LECTURE 2

SUBJECT AND METHODS OF DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY.

MAIN RECTANGULAR PROJECTION OF GEOMETRIC SHAPES
Plan
2.1 The basic method of descriptive geometry - the method
proektsiyuvannya
2.2 Method of orthogonal proektsiyuvannya
2.3 Construction of diagrams point algorithm for its coordinates
2.4 Direct and diagrams on plane Monge

Descriptive geometry helps cadets and students to develop spatial thinking,

design skills and accustom neatness and accuracy on duty skippers for this:
1) examine different ways of spatial forms an image on a plane;
2) Expand the geometric properties of figures according to the images;
3) examine graphical methods for solving engineering problems;
4) build teach drawing;
5) learn to read blueprints;
6) examine ways to build three-dimensional image on a plane items;
7) form the ability to determine the shape and volume of the object, its size, shape
and arrangement of its parts, the position of the object relative to other bodies and
all of its properties;
8) examine different ways of spatial forms an image on the plane, discover
geometric properties of figures according to the images, graphics investigate
methods for solving problems of positional and geometric metric character.

Descriptive geometry studies the methods of the image three-dimensional

space on a flat and graphical methods for solving problems image.
The main element of the image or three-dimensional space is considered to
be the point. Any set of points called a geometric figure. The basic geometric
shapes, which deals descriptive geometry, except point is another direct and flat
that do not exist and therefore model. Their model is called abstract.
Point - is any object or reflection, shape and size of which despise. Model
point is the trail that leaves the paper acutely sharpened object.
Direct - is a set of points that are equally distant from three different points
in space and linearly independent. The model line, which has the thickness and
width, but infinite can be considered infinite thin bent wire.
The flat - a set of points equally distant from two given points in space.
Model flats (infinite in two perpendicular directions without thickness) can be
considered as the surface of the oceans.
By geometric figures also include geometric space, which is a collection of
similar objects (points, lines or surfaces). The geometric space defined dimension,
which refers to the number of mutually perpendicular directions, carried out in any
part of this space. In terms of measurability descriptive geometry studies such
spaces 0-dimensional (R0 - point), 2-dimensional (R2 - line), 3-dimensional (R3 -
space that surrounds us), and multi - Rn.
 An important mathematical concept of space is reflected  the rule by which
each point one space is associated with one and only one point more space. For
example, you can display a three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional
commonly performed and for the construction drawings.
The peculiarity of descriptive geometry, which distinguishes it among other
fields of geometry, is its main method - the method of projection images. It is on
that plane projections, such as PI, through the projection beam based spatial image
fi¬hury; if the rays emanating from a fixed point in space, such proektsiyuvannya
call center (Figure 2.1 a) if they are parallel to each other - parallel or oblique
(Figure 2.1 b).
Basic properties proektsiyuvannya way clearly stem from the analysis of
Figure 2.1. Consider first the properties common to all methods
proektsiyuvannya.

а) б)
FIGURE 2.1 - ILLUSTRATION IMAGE PROJECTION METHOD
A) - CENTRAL; I) – PARALLEL
1) The projection point is always a point in the plane of the projections as a result
of crossing the projection beam, which passes through a given point of the plane of
projection. In symbolic form this can be written as:
А  SA)  (Via point A beam holding SA);
SA)  1 = A1  (SA beam crosses the plane of projections П1 at point A 1.
2) The projection of a point belonging to the plane of projection coincides
with point.
  .
3) The projection of the line is a direct projection plane passing through the
intersection of direct spatial plane projections. This point direct call her track of
projections.       
4) If direct (CE) coincides with the projection beam is the point of projection plane
projections. This point is called track-direct projection or projection degenerate
line.
(CE)      C1
 5) The intersection lines proektsyuyetsya projections at the intersection of
these lines.
6) projection plane in general, the process is very proektsiyuvannya plane
projections. But the projection of the projection plane isdirect. On the one hand,
this arbitrary line crossing the plane of the plane of projection, and on the other
hand, this line is the projection of arbitrary plane to plane projections. Such
projection planes called their footsteps-projections. Thus, for direct projection
plane SAB (A1V1) plane P1 is its track-projection.
7) projection of three-dimensional shapes are two-dimensional.
8) Projection figures remain incidence ratio and continuity, that is, if the
point belongs to the line, the projection of this point also belong to the same line of
projection; If the figure is a continuous set of points, then it is also continuous
projection set points.

1.2 Orthogonal projection method

Central projection characterized positive qualities, their great visibility and easy
idea because the human visual apparatus works according to the rules of the
central proektsiyuvannya (Figure 1.2). But they are inherent defects, as the
complexity of constructing an image, determining the actual size of the figure
due to significant distortions of form and linear and angular dimensions (Figure
2.3). So central proektsiyuvannya has limited use in practice, it is used in fields
such as architecture, construction, painting and more.

Figure 2.2 - The basis of visual perception of Figure 2.3 - The central projection
objects - method central proektsiyuvannya (perspective) of interior space

Parallel projection at least meet the conditions of visual perception than central.
Because the human eye can not be located at infinity. But in practice, imaging used
mainly parallel projection, including rectangular, orthogonal or when the projector
beam perpendicular to the plane of projection. This is positive qualities orthogonal
projections, namely:
One Simplicity of construction and lack of distortion linear and angular size of the
object that are parallel to the plane of projection.
2 All items subject depicted in the same scale, clearly defined their size and
relative position.

In the method of projection image point in space corresponds to a single point in

the plane of projection. This direct problem of descriptive geometry. However, it
also solves the problem and the opposite, which is that for the projection of points
on the plane projections repair it in space, that is, to determine its position.
Operation proektsiyuvannya not allow to solve this second problem of descriptive
geometry, projection for a single point in the plane of the projections correspond to
all points in space projection beam. In such cases say that the drawing has
obernenosti. It is also called incomplete.
The question is how to supplement projection drawing to make it reverse, that is, to
allow for the projection drawing to solve the second problem of descriptive
geometry.
There are several ways to build inverse drawings. One further developed the
famous French statesman and geometry Gaspard Monge (1746-1818), who
published in 1798 in Paris, the first systematic course in descriptive geometry.
Under the scheme Monge original proektsyuyetsya two mutually perpendyku-polar
plane projections P1 and P2 (Figure 2.4 a), and then the plane P1 together with the
original projection by rotating it around its axis plane x12 combined with P2. The
resulting drawings (Figure 2.4, b) is called the Monge diagrams, or even complex
drawings.

а) б)
Figure 2.4 - Projecting the two mutually perpendicular planes
 Figure 2.5 - Model of three-dimensional Figure 2.6 - Diagrams points with 3
space projections
So:
1 Two projections of the same point on the diagram clearly determine its position
in space.
2 Flat drawings, which are connected in one plane projections with original
projections, called Monge diagrams or complex drawings.
3 x12 Direct, on which planes intersect projections P1 and P2, called the axis of
projections. A characteristic feature is that it unlimited.
4 If the projection axis coordinate system to install, it is the axis of coordinates.
Under the system of coordinates understand: the origin, direction and scale.
Model three-dimensional space is a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system of
three axes Oxyz (Figure 2.5). Each pair of axes creates coordinate plane П1, П2,
П3. Then the axes are the result of the intersection coordinate planes:
x12 = П1  П2 , y13 = П1  П3, z23 =П2  П3 (рисунок 2.5).
The provisions of points in R3 defined by three coordinates x, y, z, which
respectively define the distance from the point of coordinate planes П3, П2 and
П1. So determinant point in R3 are its three coordinates (ordered triple of
numbers). Short is recorded as follows: A (x, y, z).
During determinant geometric shapes understand the totality of all
conditions to fully and clearly define this shape in a given system.
Model R3 establishes a one-to-one correspondence between the ordered
triple of numbers and dots. So, if you choose any three coordinates, they determine
only one point in space. Conversely, if you select any point in R3, then it will meet
three specific coordinates of (Figure 2.5). They are using transactions
proektsiyuvannya points on the coordinate plane projections.
Operation establishing one-to-one correspondence between the three space
coordinates and points transaction is called coordination points in space in the
system axes Oxyz, and the method - coordinate.
To move the model to R3 of force, plane projections П1 and П3 with
projections they connect point A with the plane of rotation around the axis П2 x 12 i
z23. In this case, the axis y13 be cut lengthwise. As a result, the steps get a flat
drawing point A or point A diagram (Figure 2.6).
Analysis of force point

1 Each view point is determined by two coordinates:

А1 : х, у; А2 : x, z; A3 : y, z .
2 Any two points on the projection diagram defined in R 3 of the three
coordinates x, y, z. This means that, firstly, the diagram is complete and metrically
reverse drawing; secondly, the diagram is the projection model R3.
So found the key that allows graphical coding spatial tasks translate into the
language of analytical geometry and vice versa; Thirdly, diagrams figures in three
planes of projections includes extra information. In practice, build diagrams of
basic geometric shapes perform in the system two planes projections tend P1 P2.
 3 Projections point to a number of diagrams with positional properties,
namely:
- horizontal A1 and A2 front projection point A is always placed on the same
vertical line projection of communication;
- front A2 and A3 profiling projections point A is always placed on the same
horizontal projection lines of communication;
- horizontal A1 and A3 profiling projections point A placed on the projection
lines of communication that intersect at a right angle bisector Y1OY3. This was
called bisect the line drawing constant and link A1A0A3 - horizontal-vertical
projection line connection or broken (Figure 2.6).
4 Construction of a third projection point A, known as its two projections A 1
and A2, can be done in three ways:
- projection (points on the axes Y1 and Y3 connect the arc of the circle);
- coordinate using the property that the horizontal distance from the
projection point to the x-axis is the distance from the point to the profile projection
axis z;
- using constant direct drawings.

2.3 Construction of diagrams point algorithm for its coordinates

2.3.1 depicts projection model R3, ie plot axes X12, y1, y3, z23 on a sheet of
drawing.
 2.3.2 lay along the axes coordinate values x, y, z. Moreover, the value of
the coordinates of lay twice along the axes y1 and y3. Denote the coordinate
point A X12 A y1, y3 And A z23.
2.3.3 A point coordinate axes perpendicular to carry out direct to their
mutual intersection in corresponding projections point.
If the coordinate plane projections uttermost move parallel to itself, the
projection figures they remain unchanged in size and relative position. This feature
allows parallel projections switch to drawings without specifying the axis
projections, which are widely used in the practice of construction engineering
drawings. So then all drawing basic geometric shapes will perform in bezosniy
system.

2.4 Direct and diagrams on plane Monge

Given the fact that the line is infinite, for the construction of its use of
force determinant, which may include geometric elements: 1) two points;
2) point and direction; 3) line segment.
So to build the line diagram, build diagrams of geometric elements
determinant, for example, two points, and then connect the projection of
the same name between them.
According to that live in space can take three kinds of different modes:
general, parallel to any plane or projection perpendicular to one of them,
diagrams direct differing positional properties projections determinant.
Positional property determines the placement of geometric figures in the
plane and in space based on some figures belonging to others.
Direct General - are those that cross all three coordinate plane
projections (Figure 2.7 a).
If you live in space takes the overall situation, then the projection
diagrams of all direct cross matching pair axes (Figure 2.7, b).
Direct parallel to the planes projections or direct level - these are
straight, crossing only two coordinate plane projections for the third they
are parallel. They are also called the name of the plane parallel
projections: horizontal, front, profile (Figure 2.8 - 2.10).
If the direct horizontal (Figure 2.8 a), on the front diagrams of projection parallel
to the axis X12 and horizontal - crossed axes X12 and Y1 (Figure 2.8, b).
h    h 2  х12  h 1  (х12, у1); z = const .

а) б)
Figure 2.7- Direct general provision
a) direct model; b) direct the general situation diagrams
 a) b)
Figure 2.8 - Horizontal direct
and) a visual image; b) diagram

If the front straight (Figure 2.9, a), then the diagrams of horizontal projection
parallel to the axis X12 and front - crossing the axis X12 and z23 (Figure 2.9, b).
f    f 1  x12  f 2  (x12, z23); y = const.

a) b)
Figure 2.9 - The front straight
and) a visual image; b) diagram
If a straight profile, then the diagrams of horizontal and front projection of
the same and parallel to the axes z23, y 1, and the profile projection of the line is
crossed axes y3 and z23 (Figure 2.10).
(AB)    (AB)1  y1, (AB)2  z23, (AB)3  (y3, z23), x = const.
Direct profiling system planes projections П1П2 segment can not be set without
marking its two end points due to the fact that this diagram responsible infinite
number of different provisions of the profile of the line and drawing is not the
inverse.

Figure 2.10- profile diagrams direct

Straight line perpendicular to the plane of projection or projection - is such
direct, crossing only one plane of projection, and the other two - parallel (Figures
2.11 - 2.13). The title line of projection plane give the name to which it is
perpendicular. For example, if h  П1, this is called horizontal straight - straight
projection (Figure 2.11).

а) б)
Figure 2.11 - Horizontal direct projection
and) - a visual image, b) diagram

а) б)
Figure 2.12 - Front-projection straight
and) visual images, b) diagram

а) б)
Figure 2.13 - profile direct-projection
and) visual images, b) diagram
Direct that parallel and perpendicular to the planes projections are generally
termed as direct a special position.
 Metric properties segment projections directly on diagrams

Metric properties associated with the definition of metric characteristics

(size) distances, angles and areas. As for the segment of the line must
define its basic dimensions: size segment size and angles of the line that
defines this period, to the planes of projections.

Segments special situation

The length of the segments special situation portrayed without distortion

(life-size) on that plane projections to which this segment parallel (Table
2.1).
Table 2.1 - Metric properties segment projections special situation

Drawing The relationship between the natural

Position line segment length of the segment and its
projection
2.8 Horizontal   
2.9 Front   
2.10 Specialized   
2.11 Horizontal projection     
2.12 Front-projection     
2.13 Profile-projection   А  
The angles of inclination to direct planes projections П1, П2, П3 respectively
denote letters   . All angles direct special provision to the planes projections
depicted on its diagram without distortion (in full size). This information about the
value of two corners are projections from the plane, which is parallel to straight,
and the size of the third angle will 00 or 1800, for example, as shown in the line for
profile (Figure 2.14).
The length of the line segment
proektsyuyetsya general provision on
all planes of projection distortion, that
is, the length of the projections is
always less than the length of the
segment (Figure 2.15).Правило
прямокутного трикутника.
To diagrams to determine the
length of the segment of general
provisions necessary for any
projection him how to build a right
triangle legs. For the length of the
Figure 2.14 -Metric properties of the profile
other legs to the difference distances
segment
to the ends of the segment
plane projections on which to build this triangle. Then measure the length of the
hypotenuse is the length of the segment of general provisions. And the angle
between the hypotenuse and legs, projection will determine the angle of inclination
of the line to the plane of projection, which built a triangle (Figure 2.16).

Figure 2.15 - Determining the true value of the segment direct general provision (visual
image)

Figure 2.16 - Determining the true value of the segment direct general provision
on diagrams
Thus, in order to determine the angles to direct all three planes of projections
necessary for each of them to build a right triangle. And if by definition only
problem is the length of the interval, a right triangle built on any one of them.

Diagrams plane

Plane infinite, and its determinant are three points that lie on a straight line.
Other determinants are derived from specified, for example: one point and direct,
which does not pass through it; Two straight intersecting; Two parallel lines;
compartment of the plane or flat shape, such as a triangle; traces of the plane as a
result of its intersection with the planes of projections.
To build diagrams plane projection to build its determinant.
As straight plane in space relative to the plane of projection covers two
specific provisions: general and special.
By plane general provisions include those that are not perpendicular to any
plane of projection. These planes intersect all three coordinate plane projections
not held in a direct projection.
The planes hold a special position in a direct projection. These planes are direct
special provisions are divided into plane level (ie parallel to the planes of
projections, figures 2.17; 2.18; 2.20; 2.21; 2.22; also called the name of the plane
in which they are parallel) and projection plane (ie perpendicular to the planes
projections Figure 2.19, to their name, they are projection, front give the name of
the plane in which they are perpendicular, such as horizontal projection plane).

Figure 2.17 - horizontal Figure 2.19 - Plane

Figure 2.18 - frontal plane
plane horizontal projection

The planes of (horizontal, front, profile), which are parallel to one plane of
projection perpendicular to the other two; so these planes is also called double
projection.
The feature of projective planes is that the diagram of a projection on a plane
perpendicular to which they are a straight line, also known as track-projection.
This plane of the drawings set usually track-this projection.

Figure 2.20 - horizontal diagram Figure 2.21 - Diagrams front

       plane
         plane

Figure 2.22 - Diagrams profile plane

2.5 Questions for self

1 Carefully read the following definitions and answer the following two questions:
1.1 What is the definition fully reveals the essence of descriptive geometry?
1.2 What is the definition does not include any of its direction?
2 What is the essence of the way the central projection?
3 What is the essence of the way parallel projection? What else has called this
way?
4 What is the essence of the method of orthogonal projection?
5 How to call and how to mark the three coordinate plane projections?
6 What is the projection axis and the axis of coordinates? What distinguishes
them?
7 What is the effect of setting a straight coordinate system?
8 What is the model of three-dimensional space?
9 What is the projection model three-dimensional space?
10 As the axes denote?
What 11 complex diagrams or drawings of geometric shapes and how to get?
12 What is called determinant geometric shapes? What are the determinant point.
13 How many projection figures must be set on the diagram to determine its
position in three dimensions?
14 Who positional properties projections point on the diagram.
15 Who is the algorithm for constructing point of force by its coordinates.
16 What ways can build a third projection points of the two known.
17 Take diagrams of two arbitrary points that are located on a projection beam
relative to the plane of projections P1. In a symbolic record their coordinates.
18 How is the drawing depicting the endless straight? The planes?
19 What are the determinants of direct and plane.
20 What position in space can take direct and coordinate plane relative to the plane
of projection?
21 Who positional properties projections directly on the diagrams: general
provisions, horizontal, front and profile, all projection lines.
 

REFERENCES: №1,4,6,8,9