SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS

In research, the scope is the extent of the study and includes the parameters within which the study will
be operating. The delimitation, on the other hand, refers to the decisions made by the researcher which
limit the scope of the study. The delimitation of a study is used to narrow down the focus of the
research and to define the specific variables that the researcher will be studying. It is important to
clearly define the scope and delimitation of a study in order to establish the boundaries and limitations
of the research and to ensure that the results of the study can be properly interpreted.
Scope and delimitation are two important elements of a research study that inform the reader about
the boundaries and limitations of the study.

Scope refers to the breadth and depth of the research, and it determines the areas that will be covered
in the study. The scope of a research study should be clearly defined and should be appropriate for the
research question or problem being addressed. For example, if a researcher is studying the impact of
social media on political engagement, the scope of the study might include the use of social media
platforms, such as Facebook and Twitter, and the effect of social media on political participation among
young adults.

Delimitation refers to the factors that the researcher has chosen to limit or exclude from the study.
Delimitation helps to narrow the focus of the study and to define the boundaries of the research. For
example, if a researcher is studying the impact of social media on political engagement, they might
delimit their study to a specific geographic region or to a particular age group.

It is important to clearly define the scope and delimitation of a research study, as this helps the reader
to understand the limitations of the study and to evaluate the relevance of the research findings.

Examples:

Scope: A researcher is studying the effectiveness of different teaching methods on student learning
outcomes. The scope of the study includes three different teaching methods (lecture, discussion, and
problem-based learning) and measures student learning outcomes using standardized test scores.

Delimitation: A researcher is studying the impact of parental involvement on student academic

achievement. They delimit the study to high school students and to parents of students in grades 9-12.

In both of these examples, the scope and delimitation help to define the boundaries of the research and
to inform the reader about the focus of the study.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Definition of terms is a section of a research paper in which the author defines the key terms and
concepts that are used in the paper. This section is often included as part of the introduction, and it
serves several important purposes:
Clarification: Definition of terms helps to clarify the meaning of important terms and concepts that are
used throughout the paper. By defining these terms, the author ensures that the reader has a common
understanding of the language and terminology being used in the research.

Precision: Definition of terms helps to ensure that the language and terminology used in the paper are
precise and accurate. By defining key terms and concepts, the author can avoid misunderstandings or
ambiguities that might arise from the use of imprecise or inconsistent language.

Context: Definition of terms helps to place the research within the larger context of existing knowledge
on the topic. By defining key terms and concepts, the author can situate the research within the broader
discourse on the topic and can show how the research contributes to this discourse.

Examples:

A researcher is studying the impact of social media on political engagement. In the definition of terms
section, the author might define key terms such as "social media," "political engagement," and "young
adults."

A researcher is studying the effectiveness of different teaching methods on student learning outcomes.
In the definition of terms section, the author might define key terms such as "teaching methods,"
"student learning outcomes," and "standardized test scores."

In both of these examples, the definition of terms helps to clarify the meaning of important terms and
concepts that are used throughout the research paper. It also helps to ensure that the language and
terminology used in the paper are precise and accurate, and it helps to situate the research within the
larger context of existing knowledge on the topic.

LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review is a critical summary and evaluation of the existing research on a particular topic. It
is a common component of research papers and is typically included as part of the introduction or
background information on the topic.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

Provide an overview of the current state of knowledge on the topic: A literature review helps to
summarize and synthesize the existing research on a topic, highlighting the main findings and arguments
of the studies that have been conducted. By reading a literature review, the reader can get a sense of
the key issues and debates surrounding a topic and can see how the research fits into the larger context
of existing knowledge.

Identify gaps in the existing research: A literature review helps to identify areas where further research
is needed or where the existing research is lacking. By highlighting the gaps in the existing research, a
literature review can help to identify opportunities for future research and can provide a foundation for
the research being proposed.

Evaluate the quality of the existing research: A literature review critically evaluates the strengths and
weaknesses of the existing research on a topic, examining the methods and findings of the studies and
the limitations of the research. By evaluating the quality of the existing research, a literature review can
help to identify the most reliable and credible sources of information on the topic and can help to
distinguish between well-established and poorly supported arguments.

Identify the relationships and connections between different studies: A literature review helps to
identify the relationships and connections between different studies on a topic and to draw connections
between them. By examining the relationships between different studies, a literature review can help to
identify patterns and trends in the research and can highlight the areas where there is consensus or
disagreement among researchers.

Provide context for the research: A literature review helps to situate the research within the larger
context of existing knowledge on the topic, showing how the research fits into the broader discourse on
the topic. By providing context for the research, a literature review can help the reader to understand
the significance and relevance of the research and can help to place the research in a historical or
conceptual framework.

There are several steps involved in conducting a literature review:

Define the research question or topic: The first step in conducting a literature review is to define the
research question or topic that the review will address. This helps to focus the review and to ensure that
the research is relevant and targeted.

Search for relevant literature: The next step is to search for literature that is relevant to the research
question or topic. This may involve using online databases, such as PubMed or Google Scholar, or
searching for articles in specific journals or conference proceedings. It is important to use a variety of
search strategies and to be comprehensive in the search process to ensure that all relevant literature is
identified.

Select the literature: Once the relevant literature has been identified, the next step is to select the
studies that will be included in the review. The criteria for selecting the literature

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research methodology refers to the specific methods and procedures that are used in a research study.
It is a crucial aspect of research, as it determines the validity and reliability of the study and the
conclusions that are drawn from the data.

There are several steps involved in the research methodology of a study:

Define the research question or problem: The first step in the research methodology is to define the
research question or problem that the study will address. This involves identifying the specific topic or
issue that the study aims to investigate and formulating a clear and focused research question or
problem statement.

Select the research design: The next step is to select the research design, which refers to the overall
approach that will be used to answer the research question or solve the research problem. There are
several different types of research designs, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-
experimental designs. The choice of research design will depend on the research question, the type of
data being collected, and the resources available to the researcher.

Select the study population: The next step is to select the study population, which refers to the group of
people or objects that will be included in the study. The study population should be carefully selected to
ensure that it is representative of the larger population that the researcher is interested in studying.

Collect the data: The next step is to collect the data, which can be done using a variety of methods, such
as surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations. The choice of data collection method will depend
on the research question and the research design.

Analyze the data: Once the data has been collected, the next step is to analyze it in order to answer the
research question or solve the research problem. This involves using statistical techniques or other
methods of data analysis to examine the data and draw conclusions from it. The choice of data analysis
method will depend on the research question, the research design, and the type of data being collected.

Report the results: The final step in the research methodology is to report the results of the study. This
typically involves writing a research paper or report that summarizes the research question, the
research design, the study population, the data collection methods, the data analysis methods, and the
main findings and conclusions of the study.
It is important for researchers to carefully plan and execute the research methodology of their study, as
this can have a significant impact on the validity and reliability of the study and the conclusions that are
drawn from the data. A well-designed and executed research study can provide valuable insights and
contribute to the advancement of knowledge in a particular field, while a poorly designed or executed
study can lead to incorrect or misleading conclusions.

SAMPLING

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals or objects from a larger population for the
purpose of studying the characteristics of the population. Sampling is an important aspect of research,
as it allows researchers to study a portion of the population rather than the entire population, which can
be time-consuming and resource-intensive.

There are several different types of sampling methods, including:

Probability sampling: Probability sampling refers to sampling methods in which each member of the
population has a known and non-zero probability of being selected for the sample. Probability sampling
methods include random sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling.
Random sampling: Random sampling is a probability sampling method in which every member of the
population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample. This method is often used to
ensure that the sample is representative of the population and to minimize bias in the sampling process.

Stratified sampling: Stratified sampling is a probability sampling method in which the population is
divided into strata (subgroups) based on certain characteristics, and a random sample is taken from
each stratum. This method is often used to ensure that the sample is representative of the population
and to ensure that the sample includes a sufficient number of individuals from each stratum.

Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method in which the population is divided
into clusters (groups of individuals or objects) and a random sample of clusters is selected for the study.
This method is often used when it is difficult or expensive to study the entire population, and it can be
an efficient and cost-effective way to study a large population.

Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling refers to sampling methods in which the members
of the population are selected for the sample in a non-random manner. Non-probability sampling
methods include convenience sampling, quota sampling, and purposive sampling.

Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling method in which the sample
is drawn from individuals or objects that are easily accessible to the researcher. This method is often
used when the researcher is unable to identify or access the entire population and relies on a sample
that is readily available. However, convenience sampling can result in a biased sample that is not
representative of the population, and the results of the study may not be generalizable to the larger
population.

Quota sampling: Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling method in which the sample is selected
to represent specific characteristics of the population. This method is similar to stratified sampling, but
rather than using random sampling to select the sample, the researcher specifies the number of
individuals that should be included in the sample from each stratum. Quota sampling can be an efficient
way to study a large population, but it can also result in a biased sample if the quotas are not properly
specified.

Purposive sampling: Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling method in which the sample is
selected based on the purpose of the study. This method is often used when the researcher is interested
in studying a specific group or subpopulation, and the sample is selected based on the characteristics of
the group or subpopulation. Purposive sampling can be useful for studying specialized or rare
populations, but it can also result in a biased sample if the selection criteria are not carefully defined.

Overall, sampling is an important aspect of research, and the choice of sampling method will depend on
the research question, the resources available to the researcher, and the characteristics of the
population being studied. A well-designed and executed sampling plan can provide a representative and
accurate sample, while a poorly designed or executed sampling plan can result in a biased and
inaccurate sample.

DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

Data collection tools are the instruments or methods that are used to gather data for a research study.
These tools can be used to collect quantitative data, which refers to numerical data that can be analyzed
using statistical methods, or qualitative data, which refers to non-numeric data that is collected through
methods such as observations, interviews, or focus groups.

There are several types of data collection tools that researchers can use, including:

Surveys: Surveys are a common data collection tool that involves collecting data from a large number of
individuals through the use of structured questionnaires. Surveys can be administered in person, by
phone, by mail, or online, and they can be used to collect a wide range of data, including demographic
information, attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Interviews: Interviews are a data collection tool that involves collecting data from a small number of
individuals through face-to-face or phone conversations. Interviews can be structured, with a set of
predetermined questions, or unstructured, with a more flexible and open-ended conversation.
Interviews can be used to collect in-depth information about an individual's experiences, perspectives,
or opinions.

Observations: Observations are a data collection tool that involves collecting data by observing and
recording the behaviors or characteristics of individuals or objects in a natural setting. Observations can
be conducted in person or remotely, and they can be structured, with a predetermined set of
observations to be made, or unstructured, with a more open-ended approach. Observations can be used
to collect data on a wide range of topics, including behaviors, activities, and physical characteristics.

Focus groups: Focus groups are a data collection tool that involves collecting data from a small group of
individuals through group discussions or interviews. Focus groups are often used to collect in-depth
information about a specific topic or issue, and they can be a useful way to explore the perspectives and
experiences of a diverse group of individuals.

Experiments: Experiments are a data collection tool that involves manipulating one or more variables
and measuring the effects on a dependent variable. Experiments are often used to test hypotheses or to
explore cause-and-effect relationships, and they can be conducted in a laboratory setting or in a natural
setting. Experiments can be used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data.

Case studies: Case studies are a data collection tool that involves collecting in-depth information about a
specific individual, group, or situation. Case studies can be conducted using a variety of methods, such
as interviews, observations, and document analysis, and they can be used to explore complex or unique
phenomena in depth.
Document analysis: Document analysis is a data collection tool that involves collecting and analyzing
written or electronic documents, such as reports, transcripts, or emails, to gather information about a
specific topic or issue. Document analysis can be used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data
and can be a useful way to explore historical or archival data.

Overall, data collection tools are an important aspect of research, and the choice of tool will depend on
the research question, the resources available to the researcher, and the characteristics of the
population being studied. A well-designed and executed data collection plan can provide accurate and
reliable data, while a poorly designed or executed plan can result in biased or unreliable data.

Method of Data Analysis

The method of data analysis refers to the process of organizing, summarizing, and interpreting the data
that has been collected in a research study. Data analysis is an important aspect of research, as it allows
researchers to draw meaningful conclusions and insights from the data and to answer the research
question or test the research hypothesis.

There are several methods of data analysis that researchers can use, including:

Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics are a method of data analysis that involves summarizing and
describing the characteristics of the data, such as the mean, median, and standard deviation. Descriptive
statistics can be used to describe the basic features of the data and to identify patterns and trends.

Inferential statistics: Inferential statistics are a method of data analysis that involves making inferences
or predictions about a population based on a sample of data. Inferential statistics can be used to test
hypotheses or to estimate the characteristics of a population based on the characteristics of a sample.

Qualitative data analysis: Qualitative data analysis is a method of data analysis that involves interpreting
and analyzing non-numeric data, such as text, images, or audio recordings. Qualitative data analysis can
involve coding the data to identify patterns and themes, and it can be used to explore complex or
nuanced phenomena in depth.

Mixed methods analysis: Mixed methods analysis is a method of data analysis that involves combining
qualitative and quantitative data and using both types of data to answer the research question. Mixed
methods analysis can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research question and can be
useful for studying complex or multifaceted phenomena.

Examples:

A researcher is studying the relationship between exercise and stress levels in college students. The
researcher collects data on the exercise habits and stress levels of a sample of college students and uses
inferential statistics to test the hypothesis that students who exercise regularly have lower stress levels
than students who do not exercise regularly.

A researcher is studying the experiences of refugees who have resettled in a new country. The
researcher collects data through in-depth interviews with refugees and uses qualitative data analysis to
identify patterns and themes in the data.

Overall, the method of data analysis is an important aspect of research, and the choice of method will
depend on the research question, the type of data being collected, and the research design. A well-
executed data analysis can provide valuable insights and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in
a particular field, while a poorly executed data analysis can lead to incorrect or misleading conclusions.

ADMINISTRATION OF INSTRUMENTS
The administration of instruments refers to the process of using tools or instruments to collect data for a
research study. These instruments can be used to collect a variety of types of data, including
quantitative data, which refers to numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical methods, or
qualitative data, which refers to non-numeric data that is collected through methods such as
observations, interviews, or focus groups.

There are several considerations that researchers should take into account when administering
instruments in research, including:

Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument accurately measures what it is intended to
measure. Researchers should ensure that the instruments they use are valid and reliable, and that they
are appropriate for the research question and the population being studied.

Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of an instrument over time. Researchers
should ensure that the instruments they use are reliable, so that they produce consistent and accurate
results.

Bias: Bias refers to any systematic error or distortion in the data that is collected using an instrument.
Researchers should take steps to minimize bias in the administration of instruments, such as using
standardized procedures or training researchers to use the instruments consistently.

Respondent burden: Respondent burden refers to the amount of time and effort required of the
individuals being asked to participate in the study. Researchers should consider the burden that their
instruments may place on respondents and should aim to minimize the burden whenever possible.

Examples:

A researcher is studying the attitudes of college students towards climate change. The researcher
administers a survey to a sample of college students, using a standardized questionnaire to ensure that
the instrument is valid and reliable.
A researcher is studying the experiences of patients with chronic pain. The researcher administers a
series of structured interviews to a sample of patients, using standardized questions and procedures to
ensure that the instrument is reliable and minimizes bias.

Overall, the administration of instruments is an important aspect of research, and researchers should
carefully consider the validity, reliability, bias, and respondent burden of the instruments they use. A
well-administered instrument can provide accurate and reliable data, while a poorly administered
instrument can result in biased or unreliable data.

ORGANIZATION OF THE PAPER

The organization of the paper refers to the structure and layout of a research paper or report, including
the various sections and subsections that are included and the order in which they are presented. The
organization of the paper is an important aspect of research, as it helps to clearly communicate the
research question, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions and implications of the
study.

There are several common sections that are typically included in the organization of a research paper,
including:

Introduction: The introduction is the first section of the paper and is usually placed at the beginning. The
introduction should provide an overview of the research question, the purpose of the study, and the
significance of the study.

Literature review: The literature review is a section that summarizes the existing research on the topic
and contextualizes the study within the broader research landscape. The literature review should
discuss the research that has been conducted on the topic, identify any gaps or limitations in the existing
research, and outline the contributions of the current study.

Methods: The methods section is a detailed description of the research design, the study population, the
data collection methods, and the data analysis methods used in the study. The methods section should
provide enough detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

Results: The results section presents the findings of the study, including any statistical analyses or other
data analysis techniques that were used. The results should be presented in a clear and concise manner,
and any tables or figures should be labeled and explained.

Discussion: The discussion is a section that interprets the results of the study, discusses the implications
of the findings, and relates the results to the research question and the literature review. The discussion
should also address any limitations of the study and suggest directions for future research.
Conclusion: The conclusion is a summary of the main findings of the study and the implications of the
results. The conclusion should also restate the research question and highlight the contributions of the
study.

Examples:

A researcher is studying the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance in college
students. The organization of the paper might include an introduction that outlines the research
question and the purpose of the study, a literature review that summarizes the existing research on
sleep and academic performance, a methods section that describes the research design and data
collection methods, a results section that presents the findings of the study, a discussion that interprets
the results and discusses the implications of the findings, and a conclusion that summarizes the main
findings and suggests directions for future research.

A researcher is studying the effects of a new intervention on the mental health of young adults. The
organization of the paper might include an introduction that outlines the research question and the
purpose of the study, a literature review that summarizes the existing research on mental health
interventions, a methods section that describes the research design and data collection methods, a
results section that presents the findings of the study, a discussion that interprets the results and
discusses the implications of the findings, and a conclusion that summarizes the main findings and
suggests directions for future research.

Overall, the organization of the paper is an important aspect of research, as it helps to clearly
communicate the research question, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions and
implications of the study. A well-organized paper is easier to read and understand, and it helps to clearly
convey the main points of the study. On the other hand, a poorly organized paper can be confusing and
may not effectively communicate the research question, the methods used, or the main findings of the
study.

TIME SCHEDULE

A time schedule, also known as a Gantt chart or project timeline, is a visual representation of the tasks
and activities that need to be completed in a research project, and the time frame in which they need to
be completed. A time schedule is an important tool for planning and managing a research project, as it
helps researchers to allocate their time and resources effectively and to track their progress towards
meeting their project goals.
A time schedule typically includes a list of all the tasks that need to be completed in the research
project, along with the estimated start and end dates for each task. It may also include information
about the dependencies between tasks, the resources that are required for each task, and the
individuals or teams responsible for completing the tasks.
A time schedule can be created using a spreadsheet or project management software, and it is usually
updated regularly to reflect the current status of the project. Researchers may use a time schedule to
identify any potential bottlenecks or delays in the project and to adjust their plans accordingly.
Overall, a time schedule is an important tool for helping researchers to plan and manage their research
projects effectively, and it can help to ensure that the project is completed on time and within budget.

BUDGET SCHEDULE

A budget schedule is a document that outlines the financial resources that are required for a research
project, and the timeline for when those resources will be needed. A budget schedule is an important
tool for managing the financial aspects of a research project and for ensuring that the project stays
within its allocated budget.
A budget schedule typically includes a list of all the expenses that are expected to be incurred during the
course of the research project, along with the estimated cost of each expense. It may also include
information about the sources of funding for the project and any restrictions on the use of those funds.
A budget schedule can be created using a spreadsheet or financial management software, and it is
usually updated regularly to reflect the current financial status of the project. Researchers may use a
budget schedule to identify any potential overspending or underfunding in the project and to adjust
their plans accordingly.
Overall, a budget schedule is an important tool for helping researchers to plan and manage the financial
resources of their research projects effectively, and it can help to ensure that the project stays within its
allocated budget.

Bibliography
A bibliography is a list of sources that have been cited or consulted in the preparation of a research
paper or other written work. A bibliography is typically located at the end of a research paper and
includes a list of all the sources that have been cited in the paper, as well as any other sources that were
consulted but not directly cited.
The purpose of a bibliography is to provide the reader with information about the sources that were
used in the research, so that they can locate the sources for themselves if they wish to do so. A
bibliography is an important part of a research paper, as it allows the reader to verify the accuracy of the
information and to see how the research fits into the larger context of existing knowledge on the topic.
There are several different formats for creating a bibliography, such as the Modern Language
Association (MLA) style, the American Psychological Association (APA) style, and the Chicago Manual of
Style. Each style has its own specific guidelines for formatting the bibliography and citing sources within
the text of the paper.
In general, a bibliography should include the following information for each source: the author's name,
the title of the work, the publication date, and the publication information (such as the publisher or
journal name). Additional information, such as the page numbers or the URL, may also be included
depending on the type of source and the citation style being used.