signs: Healthy-appearing hens start laying thin-shelled and shell-less eggs. Transient
diarrhea and dullness occur prior to egg shell changes
-Transmission: Vertical transmission occurs from infected breeders to chicks
-Treatment: There is no successful treatment.
-Prevention: Prevention involves a good biosecurity program.
Colibacillosis
86
-Synonyms: Colisepticemia, Escherichia coli infection
-Etiology: Escherichia coli
-Clinical signs: Young birds die of septicemia and have enlarged liver and spleen with increased
fluid in body cavities. There is airsacculitis, pericarditis, perihepatitis
-Transmission: fecal contamination, aerosol transmission
-Treatment: use of antibiotics
-Prevention: vaccination
Malabsorption syndrome
-Synonyms: Pale bird syndrome, runting-stunting syndrome

-Etiology: mycotoxins and enteroviruses has been identified as significant etiologic factors
-Clinical signs: it is characterized as stunted growth, lack of pigmentation on the skin, feet or
beak; slow feathering; broken or twisted feathers, undigested feeds in the feces and /or poor
conversion ratios.
-Lesions: enlarged proventriculus and small gizzard, and orange mucus in the small intestine
lumen
-Treatment: no effective treatment
-Prevention: no vaccines available but feed should be analyzed for dietary toxins
Sudden Death Syndrome
-Synonyms: Flip-over disease, heart attack, acute death syndrome, fatal syncope, lung edema,
lung congestion, dead in good condition
-Etiology: cause is unknown but probably it is a metabolic disorder related to carbohydrate
metabolism, cell membrane integrity and intracellular electrolyte imbalance
-Clinical signs: broilers show no premonitory signs. They appear healthy and may be feeding,
sparring, walking or resting but suddenly extend their necks, gasp or squawk and die rapidly with
a short period of wing beating and leg movement during which they frequently flip onto their
backs. They may be found dead on their sides or breasts.
-Transmission: fecal-oral route
-Lesions: confirmation is difficult because there are no specific gross or histologic lesions present.
Full gastrointestinal tract, large pale liver, contracted ventricles and dilated blood-filled atria
 LEA-REVIEWER POULTRY DISEASES BY OF CELESTINO, CLSU
-Prevention: Activity caused by bright light, noise and other disturbances may increase the
incidence. After the first 3-4 days, low intensity or low intensity intermittent lighting should be
used. Slowing growth rate by giving a less dense or lower protein ration
Coccidiosis
-Etiology: Eimeria sp.

-Clinical signs: Decreased growth rate and egg production, severe diarrhea and high mortality
-Lesions: accummulation of blood in the ceca and bloody droppings (Eimeria tenella), small white
spots usually intermingled with rounded, bright or dull-red spots of various sizes on the anterior
and middle portions of the small intestines (Eimeria necatrix)
-Transmission: ingestion of sporulated oocysts by susceptible birds
-Diagnosis: demonstration of oocysts in feces or intestinal scrapings
87
-Treatment: use of anticoccidial drugs – amprolium, chlortetracycline, oxytetracyclines, sulfa
drugs
-Prevention: a. vaccination b. use of anticoccidial drugs
Pullorum Disease
-Synonyms: bacillary white diarrhea, BWD

-Etiology: Salmonella pullorum
-Clinical signs: huddling, droopiness, diarrhea, weakness, pasted vent, gasping, and chalk-white
feces, sometimes stained with green bile. Survivors become asymptomatic carriers with localized
infection in the ovary.
-Transmission: Pullorum is spread primarily through the egg, from hen to chick, contaminated
equipment, poultry by-product feedstuffs and carrier birds.
-Lesions: unabsorbed yolksac, focal necrosis of the liver and spleen in young birds, grayish
nodules in the lungs, heart and gizzard. Adult carriers have pericarditis, or peritonitis or distorted
ovarian follicles with coagulated contents
-Treatment:. Several sulfonamides, antibiotics are effective in reducing mortality
-Prevention: breeder replacement flocks are tested before onset of production to assure
pullorum-free status.
LEA-REVIEWER SWINE DISEASES BY OF CELESTINO, CLSU
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE
 FMD is the most important restraint to international trade in animals and animal products
Transmission :
 Direct and indirect contact with infected animals

 aerosol, saliva, nasal discharge,blood, urine, faeces, semen, infected animal by-
products,and by biological products
 Vesicles or blisters on the tongue, dental pad, gums, cheek, hard and soft palate, lips,
nostrils, muzzle, coronary bands, teats, udder, snout of pigs
 Myocarditis in young and often caused of death
 No treatment
 Prevention is thru vaccination, quarantine and restriction of movement of animals
HOG CHOLERA
 Viral disease affecting only pigs and caused by pestivirus

 The virus is partially resistant to heat
 Inactivated by pH <3.0 or pH >11.0
 Survives well in cold conditions and can survive some forms of meat processing (curing
and smoking)
Transmission
 Direct contact between animals

 Insufficiently cooked waste food fed to pigs
 Transplacental infection
 Fever , cyanosis of the skin especially of extremities (ears, limbs, tail, snout)
 Multifocal hyperaemia and haemorrhagic lesions of the skin, conjunctivitis
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 Dyspnoea, coughing
 Ataxia, paresis and convulsion
 Mortality in young pigs can approach 100%
Prevention and Control:
 No treatment is possible. Affected pigs must be slaughtered and the carcasses buried or
incinerated
 Vaccination
SWINE DYSENTERY
 It is caused by a spirochaetal bacterium called Brachyspira hyodysenteriae

 This organism causes a severe inflammation of the large intestine with a bloody mucous
diarrhoea
 The organism can survive outside the pig for up to seven weeks in cold moist conditions
but it dies out in two days in dry warm environments.

 Spread through the herd is slow, pigs that recover develop a low immunity and rarely
suffer from the disease again
 Pigs may develop a sub-clinical carrier state initially and then break down with clinical
disease when put under stress or when there is a change of feed
 Sloppy diarrhoea, which stains the skin under the anus.
 Initially the diarrhoea is light brown and contains jelly-like mucus and becomes watery
 Blood may appear in increasing amounts turning the faeces dark and tarry
 Diagnosis is based on the history, post-mortem examinations, gram-stained faecal or
colonic smears, fluorescent antibody tests on faecal smears and the isolation and
identification of organism
Treatment:
 Chlortetracycline, Dimetridazole , Lincomycin, Monensin ,Tiamulin ,Tylosin
Prevention:
 Develop an all-in all-out housing system with disinfection
 Control flies, they can transmit the organism from one group of pigs to another
 Reduce the movement and handling of pigs
 Do not overcrowd pigs and endeavour to keep a dry environment
TRANSMISSIBLE GASTROENTERITIS
 TGE is a very important and highly infectious disease in the piglet caused by a corona
virus
 The virus enters the pig by mouth and multiplies in the villi and destroys them
 The virus multiplies in the intestine and is shed in large numbers in the faeces
 Pig faeces are the major source of transmission
 The virus is killed by sunlight within a few hours but will survive for long periods outside
the pig in cold or freezing conditions
 It is very susceptible to iodine based disinfectant, quaternary ammonia and peroxygen
compounds
 vomiting and acute watery diarrhea
 Treatment
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 no specific treatment
 provide easy access to water containing electrolyte and an antibiotic such as neomycin
 provide extra heat and deep bedding to reduce the weights of infection from the diarrhea
PORCINE REPRODUCTIVE AND RESPIRATORY SYNDROME
 It is caused by arterivirus
 The virus is stable under freezing conditions
 The primary vector for transmission of the virus is the infected pig
 Virus can be excreted in the urine and feces
Clinical signs:
In sows and piglets it cause severe reproductive damage:
 premature farrowings
 stillborn or mummified piglets
 weak PRRSV-positive piglets (50% die soon after birth)
 delayed return to service
 Neonatal piglets can display a variety of clinical signs. The most characteristic are
dyspnea, tachypnea and death
 Diagnosis is thru ELISA or indirect fluorescent antibody test

 No treatment
 Vaccination
ENZOOTIC PNEUMONIA
 Enzootic pneumonia is caused by Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae

 attacks the lower areas of each lung lobe causing consolidation
 Maternal antibody is passed via colostrum to the piglets
 Trasmission: aerosol, direct contact
Clinical signs:
 Severe acute pneumonia
 Heavy breathing.
 Coughing, prolonged
 Respiratory distress
 Fever
Treatment:
 OTC, tiamulin, lincomycin, or penicillin/streptomycin
Prevention:
 vaccination
ERYSIPELAS
 Erysipelas is an infectious disease caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae seen mainly in

growing pigs and characterized clinically by sudden death, fever, arthritis, and skin
lesions
 E rhusiopathiae can survive for several months in animal tissue, eg, frozen or chilled
meat, cured and smoked ham, and dry blood. It can survive in swine feces for up to 6 mo
at temperatures below 12 °C
90
 The organism is excreted by infected pigs in feces and/or oronasal secretions and
survives for short periods in most soils
 Recovered pigs and those chronically infected may be carriers of the organism, possibly
for life
 Mode of transmission is by ingestion and through skin abrasions
 acute, subacute, and chronic forms of swine erysipelas may occur in sequence or
separately
 Acute septicemic form: finishing pigs die suddenly without previous signs
 Acutely infected pigs : fever, walk stiffly on their toes, lie on their sternum and are
reluctant to move.
 Skin discoloration on the ears, snout, and abdomen, to diamond-shaped skin lesions
particularly the lateral and dorsal parts
 Chronic form: chronic arthritis, vegetative valvular endocarditis
Treatment:
 Penicillin
 Treatment of chronic infection is usually ineffective or not cost effective, and such pigs
should be culled
Prevention:
 best achieved by regular vaccination
PLEUROPNEUMONIA
 a severe and contagious respiratory disease, primarily of young pigs (≤6 mo of age)
 causal organism is Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae
 Transmission is nose-to-nose contact, and many recovered pigs are carriers
 Onset is sudden, and some pigs may be found dead without having shown clinical signs
 Respiratory distress is severe: fever, “thumps,” and sometimes open-mouth breathing
with a blood-stained, frothy nasal and oral discharge
 Lesions: bilateral pneumonia, lungs are dark and swollen and ooze bloody fluid from the
cut surface; hemorrhagic
 Treatment :
 Rapidity of onset and persistence in infected herds makes treatment difficult
 Ceftiofur, tetracyclines, synthetic penicillins, tylosin, and sulfonamides have been used
 Prevention:
 reduced stocking rates, and improved ventilation
 Buy replacements from herds free of the disease
SWINE INFLUENZA (HOG FLU)
 an acute, highly contagious, respiratory disease that results from infection with type A
influenza virus
 Pigs are the principal hosts of classic swine influenza virus
 Swine influenza virus (SIV) is an orthomyxovirus of the influenza A group with
hemagglutinating antigen H1 and neuraminidase antigen N1 (ie, H1N1)
 Transmission is mainly by aerosol and pig-to-pig contact
 virus survives in carrier pigs for up to 3 mo and can be recovered from clinically normal
animals between outbreaks
 main signs are depression, fever , coughing, dyspnea, prostration, and a mucous
discharge from the eyes and nose
91
 principal economic loss is from stunting and delay in reaching market weight
Treatment and Control:
 There is no effective treatment
 Expectorants may help relieve signs of coughing
 Vaccination and strict import controls are the only specific preventive measures
PSEUDORABIES
 an acute, frequently fatal disease affects swine primarily

 Clinical signs are similar to those of rabies, hence the name “mad itch”
 The virus can be transmitted via nose-to-nose or fecal-oral contact, inhalation
 In general, signs of CNS disease are seen
 weaned pigs show respiratory signs
 Pigs may abort
Treatment and Control:
 no specific treatment
 vaccination
TETANUS
 Tetanus toxemia is caused by a specific neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani in

necrotic tissue
 it is introduced into the tissues through wounds, particularly deep puncture wounds
 it often follows docking or castration
 animal is easily excited into more violent, general spasms by sudden movement or noise
 Spasms of head muscles cause difficulty in prehension and mastication of food (lockjaw)
 pigs often fall to the ground and exhibit opisthotonos when startled
Treatment:
 When administered in the early stages of the disease, curariform agents, tranquilizers, or
barbiturate sedatives, in conjunction with tetanus antitoxin
 Prevention:
 Active immunization can be accomplished with tetanus toxoid
SWINE POX
 Swinepox is an acute, often mild, infectious disease characterized by skin eruptions that
affects only pigs
 Swine pox virus is relatively heat stable and survives for ~10 days at 37°C
 most frequently seen in young pigs, 3-6 wk old, but all ages may be affected
 After an incubation period of ~1 wk, small red areas may be seen on the face, ears,
inside the legs, and abdomen and develop into papules, pustules, or small vesicles
 Virus is abundant in the lesions and can be transferred from pig to pig by the biting louse
( Haematopinus suis )
 Recovered pigs are immune
 There is no specific treatment
 Eradication of lice is important
COLIBACILLOSIS
92
 Enteric colibacillosis is a common disease of nursing and weanling pigs caused by
colonization of the small intestine by enterotoxigenic strains of Escherichia coli
 The common antigenic types of pili associated with pathogenicity are K88, K99, 987P,
and F41
 Infection in neonates is commonly caused by K88 and 987P strains, whereas
postweaning colibacillosis is nearly always due to the K88 strain
 Profuse watery diarrhea with rapid dehydration, acidosis, and death is common
 Rarely, pigs may collapse and die before diarrhea begins
 Dehydration and distention of the small intestine with yellowish, slightly mucoid fluid is
characteristic
 Pigs dying suddenly may have patchy cutaneous erythema
Treatment :
 treatment with antibacterials and restoration of fluid and electrolyte balance
 Bacterial antibiotic sensitivity testing is helpful to identify effective medication.
Prevention:
 reduce dampness and chilling; improving sanitation
 vaccinating gestating sows
93

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LEA - Reviewer - BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo, Ph.D.

A. Terminologies in Beef Cattle & Buffalo Production

REVIEWER IN BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION

1. Abortion - premature birth

• 25. Cast down - throwing down of animal for proper restrain

Overview of the Philippine Large Ruminant Industry

Leading Cattle Regions

Major Beef Consuming Regions

Leading Buffalo Region

• Corn Land : 3.3 M

POTENTIALS OF BEEF/BUFFALO PRODUCTION

1. There is a big deficit in beef/carabeef supply

1. Massive launching of beef/ carabeef programs

C. Breeds & Breeding

Breeds of Beef Cattle

Beef Breeds and Strains from Crossbred Foundations

1. Santa Gertrudis- 5/8 short horn, 3/8 Brahman-U.S.A.

LEA-Reviewer -BEEF CATTLE & BUFFALO PRODUCTION by Dr. Ernesto P. Garillo,

9. Beefalo- 3/8 Bison, 3/8 Charolais, 2/8 Hereford-U.S.A.

B. Swamp Buffalo Breeds (chromosome no.-48)

TECHNICAL COEFFICIENT DATA OF A WELL-MANAGED CATTLE FARM

Conception rate at 1st service 75%

TECHNICAL COEFFICIENT DATA OF A WELL-MANAGED CATTLE FARM

Conception rate at 1st service 75%

TOOLS OF IMPROVING REPRODUCTIVE EFFICIENCY

1. Observe year-round reproductive health program

COMMON REPRODUCTIVE FAILURES

Heritability Estimates for Beef Cattle Traits

% H= Var. Due to heredity x 100

1. Mass or Individual- It is applicable to characters of high heritability.

D. Feeds and Feeding

DRY MATTER REQUIREMENT FOR BEEF CATTLE

Animal classification % Body weight

1. Body weight : 250

Animal Unit Equivalent (AU)

Schedules for vaccination against common diseases of livestock and poultry

Housing (Space Requirement)

1. A tropical breed of beef cattle a. Brahman b. Chianina c. Charcoals d. Hereford

3. Rebreeding before a cow must be culled a. 2 times b. 4 times c. 5 times

4. Bull culling under continuous breeding program

11. An instrument used in castration a. emasculator b. elastrator c. castrator d. matador

17. The total number of animals carried per unit pasture

18. The undesirable characteristics of some animals of not manifesting heat

23. Pulse rate of beef cattle a. 40-60/min b. 20-40/min c. 10-20/min d. 80/min

24. Respiration rate of beef cattle a. 12-16/min b. 20-25/min c. 40/min d. 50/min

25. Recommended height of ceiling for a cattle shed a. 3-3.5 m b. 5 m c. 8m d. 5-10m

Other Management Practices

 Disease (negative-ease) is a finite abnormality of structure or function with an identifiable

Terms used to denote the presence of disease in a population

Classification of disease according to its duration

Classification of disease according to location in the body

Classification of disease according to cause

Body’s defenses against disease

Causative Agents of Diseases

2. Fungi – are eukaryotic, non-photosynthetic, filamentous or

3. Virus – are submicroscopic

6. Protozoa – it is single-celled organism and eukaryotic. They are intracellular parasites

8. Arthropods (external parasites) – these are referred to as jointed legs