Hydraulics & Rheology

•
HYDRAULICS
&
RHEOLOGY
HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY
What are HYDRAULICS?
• An operation where the drilling fluid is used to transfer

pressure from the surface to the bit, using the pressure
drop across the bit to enhance the rate of penetration!
• Part of this energy is used to clean the face of the bit!
• The pressures exerted in circulating a well can be

calculated, using Rheological Models!
• We need to know the TYPE of fluid!

HYDRAULICS
Hydraulics is second only to
mud in determining how fast
and how safely a well can be
drilled .
• HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY
Hydraulics Optimisation
Is a proper
balance of the
hydraulics elements that will
adequately clean the bit and
borehole.
Hydraulics Elements
• Fluid rheology and mud
properties
• Dimensions of the circulating
system(ID, OD, Length)
• Pump rate
Hydraulics Constraints
• Maximum pump pressure
• Minimum flow rate
• Maximum flow rate
Poor Hydraulics
• Inadequate hole cleaning
Slow ROP
Surge and Swab
Possible Pipe Sticking

Poor Hydraulics (cont.)

• Undesirable ECD
Formation fracturing
Lost circulation
Differential sticking
Trends that indicate a

potential hole cleaning
• Pipe Drag problems
Trend of the number is more important
than the actual number.
• Dropping ROP gradually
Do not confuse with change in
formation or normal bit dulling.
Trends that indicate a potential hole cleaning

problems (cont.)
• Increase in pump pressure
The pump strokes/pressure is the most
important drilling parameter should be
monitored and recorded.
• Decrease in cuttings return
At the same ROP.
• The principle roles of the mud are:-

• · Cuttings removal
• · Control subsurface pressures
• · Lubricate and cool the drill bit and the drillstring
• · Bottom hole cleaning
• · Aid in formation evaluation
• · Protect formation productivity
• · Aid formation stability
• Cuttings removal
• This is a very important role of the mud. Not only do the cuttings need to be
removed
• from the annulus to allow for free movement and rotation of the drillstring, but
the
• cuttings need to reach the surface in such a condition that they can be used by
a geologist
• to accurately interprete the downhole geology.
• This principle is not only determined by the physical properties of the mud but
by the type
• of flow pattern present in the annulus. The cuttings need to be removed
affectively, but
• damage and erosion to the cuttings has to be avoided.
• Cuttings density is obviously greater than the mud density, therefore it is
normal for a
• degree of cuttings slip. Mud properties (viscosity, gel strength) have to be such
so as to
• minimise this.
• Cuttings slip will be affected by the annular velocities:-
• If annular velocities are restricted for any reason (eg pump volume, large hole
section,
• downhole conditions), mud properties would have to be changed to
compensate for an
• increased degree of slip.
• Control subsurface pressures

• Minimum mud weight is optimum for faster drilling rates and to
minimize the risk of
• damaging formations and losing circulation.
• However, in conventional drilling, the mud also has to be of sufficient
density to protect
• the well against subsurface formation pressures.
• The pressure produced at the bottom of the hole, due to the weight of
the static vertical
• column of mud, is known as the Hydrostatic Pressure.
• If the hydrostatic pressure is equal to the formation pressure, the well
is said to be at
• balance.
• If the hydrostatic pressure is greater than the formation pressure, the
well is said to be
• overbalanced and protected against influxes into the wellbore.
• If the hydrostatic pressure is less than the formation pressure, the well
is said to be
• under balanced and therefore subject to influxes of formation fluid.
• Lubricate and cooling
• The drilling action and rotation of the drillstring will produce a lot of heat,
at the bit and
• throughout the drillstring, due to friction. This heat will be absorbed by
the mud and
• released, to a degree, at surface.
• The mud has to cool the bit and lubricate the teeth to allow for affective
drilling and to
• minimise damage and wear.
• The mud has to affectively remove cuttings from around the bit as rock
is newly
• penetrated. This is to stop the cuttings building up around the bit and
teeth (bit balling)
• which would prevent the bit from drilling.
• The mud lubricates the drillstring by reducing friction between the string
and the borehole
• wall - this is achieved by additives such as bentonite, graphite or oil.
• Aid
• Aid in formation evaluation
• ·To obtain the best possible cuttings for geological
analysis (viscosity). The type of flow will determine the
degree of erosion and alteration, thus smooth laminar
flow is preferred to chaotic turbulent flow.
•
• To minimise fluid invasion (filtrate) - both water and oil
invasion would affect the resistivity of the mud making
formation evaluations more difficult. Thus, a filter cake
• is allowed to build up on the wall of the borehole,
restricting fluid movement in both directions.
• NB Filter Cake restricts fluid invasion but may reduce the
quality of sidewall cores
• To improve logging characteristics (especially for
resistivities).
• To improve formation testing
• Formation Stability
• ·To prevent erosion or collapse of the wellbore;
• ·To prevent swelling and sloughing shales (oil
based mud preferred, water based muds
• would have to be treated with Ca/K/Asphalt
compounds);
• · to prevent the ‘dissolving’ of salt sections (use
salt saturated or oil based mud to prevent taking
the salt into solution
The FLUID RHEOLOGY
• Fluid Rheology affects carrying capacity,

slip velocity, and annular hydraulics.
• Fluid Rheology also affects the suspending

characteristics of the Drilling Fluid.
• TYPES OF DRILLING MUD (a brief summary)
• Water Based including gel and polymer muds
• Oil Based
• Emulsion
• Water Based Muds
• 1. Clear Water - from freshwater to saturated brine
• 2. Native Water - water allowed to react with formations containing shales/clays; the
• mud will therefore build up a solids content and density naturally.
• 3. Calcium - reduces swelling and hydration of clays
• good for gypsum/anhydrite lithologies because there will be no Ca
• contamination
• 4. Lignosulphate - high density muds (>14ppg)
• tolerance to high temperatures
• high tolerance for contamination by drilled solids
• disadvantages - shales/clays will adsorb water from the mud
• permeability will be damaged due to clays dispersing
• Not often used
• 5. KCL/Polymer - inhibits shale sloughing
• little permeability damage
• provides good bit hydraulics
• disadvantages - need good solids control equipment at surface because it has a low
• tolerance to solids
• unstable at high temperatures > 120oC
• 6. Salt Saturated - water phase saturated with NaCl
• Oil Based Muds

• Emulsion of water in oil (invert emulsion)
• Crude oil or diesel is normally the continuous phase, water the dispersed
phase (droplets)
• Advantages reduces/inhibits any problems caused by shales
• reduces torque and drag
• stable at high temperatures
• preserves natural permeability, not damaging hydrocarbon zones
• Disadvantages environmental concerns
• flammability
• solids removal due to high PV (need good equipment as with polymer
• muds)
• problems for interpretation of log information cost
• Emulsion Muds
• Water is the continuous phase, oil the dispersed phase (normally 5 - 10%)
• Oil added to increase ROP, reduce filter loss, improve lubrication, reduce
drag and torque
RHEOLOGY - Defining some Terms
 Rheology
 Flow Regime
 Viscosity
 Shear Stress
 Shear Rate
 Newtonian Fluids
 Non-Newtonian Fluids
 Rheological Models
What is RHEOLOGY?
• Rheology is the science of the deformation and flow of

matter.
• When applied to Drilling Fluids, rheology deals with the

relationship between Flow Rate and Flow Pressure and
their combined effects on the Flow Characteristics of the
fluid.
• Each of these three items is inter-related to the other.

The TYPES of Fluids
• We are primarily concerned with just two

TYPES of fluids:
– Newtonian Fluids
– Non-Newtonian Fluids
NEWTONIAN Fluids(true fluids)
• Named after Issac Newton, the Newtonian fluid exhibits

constant ratio for the Shear Stress (the force required to
move the fluid) and the Shear rate (the rate at which the
fluid moves).
• For a NEWTONIAN fluid, the ratio of Shear Stress to Shear
Rate is a constant, called the viscosity ()!
• Calculated with the formula: 
• Where:
– Shear Stress: ()
– Shear Rate: ()
NEWTONIAN Fluids (true fluids)

• Sir Isaac Newton stated that “For every action, there is an
equal and opposite re-action.”
• Therefore, if a force is applied to a fluid layer, it should
move. Every force increase should give a proportional
velocity increase.
• Most naturally occurring fluids act just that way. They are
known as NEWTONIAN Fluids.
• The value of the shear rate at which the proportional
relationship no longer exists is called critical velocity.
Beyond this value the flow is turbulent
• All fluids exhibit some internal resistance to flow. This is
known as Plastic Viscosity, or PV.
• Examples are water, glycerine, oil, etc.
Newtonian Model - Graphically Illustrated
Shear Stress, lb/100 ft²

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
Shear Rate, 1/sec
600 RPM Reading = 40
300 RPM Reading = 20
PV = 20; YP = 0
NON-NEWTONIAN Fluids!
• Any fluid that does not conform to Newtonian behaviour.

• For a NON-NEWTONIAN fluid, the ratio of Shear Stress to
Shear Rate is NOT a constant(exhibit both a proportional and
nonproportional relationship between shear stress and shear
shear rate.
• MOST drilling fluids are NON-NEWTONIAN fluids.
• Any measurement of viscosity on a NON-NEWTONIAN fluid
must specify the shear rate. 
• We calculate EFFECTIVE VISCOSITY, (e), as opposed to
VISCOSITY!
• Effective viscosity is measured at shear rates that correspond
to those in the well bore.
NON-NEWTONIAN Fluids
• A Non-Newtonian fluid is basically any fluid that does not

behave in a manner similar to a Newtonian fluid.
• Typical examples are paint, cream, printing ink and virtually
all Drilling Fluids.
• They contain solid particles of various sizes that form a
structure resistant to flow.
• When sufficient force is applied the structure “yields” and
begins to move. We call this the Yield Point.
• We call this type of fluid a BINGHAM Plastic fluids ,plastic
• Non Newtonian fluids exhibit both newtonian and newtonian
properties at different shear rates
Other Descriptive TERMS for Fluids!
• Drilling fluids are SHEAR THINNING when they have less

viscosity at higher SHEAR RATES, than at lower.
• Some types of fluids begin to flow immediately and get
thinner as a greater shear rate is applied.
• These fluids are also known as PSUEDOPLASTIC fluids.
• Another type will not begin to flow until a THRESHOLD
shear stress is applied.
• This threshold stress is called the YIELD STRESS or
YIELD POINT.
“Pseudo-Plastic” Fluids
• Most drilling fluids do not conform perfectly to the Bingham

Plastic Model.
– Most are Shear Thinning, that is, the more shear or
velocity applied, the lower their effective viscosity
becomes.
• The lower the shear rate, the thicker they behave.
– Bingham assumes a proportional straight-line increase
after the yield point is passed.
– Bingham points assume a higher shear rate than is
found in most parts of the annulus.
The RHEOLOGICAL MODELS!
• A RHEOLOGICAL MODEL is a description of the

relationship between:
– Shear Stress: ()
– Shear Rate: ()
• We will discuss those most commonly used in the drilling
fluids industry:
– Bingham Plastic Model
– Power Law Model
What is SHEAR STRESS?
• Shear Stress is defined as the force required to overcome

a fluid’s resistance to flow, divided by the area that force is
working on.
• Measured in dynes/cm2.
• Shear Stress, lbs/100 ft² = Dial Reading X 1.0678
• Basic formula is:
Shear Stress = F / A
Where: F = Force applied (dynes)

A = Surface area under stress (cm2)
What is SHEAR RATE?
• Shear rate is defined as the relative velocity of the fluid

layers, divided by their normal separation distance.
• Shear rate is expressed in reciprocal seconds (sec-1).
• Basic formula is:
Shear Rate = V / H
Where: V = Velocity (cm/sec)
H = Distance (cm)
• The Shear Rate equivalent to the rpm’s of a Rheometer
(VG Meter) is rpm’s multiplied by 1.7033.
– 600 rpm’s = 1022 sec-1.
– 300 rpm’s = 511 sec-1.
Illustrating Shear Stress/Shear Rate
Moving Plate, velocity = 1.0 cm/sec

Force
Fluid
Velocity 1 cm
Profile
Fixed Plate, velocity = 0 cm/sec

Measurement - Marsh Funnel
• Determination of fluids
Viscous properties.
• Relies on gravity and
predetermined orifice size.
• SS/SR = Funnel Viscosity
• Measurement Reported as
– Seconds / Quart
• Predicts Trends
What is VISCOSITY?
• Viscosity relates to the resistance to deformation exhibited

by a fluid.
• In our world, we can think of it as a relationship that exists
between the Shear Stress and the Shear Rate.
• We must not think in terms of “thick” and “thin”.
• Viscosity is calculated with the following formula:
Viscosity = Shear Stress / Shear Rate
• The Marsh funnel is NOT a measure of viscosity.
The importance of VISCOSTY!
• Hole Cleaning
• Barite Suspension
• Drilling Rate
• Circulating Pressures - E.C.D.
• Pipe Movement Pressures - Swab & Surge
• Erosion - Flow Regimes
The BINGHAM PLASTIC Model!
• The simplest model, and one of the most commonly

used, is the BINGHAM PLASTIC model.
• Assumes the shear stress is a linear function of shear
rate, once a specific shear stress has been exceeded.
• Expressed as:
 = YP + PV ()
• Where:
– YP = yield point, lb/100 ft2
– PV = plastic viscosity, cp (centipoise)
The BINGHAM PLASTIC Model!
• Best characterises fluids at higher shear rates.

• PV and YP are calculated from a conventional concentric
viscometer with the data taken at 600 and 300 rpm dial
readings.
– PV = 600 - 300
– YP = 300 - PV
• By multiplying the shear rate in rpm by 1.702, you can derive
the shear rate in reciprocal seconds (sec-1).
Bingham Model - Graphically Illustrated

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
Shear Rate, 1/sec
600 RPM reading = 50
300 RPM reading = 30
PV = 20; YP = 10
PLASTIC VISCOSITY and YIELD POINT
• PLASTIC VISCOSITY = 600 Reading - 300 Reading

– Plastic Viscosity is a measurement of the size, shape
and concentration of the solids in the mud and the
viscosity of the fluid phase.
• YIELD POINT = 300 Reading - Plastic Viscosity
– Yield Point is a measurement of the chemical and
electro-chemical charge attractions of the solids.
Plastic Viscosity - Definitions
• PV = 600 RPM Rdg - 300 RPM Rdg.

• Effected by Solids:
– Size Distribution
– Shape
– Concentration
• Effected by Fluid Phase Viscosity.
• High Shear (Equivalent to Fluid Shear Rates at Bit)
Yield Point - Definitions
• Yield Point = 300 RPM Rdg - Plastic Viscosity.
• Indicates attraction between solids.
• Electro-Chemical in Nature (+/- charges).
• A Measure of Flocculation.
• Gives some indication of the hole cleaning ability of the

fluid, when the fluid is in motion.
Rheological MEASUREMENTS!
• You have just tested a mud sample. The

viscometer gave you the following results:
600 = 52
300 = 39
• What is the PV?
• What is the YP?
The POWER LAW Model!
• The POWER LAW model describes a fluid in which the

shear stress/shear rate relationship is a straight line when
plotted on log-log graph paper.
• It more closely approximates the low shear rate behaviour
of a drilling fluid.
• The POWER LAW model is:
= K(n)
• Where:
–K = The consistency index, (lb-secn/100 ft2)
–n = The power law exponent (dimensionless)
Power Law Model - API Method
• API uses 2 equations

– Pipe Values - Shear Rates > 511 1/sec
– Annular Values - Shear Rates < 511 1/sec
Using Power Law Numbers
• Fluid Velocities (in feet per second) are calculated for

each hydraulic diameter in the pipe or annulus.
• K’s and n’s are applied to each section.
• Effective Viscosity (e) of the mud is calculated for each
section.
• A Critical Reynolds Number (Rec) is calculated for the
mud.
Viscosity Profiles of Fluid Models
Viscosity, cP
10,000
5,000
2,000
Newtonian
1,000
Power Law
500
Actual
200
Bingham
100
50
20
10
1 3 10 30 100 300 1,000 3,000
Shear Rate, 1/sec
The concept of “n” and “K”
• The units of the Power Law Model are:

– “n”, the Power Law Index.
– “K”, the Consistency Factor
• Two regimes of flow are usually recognised:
– Medium range, found inside the pipe, the jets
and around the bit.
– Low range, found in the annulus.
– The cross-over point between the two is
generally recognised as 170 sec-1.
What about “n” and “K”?
• The rheological parameters “n” and “K” can be

calculated from any two shear-rate/shear-stress data
points. This is rarely a totally straight line.
• Normal procedure is to calculate these values at shear
rates in the drillstring and in the annulus!
– Drillstring = np and Kp
– Annulus = na and Ka
• We use the 3 rpm and 100 rpm readings for the low
shear rate.
• We use the 300 rpm and 600 rpm readings for the high
shear rate.
“n” Power Law Exponent Definition

= 3.32 log/ 600 ÷ 300 viscometer reading
“n” power law Describes the shear thinning properties of a

exponent fluid, i.e. degree of non-newtonian behavior.
High shear “A shear thinning fluid is one that thins in a high

environment shear environment, i.e. in the drill pipe & at the
bit, and thickens in a low shear environment,
i.e. in the annulus”.
The “n” value defines the velocity profile in the

Low shear annulus.
environment
Note: PV:YP ratio also defines the velocity
profile in the annulus, i.e. PV equal to or < YP
results in a flat velocity profile – PV > YP will
sharpen the velocity profile incrementally.
Annulus
The “n” Value
• “n” is the Power Law Exponent.

• “n” dictates the logarithmic curve followed in a Shear
Rate/Shear Stress graphical analysis.
• “n” is a function of the Shear-Thinning properties of a fluid.
– “n” values are always less than 1.000
– “n” values near 1 indicate fluids that immediately Shear-
Thin.
• A fluid with “n” near 1 is easier to force into turbulent
flow
Calculating “n”!
• The general formula for “n” is:

log (  2 / 1 )
n = -----------------
log (  2 /  1 )
• Using the 600 and 300 rpm dial readings,
the equation simplifies to:
(600)
n = 3.32log --------------
(300)
"n" Value Relationships
• If n = 1, the fluid is Newtonian.

• If n < 1, the fluid is non-Newtonian and more shear
thinning.
• Low n values:
– Promote laminar flow
– Increase carrying capacity
• As n decreases flow profile flattens
• Most drilling fluids have n values between 0.3 - 0.5
The “K” Value
• “K” is a consistency constant that gives a measure of

thickness compared to other fluids.
• It may be compared to Plastic Viscosity, but the
relationship is not precise.
• Actual “Effective Viscosity” must be calculated using “K”
and “n” for each specific Shear Rate.
Calculating “K”!
• The general formula for “K” is:

2
K = -------
(  2 )n
• Using the 600 and 300 rpm dial readings, the equation
simplifies to:
(300)
K = ----------
511n
"K" value Relationships
• K defines viscosity at a low shear rate

– approximately 1 1/sec
• Higher K generally improves hole cleaning
• Higher K increases system pressure loss
OTHER Models!
• HERSCHEL-BUCKLEY (Modified Power Law)
Best fit to Drilling Fluids
YP = 3
n = (3.32) log [( 300-YP ) / ( 300-YP )]
K = 300 / 511n
• CASSON
– Very accurate at low shear rates, but complicated and
difficult to use.
• ROBERTSON-STIFF
The best model for HPHT Wells
– A three parameter model that is also difficult to use.
Very accurate in many cases.
Graph of Actual Readings vs. Bingham and Power Law Models

40
30
20
10 Bingham Actual Power Law Power Law

Model Values Pipe Annulus
0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
Shear Rate, 1/sec
Power Law Model Weakness
• Has no yield stress.

– May be inaccurate at shear rates <1
• Need two sets of values for accuracy
– Pipe
– Annular
• MUD RHEOLOGY - principle parameters
• Viscosity
• Controls the magnitude of shear stress which develops as one layer of fluid slides
over
• another. It is a measure of the friction between fluid layers, providing a scale for
• describing fluid thickness. It will decrease with temperature.
• In simple terms, it describes the thickness of the mud when it is in motion.
• Normal unit of measurement is the centipoise (CP), where 47886 CP = 1 lb.f.s
• ft2
• Plastic Viscosity
• For a Bingham Fluid, PV is the amount of shear stress, in excess of the yield stress,
that
• will induce a unit rate of shear. More simply, it is the relationship between shear
stress
• and shear rate during fluid movement; it is the slope of the straight line that passes
• through q600 and q300.
• Funnel Viscosity
• This is a direct measurement from the Funnel (as opposed to Fann) viscometer and
is
• measured in secs/qt. Generally used at wellsite for immediate measurements, this is
• simply the length of time it takes for one quart of fluid to pass through the funnel.
• It is not regarded as being applicable to the analysis of circulating performance.
• Apparent Viscosity - simply q600/2
• Yield Point
• The yield point, or yield stress, of a fluid is a measure of the attractive forces between
• mud particles resulting from the presence of +ve and -ve charges on the particle surfaces.
• It is a measure of the forces that cause mud to gel once it is motionless and affects the
• carrying capacity of the mud. In other words, it is the strength of the fluid capable of
• supporting a certain particle weight or size.
• Normal unit of measurement is the Imperial lb metric: dynes / cm2
• 100ft2
• Gel Strength
• The ability of the mud to develop and retain a gel structure. It is analogous to shear
• strength and defines the ability of the mud to hold solids in suspension.
• More simply, it describes the thickness of a mud that has been motionless for a period of
• time (unlike viscosity which describes the mud thickness when in motion).
• It is a measure of the thickening property of a fluid and is a function of time.
• Measurements are therefore conducted after periods of 10 seconds and 10 minutes.
• Normal units of measurement lb
• 100ft2
• With the duration of a drilling operation, ie the ‘age’ of a drilling fluid, viscosity
• and gel strengths will both tend to increase as a result of the introduction of solids
• into the mud system.
• Filtrate / Filter Cake
• Fluid invasion of newly drilled rocks will occur if there is a pressure differential. The
• fluid that is lost to the formation in this way is called filtrate.
• To try to minimise this, a layer of fine solids is allowed to build up on the rock surface.
• This will be allowed to build up to a desired thickness in order to prevent invasion. This
• layer is termed the filter cake
The Yz Factor
• In recent years a trend has developed where the Yz factor

is applied as an indicator of the LOW END rheology of a
drilling fluid.
• It is calculated with the following formula:
Yz Factor = (2 * FANN 3) - FANN 6
• The LOW END rheology has only a moderate influence on
hole cleaning.
Defining the FLOW REGIME!
• What is a “Flow Regime”?

– Essentially the nature of the fluid flow.
• A Flow Regime can be classed in several ways:
– Plug Flow
– Laminar Flow
– Transitional Flow
– Turbulent Flow
• What do these terms mean?
What is PLUG FLOW?
• The condition where the fluid moves like a solid.

• Generally attributed to very low flow rates, with high
viscosities and/or high solids concentrations.
Wellbore Wall Drillpipe Wall

What is LAMINAR FLOW?

• Laminar Flow is associated with low flow rates and an
orderly pattern of flow.
• The flow rate/flow pressure relationship is governed by
the viscous properties of the fluid.

What is TURBULENT FLOW?

• Characterised by chaotic, random flow patterns.
• Associated with high fluid velocities.
• The change from Transitional to Turbulent is governed
by a dimensionless number, called the Reynold’s
Number.

What is TRANSITIONAL FLOW?
• Transitional Flow is a theoretical state where the

Flow Regime is in Transition from Laminar Flow to
Turbulent Flow.
• This transition occurs at some Critical Velocity.
• If the velocity is reduced slightly, the fluid returns to
Laminar flow.
• Conversely, if the velocity is increased, turbulence
is achieved.
Example Flow Profiles
Velocity Profile in the annulus

Fluid velocity diminishes to almost
drill pipe borehole wall zero at the face of the borehole and
the drill pipe due to frictional drag .
n = 0.7
n = 0.5 Vertical well bore

n = 0.3
Horizontal well bore
Maximum velocity
• Determination of Flow Type
• It is necessary to know what type of flow pattern is present, not
only because of the
• physical affects, but in order to calculate pressure losses in the
string and the annulus, a
• very important part of hydraulic analysis.
• Fluid velocity and annular diameters are used to determine the
type of flow, in
• conjunction with mud density and mud viscosity.
• These parameters are used to determine the Reynolds
Number, a dimensionless number:
• Re = DVp/ where D = diameter
• V = fluid velocity
• p = density
= effective viscosity
• Notice that the effective viscosity is used in the determination of
the Reynolds number,
• rather than viscosities derived by surface measurements.
What is the REYNOLDS NUMBER?
• It is the ratio of the fluid’s internal forces to it’s viscous

forces.
• The Reynold’s Number is based on the following
formula:
Nre = ( Dfc * Va * Dm ) / Fv
Where: Dfc = Dimensions of the flow

channel
Va = Average flow velocity
Dm = Density of the fluid
Fv = Fluid viscosity
• Determination of the Reynolds Number
• Note that for fluid velocity, an average velocity is used in the determination of the
• Reynolds Number and Effective Viscosity. In reality, as we have seen, the velocity is
• least at the walls of the conduit, increasing to a maximum at the centre of the channel.
• The average fluid velocity (annular velocity or pipe velocity) is determined using the
• following formulae:
• Determination of Annular Velocity
•These formulae can obviously be used to calculate the velocity of the

mud within the drill string.
•In this case, Dh2 would be replaced by Di2 the inside diameter of the
pipe. 'Dp' would, in this case, be equal to zero.
• Use of the Reynolds Number in determining Flow Type

• The value of the Reynolds number defines the transition between
laminar and turbulent
• flow.
• Bingham
• The Critical Reynolds Number is 2100.
• If Re < Rec, then the flow is said to be laminar
• If Re > Rec, then the flow is said to be turbulent
• Power Law
• The Critical Reynolds Number is given by ‘3470 - 1370n’
• If Re < 3470 - 1370n, the flow is laminar
• If Re > 4270 - 1370n, the flow is turbulent
• If 3470 - 1370n < Re < 4270 - 1370n, the flow is transitional
What is the CRITICAL VELOCITY?
• The Critical Velocity is that velocity when the

movement of a fluid changes from:
– Laminar to Transitional to Turbulent
• It is largely governed by the ratio of the fluid’s
internal forces to it’s viscous forces.
• This ratio is known commonly as the Reynold’s
Number.
• We must know the Reynold’s Number to determine
the Critical Velocity.
• Determination of Critical Velocity
• The Critical Velocity is the fluid velocity (whether annular or pipe) at which
the flow type becomes turbulent.
• In reality, at wellsite, the engineer is primarily concerned with the annular

• velocity since turbulent flow here has the associated problems of hole
erosion, damage to cuttings and removal of filter cake.
• When analysing annular velocity, the engineer will be looking for sufficient
annular velocity to affectively lift and remove the cuttings, but within a
laminar flow regime so that minimal damage is done.
• Many engineers will be happy with, even require, transitional or turbulent

flow around the drill collar section. Here, the annular clearance is smallest
so it is most important to keep the section clear of cuttings. For remaining
annular sections, however, laminar flow will always be required to minimize
hole damage and to keep pressure losses low.
Critical Circulation Rate

In the Drillpipe/Hole Annulus:
HYDRAULICSN& 928 D 2  D 1  V a 
RHEOLOGY
Re  a
 ea
Q, gal/min V, ft/sec Nre
280 2.197 1,044

300 2.354 1,154
350 2.746 1,446
400 3.138 1,756
450 3.531 2,086
452 3.546 2,099
452.1 3.547 2,100
Critical Circulation Rate
Example
The above fluid is flowing in the annulus
between a 4.5” OD string of drill pipe
and an 8.5 in hole.
The fluid density is 12.5 lb/gal.
What is the minimum circulation rate that

will ensure turbulent flow?
(why is this of interest?)
Gel Strength - Definition
• Attraction between solids under static conditions.

• Closely related to Yield Point.
• Types:
– Fragile or Flat
– Progressive or Elevated
Fluid velocity
• Flow pattern
Laminar : Less than the critical velocity;
in the annulus (may not D.C) .
Fv < Cv
Turbulent : Higher than the critical
velocity;
in the drill string and the bit.
Fv > Cv
Fluid velocity(cont.)
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
• Less scouring and erosion • More wellbore erosion, in
of the well bore. particular non consild.Fm.
• Pronounced velocity • More flatter velocity profile,
profile, becomes more 1.2 times laminar velocity
flatter as YP/PV ratio profile.
inc.i.e (n) dec. • Better hole
• Hole cleaning is relatively cleaning,espeically in the
poor. highly deviated wells.
• P.Loss is directly related to • P.Loss is related to MWT,
the PV, YP, Geometry. Geom.,vel(V),F.Factor(N).
• Less resulting ECD, less • Higher ECD, potential hole
associated problems. problems.
• Calculations and Guidelines
A)Fluid velocity in the string =
( 24.51 x GPM) / ID2 Ft/Min
(1.98 x LPM) / ID2 M/Min
B) Fluid velocity in the annulus =
(1.98 x LPM) / (HD2 - Pipe OD2)
M/Min
*Optimum Ann.Vel. M/Min =
432 / MWTg/ccx Dhole dia in
C)Jet velocity (Bit nozzles) =
(0.321 x GPM) / Nozzles area A Ft/Sec
Jet velocity(cont.) =(0.0259xLPM)/Nozzles areaA
M/Sec
= Bit Pdpsi x 12.6 /MWTg/cc
M/Sec
*75 M/Sec for firm and hard Fm
*55-65 M/Sec for soft Fm
D)*Cutting slip velocity =
(see the equations section, notice the
different measuring units.)
• Observations
• The Pump rate and the sizes of nozzles, pipe
and hole are the only factors affect the fluid
velocities.
V Pump Rate
Cross Section
• The recommended flow rate falls between 30
and 50 GPM/ins of bit diameter.
For ROP > 15 ft/hr try 40-50 gpm/in.
For ROP <= 15 ft/hr try 30-40 gpm/in.
• Hole problems such as H.torque,fill in conn.
may indicate the necessity of
inc.ann.velocites.
• Larger surface hole requires lower Ann.vel

than smaller deeper hole.
• Fluid velocities in the annular sections must

be greater than the cuttings slip velocity.
• The net cutting rise velocity is the
difference between Ann.velocity and the
cutting slip velocity.
• The flow must be enough to clean the
bit, but too high flow rate and jet
velocity will damage the bit, erode the
hole and keep the cuttings not carried
away from the bit.
Gel Strength - Importance
• An Indication of Low Shear Rate Rheological Properties.

• Too low may cause:
– Settling Barite and/or Cuttings
– Cutting Beds Build-up
• Too high may cause:
– Pressure Surges
– Swabbing
“Fragile” Gel Strength
• A Gel Strength which increases only slightly after 10

minutes, even if the ten second gel is high.
“Fragile” Gel Strength
• Generally Desirable
• Lower
– Pump Pressures
– Swab/Surge Pressures
“Progressive” Gel Strength
• A Gel Strength which increases significantly after 10

minutes, even if the ten second gel is low.
“Progressive” Gel Strength
• May be an indication of:

– Concentration of Reactive Solids Too High
– Solids Crowding
– Insufficient Deflocculation
– Carbonate Contamination
“Fragile” and “Progressive” Gel Strength
Gel Strength (Lb/100 Sq. Ft.)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time In Minutes
Progressive Gel Fragile Gel

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY “HYDRAULICS”?
• Mechanical and Flow properties of Fluids as

applied to practical Mud Engineering
• Otherwise referred to as “Fluid Mechanics”
• Drilling Fluid is the “Blood” of the Drilling Operation
WHY EFFECTIVE HYDRAULICS?
• Hole Cleaning
• Hydrostatic Pressure Optimisation
– Wellbore Stability
– Wellbore Control
• Equivalent Circulating Densities (ECD)
• Surge and Swab Control whilst Tripping
• Limitation of Pump Capacity
• Optimisation of Drilling Operation
THE CIRCULATING SYSTEM!
Mud Pits
Mud Pumps
Casing String
Drillpipe
Open hole
Annulus
MWD
Downhole Motor
Drill bit
• DETERMINATION OF SYSTEM PRESSURE LOSSES
• Regarding the well as a whole as a closed system, pressure losses will occur throughout
• the system :-
• through each drillpipe section
• through the bit
• through each annular section
• through surface lines eg standpipe, kelly hose, pumps and lines
• The total of all theses losses ie Total System Pressure Loss should be equal to the actual
• pressure measured on the standpipe.
• This is a very important part of hydraulic evaluation. Obviously, the maximum pressure
• loss possible will be determined by the rating of the pumps and other surface equipment.
• This maximum is normally far in excess of the pressure loss that will be desired by the
• drilling engineer.
• The logging engineer’s task is normally to take given parameters from the drilling
• engineer, then select, for example, the correct nozzle sizes that will produce the desired
• system pressure loss.
• The amount of pressure loss will be dependant on flowrate, mud density and rheology, the
• length of each section and the diameters of each section.
• Whether the flow is laminar or turbulent is also an important influence on the pressure
• loss - turbulent flow will produce larger pressure losses.
CIRCULATING PRESSURE LOSSES!
• Surface Equipment:
– From Mud Pump to Top of Drillpipe
– Varies from Rig to Rig - typically 100 psi
• Drillstring:
• Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA):
– MWD tools
– Downhole Motors
• Drill Bit:
– Nozzle number and size
• Annulus:
– Open hole
– Casing
CIRCULATING SYSTEM - Shear Rate Ranges!
Settling Barite Particle Drill Pipe Drill Collars
Annulus Bit
H.C.*
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
SHEAR RATE (1/sec)

*H.C = Hydroclones
"Friction" Pressures
DRILLPIPE
2,500
"Friction" Pressure, psi
2,000
DRILL COLLARS
1,500
BIT NOZZLES
1,000
ANNULUS
500
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Cumulative Distance from Standpipe, ft
Hydrostatic Pressures in the Wellbore

BHP
9,000
Hydrostatic Pressure, psi
8,000
7,000 DRILLSTRING ANNULUS
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Pressures in the Wellbore
10,000
9,000
8,000 CIRCULATING
Pressures, psi
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000 STATIC
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Wellbore Pressure Profile
0
DRILLSTRING
2,000
4,000
ANNULUS
Depth, ft
6,000
8,000
10,000
(Static)
12,000
BIT
14,000
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
Pressure, psi
• Fanning Friction Factor
• The frictional forces involved will have a large affect on the actual pressure
losses in a given annular or pipe section.
• The frictional forces present will be very different depending on whether the
flow is laminar or turbulent:-
• 1-with laminar flow, the fluid movement is in one direction only - parallel to
the conduit walls, with velocity increasing towards the centre.. Frictional
forces will therefore only be present due to fluid ‘layers’ moving longitudinally
against each other.
• 2-with turbulent flow, fluid movement is much more complex and multi-
directional, so that many more frictional forces are present.
• For this reason, a coefficient called the Fanning Friction Factor is determined
for each type of flow and whether we are dealing with pipe or annular
pressure losses. The friction factor is determined from the Reynolds Number
which has already been calculated for pipe or annular sections based on
annular velocity, diameters, density and effective viscosity
• When using the Power Law Model, the values
of the Fanning Friction are substituted into
equations in order to calculate pressure
losses in the annulus or in the pipe.
• When calculating these pressure losses,
each individual section has to be calculated
separately, then totaled to give an overall
pipe or annular pressure loss.
PPUMP
Pressure Drop
Calculations
Q = 280 gal/min
 = 12.5 lb/gal
PPUMP = PDP + PDC
+ PBIT NOZZLES
+ PDC/ANN + PDP/ANN
+ PHYD
1- Drill string pressure drop
((Refers to the pressure required to

overcome the friction between the
drilling fluid and drill pipe))
Pressure Drop In Drill Pipe OD = 4.5 in

ID = 3.78 in
Power-Law Constant (n): L = 11,400 ft
 R 600   65 
n  3 . 32 log    3 . 32 log    0 . 737
 R 300   39 
Fluid Consistency Index (K):

5.11 R600 5.11 * 65 dyne sec n
K  n
 0.737
 2.017
1,022 cm 2
1,022
Average Bulk Velocity in Pipe (V):
0 . 408 Q 0 . 408 * 280 ft

V    8 . 00
D2 3 . 78 2
sec
Pressure Drop In Drill Pipe OD = 4.5 in

Effective Viscosity in Pipe (e): ID = 3.78 in
L = 11,400 ft
n 1 n
 96V   3n  1
e  100 K    
 4n 
 D   
0.7371 0.737
 96 * 8   3 * 0.737  1
e  100 * 2.017     53 cP
 3.78   4 * 0.737 
Reynolds Number in Pipe (NRe):
928 D V 928 * 3.78 * 8.00 * 12 .5

NRe    6,616
e 53
OD = 4.5 in
Pressure Drop In Drill Pipe ID = 3.78 in
NOTE: NRe > 2,100, so L = 11,400 ft
a
f 
Friction Factor in Pipe (f): NRe
b
log n  3.93 log 0.737  3.93

a   0.0759
50 50
1.75  log n 1.75  log 0.737

b   0.2690
7 7
a 0 .0759
So, f  b
 0 .2690
 0 .007126
NRe 6,616
OD = 4.5 in
Pressure Drop In Drill Pipe ID = 3.78 in
L = 11,400 ft
Friction Pressure Gradient (dP/dL) :
2
 dP  f V  0.007126 * 8 2 * 12 .5 psi
     0.05837
 dL  25.81 D 25.81 * 3.78 ft
Friction Pressure Drop in Drill Pipe :
 dP 
P    L  0.05837* 11,400
 dL 
Pdp = 665 psi

Pressure Drop In Drill Collars OD = 6.5 in

ID = 2.5 in
Power-Law Constant (n): L = 600 ft
 R 600   65 
n  3 . 32 log    3 . 32 log    0 . 737
 R 300   39 

5.11R 600 5.11 * 65 dyne sec n
K n
 0.737
 2.017
1,022 1,022 cm 2
Average Bulk Velocity inside Drill Collars (V):

0 . 408 Q 0 . 408 * 280 ft
V   18 . 28
D2 2 .5 2
sec
OD = 6.5 in
Pressure Drop In Drill Collars ID = 2.5 in
Effective Viscosity in Collars(e): L = 600 ft
n 1 n
 96V   3n  1
e  100 K    
 D   4n 
0.7371 0.737
 96 * 18.28   3 * 0.737  1
e  100 * 2.017     38.21cP
 2.5   4 * 0.737 
Reynolds Number in Collars (NRe):
928 D V  928 * 2.5 * 18 .28 * 12 .5

NRe    13,870
e 38 .21
OD = 6.5 in
NOTE: NRe > 2,100, so L = 600 ft
a
f 
Friction Factor in DC (f): NRe
b
log n  3.93 log 0.737  3.93

a   0.0759
50 50
1.75  log n 1.75  log 0.737

b   0.2690
7 7
So, a 0 .0759
f  b
 0 .2690
 0 .005840
NRe 13,870
OD = 6.5 in
Friction Pressure Gradient (dP/dL) : L = 600 ft
2
 dP  f V  0.005840 * 18 .28 2 * 12 .5 psi
     0.3780
 dL  25.81 D 25 .81 * 2.5 ft
Friction Pressure Drop in Drill Collars :
 dP 
P    L  0.3780 * 600
 dL 
Pdc = 227 psi

Pressure Drop across Nozzles

DN1 = 11 32nds (in)
156 Q 2
DN2 = 11 32nds (in)
P 
D
N1
2 2
 DN2  DN3
2
 2
DN3 = 12 32nds (in)
156 * 12.5 * 280 2

P 
11 2
 11  12
2

2 2
PNozzles = 1,026 psi

Annulus Pressure Drop
• ((Refers to the pressure required to

overcome the friction between the
drilling fluid and annulus))
Pressure Drop
in DC/HOLE
Annulus
Q = gal/min
 = lb/gal 8.5 in
DHOLE = 8.5 in
ODDC = 6.5 in
L = 600 ft
Pressure Drop DHOLE = 8.5 in
in DC/HOLE Annulus ODDC = 6.5 in
Power-Law Constant (n): L = 600 ft
R   20 
n  0 . 657 log  100   0 . 657 log    0 . 5413
 R3   3 

5.11R100 5.11 * 20 dyne sec n
K  n
 0.5413
 6.336
170 .2 170 .2 cm 2
Average Bulk Velocity in DC/HOLE Annulus (V):

0 . 408 Q 0 . 408 * 280 ft
V    3 . 808
2
D 2  D1
2
8 .5  6 .5
2 2
sec

ODDC = 6.5 in
in DC/HOLE Annulus L = 600 ft
NOTE: NRe < 2,100
Friction Factor in Annulus (f):
24 24
f    0 .01500
NRe 1,600
2
 dP  f V  0.01500 * 3.808 2 * 12.5 psi
    0.05266
 dL  25.81D 2  D1  25.81 8.5  6.5  ft
 dP 
P    L  0 .05266 * 600
 dL 
So, Pdc/hole = 31.6 psi

Pressure Drop
in DP/HOLE Annulus
q = gal/min
 = lb/gal
DHOLE = 8.5 in
ODDP = 4.5 in
L = 11,400 ft

in DP/HOLE Annulus ODDP = 4.5 in
Power-Law Constant (n): L = 11,400 ft
 R 100   20 
n  0 .657 log    0 .657 log    0 .5413
 R3   3 
5.11R100 5.11* 20 dyne secn

K  n
 0.5413
 6.336
170.2 170.2 cm2
Average Bulk Velocity in Annulus (Va):
0.408 Q 0.408* 280 ft

V  2   2.197
D2  D1
2
8.5  4.5
2 2
sec
Pressure Drop
in DP/HOLE Annulus
Effective Viscosity in Annulus (e):
n1 n
 144V   2n  1
 e  100 K    
 D2  D1   3n 
0.5413 1 0.5413
 144 * 2.197   2 * 0.5413  1 
 e  100 * 6.336     97.64 cP
 8 . 5  4 .5   3 * 0.5413 
Reynolds Number in Annulus (NRe):
928 D2  D1  V  928 8.5  4.5 * 2.197 * 12.5

NRe    1,044
e 97.64
Pressure Drop
in DP/HOLE Annulus
NOTE: NRe < 2,100
Friction Factor in Annulus (f):
24 24
f   0 .02299
NRe 1,044
2
 dP  fV  0.02299 * 2.1972 * 12.5 psi
     0.01343
 dL  25.81D2  D1  25.818.5  4.5 ft
 dP 
P    L  0 . 01343 * 11,400
 dL 
So, Pdp/hole = 153.2

psi psi
Pressure Drop Calcs.

- SUMMARY -
PPUMP = PDP + PDC + PBIT NOZZLES
+ PDC/ANN + PDP/ANN + PHYD
PPUMP = 665 + 227 + 1,026

+ 32 + 153 + 0
PPUMP = 1,918 + 185 = 2,103 psi

2,103 psi
PPUMP = PDS + PANN + PHYD

P
PDS = PDP + PDC + PBIT NOZZLES =
0
= 665 + 227 + 1,026 = 1,918 psi
PANN = PDC/ANN + PDP/ANN
= 32 + 153 = 185
PHYD = 0
PPUMP = 1,918 + 185

= 2,103 psi
Pressure Losses
Power Law Model Bingham Plastic
• It’s more closely Model
approximates actual fluid • it examines fluid behaviour
behaviour at annular shear at shear rates between 300
rates than Bingham model and 600, while it’s in the
dose. annulus are often less than
• It predicts a lower ECD than 150. So PV and YP do not
the actual. The modified afford accuracy needed to
power law gives greater calc. Plann.
accuracy by using initial gel • It’s recommended for
strength at shear rate of 3 turbulent flow for better
RPM. accuracy and simplicity.
Pressure Losses (cont.)

1. Surface connection losses (PS) =
0.12 C*MWT (Qgpm)1.86
(100 )
Where : C Type of Equipment
1 1
0 .36 2
0.22 3
0.15 4
NB: You can get the figures direct from the rig tool pusher.

2. Drill string pressure losses
• Use Bingham model for turbulent flow
• Calculate Pd for each different bore diameter
section.
• Note that for turbulent flow, Pd is related to
MWT, Length,Velocity., Pipe bore.dia and
friction factor.
• Pd is directly proportional with all above
except bore diameter is reversely
proportionally.

3. Pressure losses at the Bit (Pb)
• Pb increases by increasing jet velocity (Flow
rate) which is the same as decreasing nozzle
area.
• Pb is manipulated to increase with depth

(decreasing nozzles size) to maintain as
great an ROP as possible.

• Bit Hydraulic Horsepower; It’s a common
approach to designing a hydraulic program is to
maximise or optimise Bhhp.
*2.5-5 hhp/sq.in of the bit diameter are
recommended.
*hhp can be utilised at higher ROP is very close
to the square root of the ROP in ft/hr
*Bit hhp is maximised when about 65% of the
pump pressure is expended across the jets.
*hhp is directly proportional to the square of the
velocity

• Jet Impact Force; It’s another approach to a
hydraulic program for efficient hole cleaning.
*If is directly proportional to jet velocity, it

emphasises flow rate.
*14.5 lbs/sq.in of the bit area is recommended
* If is maximised when about 49% of the pump

pressure is expended across the jets.

4. Annulus Pressure Losses (Pda).
• Power Law is more accurate to calculate it
• The only Pd in the system, which has an
impact force in the formation, due to the
energy required to circulate the mud up the
annulus.
• Pda and the hydrostatic head of the mud
column are the effective pressure on the
formation, ECD
• The effect of annular pressure losses small but very important
• 1. They increase the bottom hole pressure when circulating.
2. They reduce the initial severity of a kick by providing a safety margin but
they increase the risks of lost circulation during killing circulating.
3. They cause formation damage if the pressure losses are due to
establishing circulation. When establishing circulation ,the p. loss in the
annulus increases due to initial high viscosity(gel strength) of the drilling
fluid.
4. Increase in surface pressure: High increase - nozzle plugging. Gradual
increase 1. increased flow rate 2. string increase depth more deeper
3. change in drilling fluid properties
5. Decrease in surface pressure : Sudden decrease 1. Loss of nozzle
2.Twist-off
6.Gradual decrease in pressure :1. A developing wash-out. 2. Lighter
substance like gas or water leads to reduction of hydrostatic head.
Lifting Capacity of Drilling Fluids

- Slip Velocity -
• The lifting capacity of a drilling fluid is directly
related to the rate at which a cutting tends to
falls (due to gravity)annular velocity must be
grater than slip the slip velocity.
•Slip velocity is function of:Mud weight , cutting
density and diameter , annular velocity , mud
properties , type of flow , hole size.

Historically, when an operator felt that
the hole was not being cleared of cuttings
at a satisfactory rate, he would:
Increase the circulation rate
Thicken the mud

(increase YP/PV)
More recent analysis shows that:
 Turbulent flow cleans the hole better.
 Pipe rotation aids cuttings removal.
 With water as drilling fluid, annular

velocities of 100-125 ft/min are
generally adequate (vertical wells)
 A relatively “flat” velocity

profile is better than a
highly pointed one.
 Mud properties can be

modified to obtain a flatter
profile in laminar flow
e.g., decrease n
Density & Velocity

Drilled cuttings typically
have a density of
Vslip
about 21 lb/gal. _
V f luid
Since the fluid density is Vparticle
less than 21 lb/gal the
cuttings will tend to
settle, or ‘slip’ relative
to the drilling mud.
Vparticle  Vf luid  Vslip
Velocity Profile
The slip velocity can be reduced by
modifying the mud properties such
that the velocity profile is flattened:
Increase the ratio (YP/PV)

(yield point/plastic viscosity) or
Decrease the value of n

Plug Flow
 Plug Flow is good for hole

cleaning. Plug flow refers
to a “completely” flat
velocity profile.
 The shear rate is zero

where the velocity profile
is flat.
What forces act
on a settling
particle?
Non-
spherical
particles
experience
relatively
higher drag
forces
Transport Ratio
particle velocity
Transport Ratio 
fluid velocity
particle velocity
Transport Efficiency  * 100%
fluid velocity
Example : Particle velocity  90 ft/min

Fluid velocity  120 ft/min
Transport Efficiency  ?
Transport Ratio
Transport efficiency  (90 / 120) *100%
 75%
A transport efficiency of 50% or higher is desirable!
Note: Net particle velocity = fluid velocity - slip velocity.

In example, particle slip velocity = 120 - 90 = 30 ft/min
With a fluid velocity of 120 ft/min a minimum particle

velocity of 60 ft/min is required to attain a transport
efficiency of 50%
Conclusion
• For each annular section , slip velocity is subtracted from annular velocity to
arrive at a net cuttings rise velocity .If for any section the difference between
annular velocity and net cuttings velocity is great, an adjustment in mud
properties should be considered
• The largest annular section of special importance, because it has the lowest
annular velocity. Cuttings are more prone to fall in this section. Of particular
significance is offshore riser. The annular velocity in the riser is often so
much less than other sections that, for special circumstances(shale cavings),
flushing of the riser utilizing the kill/chock lines may be necessary.
• High slip velocity results in :Annulus overloading , solids buildup , fill on
bottom , reduced ROP , high rotating torque , pack-off around drill string ,
possibly pipe.
Potential Hole-Cleaning Problems

1. Hole is enlarged. This may result in
reduced fluid velocity which is lower
than the slip velocity.
2. High downhole temperatures may

adversely affect mud properties
downhole.
[ We measured these at the surface.]
Potential Hole-Cleaning Problems

3. Lost circulation problems may preclude
using thick mud or high circulating
velocity. Thick slugs may be the
answer.
4. Slow rate of mud thickening - after it has

been sheared (and thinned) through the
bit nozzles, where the shear rate is very
high.
Equivalent Circulating Density

(ECD)
• How dose ECD work against the
Driller?
Two bad effect of high ECD are:
• Lost circulation.
• Differential sticking.
This particularly true in 8.5” or smaller
hole sizes when working with heavy
muds.
E C D (cont.)
• How can ECD be controlled below
formation breakdown density?
The ECD can be lowered by:

• Lowering solids and yield point.
• Reducing annular velocity.
• Lowering the mud weight.
• A combination of the above.
E C D (cont.)
• What are the operational steps to utilise the
ECD effect?
• Calc. the ECD at normal circulating rate.
• Run a bit that will stay on bottom 80 hours or
more.
• Reduce MWT on first attempt by the amount of
the ECD. This will also reduce yield because of
dilution
• When picking up to make a conn.leave pump
running so that the ECD offset the negative
surge.
E C D (cont.)
• Before pulling out, weight mud up to required
weight with trip margin.
• Watch and monitor closely.
E C D (cont.)
• How is the ECD calculated?
1) For high weight and high vis.
muds(MWT over 13ppg and YP higher
than 10).
ECD = MW+0.1/D(YP+PV x V)
300 x D
2) For moderate weight muds.
ECD = MW+0.1 x YP
D
Where: Mwppg Vft/min Dhd-dpd
Surge and Swab Pressures

• Surge and Swab pressures are
directly proportional to the pipe
velocity, MW and Vis. and revesely
proportional with the hole diameter.
• Surge and Swab are calculated with
reference to two points of interest :
Casing Shoe
Bottom of the hole
Surge and Swab

Pressures(cont.)
• Effect of trip speed on SWAB pressure
Avg speed MW Eq.MW@Bottom
per stand ppg Due to
swabbing
100 sec’s 14.0 13.6
80 sec’s 13.5
60 sec’s 13.4
40 sec’s 13.0
8 ½”Hole, 5”dpx9250’, 6 ½”dcx750’, PV/YP 25/15
Surge and Swab Pressures(cont.)
• Surge and swab pressure are produced by the piston-like movement of drill pipe in and
out of the hole. Surges and swabs are the result of tripping,reaming,connections and
breaking circulation.
• These movements effect a viscous drag and produce a fluid velocity similar to annular
velocity. Consequently, a velocity and annular pressure loss can be calculated for each
annular section. These are then totaled slow to equal the surge or swab pressure.
• Since surges may cause formation fracture(and lost circulation) and swabs may initiate
a kick, control of these pressures increases and decreases is important. Control is
achieved by unning drill pipe at relatively slow rates and / or altering the mud
properties
• .
75% or higher of all blowouts are trip related, Swab is one of the guilts
• Bit & Nozzles

4- Bit Hydraulics
• Bit Pressure Drop.

• Jet Velocity.
• Hydraulic Horse Power.
• Impact Force
Bit Pressure Drop
8.33 10 q
5 2
pb  2 2
Cd At
• Bit pressure loss has marked influence on ROP up to a point . The
greater the pressure loss at the bit the greater the ROP.
• Pb=w vn2 / 1120
• Pb= (w x gpm2) / ( 10858 x a2)
• Bit pressure loss is mainipulated to increase with depth to maintain

as fast a ROP as possible. Bit pressure loss is increased by
increasing jet velocity which is the same as decreasing the nozzle
area.
Nozzle Velocity
pb
vn  C d
8.074  104 
Cd  Nozzle discharge coefficient
usually equal to 0.95
• Jet Velocity
Jet velocity is known as nozzle velocity. This is of prime importance in removing cuttings
from the bit-formation interface and in cleaning the cutting surface. To a degree the
greater the jet velocity the better the ROP.However, too great a jet velocity results in
cuttings not carried away from the bit, and in hole erosion.
Vn=(0.32 x gpm)/An
Vn=square root of (Pb x 1120) /W
Jet velocity is increased by decreasing nozzle area which also increases bit pressure
loss.Jet velocity is not increased by increasing GPM as this increases total system loss.
As some hydraulics programs are developed around maintainance of maximum jet

velocity,each succesive hole section and greater depths require a reduction in nozzle
size in order to maintain efficient hole cleaning and high ROP.
Particular requirements may outweigh considerations of optmum jet velocity, e.g. use of
LCM , the possibility of having to cement through the bit.
Guidelines: a good average value is 250 ft/sec for firm to hard formations, soft shales may
require considerable less due to the possibility of eroding the hole
Optimum Bit Hydraulics

• Under what conditions do we get the best
hydraulic cleaning at the bit?
– maximum hydraulic horsepower?
– maximum impact force?
Both these items increase when the circulation

rate increases.
However, when the circulation rate increases,
so does the frictional pressure drop, so there
is less pressure drop available for the bit.
Hydraulic Power
P hp  ( Pb  GPM ) / 1714
H
Bhhp5107wGPMVn2
• A common approach to designing a hydraulics program is to maximize or optimize bit
hydraulic horsepower. It can be seen that bit hydraulic horsepower is maximized when
the bit pressure loss and the pump output are maximized. It can be seen that bit
hydraulic horsepower is directly proportional to the square of the jet velocity.
• It has been found the ROP is greatest when Pb = 0.66 x standpipe pressure. This formula
is commonly used to maximize bit hydraulic horsepower.
• Not only is ROP directly proportional(to a degree) to bit hydraulic horsepower,whenever

WOB is increased to effect an increase in ROP bit hydraulic horespower must be
increased.
• Although largely dependent on formation strength,size of hole, bit type,et.,a guideline for
soft to firm formations is:
• 2.5 to 5 hp/in2 for large holes
• 1.5 to 2.5 hp/in2 for diamond bits

Hydraulic Impact Force

IF  ( w  GPM  Vn) / 1932
If  5.2 10  4  w  GPM  Vn

IF  0.0173  GPM  square  of ( w  Pb)

• It can seen that jet impact force emphasizes flow rate (volume); as
opposed to bit hydraulic horsepower which is directly proportional to
the square of jet velocity
• For the condition where flow rate and pressure are limited, the greatest
ROP occurs when the Pb = 0.48 x pump pressure. This equation is
most commonly used when jet impact force is to be maximized or
optimized
• A guideline for jet impact force in soft to firm formations is 14.5 Lbs/in2
of bit area.
Primary Design Criteria
• Pore Pressure < Hydrostatic Pressure/ECD <

Fracture Pressure
Fracture Pressure Gradient

Depth
Pore Pressure Gradient

Mud Weight
Pressure or Equivalent Mud Weight
 Poor Design will likely lead to;

 Wellbore Control
 Lost Circulation
Hydraulics Design Criteria
Casing / Completion Operations

Pump Capacity Tripping Speed
Pore Pressure Optimum

Design Maximum ROP
Fracture Pressure
Hole Geometry / Cleaning Bit Hydraulics
BHA Design
Key Variables in Hydraulics
• Pump Rate
– High
• Good Hole Cleaning
– Too High
• Excessive Pump Pressure, High ECD, Annular
Turbulence
• Density
– High
• Wellbore Stability and Control
– Too high
• Low ROP, Lost Circulation, Differential Sticking
Key Variables in Hydraulics
• Rheology
– High
• Good hole Cleaning, No Barite Sag
– Too High
• Low ROP, High ECD, High Pump Pressure, Inefficien
Solids Removal
Design
• Mud Selection
– Environment
– Lithology
– Cost
• Modify Rheology and Hydraulics to meet Drilling
Requirements
– Geometry
• Modify Drilling Parameters to meet needs of Hydraulics
• Tools
– Accurate Dynamic Hydraulics Software
– Hole Cleaning Software
Why Calculate Pressure Losses and Rheology?
• Determine the ECD (Equivalent Circulating Density) of a

drilling fluid.
• Assess the effects of fluid changes on hydraulic performance
• Optimise hydraulics for enhanced drilling performance.
• Ensure good hole cleaning.
• Preventing erosion.
• Prevent borehole instability.
• Prevent losses due to surge pressures.
• Hydraulic Recommendations: flow Rate Requirements
• 1- Flow rate must be high enough to transport cuttings. Back ream,bit body balling and lack of chips
at surface indicate cuttings transport or sloughing problems.
• 2. Flow rate must be low enough to avoid hole erosion,equipment wear,and excessive standpipe
pressure.
• 3. High flow rates often require large or open nozzles
• 4. Bits with large junk slots,high open face volume,widely spaced teeh/inserts and numerous jets are
helpful.
• Hydraulic Recommendations: Maximum Hydraulic horsepower
• 5. Maximize nozzle HIS when cutting structure or bottom hole balling is the limitation.
• 6. Deep holes,high mud weights,water base mud and reactive formations,cuttings packed on teeth
indicate static or dynamic chip hold down problems
• 7. Maximum HIS obtained when nozzle pressure drop is 65% of standpipe pressure.
• Hydraulic Recommendations: Maximum Jet Impact force
• 8. Maximize JIF in shallow holes where cuttings return and bit/hole balling are both potential
limitations.
• 9. Common in shallow holes with high ROP in reactive formations.
• 10. Obtained when the pressure drop across the bit is 50% of the total pump pressure.
• Other Guidelines
• 1. 30 to 50 gpm / inch of hole diameter
• 2. 3 to 7 HIS recommended(not always possible)
• 3. 18% or less flow through centerjet(= 18% of TFA)
• Some Observations on Hydraulics
• 1. The circulating pressure losses at the bit are directly proportional to the mud weight
• 2. Hydraulic horsepower required to circulate varies with the cube of the flow rate.
• HHP = GPM3
• 3. The smaller the hole size, the higher the velocity required to remove the cuttings
• 4. N value of .6 to .7 are satisfactory for good hole cleaning.
• 5. A larger increase in PV has little effect on p.loss in laminar flow. A small increase in YP
has a large on circulating p.loss in laminar flow.PV and YP have no efect on circulating
p.loss in turbulent flow.
• 6. Pressure loss at the bit is inversely proportional to the square of the jet area
• Pb = 1/A2
• 7. Maximum pump pressure Get this figer from the drilling contractor.
• Some Observations on Hydraulics
• 8. Minimum annular velocities: required to clean the open hole/drillpipe
sections this process is important in hole angles of over 30 degree when
cutting beds start to form
• 9. Maximum annular velocities attainable :required large diameter drillpipe in
hole,restrictions in MWD /motor/collars.
• 10.The annular velocity necessary in a well at 30 degree is about 20%
higher than a vertical well. Between 50 and 60 degree velocity should be
about twice that in vertical holes.
• 11. The minimum practica annular velocity is maintained above of
approximately 17 m/min(50 ft/min) in large hole size . In smaller holes the
more common value of 30 – 40 m/min(90-120) and greater depth.
• 12. Optimum annular velocity fall between maximum and minimum velocity
• 13.
• Guidelines for flow rate
Bit diameter inch minimum flow Maximum flow
26 1200 1450
20 1150 1300
17.5 950 1100
12.25 700 950
8.5 350 500
6 180 300
• Guidelines for bit horsepower Bit size 2.5 hp/in2 3 hp/in2
• < 10 fph,2.5 to 3 hp/in2
8.5 142 170
6 71 85
Bit size , in Bit hp
• Guidelines for bit horsepower
• >10 fph,with 5 hp/ in2
17.5 1202
12.25 589
8.5 284
Typical range of fluid properties
Hole size YP limits N - value Flow regime
17.5 28 min 0.5 – 0.7 Laminar
12.25 21 min 0.5 – 0.75 Laminar
12.25 5 -10 max 0.5 – 0.95 Turbulent
8.5 22 min 0.5 – 0.7 Laminar
6 5 – 12 max 0.5 – 0.9 Turbulent

• Well inclination / Circulating factors
Well inclination Section length factor

Range 17.5 hole 12.25 hole 8.5 hole
0 – 10 degree 1.5 1.3 1.3
10 – 30 degree 1.7 1.4 1.4
30 – 60 degree 2.5 1.8 1.6
60 Degree 3.0 2.0 1.7
Factor = Bottoms up factor
• Recommended sweep size
26”&36” 17.25”&16” 12.25” 8.5”

intervals intervals intervals intervals
80 + bbl 60 + bbl 30 – 50 bbl 20 bbl

Hydraulics & Rheology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hydraulics & Rheology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hydraulics & Rheology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are hydraulics?

What are hydraulics?

What factors influence hydraulics?

What factors influence hydraulics?

•

What are HYDRAULICS?

• An operation where the drilling fluid is used to transfer

• Part of this energy is used to clean the face of the bit!

• The pressures exerted in circulating a well can be

• We need to know the TYPE of fluid!

Surge and Swab

Possible Pipe Sticking

Poor Hydraulics (cont.)

Trends that indicate a

Trends that indicate a potential hole cleaning

• The principle roles of the mud are:-

• Control subsurface pressures

The FLUID RHEOLOGY

• Fluid Rheology affects carrying capacity,

• Fluid Rheology also affects the suspending

• Oil Based Muds

RHEOLOGY - Defining some Terms

• Rheology is the science of the deformation and flow of

• When applied to Drilling Fluids, rheology deals with the

• Each of these three items is inter-related to the other.

The TYPES of Fluids

• We are primarily concerned with just two

NEWTONIAN Fluids(true fluids)

• Named after Issac Newton, the Newtonian fluid exhibits

NEWTONIAN Fluids (true fluids)

Newtonian Model - Graphically Illustrated

Shear Stress, lb/100 ft²

• Any fluid that does not conform to Newtonian behaviour.

• A Non-Newtonian fluid is basically any fluid that does not

Other Descriptive TERMS for Fluids!

• Drilling fluids are SHEAR THINNING when they have less

• Most drilling fluids do not conform perfectly to the Bingham

The RHEOLOGICAL MODELS!

• A RHEOLOGICAL MODEL is a description of the

What is SHEAR STRESS?

• Shear Stress is defined as the force required to overcome

Where: F = Force applied (dynes)

What is SHEAR RATE?

• Shear rate is defined as the relative velocity of the fluid

Illustrating Shear Stress/Shear Rate

Moving Plate, velocity = 1.0 cm/sec

Fixed Plate, velocity = 0 cm/sec

Measurement - Marsh Funnel

• Viscosity relates to the resistance to deformation exhibited

The importance of VISCOSTY!

The BINGHAM PLASTIC Model!

• The simplest model, and one of the most commonly

The BINGHAM PLASTIC Model!

• Best characterises fluids at higher shear rates.

Bingham Model - Graphically Illustrated

Shear Stress, lb/100 ft²

PLASTIC VISCOSITY and YIELD POINT

• PLASTIC VISCOSITY = 600 Reading - 300 Reading

Plastic Viscosity - Definitions

• PV = 600 RPM Rdg - 300 RPM Rdg.