Geoelectrical

and electromagnetic method

APPLIED Geophysics 2020
Edited by G. Pethő
 Short history
• Faraday (1831): induction law, introduction of dielectric constant
• Maxwell (1861-62): foundation of classical electrodynamics
• Schlumberger (1912): first geoelectrical measurement with artificial
source
• Sunberg (1923) : induction method, horizontal loop array
• Stern (1929): ice thickness measurement in the Alps with georadar
• Cagniard, Tichonov, Kato, Kikuchi, Rikitake (in the 50-s):
development of magnetotellurics
• Krajev (1941): the idea of artificial EM frequency sounding
• Vanjan(1965), Keller(1968): development of FEM
• Fokin (1971), Kaufmann, Keller (in the 80-s): development of TEM
• Semenov (1978), Goldman (1994): Magnetic resonance sounding
 Geoelectrical methods; 1st part
SUMMARY of the GEOELECTRICAL METHODS
The electrical properties of the sub-surface can be explored by
either geoelectrical or electromagnetic methods. In the case of
geoelectrical methods we apply DC in theory, and low frequency
current in practice. The DC natural source field method is called self-
potential (SP) method. The occurrence of self-potential may be due
to electro-filtration, concentration difference (diffusion), contact
potential and mineral potentials. The object of vertical electrical
sounding is to determine the variation of electrical resistivity with
depth. The current penetration can be controlled by the geometry of
the array. The shape of the sounding curve reflects the resistivity
variation with depth. However, widely different resistivity distribution
may lead to apparent resistivity sounding curves which cannot be
distinguished in practice. For this reason the principle of equivalence
and layer suppression introduces ambiguity in the interpretation.
 The types of electrical conduction
Metallic conduction: in the case of native metals due to the large
amount of valence electrons (copper, silver, gold, graphite with
resistivity of 10-8 ohmm)
Electronic semiconduction: most sulfides and oxides with very few
valence electrons and their number increases with temperature
increase (galena, ilmenite, pyrite, magnetite with resistivity of 10-6-
104 ohmm)
Electrolytic conduction can be either solid electolytes (ionic crystals) or
electrolyte water solutions. Most rock forming minerals (quartz etc.)
act as solid electrolytes, where the condection is due to the motion of
ions through the crystal lattice (with resistivity of 103-1014 ohmm). In
water saturated formations the electrical conductivity of pore water is
dominant over the matrix conductivity.
Insulators with dielectric polarisation.
 
E
4
p PS filtration potential
E denotes the electric field between the
two ends of the cylinder with small
diameter , p stands for the pressure
gradient, ε dielectric permittivity, 
resistivity,  refers to dynamic
viscosity.  parameter denotes the
zeta potential depending on the
chemical composition of the fluid
and that of the pore wall.
Negative ions of the fluid are absorbed
by the wall, the relative occurrence
of the positive ions increases, the
velocities of the ions are different.
Streaming potential coefficient -for any
medium- can be defined as the ratio
of the electric field and the pressure
gradient.

Gamal et al.
PS Filtration potential

If the direction of water

flow is parallel to the
boundary, then the
measured filtration
potential is greater than in
other cases.

PARASNIS (1986)
 PS Electrochemical potential
It is the sum of the diffusion and Nernst potential. The diffusion potential
develops in the presence of two solutions in contact. Because the two
solutions have different ion concentrations, an ion diffusion rates from a
more concentrated to a more dilute solution. The ion mobility depends on the
ion diameter. This liquid-junction potential is produced at the contact of the
two solutions. Nernst potential develops if two identical metal electrodes are
immersed in solutions with different concentrations.

u  v RT C1 RT C1
ED  ln EN   ln
u  v nF C2 nF C2
 PS Mineralization potential
Natural voltages associated
with oxide or sulphide deposits.
They develop due to the
electrochemical and electrolytic
contact potentials. The
electrolytic contact potential is
due to dissimilar metals when
immersed in an electrolyte.
Kilty (1984) did not assume
electrochemical equilibrium, he
applied Kirhoff’s law to
characterize the resultant
mineralization. The potential
difference IR2 can be measured
on the surface.

(V1  V2 )  IR1  IR2  IR3  (V3  V4 )  V4  V1  0

 Potential due to a point
source on the surface
Over a homogeneous half-space at a
distance r from the transmitter electrode
r the potential can be determined from the
I A M air current density (j). In the figure red
arrows correspond to the current
ground
density vectors which are perpendicular
to the equipotential surface (black hemi-
sphere). In the knowledge of the current
(I) introduced into the ground and with
the use of differential Ohm’s law it can
be written:
 I  U
j  E   (  gradU )   (  )
2r 2
r
I
After integration the value of the potential: U C
2r
I
If r, then U tends to zero: U (r ) 
2r
I
In he case of a homogeneous space: U (r ) 
4r
 Mise-a-la-masse method

The aim is to map the mineral deposit with high conductivity. One transmitter
electrode is positioned in a conducting material ( ore dyke, streaming water)
by means of a borehole, the other transmitter electrode is a great distance
away. Actually the intersections of the equipotential surfaces with the surface
are determined by the potential electrodes.
TAKÁCS 1987, J14-1444
 Resistivity measurement

I I
battery UM  UN 
2AM 2AN
transmitter
circle

I I
U MN  
PS
2AM 2AN
receiver
compensation
circle
 I I
U MN  
2BM 2BN
I  1 1 1 1 
U MN      
2  AM BM AN BN 
2
U MN
 U MN
 1

1

1

1  I  k
  I
 AM BM AN BN 
 tg1  2

tg 2 1

the behaviour of current lines at horizontal boundary

1
2

Distribution of current lines and equipotential lines for homogeneous half-

space and for a two-layer half-space when    (Renner et. al 1970)
2 1
Vertical Electric Sounding (VES)
Exploration depth can be
governed by the geomety of
the array(s). The larger the
value of a (for Wenner
configuration) or the value
of L (for Schlumberger and
dipole-dipole arrays) is, the
greater the penetration depth
will be.
VES app. resistivity curves

 2  1

 2  1
 VES

1   2   3 H
1   2   3 K

1   2   3 A

1   2   3 Q
There are four types of VES apparent resistivity sounding curves if the half-space
consists of three layers.
 VES, S-type of equivalence

H-type of layering

1   2   3

S2  h2 / 2

There is no difference in the apparent resistivity sounding curves for the two cases
if the longitudinal conductances (S2) are the same for the sandwiched layers.
VES, S-type of equivalence
 VES, T-type of equivalence
K
1   2   3

AB/2
T2   2 h2

There is no difference in the apparent resistivity sounding curves for the cases if
the transverse resistances (T2) are the same for the sandwiched layers.
(Sharma, 1997)
 Layer Suppression

layering
layering

It is impossible to recognize the effect of the second layer, because it is thin and
it has a transitional resistivity value.
Sinkhole in karst region
Induced polarization (IP) in time domain

The same arrays are used

battery
as in the case of resistivity
transmitter
measurement.
circle

PS
receiver
compensation
circle
 Induced polarization (IP) in time domain
In certain situations
(disseminated ore grains,
the presence of clay) after
Decaying voltage
switching off the
between M and N
transmitter current a
electrodes
decaying voltage can be
observed between the
potential electrodes. This
induced polarization can be
investigated in time and in
frequency domain. This
figure refers to the time
domain observation. The
most important parameter
The time of is the chargeability (M):
switching off t2

V (t )dt
M t1

Vc
 Electrode polarization
cathode
anode

(Telford et. al., 1993: Applied Geophysics)

Current flow must be both electolityc and electronic as well. At the boundary
separating the mineral grain and the solution an electron exchange takes place between
the metal and the ion in the solution. The external voltage maintains the pileup of ions
at the boundary because the current flow in the solution is much slower than in the
mineral grain. When the current is switched off, the residual voltage decays as the ions
diffuse back to their equilibrium state. This process can be observed in time domain
measurement.
 Membrane polarization
(Telford et. al., 1993: Applied Geophysics)

a: distribution of ions in a pore with electrolyte and membranes without external voltage. b:
membrane polarization effect in a porous sandstone due to an external voltage. Even in the
shortage of the applied DC voltage the surface of the clay particles attract positive ions of the
electrolyte. Due to the applied DC voltage the negative ions will accumulate over the interface of
the clay particles closer to the cathode , creating an ion abundant zone opposite to the right part
of the membrane ( in this case) and the other end of the pore (on the anode side). After switching
off, the residual voltage decays as the ions diffuse back to their equilibrium state.
Induced polarization, IP

Resistivity and
chargeability
over a karstic
limestone area.
Observations over known CH reservoirs collected
from 16 companies by ZONGE Research Co. 1984.

occurrence conductivity great increase in

increase resistivity chargeability
frequent

occasional

rare
 Induced polarization (IP) in frquency domain

If low frequency AC source is used for resistivity measurement, it can be obseved that the
resistivity decreases as the frequency is increased. The reason of it is that the capacitance
of the ground inhibits the passage of dirent currents, but transmits alternating currents.
The greater the applied frequency is, the less the resistivity will be. In practice two
measurements are made at one station at two frequencies. From these values the
percentage frequency effect can be determined. If the transmitter frequencies are 0.1 Hz
and 10Hz, the PFE is defined as

0.1  10
PFE  100%
10
 Geophysical EM methods; 2nd part

SUMMARY of the GEOPHYSICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS

The electromagnetic methods may utilize natural (MT method) or

artificial source field.
The latter one (controlled source) may be divided fundamentally into
near-field and far field methods based upon the relationship between
transmitter-receiver distance and wavelength (in frequency domain,
FEM ) or transmitter-receiver distance and diffusion depth ( in time
domain, TEM ).
The (artificial) source field may be exited by grounded dipole or by
induction. The measured physical parameters are the EM field
components and the phase shift between them. From these expression
the apparent resistivity can be derived. The penetration depth of the
EM field from the source field is characterized by the skin depth (FEM)
or by the diffusion depth (TEM).
 Classification of EM methods

On the basis of source they can be either

natural or artifical.

Artificial methods are called controlled source methods as well.

Controlled source methods can be

inductive conductive
time domain frequency domain
near field transitional far field zone
 Magnetosphere of the Earth

Illustration by K. Endo, Nikkei Science Inc. - Japan

The asymmetrical form of the external magnetic field is developed by the solar
wind (plasma) interacting with the magnetic field of the Earth. On the day side
where the solar wind collides with the upper atmosphere the shock front (blow
shock) forms. In the magnetosheath the solar wind has been slowed down and
diverted around the Earth. The electrical currents due to these charged particles
produce the interplanetary magnetic field which compresses the geomagnetic field
on the day side and stretches it out on the night side of the Earth. A geomagnetic
tail forms on the side opposite to the Sun. The magnetosheath plasma flows
around the magnetopause. The magnetopause is the layer that shields the Earth
environment from the solar wind.
Lowrie: Fundamentals of Geophysics, 2007
Lowrie, 2007
 MT (magnetotellurics)

There are a set of spectrum peaks in the extremely low frequency (ELF) portion of the
Earth's electromagnetic field spectrum. Schumann resonances are global
electromagnetic resonances, excited by lightning discharges in the cavity formed by the
Earth's surface and the ionosphere. 7.83, 14.3, 20.8, 27.3 and 33.8 Hz. (3-69Hz)

( Wikipedia)
MT (magnetotellurics)

Apparent resistivity can be

measured in the knowledge of
the EM field components
perpendicular to each other.

2
T  E xo 


2o  H yo 
 
MT (magnetotellurics)

Apparent resistivity can be

determined as:

2
 E xo 

T 
2o  H yo 
 
     
E  (i ) E  E  k E  0
2
If we assume only E x

E x ( z, t )  E xo e ikz e it  E xo e iz e  z e it 1

  2
  
1

k    i k 2   2  2i   2  i k  (i )  2 

2

1 1
  2   2
  z   iz
ikz it  z iz it
E x ( z, t )  E xo e e  E xo e e e  E xo e  2 
e  2 
e it
Skin depth is the depth at which the amplitude
of a plane wave has been attenuated to 1/e

E xo e  z s  E xo e 1
1
 2 
1 2
zs 
  
If we want to increase the wave-
exploration depth, we have to length
investigate the EM fields of low
frequencies.
 1 1
  2   2
  z   iz
ikz it  z iz it
E x ( z, t )  E xo e e  E xo e e e  E xo e  2 
e  2 
e it

Wavelength is the distance over which the wave's shape repeats

2i i
e e This term
determines the
phase

1 1
 2  2
 
  2 /   2 
2
   
    2 

r r  r 
ELGI, Madarasi A.
 Isoarea contour
map reflecting
basement relief
changes in Daqing
(China).
The less the isoarea
value is the deeper
the basement depth
must be.
There is a depression
from NW to SE.

anticline

Takács

Geophysical exploration for oil in China between 1956 -1959

 MT (magnetotellurics)

Information
Information on
on the
the upper layer
lower layer

Nabighien, 1987
Controlled source methods

Partially controlled source method: VLF

 FEM methods

1
 2  2
  2zs
zs     503.3 T
 

r  Far field zone

r  Transition zone

r  Near field zone

zs :skin depth at which the amplitude of a plane wave has been

attenuated to 1/e
CSAMT (controlled source audio-frequency
magnetotellurics)

This method works

in the far field zone.
The same equation
holds , which is
used in MT:

2
T  E xo 


2o  H yo 
 

Nabighien, 1987
CSAMT ARRAYS.
The most simple ones are
scalar measurements, the
most complicated ones are
tensor measurements.

The resistivity
does not have
any transmitter-
receiver
distance in the
far field zone.
 CSAMT (controlled source audio-frequency
magnetotellurics)

Bostick resistivity cube, it yields the resistivity distribution in

the function of depth. Besides the slope of the resistivity
response the skin depth-conductivity relationship (valid in MT
1
for homogeneous half-space) is used, however, the
1  2 2
app.resistivity is subsituted into the equation zs   
Spichak et. al. 2002.   
 The task was
BORSOD COUNTY TRANSITION ZONE MEASUREMENT to deternime
coalbeds
depth
variation.
Instead of it
the depth
position of
the younger
and thicker
sand layer
closer to the
surface was
followed. It
can be
accepted,
because the
faults caused
similar
vertical
displacement
both in the
younger
layers and in
older
coalbeds.
 CSEM (controlled source electromagnetics)
MCSEM ( marine controlled source electromagnetics)
CSEM application
Transient EM methods
Transient EM methods

After switching off immediately a surface

current flows, distributed in such a way as to
maintain the magnetic field everywhere at the
value that existed before turn-off. Later the
current appears to have moved out and down
as a diffusing current ring.
SNAPS about the position of the induced
current ring. The larger the elapsed time is, the
deeper the induced current penetrates (on the
left, based on Geonics Ltd).
Exactly over the induced current ring the
magnetic field is horizontal (above).
Transient EM methods

BurVal Working Group, 2006

 Comparision between FEM AND TEM methods
1 1
 2  2  2t  2
zs     503.3 T   2zs      1262 t
     d  2

r  Far field zone r d

r  Transition zone r d
r  Near field zone rd

zs .

skin depth at which the is the diffusion depth in
amplitude of a plane wave case of time domain
has been attenuated to 1/e method
TEM method : transient electromagnetics, timedomain EM method

TNO report
Delft
Transient EM methods, case history

ELGI, Sörés,2011
TEM monitoring over a gas reservoir in Paris Basin after
Ziolkowsky et. al. (2002). The measurement was repeated after
two years. The changes in the saturations can be monitored,
because the produced gas was replaced by water.
GEORADAR (GPR GROUND PENETRATING RADAR)

Theoretical aspects
    
E  (   i ) E  E  k E  0
2 2

E x ( z, t )  E xo e ikz e it  E xo e iz e  z e it k    i

k 2   2  2i   2   2  i

1 1
  1
 2   1
 2
  1          
2 2
 1  1    1 
2 2
      
  2 2    2 2  
 2      2   
 
Skin depth and wavelength in general case

 z s 1
E xo e  E xo e
1
  1
 2
  1    
2
 1 
2
z s  1/   1/  
  2 2  
 2   


2i i
e e
1
  1
 2
  1     1 
2 2
  2 /   2 /  
  2 2  
 2   

 The velocity and wavelength of EM wave

v   /   f
MT, VLF etc.
1 1

 f  2  2  2
v   / T  2     2 /   2  
     

General case
1 1
  1
 2   1
 2
  1       1     1 
2
2
 1 
2 2
v  1/    2 /   2 /  
 2
  2 2     2 2  
     2
   


If displacement current is dominant over conduction current

1 1 c 1 v
v     2 /   2 /  2  
  o o r r f  f
 Within the critical distance ( 2htg c )
we can record only three waves’ arrival.
If the offset is larger than this distance
is, there are four waves:

c 1. direct air wave

2. critically refracted wave
3. direct ground wave
4. reflected wave

v1
sin c 
vair

Musett & Khan, 2000

 Reflection coefficient ( R )
 2 1

Z 2  Z1 k2 k1  r1   r 2
R R 
Z 2  Z1  2 1  r1   r 2

k2 k1

Sharma 1997
The greater the frequency is, the higher the attenuation and
better the resolution will be. Mussett et. al. 2000; BurVal Working Group, 2006
 Questions
• What do you know about the change of direction of a current flow if it crosses a
boundary?
• Characterize Wenner, Schlumberger and a dipole-dipole array.
• What is the aim of a VES measurement, what is the essence of the S-type
equivalence?
• What is the difference between IP method in time and in frequency domain?
• How can you classify the EM methods?
• What is the essence of MT methods?
• What do you mean by skin-depth?
• What is the essence of CSAMT method?
• What do you mean by in-phase and out-of-phase EM component?
• Which are the main application fields of FEM methods?
• What is the essence of the Bostick transformation?
• What do you know about the physical principle of transient EM method?
• When can you suggest the application of transient method?