IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT FOR CROPS PRODUCTION

1
 Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................3
2. CROP WATER REQUIREMENT......................................................................................4
2.1. Factors Affecting ETcrop...............................................................................................5
2.1.1. Climate factors affecting ETcrop...........................................................................5
2.1.2. Crop type affecting ETcrop....................................................................................6
2.1.3. Growth stages affecting ETcrop.............................................................................6
2.2 Determination of ETcrop...............................................................................................7
2.2.1. Direct measurement.................................................................................................7
2.2.2. Indirect estimation of ETcrop................................................................................8
2.3. Determination of Reference Evapotranspiration, ETo...............................................9
2.4. Determination of Crop Coefficient, Kc.........................................................................9
3. SOIL AND WATER............................................................................................................11
3.1 The Soil...........................................................................................................................12
3.1.1. Soil profile...............................................................................................................12
3.1.2. Soil texture..............................................................................................................12
3.1.3. Soil structure..........................................................................................................14
3.1.4. Soil depth................................................................................................................15
3.1.5. Soil bulk density.....................................................................................................16
3.1.6. Soil porosity............................................................................................................16
3.1.7. Soil infiltration.......................................................................................................16
3.2. Salinity............................................................................................................................17
3.2.1. Soil salinity.............................................................................................................17
3.2.2. Water quality.........................................................................................................18
3.3. Soil Moisture..................................................................................................................19
3.3.1. Soil moisture constants..........................................................................................19
3.3.2. Readily Available Soil Moisture / Allowable Soil Moisture Depletion, ASMD21
4. IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENT......................................................................26
4.1. Irrigation Efficiency..................................................................................................27
4.2. Leaching Requirement, LR..........................................................................................27
5. IRRIGATION SCHEDULING..........................................................................................28
5.1. Irrigation Scheduling Methods....................................................................................29
5.1.1. Fixed irrigation interval........................................................................................29
5.1.2. Computational method..........................................................................................30
6. IRRIGATION WATER APPLICATION METHODS....................................................32
7. FLOW MEASUREMENT..................................................................................................33

2
1. INTRODUCTION
All plants require water, air, light and media to survive, grow and reproduce (Fig. 1). The soil acts as a
media and gives stability to the plant, stores water and nutrients that the plants can take up through their
roots. The sunlight (light) provides the energy which is necessary for plant growth and photosynthesis.
The air allows the plants to "breath". Water is needed for photosynthesis, respiration, absorption,
translocation and utilization of mineral nutrients.

Figure 1. Plants requirement for growth and reproduction

The plant biomass contains 60 – 95 percent water. This water in the plant is necessary for digestion,
photosynthesis, transporting minerals and photosynthesis by products, structural support, growth, and
transpiration. Thus without water crops cannot grow. Too much water is not good for many crops either.
Apart from paddy rice, there are only very few crops which like to grow "with their feet in the water". If
there is too much water in the soil there will not be enough air. The excess water must be removed
otherwise the soil is water logged, which could also restrict plant growth and development. If there is too
little water in the soil will reduce plant growth and development, restricting yield or causing the plant to
die and thus it must be supplied from other sources. Therefore, adequate water supply is important for
plant growth.

Source of water essential for plant growth may come from precipitation, atmospheric water other than
precipitation, flood water, ground water and irrigation. The most well-known source of water for plant
growth is rain water. Amount, frequency and intensity should be meet the need. When the rainfall is not
sufficient, the plants must receive additional water from other sources. It may be provided partially or
entirely by artificial means called irrigation. Irrigation water is normally applied for plant growth and

3
reproduction, short duration drought, wash out or dilute salts in the soil, soften tillage pans and clods, cool
the soil and atmosphere, to reduce the hazard of frost

Nevertheless, the main objective of irrigation is to provide plants with sufficient water to prevent stress
that may cause reduced yield or poor quality of harvest. The required timing and amount of applied water
is governed by the prevailing climatic conditions, crop and stage of crop, soil moisture holding capacity
and the extent of root development as determined by type of crop, stage of growth, and soil. The process
by which irrigation water is controlled and used in the agricultural production is called Irrigation Water
Management, IWM.

The irrigation is normally applied on the surface of the soil and water must infiltrate the surface and move
downward throughout the root zone. Irrigation water management requires determining when to irrigate
and how much water to apply in each application. Thus, Knowledge of crop water requirement and soil
properties are essential for management of irrigation water.

Moreover, for proper use of irrigation water, proper estimation of ETcrop (CWR), proper land leveling
particularly for surface irrigation, proper irrigation scheduling, proper measuring irrigation water used
and above all, on – job training of farmers should be a pre-request.

2. CROP WATER REQUIREMENT

Crop water requirement is the total quantity of water, regardless of its sources, required by the crop in a
given growing season (from the time it is sown to the time it is harvested) for compensating the
evapotranspiration loss plus water used for digestion, photosynthesis, transportation of minerals and
foods, and also for structural support. The plant roots extract the required water from the soil.

The water transpired by the plant leaves as vapour and water evaporated from wet surfaces plus water
used for other processes (digestion, photosynthesis, transportation) is generally referred to as crop
consumptive use (CU) which synonyms to crop water requirement (CWR) or crop
evapotranspiration (ETcrop). Thus, CU exceeds ETcrop by the amount of water used for digestion,
photosynthesis, transportation etc. Since this difference is usually less than one percent, ETcrop and CU
are normally assumed to be equal. Therefore, the term crop water requirement, crop evapotranspiration
and consumptive use could be used interchangeably.

Climate is one of the most important factors determining the crop water requirements needed for
unrestricted optimal growth and yield. The water requirement of a plant is usually expressed in mm/day,
mm/month or mm/season. Suppose the water need of a certain plant in a very hot, dry climate is 10

4
mm/day. This means that each day the plant requires a water layer of 10 mm over the whole area on
which the plant is grown. It does not mean that this 10 mm has to indeed be supplied by rain or irrigation
every day. It is, of course, still possible to supply, for example, 50 mm of irrigation water every 5 days.
The irrigation water will then be stored in the root zone and gradually be used by the plants.

OR application of 10mm Irrigation water

Figure 2. Representation daily water requirement of 10mm

2.1. Factors Affecting ETcrop

The water requirements of plants varied with the plant species and varieties, length of growing season,
plant growth stages and climate.

2.1.1. Climate factors affecting ETcrop

A certain plant grown in a sunny, dry humidity and windy climate needs per day more water than the
same plant grown in a cloudy and cooler climate. When it is dry, the crop water requirement is higher
than when it is humid. In windy climates, the plants will use more water than in calm climates. The time
of the year during which crops are grown is also very important. A certain crop variety grown during the
cooler months will need substantially less water than the same crop variety grown during the hotter
months. Climatic factors which influence the plant water requirement are shown Fig. 3.

5
 Figure 3. Major climatic variables affecting ET

2.1.2. Crop type affecting ETcrop

Tomato requires less water than pepper and more water than onion. Moreover, fully grown tomato will
need more water per day than a fully developed onion. Shorter duration plants require less water than
longer duration crops

Table 1 gives some Indicative values for the duration of the total growing season and the crop water
requirement for the vegetable crops. There is a large variation of values not only between crops, but also
within one crop type. It should, however, be noted that these values are only rough approximations and it
is much better to obtain the values locally. In general, it can be assumed that the growing period for a
certain crop is longer when the climate is cool and shorter when the climate is warm.

2.1.3. Growth stages affecting ETcrop

The duration of the total growing season has an enormous influence on the seasonal crop water
requirement. Fully grown tomato will need more water than at early and late growth stage of the same
plant. As has been discussed before, the crop water need or crop evapotranspiration consists of
transpiration by the plant and evaporation from the wet surface. When the plants are very small the

6
evaporation will be more important than the transpiration. The ETcrop increases gradually from crop
development stage to the beginning of mid-season. The maximum crop water requirement is reached at
the end of the crop development stage which is the beginning of the mid-season stage until it reaches
repining stage. When the plants are fully grown the transpiration is more important than the evaporation.
The ETcrop also gradually declines from the end of mid season stage which is the beginning of the
ripening stage till maturity (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Plant growth stages

2.2 Determination of ETcrop

The ETcrop can be determined directly by field experimentation, field lysimeter or it can be estimated
indirectly from weather data with predetermined crop coefficient value.

2.2.1. Direct measurement

Field Measurement

In a field experimental, soil moisture is monitored using available methods. The ET for a particular time
period can be expressed in the following form of equation:

ETcrop = SM1 - SM2 + IR + Re + U - D – SR (2.1)

7
where ETcrop is the ET for the time period ΔT (between time of SM 1 and SM2 reading,

mm); SM1 is the soil water content at the beginning of the time period ΔT (mm); SM 2 is the soil water
content at the end of the time period ΔT (mm); IR is the irrigation amount applied within the time period
(mm); Re is the effective rainfall within this time period (mm); U is the upward flux or capillary rise
within the time period (mm); D is the deep drainage or percolation within

the period (mm); and SR is the surface runoff within the period (mm).

Measurement using lysimeter

A lysimeter can be defined as a large container filled with soil, which is located in the field (to represent
the field condition) and isolated from the surrounding field-soil hydrologically, permitting determination
of any term of the hydrologic equation (e.g., evapotranspiration, percolation, etc.) when the others are
known.

Types of lysimeters

Lysimeters can be grouped into two main categories:

(a) Weighing lysimeter

(b) Nonweighing or drainage lysimeter

The weighing lysimeter has various weighing principles and devices. It may be based on weighing with
varieties of scales and balances or on electronic weighing with strain gauge load cells, or a combination
of both mechanical and electronic devices, or on hydraulic weighing systems.

The non-weighing lysimeters are also called “volumetric” or “drainage” or “compensation” lysimeters.
All the water balance variables in eq. (2.1) be measured using soil moisture measuring devices.

2.2.2. Indirect estimation of ETcrop

Crop water use is influenced by the dynamics of the soil–plant–atmosphere system. In this continuum,
water availability is implicit as the most significant limiting factor for growth and final yield. Because of
the diversity of physiological, anatomical, and aerodynamic characteristics, different crops have different
abilities to use water. It is difficult to evaluate the water needs of each crop individually. In this context, a
reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) concept has been idealized by which the ET of other crops is

8
computed through a conversion factor called crop coefficient. This is known as the two-step approach to
determine ETcrop and given by:
ETc = Kc _ ETo (2.2)
where ETc is the evapotranspiration of a particular crop for a particular period (mm), Kc is the crop
coefficient of the respective crop for the crop period (growth stage) concerned, and ETo is the reference
evapotranspiration (mm).

2.3. Determination of Reference Evapotranspiration, ETo

The ETo describes the evaporating power of the atmosphere and as a result determined from
meteorological data (air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, sunshine hours). It was defined by
FAO-1992 (Smith et al. 1992) as the rate of evapotranspiration from a hypothetic crop with an assumed
crop height (12 cm) and a fixed canopy resistance (70 s m -1) and albedo (0.23), which would closely
resemble the evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of green grass cover of uniform height, the
green grass actively growing, completely shading the ground and having adequate water.
The ETo could be computed from local climatic data, using various methods/ models, however, updated
procedures that has got worldwide acceptance for calculating ETo was established by FAO. According to
FAO-1992 (Smith et al. 1992), the Penman-Monteith method gives more consistent ETo estimates. The
Penman-Monteith method takes into account almost all the factors that are known to influence ETo, such
as temperature, humidity, sunshine hour, and wind speed.
The value of the crop coefficient (Kc) may be obtained from the literature, or may be determined
independently from field experimental data of evapotranspiration .

2.4. Determination of Crop Coefficient, Kc

Crop coefficient (Kc) is defined as the ratio of the actual evapotranspiration of a disease free crop grown
in a large field adequately supplied with water to the reference evapotranspiration. It is usually expressed
as:
Kc = ETcrop (2.3)
ETo
where ETcrop and ETo are the crop evapotranspiration and reference crop evapotranspiration at various
growth stages, respectively.

The Kc-value could be obtained from the literature, or may be determined independently from field
experimental data of evapotranspiration. To determine/establish crop coefficient for a particular crop from

9
field data, field experiment should be designed with treatments providing sufficient water supply (no
deficit). For different growth stages, the evapotranspiration of the crop (ETcrop) should be calculated
from water balance equation, as described earlier.

The value varies with crop, development stage of the crop, and to some extent with wind speed and
relative humidity. For most crops, the Kc-value increases from a low value at times of crop emergence to
a maximum value during a period when the crop reaches full development (for most crops at flower
initiation), and declines as the crop matures. The Kc-values for different crops are given in Table 1.

Information required in ETcrop computation are:

 Date of planting
 Length of total growing season
 Duration of initial stage (germination to 10% ground cover)
 Duration of crop development stage (from 10% to 80% ground cover)
 Duration of mid-season stage (from 80% ground cover to start of ripening)
 Duration of late season stage (from start of ripening to harvest)

Table 2. Crop coefficient values for different crops (Kc-value)

Crop development stages
Crop Initial Development Mid-season Late seasom
Banana 0.4 – 0.5 0.70 – 0.85 1.0 – 1.10 0.90 – 1.0
Barley/Oats/Wheat 0.3 – 0.4 0.70 – 0.80 1.05 – 1.20 0.65 – 0.75
Beans – Dry 0.3 – 0.4 0.70 – 0.80 1.05 – 1.20 0.65 – 0.75
- Green 0.3 – 0.4 0.65 – 0.75 0.95 – 1.05 0.90 – 0.95
Cabbage 0.4 – 0.5 0.70 – 0.80 0.95 – 1.10 0.90 – 1.0
Maize 0.3 – 0.5 0.70 – 0.85 1.05 – 1.20 0.80 – 0.95
Onion 0.4 – 0.6 0.70 – 0.80 0.95 – 1.10 0.85 – 0.90
Pepper 0.3 – 0.4 0.60 – 0.75 0.95 – 1.10 0.85 – 1.0
Potato 0.4 – 0.5 0.70 – 0.80 1.05 – 1.20 0.85 – 0.95
Sorghum 0.3 – 0.4 0.7 – 0.75 1.0 – 1.15 0.75 – 0.80
Tomato 0.4 – 0.5 0.70 – 0.80 1.05 – 1.25 0.8 – 0.95
First figure: Under high humidity (RHmin > 70%) & Low wind speed (U < 5 m/s)
Second figure: Under low humidity (RHmin < 20%) & Strong wind speed (U > 5 m/s)

Table 2. Some indicative values of total growing season and crop water requirement for vegetable
crops
Crop Total growing period (days) Seasonal ETcrop (mm)

10
 Cabbage 100 – 150 350 – 500
Carrot 100 – 120 350 – 550
Onion 135 – 175 350 – 550
Pepper 120 – 150 600 – 900
Potato 105 – 150 500 – 700
Tomato 90 – 180 400 – 600
Avocado 300 – 365 1200 – 1600
Banana 300 – 365 1200 – 2200
Citrus 240 – 365 900 – 1200
Mango 300 – 365 1500 – 1700
Papaya 300 – 365 1200 – 1700

Example:
Crop: Head cabbage Location: Melkassa
RH% = 50 and U2 = 8 m/s
Length of total growing seasons: 100 days
ETo remain same during the growing season: 5 mm/ day

What is the ETcrop for head cabbage per season?

Solution:
ETcrop = ETo x Kc (Kc from Table 1 for total growing season)
= 5 x 0.8 = 4mm/day
= 4 x 100 = 400 mm/ season

3. SOIL AND WATER

The soil is an important element in the success of crop production. Their physical, chemical and
biological features will partly determine the irrigation provision and greatly influence irrigation
management and ultimately crop performance. The soil is a habitat for plants and stores water. This water
must be available when plants require it. The water is also is a solvent that, together with the dissolved
nutrients, makes up the solution. The soil moisture will also help control two other important components
so essential for normal plant growth, viz., soil-air and soil temperature. The availability of soil-water to
plants depends upon soil properties such as texture, structure, depth, density, porosity, infiltration and
permeability. Therefore, it is essential to now some of important behavior and physical characteristics of
the soil in this regard.

3.1 The Soil

11
Soil is heterogeneous mass and composed of mineral particles and organic matter. The soils originate
from the degradation of rocks and are called mineral particles. Some originate from residues of plants or
animals (rotting leaves, pieces of bone, etc.), these are called organic particles (or organic matter). The
soil particles seem to touch each other, but in reality have spaces in between. These spaces are called
pores. When the soil is "dry", the pores are mainly filled with air. After irrigation or rainfall, the pores are
mainly filled with water. Living material is found in the soil. It can be live roots as well as beetles,
worms, larvae etc. They help to aerate the soil and thus create favorable growing conditions for the plant
roots (Fig. 5).

The soil also stores nutrient and allows the roots of plants to grow and permits the withdrawal of water
and nutrient during the plants growth life time. However, the soil characteristics such as texture, structure,
bulk density, depth of soil, infiltration or intake characteristics, salinity and water retention characteristics
influence farming.

Figure 5. Composition of a soil

3.1.1. Soil profile

If a pit is dug in the soil at least 1 m deep, various layers of different in colour and composition
can be seen. These layers are called horizons. This succession of horizons is called the profile of
the soil.

3.1.2. Soil texture

The term soil texture refers to the size range of mineral particles in the soil. These minerals particles are
identified by the term ‘clay’, ‘silt’ and ‘sand’. The texture of a soil is determined mainly by its proportion
of clay, silt and sand content.

12
 Figure 7. The soil texture triangle (from Handbook No. 436 U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 1975)

As a general guide a soil is described as:

- Sandy if it has more than 50 % sand and called coarse-textured soils
- Loamy if it has appreciable sand not more than 30 % of clay and called medium-textured soils
- Clayey if it has more than 30 % of clay and less than 50 % of sand and are called fine-textured
soils
To make clear distinction in texture, the percentage of sand, silt and clay in a given soil is first determined
in a laboratory. Using the data, the texture group is determined by means of a chart called textural triangle
chart (Fig. 7). The texture of a soil has a very important influence on the flow of soil water, circulation
of air and the rate of chemical transformations which are of importance to plant life.

13
3.1.3. Soil structure
Soil structure refers to the degree in which individual soil particles aggregate into groups. The particles of
coarse grained soils tend to function as individuals, while the aggregated particles of fine texture soils
tend to form granules. The size and shape of these particle groups, and their stability is defined as the soil
structure.

Structures are developed and improved by cyclic of wetting and drying, freezing and thawing and
combination of these conditions. Organic matter adds stability to the soil aggregate and serves as a
cushion against the effect of tillage. Excessive irrigation, plowing, or otherwise working fine textured
soils, when either too wet or too dry, tends to destroy the structure. Favorable soil structure particularly in
fine textured soils is essential to the satisfactory movement of water and air. The permeability of soils to
water, air and roots, provided by favorable soil structure is equally important to crops growth as are
adequate supplies of nutrient. The basic types of aggregate arrangements are shown in Fig. 8. Common
names for structural types are platy, prismatic, columnar, block, granular and crumb. The most favorable
soil structures for agriculture production are usually prismatic, blocky and granular structures. Platy and
massive structures which are almost identical in their form impede the downward movement of water.
Unlike soil texture, the structure of the soil can be improved.

14
 Figure 8. Types of soil structure and their effect on downward movement of water
Both soil texture and structure directly influence the shape, size and volume fraction of soil pores. Soil
structure governs characteristics of major concern for plant growth: aeration, temperature, movement of
soil solution, microbial activity and root penetration.

3.1.4. Soil depth

Soil depth refers to the thickness of the soil materials which provide structural support, nutrients, and
water for plants. The depth of soil in which to store satisfactory amounts of water should be given due
emphasis. Shallow soils require frequent irrigation water to keep crops growing. Deep soils of medium
texture and loose structure permit plants to root deeply, provide for storage of large volumes of /irrigation
water in the soil, and consequently sustain satisfactory plant growth during relatively long periods
between rain/irrigation.

The volume of water actually absorbed by the same plant roots and consumed to produce a crop may be
practically the same for shallow and deep soils, provided the plants are grown under the same climatic
condition. Under irrigated condition, more water is required during the crop growth season to irrigate a
given crop on a shallow soil than is required for the same crop under a deep soil. The larger number of
irrigation required for shallow soils and greater unavoidable water losses at each irrigation on shallow
soils account for differences in practical water requirement for different soils during the season.

3.1.5. Soil bulk density

Bulk density refers to the soil overall density/compactness of a soil and should be distinguished from the
soil density of the solid soil constituents, usually called the particle density. The bulk density is affected
by structure of the soil, i.e., its looseness or degree of compaction, as well as by its swelling and
shrinkage characteristics, which are dependent upon clay content and wetness. In sandy soil, soil bulk
density can be as high as 1.6 gm/cm3, where as in loams and clay soils, it can be as low as 1.0 gm/cm 3.

3.1.6. Soil porosity

Roots require oxygen for respiration and other metabolic activities. They also absorb water and dissolved
nutrients from the soil, and produce carbon-dioxide, which has to be exchanged with oxygen from the
atmosphere. This aeration process requires open pore space in the soil. If roots are to develop well, water
plus nutrient and air must be available simultaneously. The soils contain small pores (micro-pores) and

15
large pores (macro-pores). The small pores are used for the storage of water and the large pores are used
as channels for the exchange of air and provide adequate drainage condition.

Course-textured soils (sandy soils) have a small percentage of total pore spaces, while fine textured soils
(clays) have a greater percentage of total pore space.

3.1.7. Soil infiltration

Soil infiltration refers to the downward flow of water through the soil surface. It is one of the important
soil properties having greater importance to irrigation. The infiltration rate depends on physical properties
of the soil, such as texture, structure, porosity, moisture content of the soil, degree of compaction, organic
matter etc. Knowledge of the soil infiltration rate is a prerequisite for efficient soil and water
management. Typical infiltration rate for different soil texture is given in Table 2.

Table 2. Infiltration rates related to soil texture

Soil texture Representative, I Normal range of I Category
(mm hr-1) (mm hr-1)
Sandy 50 20 – 250 Rapid
Sandy loam 20 10 – 80 Moderate rapid
Loam 10 10 – 20 Moderate
Clay loam 8 2 – 15 Moderately slow
Silty clay 2 0.3 – 5 Slow
Clay 0.5 0.1 – 8 Very slow

3.2. Salinity
All soils and irrigation water contains a mixture of soluble salts, not all of which are essential for plants
growth. Salts are toxic to plants when present in high concentration. Some plants are more tolerant to a
high salt concentration than others. Table 3 provides salt tolerance level for some vegetable crops.

Table 3. Salt tolerance of vegetable crops

Crop ECe threshold (dS/m) Crop ECe threshold (dS/m)
Cabbage 1.0 – 1.8 Pepper 1.5 – 1.7
Carrot 1.0 Potato 1.7

16
 Onion 1.2 Tomato 0.9 – 2.5
Citrus 1.7 Avocado -
Papaya - Mango -
Banana 1.0

Most crops do not grow well on soils that contain salts. One reason is that salt causes a reduction in the
rate and amount of water that the plant roots can take up from the soil. The salts concentration of the soil
solution is usually higher than that of the applied water. This increase in salinity is the results from plant
transpiration and soil surface evaporation which selectively remove water concentrating the salts in the
remaining soil water.

3.2.1. Soil salinity

A soil may be rich in salts. Salts in soil can develop from the weathering of primary minerals or be
deposited by wind or water that carries salts. The most common source of salts in irrigated soils is the
irrigation water itself. After irrigation, the water added to the soil is used by the plant or evaporates
directly from the moist soil. The salt, however, is left behind in the soil.
The salt affected soils can be classified under three classes as Saline, Saline-sodic and sodic based on
general EC, SAR and pH. The salinity and sodicity are commonly occurring in arid and semi-arid
climatic conditions. The USDA classification of salt-affected soils is given in Table 4.

Table 4. USDA classification of salt affected soils

Soils ECe ESP pH Description

(dS m-1)
Saline > 4 < Usua Non-sodic soils containing sufficient
soils 15 lly < 8.5 soluble salts to interfere with plant growth of
most crops
Saline- > 4 > Usua Soils with sufficient exchangeable sodium
sodic 15 lly < 8.5 to interfere with growth of most plants, and
soils containing appreciable quantities of soluble
salts
Sodic <4 > Usua Soils with sufficient exchangeable sodium
soils 15 lly > 8.5 to interfere with growth of most plants, but
without appreciable quantities of soluble salts

17
3.2.2. Water quality
The quality of irrigation water is judged by the amount of suspended and dissolved materials it contains.
All irrigation water contains dissolved or suspended materials. Suspended materials can be removed with
filters. Crop yield can be reduced significantly when the dissolved materials or salinity of the irrigation
water, is high enough. In some case, even though the salt content of the water is low, continued irrigation
application may gradually build up the salt content in the root zone. Nevertheless, irrigation water quality
is commonly assessed in terms of soluble salts content, percentage of sodium, boron and bicarbonates
contents. High amounts of exchangeable sodium can cause soil particle dispersion that reduces soil
structure and restricts air and water movement into and within the soil. Sodium, chloride, boron and other
ions are toxic to many plants when present in sufficient concentrations. Table 5 indicates the
classification of water quality for irrigation.

Table 5. Guidelines for evaluating irrigation water quality

Degree of restriction on use
Potential irrigation problem Units None Slight to moderate Severe
Salinity: (affecting crop)
ECw\ dS m-1 < 0.7 0.7 – 3.0 >3.0
or
TDS mg lt-1 < 450 450 - 2000 >2000
Infiltration (affecting soil)
SAR = 0 – 3 and ECw = > 0.7 0.7 – 0.2 < 0.2
= 3– 6 = > 1.2 1.2 – 0.3 < 0.3
= 6 – 12 = > 1.9 1.9 – 0.5 < 0.5
= 12 - 20 = > 2.9 2.9 – 1.3 < 1.3
= 20 – 40 = > 5.0 5.0 – 2.9 < 2.9
Specific ion toxicity
(affects sensitive crop) <3
Sodium (Na) surface SAR <3 3–9 > 9
Sprinkler me lt-1 > 3
Chloride ( C ) Surface me lt-1 <4 4 – 10 > 10
Sprinkler me lt-1 <3 >3
Boron ( B ) me lt-1 < 0.7 0.7 – 3.0 > 3.0
Miscellaneous effect
(Affect susceptabe crops)
Nitrogen (NO3 - N) me lt-1 <5 5 - 30 > 30
Bicarbonate (HCO3) me lt-1 < 1.5 1.5 - 8.5 > 8.5
(overhead sprinkling only)

18
pH Normal range 6.5 - 8.4

3.3. Soil Moisture

Plant growth is determined to large extent by the availability of soil moisture, provided there are
sufficient nutrients and oxygen in the soil. If the soil is waterlogged, there will be little dissolved oxygen
available and the amount of air space within the soil will be reduced. With most crops, the roots will die if
they are submerged for a period of 3 days. High water table and inadequate drainage will result in a
shallow root-zone depth.

The soil moisture is alternatively depleted through ET and replenished by rain//irrigation water.
Understanding of the factors that determine the availability of soil moisture is, therefore fundamental to
efficient irrigation practices.

3.3.1. Soil moisture constants

The field capacity and permanent wilting point represent the upper and lower limits of water storage in
the soil and are called the soil moisture constants. Some of the soil moisture characteristics are shown in
Fig. 9.

Saturation: the condition in which all the pore spaces in a soil are filled completely with water. A
soil is saturated or nearly so for a short time after water is applied until drainage takes place.

Field Capacity, FC: water held in excess will be drained away by gravity and when the rate of
downward movement of water by gravity ceases, a soil is said to reach FC. This will take place 2 to 3
days after heavy rain or irrigation. The FC is, therefore, the approximate starting point from which plants
began to use water from the soil. At FC the macro pores are filled with air and the micro pores are filled
with water

Permanent Wilting Point, PWP: the moisture content of the soil below which the plants can not readily
obtain water and plant remain wilt (die). Some plants will not wilt but show other signs such as decreased
plant height and change of colour. Temporary wilting could occur on a hot, windy day, particularly in the
case of broad-leafed plants, even when the soil is well supplied with water, plants usually recover from
wilting when atmospheric conditions change. For all practical purpose the value of FC and PWP is fixed.

19
 Figure 9. Some of soil moisture characteristics

Total Available Soil Water content, TASW: It is the difference between FC and PWP. Soils differ in their
capacity to store water. Coarse like sandy soils have less available water than well structured clay soils,
because most of the pores in sandy soils are too large to retain water. Organic matter increases the
available soil water capacity. Table 6 shows the range of FC, PWP and available water content for
different soils.

Table 6. Range of FC, PWP and ASWC under different soils

Soil texture FC PWP TASW
(%) (mm m ) -1
(%) (mm m-1) (%) (mm m-1)
Sandy (L) 6 – 12 100 – 200 2–6 30 – 100 4–6 70 – 100
Sandy loam (L) 10 – 18 140 – 270 4–8 60 – 120 6 – 10 90 – 150
Loam (M) 18 – 16 250 – 360 8 – 12 110 – 170 10 – 14 140 – 190
Clay loam (M) 23 – 31 300 – 430 11 – 15 140 – 210 12 – 16 170 – 220
Silty clay (H) 27 – 35 340 – 460 13 – 17 160 – 230 14 – 18 180 – 230
Clay (H) 31 – 39 370 – 500 15 – 19 180 – 250 16 – 20 190 – 260
L = light soils; M = Medium soils; H = Heavy soils

3.3.2. Readily Available Soil Moisture / Allowable Soil Moisture Depletion, ASMD
It is the portion of the total available water (FC – PWP) which is most easily extracted by the plant roots
without creating stress. The water content approaching PWP cannot be easily extracted by the plant roots.
Therefore, only part of the TASW is used before the next irrigation. The term Maximum/management
Allowable Deficiency, MAD, can be used to compute the amount of water that can be used without
adversely affecting the plants and can be expressed as a fraction of the TASW. This value varies with the

20
crop type and could be obtained experimentally. Once the MAD is known, it is possible to compute the
net irrigation water requirement, IRn, necessary to restore the main root-zone, Rz, to FC. Values of MAD
together with the maximum rooting depth for varies crops is given in Table 7.

Table 7. Some of the rooting depth of fully grown vegetable and fruit crops and MAD
Crop Rz (cm) MAD (fraction)
Cabbage 40 – 50 0.45
Carrots 45 – 65 0.35
Onion 30 – 50 0.25
Peppers 50 – 100 0.25
Potatoes 40 – 60 0.25
Tomatoes 70 – 150 0.40
Avocado 0.5 – 1.0 0.70
Banana 0.5 – 0.9 0.35
Citrus 1.2 - .15 0.50
Mango 1.2 - .15 0.50
Papaya 0.5 – 0.9 0.40

Table Crop groups according to soil water depletion

Group Crops
1 Onion, pepper, potato
2 Banana, cabbage, grape, pea, tomato
3 Alfalfa, bean, citrus, groundnut, pineapple, sunflower, watermelon, wheat
4 Cotton, maize, olive, safflower, sorghum, soybean, sugar beet, sugarcane, tobacco
3.4. Method of Measuring Soil Water Contents

Oven dry method

One of the commonest methods of determining soil moisture content is the oven-dry method. It consists
of taking a soil sample of approximately 200 grams, determining its exact weight, and drying the sample
in an oven at a temperature of 105 centigrade for 24 hours, then weighing the sample and determining the
moisture loss by subtracting the oven-dry weight from the moist weight.

Moisture content is expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the soil:

= weight of wet soil (gm) – weight of dry soil (gm) X 100
Weight of dry soil (gm)

Gypsum-block method

The electrical properties of conductance or resistance can be used to indicate the moisture content of soils.
The electrical properties of soils change when moisture content changes

21
Porous blocks of gypsum containing electrical elements are placed in the soil. The moisture content of the
blocks changes as the soil moisture content changes. As the moisture increases, the amount of gypsum in
solution increases and the resistance between electrical elements in the block decreases. Therefore, the
more water in the soil is the lower the resistance.

Figure 10. Three Resistance blocks installed in the field

To measure soil moisture, the blocks are buried in the ground at the desired depth, with wire leads to the
soil surface. A meter is connected to the wire leads and a reading is taken. The interpretation of the
reading is given in Table 8.
Table 8. Interpretation of Readings on Electrical Resistance Meters as Related to Soil Water
Tension
Soil moisture condition Bars Tension Meter Readings* Interpretation
Nearly saturated less than 0.05 0 to 5 Near saturated soil. Occurs for a
few hours following a
rain/irrigation.
Field capacity 0.10 to 0.20 5 to 20 Field capacity. Irrigations
discontinued in this range.
Irrigation range 0.20 to 0.60 20 to 60 Usual range for starting irrigation.
Starting irrigation in this range
insures maintaining readily
available soil moisture at all times
Dry greater than 0.60 more than 60 Stress range for most soils and
crops. Some soil moisture present
but dangerously low for maximum
plant growth and production
* These readings will vary according to meter type and soil type.

Materials such as fiber glass and nylon have also been used for making blocks. Gypsum blocks operate
best at tensions between 1 and 15 atmospheres, while nylon blocks are more sensitive and function best at

22
tensions less than two atmospheres. Because of their volubility, gypsum blocks deteriorate in one to three
seasons. Gypsum blocks are less sensitive than nylon and fiber glass blocks to soil salts.

Tensiometer

A Tensiometer is a sealed, water-filled tube with a porous ceramic tip on the lower end and a vacuum
gauge on the upper end. The tube is installed in the soil with the ceramic tip placed at the desired root
zone depth and with the gauge above ground. As soil dries out, the soil particles retain the water with
greater force. Tensiometer measure how tightly the soil water is being held. The interpr etation of the
reading is given in Table 9. In dry soil, water is drawn out of the instrument, reducing the water volume in
the tube and creating a partial vacuum which is registered on the gauge. The drier the soil, the higher is
the reading.

Figure 11. Tensiometer installed in the field

When the soil receives water through rainfall or irrigation the action is reversed. The vacuum inside the
tube draws water from the soil back into the instrument which in turn results in lower gauge readings.
Tensiometer work well in soils with high soil-water content, but tend to lose good soil contact when the
soil becomes too dry

Table 9. The interpretation of the Tensiometer reading

Reading (in Centibar ) Interpretation
0 Very wet – Saturated
10 – 25 Favorable moisture and aeration condition
25 – 40 It is required to irrigate for most sensitive plants with shallow root

23
 system and light soils
40 – 50 It is required to provide irrigation for plants with moderate water needs
50 – 70 It is required to provide irrigation for plants with deep rooted system
growing on moderate soils – incase of heavier soils, one can start
irrigation later when the gauge reading is about to reach the value of 70
centibars. Beyond 70 is stress range
80 Relatively dry soil

Neutron probe

A neutron probe is a device used to measure the quantity of water present in soil. The neutron probe has
been used extensively in research to determine soil moisture. A neutron probe contains a radioactive
source that sends out fast neutrons. When fast neutrons hit a hydrogen atom, they slow down. A detector
within the probe measures the rate of fast neutrons leaving and slow neutrons returning. This ratio can
then be used to estimate soil moisture content. However, because every soil has some background
hydrogen sources that are not related to water, calibration is important for each soil. To measure soil
moisture with a neutron probe, an access tube is installed into the ground. Then, the probe (which
contains the radioactive source and the detector) is lowered to the desired depth (Fig. 12.).

Figure 12. A Neutron probe measuring soil moisture in the field

Feel method

Feel method involves estimating soil-water by feeling the soil. Determining soil moisture by feeling the
soil has been used for many years by researchers and growers alike. By squeezing the soil between the
thumb and forefinger or by squeezing the soil in the palm of a hand, a fairly accurate estimate of soil
moisture can be determined. A soil probe is used to sample the soil profile. Soil moisture is evaluated by
feeling the soil. Then a chart is used to judge relative moisture levels. It is important to sample numerous
locations throughout the field as well as several depths in the soil profile. It takes a bit of time and some

24
experience, but it is a proven method. Table 10 gives a description of “how the soil should feel” at certain
soil moisture levels.

Table 10. Guide for judging how much of available moisture has been removed from the soil
Depletion of Feel or appearance of soil and moisture deficiency in centimeters of water per
Available Soil water of soil
Moisture in % Coarse texture Moderately coarse Medium texture Fine & very fine
texture texture
0 Upon squeezing, Upon squeezing Upon squeezing, Upon squeezing,
(Filed capacity) no free water free water appears no free water no free water
appears on soil but on soil but wet appears on soil but appears on soil but
wet outline of bell outline of ball is wet outline of ball wet outlying of
is left on hand left on hand is left on hand ball is left on hand
0 – 25 Tends to stick Forms week ball, Forms a ball, is Easily ribbons out
together slightly, breaks easily, willvery pliable, slicks between fingers,
sometimes forms a not slick readily if has slick feeling
very weak ball relatively high in
under pr clay
25-50 Appears to be dry, Tends to ball Forms a ball Forms a ball,
will not form a under pressure but somewhat plastic, ribbons or
ball with pressure seldom holds will slick slightly between thumb
together with pressure and fore-finger
50-75 Appears to be dry, Appears to be dry, Somewhat Somewhat pliable,
will not form a will not form a crumbly but holds will ball under
ball with pressure ball together from pressure
pressure
75-100 Dry, loose single Dry, loose, flows Powdery, dry, Hard, baked,
(100 percent is grained, flows through fingers sometimes slightly cracked,
permanent wilting through fingers crusted but easily sometimes has
point) broken down into loose crumbs on
powdery condition surface

4. IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENT

Irrigation is generally defined as the artificial application of water by human being to soil for the purpose
of supplying the moisture essential for plant growth and production. The total amount of water that must
be supplied by irrigation during the crop growth period is termed as irrigation water requirement (net,
IRn). The irrigation water requirement of a certain crop is, therefore, the difference between the crop
water need and that part of the rainfall which can be used by the crop (the effective rainfall).
Mathematically it can be expressed as:

25
 IRn (mm) = ETcrop (mm) – Effective rainfall (mm)

Suppose a tomato crop grown in a certain area has a total growing season of 150 days from February to
June. The rainfall incidence, as recorded from the meteorological station, and the ETcrop, as predicted
from certain model, are as shown in Table 11.
Irrigation water requirement for the tomatoes can be calculated on a monthly basis and for the total
growth period. The total ETcrop of tomatoes over the entire growing season is 786 mm of which 68 mm
is supplied by rainfall. The remaining quantity (786 - 68 = 718 mm) has to be supplied by irrigation.

Gross irrigation amount (mm) = Net amount (mm)

Irrigation efficiency

= Management Allowable Depletion (MAD)

Irrigation efficiency

Table 11. Irrigation water requirement

Months Feb Mar Apr May June Total
ETcrop (mm/month) 69 123 180 234 180 786
Rainfall: P (mm/month) 20 38 40 80 16 194
Effective rainfall: Pe (mm/month) 2 13 14 39 0 68
Net-irrigation water requirement, IR 67 110 166 195 180 718
n(mm)
Gross irrigation requirement, Ea = 0.70 98 157 237 279 257 1026

4.1. Irrigation Efficiency

While transporting and applying water to the irrigated field, some wastage occurs. Water losses could
occur even in best irrigation water management. Thus, some losses of irrigation water are inevitable.
When computing irrigation requirement, an efficiency factor needs to be applied to account for losses,
therefore, gross irrigation requirement.

The most important efficiency terms in connection with irrigation are conveyance, Ec, distribution, Ed,
application efficiencies, Ea and overall project efficiencies, Ep and where Ep = Ec x Ed x Ex.

4.2. Leaching Requirement, LR

This is a fraction of the irrigation water applied and leached through the root zone to prevent the build-up
of salt and keep a favorable salt balance in the root zone. The LR can be computed from the following
relationship:

26
 LR = ECw for surface irrigation
5ECe – ECw

LR = ECw for drip irrigation

2(maxECe)

Where, ECw is the salinity of irrigation water in dS m -1 and ECe is the EC corresponding to 90 percent
yield potential in dS m-1 (see Table 10)

The total quantity of water required to satisfy both ETcrop and LR to control soil salinity is equal to:
IRn
1 + LR

where IRn is the net irrigation requirement in mm.

Table 13. Crop tolerance and yield potential of selected crops as influenced by irrigation water
salinity (ECw) or soil salinity (ECe)
Crops 100 % 90 % 75 % 50 % 0%
ECe – ECw ECe – ECw ECe – ECw ECe – ECw ECe – ECw
Tomato 2.5 1.7 3.5 2.3 5.0 3.4 7.6 5.0 13 8.4
Cabbage 1.8 1.2 2.8 1.9 4.4 2.9 7.0 4.6 12 8.1
Potato 1.7 1.1 2.5 1.7 3.8 2.5 5.9 3.9 10 6.7
Pepper 1.5 1.0 2.2 1.5 3.3 2.2 5.1 3.4 8.6 5.8
Onion 1.2 0.8 1.8 1.2 2.8 1.8 4.3 2.9 7.4 5.0
Carrot 1.0 0.7 1.7 1.1 2.8 1.9 4.6 3.0 8.1 5.4
Avocado
Banana
Citrus
Mango
Papaya

5. IRRIGATION SCHEDULING

Irrigation scheduling is the process of determining when to irrigate and how much irrigation water to
apply. In theory, water could be given daily. But, as this would be very time and labour consuming, it is
preferable to have a longer irrigation interval. The irrigation water will be stored in the root zone and
gradually be used by the plants. The irrigation interval has to be chosen in such a way that the crop will
not suffer from water shortage. Different approaches can be used for scheduling irrigation water
application. In these manual, irrigation scheduling is based on MAD. The maximum depth which can be
given has to be determined and may be influenced by the soil type and the root zone depth.

The soil type influences the maximum amount of water which can be stored in the soil per meter depth of
the soil. Sand can store only a little water or, in other words, sand has low available water content. On

27
sandy soils it will thus be necessary to irrigate frequently with a small amount of water. Clay has high
available water content. Thus on clayey soils, larger amounts can be given, less frequently. The root
depth of a crop also influences the maximum amount of water which can be stored in the root zone. If
the root system of a crop is shallow, little water can be stored in the root zone and frequent - but
small - irrigation applications are needed. This is the case for most vegetable crops except pepper
and tomato. With deep rooting crops more water can be taken up and more water can be applied, less
frequently. Young plants have shallow roots compared to fully grown plants. Thus, just after planting or
sowing, the crop needs smaller and more frequent water applications than when it is fully developed.

Root zone water content near FC at planting insures rapid early growth and normal root development.
Moisture stress from flower initiation to seed formation should be avoided and should be given sufficient
irrigation to meet the day-to-day ETcrop demand with a frequency that maintains high soil moisture in the
root zone.

Most crops in deep, uniform soils use moisture more slowly from the lower root zone than from the upper
soil. The top quarter is the first to be exhausted of available moisture, the plant then has to draw its
moisture from the lower three-quarters of root depth (Fig. 13). Monitoring the soil moisture at mid of the
plant root zone depth is essential to maintain adequate moisture and to sustain better growth and
reproduction of the plant.

Figure 13. Typical water extraction pattern in uniform soil profile

5.1. Irrigation Scheduling Methods

28
Irrigations can be scheduled using methods varying from simple soil water monitoring using the feel and
appearance method to sophisticated computer assisted programs that predict plant growth. Scheduling
involves continual updating of field information and forecasting future irrigation dates and amounts. Crop
yield and quality can be improved with most plants by maintaining lower soil-water tensions (higher
moisture levels). Thus, it is wise to irrigate when the soil profile can hold a full irrigation. Waiting until a
predetermined percent of soil AWC is used can cause unnecessary stress.

5.1.1. Fixed irrigation interval

This is by far the most common practices used in many developing countries. Irrigation turns are
mutually agreed and fixed among the growers and irrigation to crops is applied according to fixed pre-
determined schedule. This method does not give due consideration to crop water requirements. The
crops are either under irrigated or over irrigated, depending upon the crop growth stage and climatic
conditions. In general, crops are over irrigated at establishment and maturity stage when crop water
requirement is minimum and are generally under irrigated during vegetative, flowering and fruit
development stages when crops need maximum water for growth, flowering and fruit bearing. Most
vegetable crops are sensitive to soil moisture deficit requiring attention to keep the irrigation schedule
within allowable/ manageable moisture deficit level. To attain high yield and quality vegetable crops,
irrigation should not be avoided during most sensitive growth stages as indicated in Table 14.

Table 14. Sensitive growth periods of vegetable crops for water shortage
Crop Growth periods sensitive to water deficit
Cabbage During head enlargement and ripening
Carrot Throughout the growth period
Onion Bulb enlargement, particularly during rapid bulb growth > vegetative period (and for
seed production at flowering)
Pepper Throughout but particularly just prior and at start of flowering
Potato Period of stolonization and tuber initiation, yield formation > early vegetative period
and ripening
Tomato Flowering > yield formation > Vegetative period, particularly during and just
transplanting
Avocado Flowering and fruiting
Banana Throughout but particularly during first part of vegetative period, flowering and
yield formation
Citrus Flowering and fruit set > fruit enlargement
Mango Flowering and fruiting
Papaya Flowering and fruiting

29
5.1.2. Computational method
The depth of irrigation water which can be given during one irrigation application is however limited. The
maximum depth which can be given has to be determined and may be influenced by the soil type and the
root zone depth.

Once it is determined that after how many days the crop should be irrigated then the amount of irrigation
to be applied can be computed by working out daily evapotranspiration rate of the crop to be irrigated.
ETc = ETo x Kc

where, ETc = Evapotranspiration rate mm/day; ETo = Reference evapotranspiration rate mm/day and Kc
= Crop co-efficient.

ETc can be calculated by a number of methods, most popular being Penman-Monteith Method using local
agro-meteorological data. Tables are available which contains Kc values of common crops for different
growth stages and for different climate regions. Once ETo and Kc Values are known then it is simple
multiplication to calculate daily evapotranspiration (ETc). Then daily ETc is multiplied with the number
of days the crop is to be irrigated, to find out the amount of irrigation to be applied.

Step-wise computation of irrigation scheduling for a particular crop

To compute proper irrigation scheduling for crops, it is necessary to know the type of crop, growth stage,
effective root zone, available water holding capacity of the soil and daily evapotranspiration rate (ETc) of
the crop. Then follow the procedure given below step by step to compute irrigation scheduling.

Step 1. Compute ETo and obtain appropriate Kc-values to get daily ETcrop demand
Step 2. Find out the root zone depth at different growth stages
Step 3. Find out the TASW in the root zone for the respective growth stages
Step 4. Find out MAD
Step 5. Divide step 4 by daily ETcrop (step 1), this will give irrigation interval in days
Step 6. Multiply step 5 with ETcrop (step 1). This will give net irrigation requirement for the given
growth stage
Step 7. Divide step 6 with application efficiency, Ea. This will give gross irrigation requirement, IRg.
Step 8. Find out additional irrigation water requirement for leaching out the soil, if needed from:
Dw = IRn
1 - LR

30
Once irrigation interval and amount is fixed, it is a matter of computing the discharge and time required to
refill the soil moisture. The time required to refill the soil moisture can be obtained from the following
relationship:
T = Dw
I

where T is time required to refill the soil moisture depleted in hrs, Dw is the depth of irrigation water
to be applied in mm and I is infiltration rate of the soil in mm hr -1.

The discharge rate, Q, for a particular field can be obtained from:

Q (l/s) = A * d
T*3600

Where Q is in lt./sec, A is area to be irrigated in m2, d in mm and T in hr

6. IRRIGATION WATER APPLICATION METHODS

Various methods can be used to supply irrigation water to the plants. Each method has its advantages and
disadvantages. These should be taken into account when choosing the method which is best suited to the
local circumstances. A simple irrigation method is to bring water from the source of supply, e.g. a well, to
each plant with a bucket or a watering can.
This can be a very time-consuming method and involves very heavy work. However, it can be used
successfully to irrigate very small plots of land, such as vegetable gardens, that are close to the water
source.
More sophisticated methods of water application are used when larger areas require irrigation. There are
three commonly used methods: surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation.
Surface irrigation is the application of water by gravity flow to the surface of the field. Either the entire
field is flooded (basin irrigation) or the water is fed into small channels (furrows) or strips of land
(borders).
Sprinkler irrigation is similar to natural rainfall. Water is pumped through a pipe system and then sprayed
into the air through rotating sprinkler heads so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the
ground. Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be sprayed over or
under the crop canopy. However, large sprinklers are not recommended for irrigation of delicate crops
such as lettuce because the large water drops produced by the sprinklers may damage the crop.
Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether uniform or undulating. Sprinklers are best
suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates although they are adaptable to most soils. The average

31
application rate from the sprinklers (in mm/hour) is always chosen to be less than the basic infiltration
rate of the soil so that surface ponding and runoff can be avoided. Sprinklers are not suitable for soils
which easily form a crust.
Drip irrigation is a system for supplying filtered water (and fertilizer) directly onto or into the soil. The
water is distributed under low pressure with a small discharge to each plant. There
are three main categories

0:
 drip irrigation - emitters apply water slowly to the soil surface
 spray irrigation - water is sprayed to the soil near individual trees
 bubbler irrigation - a small stream is applied to flood small basins or the soil adjacent to
individual trees
In drip irrigation Only the immediate root zone of each plant is wetted. Therefore this can be a very
efficient method of irrigation. Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation.
Drip irrigation is most suitable for row crops (vegetables, soft fruit), tree and vine crops where one or
more emitters can be provided for each plant. Generally only high value crops are considered because of
the high capital costs of installing a drip system. Drip irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope.
Normally the crop would be planted along contour lines and the water supply pipes (laterals) would be
laid along the contour also. This is done to minimize changes in emitter discharge as a result of land
elevation changes.
Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils. On clay soils water must be applied slowly to avoid surface
water ponding and runoff. On sandy soils higher emitter discharge rates will be needed to ensure adequate
lateral wetting of the soil.
One of the main problems with drip irrigation is blockage of the emitters. All emitters have very small
waterways ranging from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter and these can become blocked if the water is not clean.
Thus it is essential for irrigation water to be free of sediments. If this is not so then filtration of the
irrigation water will be needed. Blockage may also occur if the water contains algae, fertilizer deposits
and dissolved chemicals which precipitate such as calcium and iron. Filtration may remove some of the
materials but the problem may be complex to solve and requires an experienced engineer or consultation
with the equipment dealer.
Drip irrigation is particularly suitable for water of poor quality (saline water). Dripping water to
individual plants also means that the method can be very efficient in water use. For this reason it is most
suitable when water is scarce.

32
7. FLOW MEASUREMENT

For large discharges the following device could be used:

 Weirs (thin-plate, rectangular, triangular or V-Notch, trapezoidal)

 Orifices

For small discharges and plot level irrigation the following devices could be used:
 Flumes (constructed and installed)

(a) Parshall, (b) Trapezoidal, (c) WSC, (d) Cutthroat, (e) V-Notch

 Siphon tube

Table 15. Discharge (l/s) for Parshall flumes of various throat width

Head (cm) Throat Width (cm)

7.5 15 23 30 61

3 0.78 1.4 2.5

4 1.2 2.3 4.0
5 1.6 3.1 5.4
6 2.3 4.5 7.3 9.8 18
7 2.9 5.7 9.0 12 23
8 3.5 7.1 11 15 28
9 4.3 8.6 13 18 35
10 5.0 10 15 21 41
11 5.8 12 18 24 46

Discharge measurement using 3’ Parshall flume

A = 15 m2 (3 by 5 m plot area)
Table 16. Flow rate and time required to irrigate using Parshall flume

Head Reading q , Discharge T, Time Required (min.)

(cm) (l/s) = A*drz/6*q

Drz Drz Drz

= 7.5 cm = 12.5 cm = 10.25 cm

33
 3 0.78 24.04 40.06 32.9
4 1.20
5 1.60

References
Allen, .R. Pereira, L.A. Raes, .D. Simth, M., 1998. Crop Evapotranspiration Guidelines for Computing
Crop Water Requirement. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, FAO, Rome. Italy.

Allen, R.G., Smith, M., Perrier, A., and Pereira, L.S. 1994a. An update for the definition of reference
evapotranspiration. ICID Bulletin. 43(2). 1-34.

Ayers, R. S. and D. W. Westcot, 1994. Water Quality for Agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper
No. 29, Rev.1.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy.

Brady, N.C., and R.R. Weil, 2002. The nature and Properties of Soils. 13th ed. Person Education Ltd.,
USA.

Doorenbos, J. and Kassam, A.H. 1979. Yield response to water. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No.
33, FAO, Rome, Italy. 193 pp.

Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt, W.O. 1975. Guidelines for predicting crop water requirements. Irrigation and
Drainage Paper 24, FAO, Rome, Italy. 179 p.

Howell, T.A., Schneider, A.D., and Jensen, M.E. 1991. History of lysimeter design and use for
evapotranspiration measurements. In Allen, R.G., Howell, T.A., Pruitt, W.O., Walter, I.A., and
Jensen, M.E. (Editors), Lysimeters for Evapotranspiration and Environmental Measurements.
ASCE, New York, NY p. 1-9.

Jensen, M.E. 1974. (ed.) Consumptive use of water and irrigation water requirements. Rep. Tech. Com.
on Irrig. Water Requirements, Irrig. and Drain. Div., ASCE, 227 pp.

34
Jensen, M.E., 1983. Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems. ASAE publishing, USA.

Kirkham, M. B. 2005. Principles of soil and plant water relations. Elsevier Academic Press. New York,
USA.

Smith, M 1992. CROPWAT, a computer program for irrigation planning management. FAO Irrigation
and Drainage Paper No.46. FAO. Rome. Italy.

Smith, M., Allen, R.G., Monteith, J.L., Perrier, A., Pereira, L., and Segeren, A. 1992. Report of the expert
consultation on procedures for revision of FAO guidelines for prediction of crop water
requirements. FAO, Rome, Italy, 54 p.

35