XXX10.

1177/0040059918763712Council for Exceptional ChildrenTEACHING Exceptional Children

research-article2018

Dyslexia and SLD

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp. 189­–200. Copyright 2018 The Author(s). DOI: 10.1177/0040059918763712

Dyslexia in the
Schools
Assessment and Identification

Jennifer H. Lindstrom
Monica, a special education teacher, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual understanding of the law and of specific
had been working with her school’s of Mental Disorders; Snowling & assessments that can be used for the
student support team (SST) monitoring Hulme, 2012). The language used in identification of dyslexia can help school
the progress of a first-grade student, schools comes from federal and state personnel understand the connection
Sam, as he moved through the school’s educational laws. Laws define the between the criteria for SLD eligibility
response-to-intervention (RTI) process. criteria under which students have a under IDEA and dyslexia.
In Tier 1, Sam received 90 minutes of
reading instruction per day in the
general education classroom. After Greater understanding of the law and of specific
monitoring his progress weekly, it was
determined that Sam was falling
assessments that can be used for the
behind his classmates. He was then identification of dyslexia can help school
moved to Tier 2, where he received an personnel understand the connection between
additional 20 minutes of reading
instruction daily. Although Sam showed
the criteria for SLD eligibility under IDEA and
some improvement over the next 8 dyslexia.
weeks, he was still well below what was
expected in first grade. Sam’s
performance on multiple measures (i.e., guaranteed right to services. For Monica sought clarification from her
initial sound fluency, phoneme example, students who struggle with school’s special education coordinator,
segmentation fluency, oral reading reading may receive services under who explained that although dyslexia is
fluency) fell in the high-risk category. IDEA (2006), or they may receive not a disability category under IDEA
Therefore, it was decided to provide support through a 504 plan (U.S. (2006), students with dyslexia can
Sam with Tier 3 interventions and Department of Education, Office for receive services under the SLD category.
progress monitoring in addition to the Civil Rights, 2016). Compliance with
interventions and instruction he was these laws and the mission to educate
receiving in Tiers 1 and 2. Sam’s all students drive schools’ decision Dyslexia and Special Education
mother was updated on Sam’s progress making; in other words, a school’s Eligibility
every few weeks, but she was becoming primary focus is on determining the In order for any student to be eligible
increasingly concerned. She remembers need for specialized instruction, for services under IDEA (2006), the
having a difficult time learning to read accommodations, and modifications. student must (a) be identified as having
when she was a child, and she does not Confusion regarding terminology is a disability that falls under one of IDEA’s
want her son to struggle like she did. also commonly coupled with confusion categories of disability and (b) have a
Sam’s mother decided to contact regarding identification procedures. demonstrated educational need. In other
Monica and ask if the school would Specifically, although many teachers words, if a student has an identified
evaluate him for dyslexia. Monica knew and parents possess a general disability, such as dyslexia, but is making
that the official eligibility category understanding of RTI, “a process that appropriate educational gains according
under IDEA was SLD, but she was not determines if the child responds to to school-based norms or expectations,
sure if she was allowed to use the term scientific, research-based intervention” that student may not qualify for special
dyslexia or if the process of for the purpose of identifying students education services. For students with
identification was somehow different with a specific learning disability (SLD; dyslexia, in order to be eligible under the
for dyslexia. IDEA, 2006), many school-based category of SLD, RTI or other educational
personnel, such as Monica, are unclear data may be used to demonstrate that
There is often confusion about the about the relation between processes the disability has a significant
terms used to label or describe a and related assessments used for SLD educational impact (Mather & Wendling,
reading problem. Clinicians and identification and those used for the 2011). Therefore, some students who
researchers use different terminology identification of dyslexia (Tucker, 2015). have been identified with dyslexia may
than the schools. For example, medical To clarify this confusion, the Office of meet state-determined criteria for the
professionals, psychologists, and other Special Education and Rehabilitative special education category of SLD,
practitioners outside of the school often Services (2015) issued a Dear Colleague whereas others may not.
use the term dyslexia, reading disorder, letter that stated, “The purpose of this Under IDEA and its implementing
and specific learning disorder. Schools letter is to clarify that there is nothing in regulations, SLD is defined, in part, as
and educators use the terms reading the IDEA that would prohibit the use of
difficulty and specific learning disability the terms dyslexia, dyscalculia, and a disorder in one or more of the
in reading. The preferred terms in a dysgraphia in IDEA evaluation, eligibility basic psychological processes
field can change over time, further determinations, or [individualized involved in understanding or in
complicating the issue (e.g., changes in education program] documents.” Greater using language, spoken or written,

190  Council for Exceptional Children

 that may manifest itself in the public schools to screen children for review of his performance and
imperfect ability to listen, think, dyslexia during kindergarten, first instructional history. Monica and other
speak, read, write, spell, or to do grade, or second grade. A few of the members of the support team, along
mathematical calculations, including states require teacher preparation with Sam’s mother, were ready to
conditions such as perceptual programs to offer courses on dyslexia consider whether a comprehensive
disabilities, brain injury, minimal
and for teachers to have in-service evaluation should be conducted to
brain dysfunction, dyslexia [italics
training (Youman & Mather, 2015). As determine if Sam has a disability and
added], and developmental aphasia.
(20 U.S.C. §1401[30]; 34 C.F.R. of 2015, 14 states provided specific is potentially eligible for special
§300.8[c][10] dyslexia handbooks for educators, education services.
parents, and legislators with
Although the regulations contain a list clarification on newly passed dyslexia Many schools implement a
of conditions under the definition of legislation and roles and multitiered-system-of-supports model,
SLD that includes dyslexia, the list is responsibilities of state and local such as RTI. Although there is not one
not exhaustive. Whereas the majority education agencies (e.g., Tennessee standard way to implement RTI,
of students with SLD have reading Department of Education, 2017). typically three or four tiers are
difficulties (~75% to 80%; Learning provided with increasing levels of
Disabilities Association of America, The Eligibility Process intervention (Arden & Pentimonti,
n.d.), many also have difficulties in 2017). RTI models provide early
To determine eligibility under the SLD
writing (dysgraphia), mathematics interventions that may help students
category, current federal law allows
(dyscalculia), organization, focus, overcome academic difficulties or help
eligibility determinations to be made in
listening comprehension, or a educators pinpoint areas of persistent
several ways or through use of a
combination of these. need. Using it exclusively as an
combination of methods: a discrepancy
identification model (as of 2012, at
between the individual’s ability (usually
least 12 states mandated RTI, at least
Characteristics of Dyslexia based on an IQ score) and achievement
in part, for identification of SLD; Zirkel,
(usually based on scores from an
Dyslexia is a reading disorder in n.d.), however, could bring negative
individually administered, norm-
which the core problem involves consequences to struggling learners.
referenced test of achievement), a
decoding and spelling printed words Low reading performance alone, which
pattern of strengths and weaknesses
that is not due to low intelligence or may be evident as students move
(among an individual’s cognitive and
inadequate instruction (Hudson, High, through tiers of instruction, is
achievement scores) that suggests the
& Al Otaiba, 2007). These weaknesses insufficient for the identification of
presence of a SLD, or failure to respond
often result in difficulty with dyslexia (Berninger & May, 2011).
to scientifically-based instruction (in
comprehending written material.
schools using an RTI model; Mather &
Although dyslexia is the most common Through the RTI process, Sam’s
Wendling, 2011).
type of reading disability, other types teachers were able to document a lack
Before a student is referred for a
of reading disorders have been of adequate progress, but they did not
comprehensive evaluation, most
reported. For example, it is estimated have enough information to understand
schools try to intervene with additional
that 3% to 10% of school-age children the cause of his difficulties.
support for the student (Arden &
demonstrate adequate word-level
Pentimonti, 2017). If concerns
abilities (word recognition and
continue, a teacher may turn to a The Comprehensive Evaluation
decoding) but nevertheless struggle with
student support team for help. These
comprehension of written text (Cain & Although schools do not commonly
teams have many different names, such
Oakhill, 2006, 2011; Leach, Scarborough, use the term dyslexia, it is important
as pupil services team, student
& Rescorla, 2003; Nation, 2001). These for school personnel to understand the
assistance teams, teacher assistance
students may demonstrate weaknesses in specific areas that can be affected by
teams, or instructional support teams.
broader language abilities, such as dyslexia. School personnel can then
The teams are composed of teachers
semantics, syntax, inference making, identify appropriate measures to use in
and other professionals (e.g., school
self-monitoring, and executive function an evaluation and link data from the
psychologist, speech-language
(Cain & Oakhill, 2011; Cain & Towse, evaluation to the development of an
pathologist) and may include the
2008; Cutting, Materek, Cole, Levine, & individualized education program
principal and relevant specialists.
Mahone 2009; Locascio, Mahone, Eason, (IEP). One approach to eligibility
& Cutting, 2010). determination is a process put forth by
Some states have passed specific Sam continued to struggle despite Flanagan and colleagues (Flanagan,
legislation related to dyslexia (see increasingly intensive and targeted Ortiz, Alfonso, & Dynda, 2006a;
Dyslegia.com for an up-to-date list); interventions; therefore, Flanagan, Ortiz, Alfonso, & Mascolo,
others are attempting to pass recommendations were made and 2002, 2006). Figure 1 shows how
legislation. Many of these laws require implemented based on the team’s Monica, along with other members of

TEACHING Exceptional Children  |  January/February 2019  191

Figure 1.  Framework for Eligibility as a Student With a Reading Disability

the eligibility team, might proceed of the prereferral (i.e., RTI) process. or grade-level standards. Table 1
through the eligibility process with How did Sam perform on curriculum- provides a list of reading-related skill
Sam. The process, as outlined in Figure based measures of letter-naming areas that one would expect to see
1 (adapted from Flanagan et al., 2002; fluency, letter-sound fluency, oral deficits in students with dyslexia,
Flanagan, Ortiz, Alfonso, & Mascolo, reading fluency, nonsense word specific assessments that may be used,
2006), is designed to address many of reading, and spelling? In first grade (or and examples of how the skills are
the SLD eligibility criteria. prior), has Sam shown any signs of assessed.
oral language deficits (i.e., slow rate of
vocabulary acquisition, word-finding Letter-sound knowledge.  Letter-
Assessing Reading Skills
difficulties, difficulties rhyming, sound knowledge refers to the
The first and second steps in Figure 1 frequent grammatical errors when student’s familiarity with letter forms,
pertain to demonstrating evidence of speaking)? If the answer is yes to one names, and corresponding sounds,
low achievement in reading. In or more of these questions, the team which may be measured by
thinking about Sam, Monica and the would proceed to Step 2, which recognition, production, and writing
eligibility team would first consider involves formal assessment of Sam’s tasks. To measure letter-name fluency,
data specific to Sam’s reading reading skills to determine whether he the student may be given a random list
performance that were collected as part is not achieving adequately for his age of uppercase and lowercase letters and

192  Council for Exceptional Children

Table 1.  Assessing Reading Performance

Relevant reading Specific assessments

area that may be used Examples of tasks

Letter-sound Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Word Identify individual letters

knowledge Attack, Spelling of Sounds) •• Produce sounds for a small set of single
•• Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd letters
ed. (Letter Naming Facility, Letter Checklist) •• Pronounce nonsense words of increasing
•• Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. complexity
(Letters) •• Write single letters and letter patterns
•• Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. presented orally
(Naming Letters, Letter-Sound Correspondence) •• Spell nonsense words

Word decoding Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Letter- Read a list of words in isolation (timed or
Word Identification) untimed)
•• Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd •• Read a list of nonsense words in isolation
ed. (Letter and Word Naming) (timed or untimed)
•• Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed.
(Word Reading)

Reading fluency Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Oral Silently read a series of simple sentences and
Readinga, Sentence Reading Fluencya) indicate if they are true or false (timed)
•• Test of Word Reading Efficiency–2 (Sight Word •• Read a passage orally as quickly as
Efficiencyb, Phonemic Decoding Efficiencyb) possible
•• Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd •• Orally read a list of single words or
ed. (Word Recognition Fluencyb nonsense words (timed)
•• Decoding Fluencyb
•• Silent Reading Fluencya)
•• Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed.
(RAN-Wordsb, Morphological Decoding Fluencyb,
Sentence Sensea)
•• Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed.
(Oral Reading Fluencya)
•• Gray Oral Reading Tests, 5th ed. (Ratea, Fluencya)

Spelling (encoding) Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement Write single letters and spell words that are
(Spelling) dictated
•• Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd •• Choose the correctly spelled word among
ed. (Spelling) a group of four words (three of which are
•• Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. misspelled)
(Word Choice); Wechsler Individual Achievement
Test, 3rd ed. (Spelling)

Reading Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement Read a passage silently and answer questions
comprehension (Passage Comprehension, Reading Recall, Reading based on the passage (passage may or may
Vocabulary) not be visible to the student when answering
•• Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd questions)
ed. (Reading Comprehension) •• Read a passage with a word or phrase
•• Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (Does missing, provide the missing word(s)
It Fit?, Sentence Sense Accuracy score; Sentence •• Silently read three sentences
Structure) •• One correct and two that contain a silly
•• Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. word that makes the sentence illogical
(Reading Comprehension) (e.g., “The boy cames [sic] home late”)
and circle the sentence that makes sense

aText fluency.
bSingle-word fluency.

TEACHING Exceptional Children  |  January/February 2019  193

asked to identify the names of as many decoding rate often consist of rapid comprehension can be individually
letters as possible in 1 minute. decoding of nonwords. Measurement of administered (i.e., as part of a
Similarly, on tests of letter-sound nonword reading rate ensures that the comprehensive evaluation to determine
fluency, the student may be given a construct being assessed is the eligibility for special education
random list of uppercase and lowercase student’s ability to automatically services) or group administered, such
letters and have 1 minute to identify as decode words using letter-sound as state-mandated assessments of
many letter sounds as possible. A knowledge (Hudson et al., 2005) as reading. Comprehension measures also
student may also be asked to write opposed to rapid recognition of real vary in the type of text students are
individual letters that are dictated or words that the student has memorized. expected to read (e.g., narrative,
write the letter or letter combination informational, or persuasive material),
Spelling.  Spelling tests can provide
that corresponds to a sound that is time constraints and pressure for
information about a student’s
presented orally (e.g., “Write the letter speed, whether or not students can
understanding of and ability to apply
that makes the /m/ sound”). refer back to the text in answering
phonics to the spelling of words and of
comprehension questions, and
Word reading.  It is also critical to a student’s orthographic and
response format or how students are
assess the student’s word-reading morphological awareness (Berninger,
expected to demonstrate
skills, which requires assessing 2007). Traditional spelling tests can be
comprehension of what they have read.
accuracy and fluency with both real examined to determine whether a
It is important to note that students
and nonsense words in timed and student uses correct or incorrect letter
may perform differently depending on
untimed situations. Timed tests of real combinations and whether the
the mode of administration, type of
and nonsense word reading provide student’s spellings reflect knowledge of
text, and format of the test.
information as to whether the student conventions, such as le endings. For
Three response formats are
has fluency in word identification. example, the student who spells bell as
especially common: cloze, question
Untimed tests of real and nonsense ble is beginning to notice graphemic
answering, and retellings. Cloze format
word reading provide information as to conventions. The student who puts
tests (e.g., Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests
whether the student has requisite odd letter combinations together, such
of Achievement Passage
word-reading accuracy. Untimed tests as kpz, does not have a strong sense of
Comprehension; Schrank et al., 2014a)
of nonword or nonsense word reading English orthography. Spelling tests also
present sentences or passages with
assess knowledge about the letter– provide information about a student’s
blanks in them (e.g., “The birds were
sound correspondences of English morphological awareness. For example,
flying in the ____”); the student is
(phonics). the student who spells lived as livt
expected to read the text and provide
does not have knowledge of the -ed
Fluency.  When assessing text an appropriate word to go in the blank
convention for past tense (Berninger,
fluency, both oral and silent reading (for the previous example, a word such
2007). Most achievement tests contain
fluency can be evaluated. Tests that are as sky or air). In tests with a question-
these traditional spelling tests. Tests
commonly used to assess fluency (see answer format, the student reads
that ask students to spell nonsense
Table 1) tend to measure reading rate passages and answers questions about
words are less common but are useful
more specifically. Reading rate them; the questions may involve
in assessing a student’s knowledge of
comprises both word-level automaticity multiple-choice or open-ended items
phonics (e.g., Woodcock-Johnson Tests
and the speed and fluidity with which and may be answered orally (e.g.,
of Achievement IV Spelling of Sounds;
a reader moves through connected text Wechsler Individual Achievement Test,
Schrank et al., 2014a). Of course, a
(Hudson, Lane, & Pullen, 2005). 3rd ed.; Wechsler, 2009) or in writing.
student’s response to traditional
Automaticity is quick and effortless Retellings require a student to read a
spelling tests will also provide
identification of words in or out of text and then orally tell about what
information about phonics knowledge.
context (Ehri & McCormick, 1998; was just read, usually with some sort
Words that are spelled incorrectly but
Kuhn & Stahl, 2000). Measuring of coding system for scoring the quality
phonetically suggest that the student is
reading rate should encompass of the retelling.
developing mastery of phonics but has
consideration of both single-word Reading comprehension tests that
not yet created accessible orthographic
reading automaticity (e.g., Test of Word use a multiple-choice format require
representations (i.e., visual images).
Reading Efficiency, 2nd ed.; Torgeson, the student to answer questions based
For instance, common error patterns on
Rashotte, & Wagner, 2012) and reading on a passage the student just read. One
Sam’s weekly spelling tests included
speed in connected text (e.g., of the concerns with this format
wunts for once, thot for thought, and
Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of involves passage independence, that is,
bin for been.
Achievement Sentence Reading the likelihood that on some items, a
Fluency; Schrank, Mather, & McGrew, Comprehension.  Reading student could respond correctly (based
2014a). Assessment of automaticity can comprehension tests can vary along on prior knowledge or educated
include tests of sight-word knowledge many dimensions, including mode of guessing) without having read the
or tests of decoding rate. Tests of administration. Measures of reading accompanying passage (e.g., “What

194  Council for Exceptional Children

colors were on the American flag?”; but students with dyslexia can be student to manipulate the sounds in
Keenan & Betjemann, 2006). Despite found eligible for services under the words (e.g., Comprehensive Test of
decades of ongoing attempts by SLD category. Because the operational Phonological Processing, 2nd ed.;
researchers to alert test developers to definition of SLD is defined, in part, as Torgeson, Rashotte, & Pearson, 2013;
passage independence and its “a disorder in one or more of the basic Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Oral
consequences, studies have psychological processes involved in Language; Schrank, Mather, & McGrew,
consistently uncovered passage-
independent items on standardized
reading comprehension measures, Students with dyslexia will usually have relatively
including the Minnesota Scholastic
Aptitude Test (Fowler & Kroll, 1978),
circumscribed weaknesses in areas such as
Stanford Achievement Test (Lifson, phonological processing, but their broad oral
Scruggs, & Bennion, 1984), SAT (e.g., language comprehension will typically be in the
Daneman & Hannon, 2001; Katz,
Lautenschlager, Blackburn, & Harris,
average range or higher.
1990), Test of English as a Foreign
Language (Tian, 2006), Nelson-Denny
Reading Test (Coleman, Lindstrom, understanding or in using language, 2014b). Orthographic awareness, or the
Nelson, Lindstrom, & Gregg, 2009), spoken or written” (20 U.S.C. ability to form, store, and access
and Gray Oral Reading Test (Keenan & §1401[30] and 34 C.F.R. §300.8[c][10]), orthographic representations
Betjemann, 2006). Step 4 (Figure 1) suggests the (Stanovich & West, 1989), can be
consideration of assessing cognitive assessed through tasks such as
Consideration of Exclusionary processes. It is important to point out, orthographic choice (e.g., “Circle the
Criteria however, that the emphasis is not on correctly spelled word: rume–room,
generating a global IQ score but instead snow–snoe, wrote–wroat”), homophone
At the next level (Figure 1, Step 3), the on identifying a pattern of performance choice (e.g., “Which is a fruit? pair–
eligibility team must determine that a across cognitive areas assessed— pear”), and word scramble tasks (e.g.,
deficit is not primarily due to factors although a consistently low profile may bdir–bird). Rapid naming is evaluated
included in the exclusionary criteria: suggest the need for cognitive through tests that require the student
visual, hearing, or motor disability; assessment to rule out the presence of to quickly name letters, numbers,
intellectual disability; emotional an intellectual disability. Whereas the colors, or objects. Working memory,
disturbance; cultural factors; general and special education teachers which is essential for students when
environmental or economic play crucial roles in Steps 1 through 3, decoding words—a student must be
disadvantage; limited English typically, the school psychologist or able to connect letters with the correct
proficiency; or lack of instruction speech-language pathologist assesses sounds, put them together to form a
(IDEA, 2006). Prereferral information specific areas of cognitive processing to word, keep that word in mind while
generated through a multitiered system determine whether there is a weakness reading the next word, string all those
of supports (such as RTI models) is in any specific area and if that area is words together to form a sentence, and
useful in addressing this criterion. associated with reading (see Figure 1). then figure out the meaning of all those
Within such a model, it is presumed Specific cognitive processes linked to words—is assessed through retrieval
that information on vision, hearing, reading include phonological fluency and sequencing tasks (see
and the impact of cultural or linguistic processing, orthographic awareness, Table 2).
and other noncognitive factors are rapid naming, processing speed, and Students with dyslexia will usually
considered as part of providing working memory (see Table 2). The have relatively circumscribed weaknesses
interventions. Because RTI models also eligibility team may also want to assess in areas such as phonological processing,
emphasize appropriate interventions executive functioning (the mental but their broad oral language
and monitoring of student progress, processes that enable students to plan, comprehension will typically be in the
they provide information as to the focus attention, remember instructions, average range or higher. Step 4, as it
adequacy of the instruction received. and juggle multiple tasks successfully) relates to the operational definition of
This step requires sufficient assessment due to the high comorbidity (~45%) SLD, addresses the deficit in a basic
or review of records, interviews with of SLD and attention deficit psychological process that is part of the
parents and former teachers, and direct hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; DuPaul, definition of SLD and goes further in
observation of the student. Gormley, & Laracy, 2013). seeking to determine whether the area of
Phonological awareness is the cognitive weakness may be causally
Assessing Cognitive Processes awareness of and access to the sound related to the area of academic weakness
As noted previously, dyslexia is not a structure of oral language. It is (e.g., reading). Likewise, it would be
disability category under IDEA (2006), assessed through tasks that require the expected that the student would not

TEACHING Exceptional Children  |  January/February 2019  195

Table 2.  Assessing Cognitive Processes

Specific assessments
Relevant cognitive areas that may be used Examples of tasks

Phonological awareness Comprehensive Test of Phonological Repeat a nonword with the omission of a
Processing–2 (Elision, Blending Words, target sound (say stom without saying /t/);
Sound Matching, Phoneme Isolation); blend /m/ /a/ /t/ to form the word mat;
Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Oral identify specific phonemes in words (e.g.,
Language (Segmentation, Sound Blending); first, middle, last sound); break the word
Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. sun into its component sounds: /s/ /u/ /n/
(Rhyming, Syllables, Phonemes, Rimes)

Phonological memory Comprehensive Test of Phonological Listen to a sequence of numerical digits

Processing–2 (Memory for Digits, Nonword and then recall the sequence correctly,
Repetition); Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of with increasingly longer sequences being
Cognitive Abilities (Memory for Words) presented; listen to a nonsense word (e.g.,
keeftane) and then repeat it exactly

Orthographic awareness Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Choose the correct homophone (pair vs.
Abilities (Letter–Pattern Matching); Test pear) embedded in a sentence; recognize the
of Orthographic Competence; Kaufman correct spelling (bote vs. boat); unscramble
Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. words
(Orthographic Processing Composite);
Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd Ed.
(Receptive Coding, Expressive Coding, Word
Choice)

Rapid naming Comprehensive Test of Phonological Quickly name aloud a series of familiar
Processing–2 (Rapid Digit Naming, Rapid items on a page (e.g., letters, numbers,
Letter Naming, Rapid Color Naming, Rapid colors or objects)
Object Naming); Woodcock-Johnson IV
Tests of Oral Language (Rapid Picture
Naming)

Processing speed Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Circle the identical letters or letter groups: bl
Abilities (Letter–Pattern Matching, Pair va dl bl na; scan rows of pictures and circle
Cancellation); Wechsler Intelligence Scale each instance in which a certain picture is
for Children–V (Coding, Symbol Search) followed by a certain other picture (e.g.,
each cat followed by a tree).

Working memory Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Oral Name as many animals as you can in 1
Language (Retrieval Fluency, Understanding minute; listen to the following sequence: cat,
Directions); Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests 7, 2, dog. What was the second number?
of Cognitive Ability (Object–Number
Sequencing)

show deficits in areas of cognitive and (b) identification of an empirical the 25th percentile on phonological
functioning that are not related to the or logical link between low functioning awareness, rapid naming, and working
area of low achievement (e.g., spatial in an identified area of cognitive ability memory measures that would likely be
relations). or processing and a corresponding causing the “substantial impact” on
weakness in academic performance Sam’s reading-related skills.
(Flanagan, Ortiz, Alfonso, & Mascolo, The final step requires evidence of
Evidence of Substantial Impact
2006). In Sam’s case, the team would substantial impact of the SLD. In
To proceed to Step 5, the eligibility expect scores at or below the 25th addition, in order for a student to be
team would likely have determined percentile on measures of letter-sound eligible for services under IDEA, the
that two criteria were met in Step 4: (a) knowledge, decoding, reading fluency, eligibility team must determine that the
identification of a deficit in at least one or spelling. Similarly, the team would student’s learning difficulties require
area of cognitive ability or processing also expect him to score at or below specially designed instruction. These

196  Council for Exceptional Children

Figure 2.  Dyslexia assessment worksheet

Dyslexia Assessment Worksheet

Name D.O.B. Grade
Teacher School

Evidence of academic deficit

Student performs below the average range in word recognition, decoding, fluency, comprehension, or spelling.
Academic Area Test Standard Score Percentile Rank

The academic deficit is not due to lack of instruction

Describe previous instruction and interventions and outcomes. Attach evidence of intervention (i.e., work samples,
worksheets, progress monitoring graphs) for Tier 1, 2, and 3 (if applicable).

The academic deficit is not due to other developmental causes or to language/cultural factors. Provide data regarding
rating scales, cognitive assessments, and observations to address the following.
Factor Evidence
Sensory impairment
Intellectual disability
Emotional disturbance
Cultural factors
Environmental
disadvantage
Limited English
proficiency
Other neurological or
genetic disorder
Cognitive processing deficit related to reading.
Consider whether the student shows a significant weakness in at least one of the following areas: phonological processing,
phonological memory, orthographic awareness, rapid naming, processing speed, and/or working memory
Area Test Standard Score Percentile Rank

(continued)

TEACHING Exceptional Children  |  January/February 2019  197

Figure 2.  (continued)

Oral language skills in average range

Provide a measure(s) of verbal comprehension that is within the average range.
Test Standard Score Percentile Rank

Verbal comprehension is significantly better than reading skills

Provide comparison of measures that demonstrate significant difference between performance on oral language skills
and reading skill (either basic reading, comprehension, or possibly spelling)
Standard Score Percentile Rank

Verbal comprehension measure(s):

Reading skill measure(s):
Explanation of difference based on test scores.

Summary statement on dyslexia

Provide a summary statement as to the diagnosis of dyslexia based on the above information and other pertinent
information.

criteria act as a safety net for •• Has it been determined that the determined that Sam does meet eligibility
determining the need for special difficulties identified earlier are not criteria for SLD. Figure 2 is an example of
education as identified in IDEA (2006) due to another factor, such as the Dyslexia Assessment Worksheet that
as one purpose of the comprehensive intellectual disability, ADHD, or the eligibility team could use in
evaluation. Thus, it is possible (though emotional disturbance? considering this determination.
unlikely) that a student may have a •• Does the student have a deficit in
SLD as identified through this phonological processing, phonological Conclusion
operational definition but would not memory, orthographic awareness,
Schools and teachers play an essential
require specialized instruction due to rapid naming, processing speed, or
role in identifying students with reading
adequate performance in the working memory?
difficulties, including dyslexia, and are
classroom. In such an instance, the •• Does the student have broad oral
responsible for teaching them to read. It
child would not meet criteria for language abilities within the average
is well understood that high-quality
special education services. range?
instruction can prevent some reading
In summary, when evaluating
Sam’s eligibility team answered yes to problems and reduce the impact of
a student, the eligibility team should
all of these questions and thus more-severe reading difficulties (Mather
be able to answer yes to the
following:

•• Does the student perform The challenge is to ensure that teachers

significantly below peers on understand how to identify reading difficulties
measures of letter-sound knowledge, early, use data collected through the assessment
word decoding, reading fluency,
and/or spelling? process to make eligibility decisions, and link data
•• Has the student had sufficient to the development of the IEP.
instruction?

198  Council for Exceptional Children

& Wendling, 2011). The challenge is to above chance for university students. Katz, S., Lautenschlager, G. J., Blackburn,
ensure that teachers understand how to Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(3), A. B., & Harris, F. H. (1990). Answering
identify reading difficulties early, use 244–249. reading comprehension questions
data collected through the assessment Cutting, L. E., Materek, A., Cole, C. A., without passages on the SAT.
Levine, T. M., & Mahone, E. M. (2009). Psychological Science, 1, 122–127.
process to make eligibility decisions,
Effects of fluency, oral language, Keenan, J. M., & Betjemann, R. S.
and link data to the development of the
and executive function on reading (2006). Comprehending the Gray Oral
IEP. Reading is a gateway skill—the comprehension performance. Annals of Reading Test without reading it: Why
ability to read is fundamental to and Dyslexia, 59, 34–54. doi:10.1007/s11881- comprehension tests should not include
facilitates all academic learning. When 009-0022-0. passage-independent items. Scientific
students’ reading development lags Daneman, M., & Hannon, B. (2001). Using Studies of Reading, 10, 363–380.
behind that of their classmates, they are working memory theory to investigate doi:10.1207/s1532799xssr1004_2
at a disadvantage not only in reading the construct validity of multiple-choice Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2000). Fluency:
but also in writing, mathematics, and reading comprehension tests such A review of developmental and remedial
other content areas. Early identification as the SAT. Journal of Experimental practices. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for
of dyslexia is essential so that the Psychology: General, 130, 208–223. the Improvement of Early Reading
doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.2.208 Achievement.
student not only learns to read but also
DuPaul, G. W., Gormley, M. J., & Laracy, Leach, J. M., Scarborough, H. S., &
understands why reading is hard so that
S. D (2013). Comorbidity of LD and Rescorla, L. (2003). Late-emerging
these social and emotional difficulties ADHD: Implications of DSM-5 for reading disabilities. Journal of
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of Learning Disabilities, 46, 43–51. Learning Disabilities Association of America.
doi:10.1177/0022219412464351 (n.d.). New to LD. Retrieved from https://
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Professor,
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Reading Efficiency (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Wechsler, D. (2009). Wechsler Individual Aderhold Hall, Athens, GA 30602 (e-mail:
Pro-Ed. Achievement Test (3rd ed.). San Antonio, jhl@uga.edu).
Torgeson, J. K, Rashotte, C. A., & Pearson, TX: Pearson

it in plain language
SHARE
N. A. (2013). Comprehensive Test of Youman, M., & Mather, N. (2015). Dyslexia TEACHING Exceptional Children,
Phonological Processing (2nd ed.). San laws in the USA: An update. Annals of Vol. 51, No. 3, pp. 189–200.
Antonio, TX: Pearson. Dyslexia, 63, 133–153. Copyright 2018 The Author(s).

it via web, email

Tucker, G. C. (2015). U.S. Department of Zirkel, P. A. (n.d.). The legal dimension of

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