[ Note : date for submission 13th June 2022

1. write the following 8 experiments and activity in record note book

write all headings and side heading in black pen
2. Don’t leave lines after side headings. Write continuously
3. Write 8 experiments continuously then write 6 activities.
4. If you have any doubt ask it in GCR ]

OHM’S LAW

Ex: no: 1
Date:
AIM
To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph between potential
differences versus current.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A wire of unknown resistance, battery eliminator, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, plug
key, connecting wires
FORMULA:
Resistance of given wire R= V/I
R- Resistance of given wire (Ω )
V- Applied potential difference (V)
I - Current flowing through the wire (A)

Resistivity of the given wire ρ = 𝜋𝑟2 / l

ρ - Resistivity of the given wire (Ω m)
r - radius of the given wire (m)
l - length of the given wire (m)

THEORY:
Ohm's law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical state of
the conductor remains unchanged.
V ∝ I, V = RI
Where R is the constant of proportionality and is termed as the electrical resistance
of the conductor the graph between V and I will be a straight line passing through
the origin
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect various components - resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter and
ammeter as shown in the Circuit diagram
2. Note whether pointers in ammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on
the measuring scale.
3. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Insert the key and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that
current passing through the resistance wire is minimum.
5. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
6. Remove the key and allow the wire to cool, Shift the rheostat contact slightly to
increase the applied voltage.
7. Now, calculate the resistivity of the material of the wire using the formula,
ρ = 𝜋𝑟2 / l

RESULT:
Resistance of the wire 1(from graph) = Ω
Resistance of the wire 2(from graph) = Ω
Resistivity of the wire 1 = Ωm.
Resistivity of the wire 2 = Ωm
PRECAUTIONS
1. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter in series with the
circuit. It should be ensured that current enters at the positive terminal and leaves at
the negative terminal
2. Zero error in measuring instruments should be noted.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The connections may be loose.
2. The ratio V/I may not be constant due to heating caused by continuous passage of
current.
Circuit diagram: (draw it in 1st left page)
Model Graph (draw it in 1st left page)

OBSERVATIONS
Range of ammeter = 0 ... A to ...A
Least count of ammeter = ... A
Range of voltmeter = 0 ... V to ...V
Least count of voltmeter = ...V
Radius of the wire 1 = _____ 10 -2 m
length of the wire 1= _____ 10 -2 m
Radius of the wire 1 = _____ 10 -2 m
length of the wire 2 = _____ 10 -2 m

TABULATION[ Note : 1.write all tabular column headings in black pen

2. draw it in 2nd left page]
Voltmeter and ammeter readingsFor Wire -1

S.NO Applied potential Current flowing through

difference [voltmeter the wire [ammeter reading
reading V (V)] I (A)]

Voltmeter and ammeter readings For Wire -2

S.NO Applied potential Current flowing through the
difference [voltmeter wire [ammeter reading I (A)]
reading V (V)]

CALCULATION: (write in 3rd left page)

ρ = 𝜋𝑟2 / l
 METRE BRIDGE

EX: NO:2
DATE:

AIM: To find the resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using a metre bridge.

APPARATUS:
Metre bridge, a wire about 1m long, a resistance box, a rheostat, galvanometer, a
jockey, one-way key, a cell or battery eliminator, thick connecting wires, screw
gauge.
FORMULA
Unknown resistance S of the wire, having uniform cross-sectional
area, is then given by
(100−𝑙)
S=R 𝑙 Ω
S - Unknown resistance of the wire(Ω )
R- Known resistance from resistance box(Ω )
𝑙 - The balancing length. (m)

PRINCIPLE:
A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge.
𝑅 𝑙
=
𝑆 100−𝑙
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the circuit as shown with unknown resistance wire of known length.
2. Introduce some resistance R in the circuit from the resistance box.
3. Bring the jockey J at the middle of the wire, adjust R to get null deflection in
the galvanometer
4. Choose R and find the balancing length.
5. Repeat for different values of resistance R.

RESULT: Resistance of the wire= Ω

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3. The plug in the key should be inserted only at the time of taking
observations.
4. Null points should be in the middle of the wire (30 cm to 70 cm).
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. The resistances of end pieces / metal strips may not be negligible.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

TABULATION

S.NO. Resistance Balancing length

from the (100−𝑙)
resistance
Length Length DC S=R 𝑙
box AD
(100-𝑙)
R (Ω) (𝑙)
(Ω)
(10-2 m)
(10-2 m)

Mean (S) = Ω
CALCULATION:
(100−𝑙)
S=R 𝑙 Ω

1. R =_____ Ω; l = ______10-2 m; 100 – l = ______10-2 m; S= Ω

2. R =_____ Ω; l = ______10-2 m; 100 – l = ______10-2 m; S= Ω
3. R =_____ Ω; l = ______10-2 m; 100 – l = ______10-2 m; S= Ω
4. R =_____ Ω; l = ______10-2 m; 100 – l = ______10-2 m; S= Ω
5. R =_____ Ω; l = ______10-2 m; 100 – l = ______10-2 m; S= Ω
Mean S= Ω
 METRE BRIDGE LAWS OF COMBINATION SERIES

EX: NO: 3
DATE:

AIM
To verify the laws of combination of series of resistances using a metre bridge.

APPARATUS
A metre bridge, a Leclanché cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box,
a jockey, two resistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances, a set square,
sand paper and connecting wires.

FORMULA

1. Unknown resistance of the wire, having uniform cross-sectional

area, is then given by
(100−𝑙)
r=R Ω
𝑙
r - Unknown resistance of the wire(Ω )
R- Known resistance from resistance box(Ω )
𝑙 - The balancing length. (m)
2. Combination of Series Resistance Rs = r1 + r2 (Ω )
r1 and r2 – Unknown resistance (Ω )

PROCEDURE
1. Set up the circuit as shown with unknown resistance wire of known length.
2. Introduce some resistance R in the circuit from the resistance box.
3. Bring the jockey J at the middle of the wire, adjust R to get null deflection in
the galvanometer
4. Choose R and find the balancing length.
5. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2.

6. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in series as shown in figure in the right gap of metre
bridge and find the resistance of this combination.
7. Take at least three sets of observations.

8. Record your observations .

RESULT
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of resistances
are same. Hence, law of resistances in series is verified.

PRECAUTIONS

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the
insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
5. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of
resistance (otherwise its resistance will increase).

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.

2. The resistances of end pieces / metal strips may not be negligible

Circuit diagram
 Resistance S.No Resistance Length Length DC (100−𝑙) Mean
coil from the
r=R Resistance
AD 𝑙
resistance ( 100- 𝑙 )
box (𝑙) (Ω) (Ω)
R (Ω)
(10-2 m)
(10-2m)

r1 only 1. r1 = ……
2.
3.

r2 only 1. r2 = ……
2.
3.

r1 and r2 1. Rs = ……
in series 2.
3.
CALCULATIONS
Calculation for verification of laws Experimental value of R s = ……
Theoretical value of Rs = r1 + r2 = ……
Difference (if any) = ……
 CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETRE INTO VOLTMETRE
EX: NO: 4
DATE:
AIM
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a
voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.

APPARATUS
Galvanometer, voltmeter of 0-3 volts range, range a battery of two cells or battery
eliminator, two resistance boxes, two one way keys, a rheostat, connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper.

FORMULA

Ig – Current for full scale deflection (A)

G – Resistance of given galvanometer ()

PROCEDURE

1. Calculate the value of series resistance R to be connected in series with

the galvanometer for the given range V (say 3 volts).
2. Connect a resistance box in series with the galvanometer and take out
the plugs of resistance R. Now the given galvanometer is ready for use
as a voltmeter of range V volts.
3. For verification make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. H
a rheostat being used as a potential divider.
4. Take out the plugs of calculated resistance R from the resistance box.
Insert the key K and adjust the movable contact of the rheostat so that
deflection in the galvanometer becomes maximum.
5. Note the readings of voltmeter and galvanometer. Convert the
galvanometer reading into volts.
 6. Find the difference, if any, between the readings of voltmeter and
galvanometer. The difference gives the error.
7. Move the variable contact of the rheostat and take at least five
observations covering the whole range of the voltmeter i.e., 0-3 volts.
8. Record your observations.

RESULT
As the difference in actual and measured value of potential difference is very
small, the conversion is perfect.

PRECAUTIONS

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.
3. The ammeter used for verification should preferably be of the
same range, as the range of conversion.
4. The diameter of the wire to be used for shunt resistance, should be
measured accurately.
5. Length of shunt wire used should be neither too small nor too large.
6. The resistance box should be a high resistance one.
7. The voltmeter used for verification should preferably be of the same
range, as the range of conversion.
8. Value of required series resistance should be calculated accurately.

SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. The emf of the battery may not be constant
2. Resistance box may not provide a accurate resistance to the circuit

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
The Least count of galvanometer converted into voltmeter = V/n =

sl.no Reading of galvanometer into Standard Standard voltmeter reading

voltmeter voltmeter V2 – V1
reading (V)
V2
deflection The potential (V)
difference in volts
V1
(V)

CALCULATION
 CONCAVE MIRROR
EX. NO:5
DATE:
AIM:
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the
focal length.
APPARATUS: Illuminated wire gauze, concave mirror , stand, screen and metre
scale.
FORMULA

PROCEDURE:
i) Focus the distant object on the screen using concave mirror.
ii) the distance between the screen and the concave mirror gives the approximate
focal length,
iii) Choose the U values (2f, 2f -3, 2f+3, etc.)
iv) Adjust the screen to get the clear image on the screen for various U.
v) Tabulate the observations.
.
RESULT: Focal length of the given concave mirror = x10-2m.
PRECAUTIONS: i) Avoid parallax error.
SOURCES OF ERRORS: i) Parallax error may not be removed perfectly.
ii) The given concave mirror may be very thick.
RAY DIAGRAM
 Table :
To find focal length of the concave mirror (f)
Distant-object method focal length f = x10-2m
Focal length
Object distance Image distance f = u v / u+v
Sl. No. u v
(10-2m)
(10-2m )
(10-2m) 10-2m
1
2
3
4
5

Calculation
1. u = 10-2m : v= 10-2m: f= ___________________________ 10-2m
2. u = 10-2m : v= 10-2m: f= ___________________________ 10-2m
3. u = 10-2m : v= 10-2m: f= ___________________________ 10-2m
4. u = 10-2m : v= 10-2m: f= ___________________________ 10-2m
5. u = 10-2m : v= 10-2m: f= ___________________________ 10-2m
 CONVEX MIRROR
EX.NO:6
DATE:
AIM: To find the focal length of convex mirror using convex lens.
APPARATUS: Source box, screen, convex lens, convex mirror and metre scale.
PROCEDURE:
i) Mount the convex lens and convex mirror in front of the source box and
adjust the both to get the clear image by the side of the source box.
ii) Note the position of convex lens and convex mirror.
iii) Remove the convex mirror and adjust the screen to get the clear image on
the screen
iv) Note the position of the screen.
v) The difference between the positions of convex mirror and the screen gives
radius of curvature.
vi) Calculate the focal length of convex mirror is R/2.
RESULT: The focal length of convex mirror = x 10-2 m.
PRECAUTIONS: i) Avoid parallax error, ii) stand, source and screen must be in
the same straight line.
SOURCES OF ERROR: i) Parallax error may not be removed perfectly; ii) Focal
length of the lens may not be small.
RAY DIAGRAM:
TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO POSITION POSITION Distance 𝑹

f=
𝟐
OF CONVEX OF between the
MIRROR (M) SCREEN(I) position of M
to I 10-2 m
10-2 m 10-2 m
R=I-M
10-2 m

MEAN f = ……..x10-2 m
CALCULATION
1. I-M = ______10-2 m; f = R/2 = _______ 10-2 m
2. I-M = ______10-2 m; f = R/2 = _______ 10-2 m
3. I-M = ______10-2 m; f = R/2 = _______ 10-2 m
Mean f = _____________ /3
= _______ 10-2 m
 CONVEX LENS
EX. NO: 7
DATE:
AIM: To determine the focal length of given convex lens from U and V graph.
APPARATUS: Illuminated wire gauze, convex lens, stand, screen and metre
scale.
PROCEDURE:
vi) Focus the distant object on the screen using convex lens.
vii) the distance between the screen and the lens gives the approximate
focal length,
viii) Choose the U values (2f, 2f -3, 2f+3, etc.)
ix) Adjust the screen to get the clear image on the screen for various U.
x) Tabulate the observations.
xi) Draw the graph between U and V.
xii) Find the focal length from the graph.
RESULT: Focal length of the give convex lens from U V graph = x10-2m.
PRECAUTIONS: i) Avoid parallax error. ii) X & Y axes must have same scale.
SOURCES OF ERRORS: i) Parallax error may not be removed perfectly.
ii) The given convex lens may be very thick.
RAY DIAGRAM
MODEL GRAPH

TABULAR COLUMN
S.NO. Object Distance (u) Image Distance (V)
(10-2 m) (10-2 m)

DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
EX. NO: 8
DATE:
AIM:
To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias.
Activities.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: semiconductor diode, ammeter (milli& micro) and

voltmeter.

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections for forward bias.
2. Increase the forward bias, note down the ammeter and voltmeter reading.
3. Repeat the experiment for reverse bias of the diode by changing the connection.
4. Plot the forward and reverse bias characteristic curve.
TERMS & DEFINATIONS
1.Forward bias: When an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction
diode in such a way that the p-side is at a higher potential with
respect to the n-side, it is said to be forward biased.
2. Threshold voltage or “Cut-in” voltage: When the p-side is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the voltage is
increased, initially a negligible current flows till the applied voltage
crosses a certain value. After, a characteristic voltage, the diode
current increases significantly (exponentially), even for a very small
increase in the diode bias voltage. This voltage is called the
threshold voltage or cut-in-voltage of the diode.
3. Reverse bias: When the n-region of a p-n junction diode is at a
higher potential with respect to the p-region, it is said to be reverse
biased. In reverse bias, the p-side of the p-n junction diode is
connected to the negative of the battery.
4. Reverse saturation current: As the applied voltage is increased
in the reverse biased condition, starting from zero value, the current
increases, but soon becomes constant. This current is very small
(a few microamperes). It is called the reverse saturation current.

RESULT:
A. The value of cut-in voltage for the given diode is ... V.
B. The reverse saturation current for the given diode is... µA.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections must be tight
2. The voltmeter and ammeter readings must be recorded accurately.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The given diode may be faulty
2. The connections may be loose.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH
TABULAR COLUMN:

FORWARD BIAS
Voltmeter Ammeter
Reading(V) Reading
I(mA)

REVERSE BIAS

Voltmeter Ammeter
Reading(V) Reading
I(µA)

ASSEMBLE THE COMPONENTS OF A GIVEN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT.

ACTIVITY -1
DATE:
AIM: To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
APPARATUS: Battery, resistors, ammeter, voltmeter, key and rheostat.
PROCEDURE:
i) Connect the components ammeter, rheostat and resistors in series with each
other and also with battery.
ii) Connect ammeter in series to measure current and voltmeter in parallel, to
measure potential difference across R.
iii) Assembly of all in the electrical circuit is complete.
CONCLUSION: Assembly of all the components in an electric circuit is
complete.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT:

POTENTIOMETER
ACTIVITY – 2
DATE:
AIM: To study the variation in potential drop with length for a constant current
flowing through the potentiometer wire.
APPARATUS: Potentiometer, d c supply, voltmeter, ammeter rheostat and
connecting wire.
FORMULA: As constant current flowing through the wire of uniform area of
cross-section the potential drop between any two points is directly proportional to
its length.
𝑽
Vα l, = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 = 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕.
𝒍

PROCEDURE:
i) Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
ii) Note down the readings in the voltmeter by placing the jockey at 50cm, 150 cm,
250 cm, 350 cm, and 450 cm constant current.
iii) Draw the graph between V & l
𝑉
iv) Measure the slope of the graph which gives .
𝑙

RESULT: Potential gradient= v/m.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH

TABULAR COLUMN:
S.NO. Length of potential wire over Voltmeter reading φ = V/l (V / cm)
which potential drop is V(volt)
measured l (cm)
1 50

2 150

3 250

4 350

5 450

DRAW CIRUIT DIAGRAM

ACTIVITY-3
DATE:
AIM: To draw the circuit diagram of given open circuit comprising a battery,
rheostat, resistance, ammeter, voltmeter and key. Mark the components that are not
connected in proper order, correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.
APPARATUS: Battery, key, rheostat, ammeter, resistance, voltmeter and
connecting wires.
PROCEDURE:
i) Draw the circuit diagram in your note book.
ii) Identify the various components in the circuit
iii) Mark the components that are not connected in proper order.
iv) Correct the connections according to the correct circuit diagram) close the key
and check the function of circuit elements.
RESULT: The corrected circuit assembled in proper order is found functional on
checking.
Non-functional open circuit Functional closed circuit

IDENTIFY COLLECTION OF ELCTRONIC COMPONENTS

ACTIVITY –4
DATE:
AIM: To identify a diode, a LED, a resistor and a capacitor from mixed collection
of such items.
APPARATUS: A mixed collection of electronic components such as diodes, light
emitting diodes (LED s), resistors, capacitors and a multimeter.
PRINCIPLE:
Diode: A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward biased. It does
not emit light while conducting.
Light emitting diode (LED): An LED is also a two-terminal device. It conducts
when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light
while conducting.
Resistor: A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts when operated with ac as
well as dc voltage.
Capacitor: A capacitor is a two-terminal device. It does not conduct with dc
voltage.

PROCEDURE:
1. Check the physical appearance of the component.
 2. If the component has two terminals, it could be a resistor, a capacitor, a
diode or LED.
3. Look for colour bands, if it has a typical set of three colour bands followed
by a silver or gold band, the component is a resistor.
4. Connect the multimeter terminals to the component terminals and watch for
multimeter deflection keeping the multimeter knob in resistance mode.
5. If the multimeter shows a deflection, the component could be a resistor, a
diode or LED.
6. If the deflection is accompanied with emission of light, the component is an
LED.
7. If no light is emitted then interchange the multimeter terminals connected to
the component.
8. If the component still gives deflection in a multimeter, then the component is
a resistor.
9. If the pointer of the multimeter shows deflection when its terminals are
connected across the component in one direction and does not show
deflection when the terminal, of the multimeter in opposite direction and
also there is no emission of light, then the component is a diode.
10. If the multimeter does not show any deflection on connecting its terminals
either wat to component, then it is a capacitor.

RESULT: A diode, an LED. a resistor and a capacitor are identified from a mixed
collection.

GLASS SLAB

ACTIVITY –5
DATE:
AIM: To observe the lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a
glass slab.
APPARATUS: A sheet of white paper, glass slab, drawing board, pins, metre scale
and pencil.
PROCEDURE:
i) Fix the sheet of white paper on the drawing board.
ii) Draw the boundary of a glass slab ABCD.
iii) Draw the normal in CD and incident ray making an angle of 30° with the
normal (PQ)
iv) Fix two pins on PQ and view the legs of the pins on the opposite side.
v) Fix two more pins so that all lie in the same straight line,
vi) Join the points namely RS to the side AB.
vii) Draw the normal at the point of incidence of the emergent ray.
viii) Produce the incident ray and measure the perpendicular distance between
incident ray produced and emergent ray,
ix) Repeat the experiment for various thickness of glass slat.
x) Tabulate the observations.

CONCLUSION:
i) The incident ray produced is parallel to the emergent ray.
ii) The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the
thickness of the slab.

RAY DIAGRAM:
TABULAR COLUMN:
T.No. t x 10-2 m d x 10-2 m

ACTIVITY –6
DATE:
AIM: To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two
lenses from a given set of lenses.
APPARATUS: convex lenses of known focal length, scale and screen.
FORMULA
1 1 1
=𝑓1 + 𝑓2
𝑓
f1/,f2 - Focal length of two lenses (10-2 m)

f =f1f2/ f1 + f2

PROCEDURE:
i) Focus the lens 1 and lens II towards the distance object separately.
ii) Adjust the screen to get the clear image on the screen.
iii) Measure the distance between lens I and screen gives f1 and similarly for
lens II (f2).
iv) Tie both the lenses and find the focal length of combination by the same
method (f).
CONCLUSION:
f1 =
f2 =
1 1 1
By calculation 𝑓 =𝑓1 + 𝑓2

f=
From experiment f =

RAY DIAGRAM
OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO. f 1 (10-2 m) f 2 (10-2 m) f (10-2m) f (from

experiment)
x 10-2m

----------------