What are Nutrients?

Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions. Most nutrients
must be obtained from our diet, since the human body does not synthesize or produce them.
Nutrients have one or more of three basic functions: they provide energy, contribute to body
structure, and/or regulate chemical processes in the body. These basic functions allow us to
detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire (breathe),
grow, and reproduce.

There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and maintain overall
health. These are: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals.  Nutritious
foods provide nutrients for the body. Foods may also contain a variety of non-nutrients. Some
non-nutrients such as as antioxidants (found in many plant foods) are beneficial to the body,
whereas others such as natural toxins (common in some plant foods) or additives (like certain
dyes and preservatives found in processed foods) are potentially harmful.

Macronutrients

Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called macronutrients. There are three classes
of macronutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins . Macronutrients are carbon-based
compounds that can be metabolically processed into cellular energy through changes in their
chemical bonds. The chemical energy is converted into cellular energy known as ATP, that is
utilized by the body to perform work and conduct basic functions.

The amount of energy a person consumes daily comes primarily from the 3 macronutrients.
Food energy is measured in kilocalories. For ease of use, food labels state the amount of
energy in food in “calories,” meaning that each calorie is actually multiplied by one thousand
to equal a kilocalorie. (Note: Using scientific terminology, “Calorie” (with a capital “C”) is
equivalent to a kilocalorie. Therefore: 1 kilocalorie = 1 Calorie - 1000 calories

Water is also a macronutrient in the sense that the body needs it in large amounts, but unlike
the other macronutrients, it does not contain carbon or yield energy.

Note: Consuming alcohol also contributes energy (calories) to the diet at 7 kilocalories/gram,
so it must be counted in daily energy consumption. However, alcohol is not considered a
"nutrient" because it does not contribute to essential body functions and actually contains
substances that must broken down and excreted from the body to prevent toxic effects.

Figure 1.1.21.1.2: The Macronutrients: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Protein, and Water.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that provide energy
to the body. The major food sources of carbohydrates are milk, grains, fruits, and starchy
vegetables, like potatoes. Non-starchy vegetables also contain carbohydrates, but in lesser
quantities. Carbohydrates are broadly classified into two forms based on their chemical
structure: simple carbohydrates (often called simple sugars) and complex carbohydrates.

Simple carbohydrates consist of one or two basic sugar units linked together. Their scientific
names are "monosaccharides" (1 sugar unit) and disaccharides (2 sugar units). They are
broken down and absorbed very quickly in the digestive tract and provide a fast burst of
energy to the body. Examples of simple sugars include the disaccharide sucrose, the type of
sugar you would have in a bowl on the breakfast table, and the monosaccharide glucose, the
most common type of fuel for most organisms including humans. Glucose is the primary
sugar that circulates in blood to provide energy to cells. The terms "blood sugar" and "blood
glucose" can be substituted for each other.

Complex carbohydrates are long chains of sugars units that can link in a straight chair or a
branched chain. During digestion, the body breaks down digestible complex carbohydrates
into simple sugars, mostly glucose. Glucose is then absorbed into the bloodstream and
transported to all our cells where it is stored, used to make energy, or used to build
macromolecules. Fiber is also a complex carbohydrate, but it cannot be broken down by
digestive enzymes in the human intestine. As a result, it passes through the digestive tract
undigested unless the bacteria that inhabit the colon or large intestine break it down.

One gram of digestible carbohydrates yields 4 kilocalories of energy for the cells in the body
to perform work. In addition to providing energy and serving as building blocks for bigger
macromolecules, carbohydrates are essential for proper functioning of the nervous system,
heart, and kidneys. As mentioned, glucose can be stored in the body for future use. In
humans, the storage molecule of carbohydrates is called glycogen, and in plants, it is known
as starch. Glycogen and starch are complex carbohydrates.

Lipids

Lipids are also a family of molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but unlike
carbohydrates, they are insoluble in water. Lipids are found predominantly in butter, oils,
meats, dairy products, nuts, and seeds, and in many processed foods. The three main types
of lipids are triglycerides (triacylglycerols), phospholipids, and sterols. The main job of
triacylglycerols is to provide or store energy. Lipids provide more energy per gram than
carbohydrates (9 kilocalories per gram of lipids versus 4 kilocalories per gram of
carbohydrates). In addition to energy storage, lipids serve as a major component of cell
membranes, surround and protect organs (in fat-storing tissues), provide insulation to aid in
temperature regulation. Phospholipds and sterols have a somewhat different chemical
structure and are used to regulate many other functions in the body.

Proteins

Proteins are macromolecules composed of chains of basic subunits called amino acids. Amino
acids are composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Food sources of proteins
include meats, dairy products, seafood, and a variety of different plant-based foods, most
notably soy. The word protein comes from a Greek word meaning “of primary importance,”
which is an apt description of these macronutrients; they are also known colloquially as the
“workhorses” of life. Proteins provide the basic structure to bones, muscles and skin, enzymes
and hormones and play a role in conducting most of the chemical reactions that take place in
the body. Scientists estimate that greater than one-hundred thousand different proteins exist
within the human body. The genetic codes in DNA are basically protein recipes that determine
the order in which 20 different amino acids are bound together to make thousands of specific
proteins. Because amino acids contain carbon, they can be used by the body for energy and
supply 4 kilocalories of energy per gram; however providing energy is not protein’s most
important function.

Water
There is one other nutrient that we must have in large quantities:  water. Water does not
contain carbon, but is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom per molecule
of water. More than 60 percent of your total body weight is water. Without water, nothing
could be transported in or out of the body, chemical reactions would not occur, organs would
not be cushioned, and body temperature would widely fluctuate. On average, an adult
consumes just over two liters of water per day from both eating foods and drinking liquids.
Since water is so critical for life’s basic processes, total water intake and output is supremely
important.

Table 1.1.11.1.1: Functions of Nutrients.

Nutrients Primary Function

Provide a ready source of energy for the body (4 kilocalories/gram) and

Carbohydrates
structural constituents for the formation of cells.

Provides stored energy for the body (9 kilocalories/gram), functions as

structural components of cells and also as signaling molecules for
Fat
proper cellular communication. It provides insulation to vital organs and
works to maintain body temperature.

Necessary for tissue and organ formation, cellular repair and hormone
Protein and enzyme production. Provide energy, but not a primary function (4
kilocalories/gram)

Transports essential nutrients to all body parts, transports waste

Water
products for disposal and aids with body temperature regulation

Regulate body processes, are necessary for proper cellular function, and
Minerals
comprise body tissue.

Vitamins Regulate body processes and promote normal body-system functions.

Micronutrients
Micronutrients are also essential for carrying out bodily functions, but they are required by
the body in lesser amounts. Micronutrients include all the essential minerals and vitamins.
There are sixteen essential minerals and thirteen essential vitamins (See Table 1.1.11.1.1 and
Table 1.1.21.1.2 for a complete list and their major functions).
In contrast to carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, micronutrients are not sources of energy
(calories) for the body. Instead they play a role as cofactors or components of enzymes (i.e.,
coenzymes) that facilitate chemical reactions in the body. They are involved in all aspects of
body functions from producing energy, to digesting nutrients, to building macromolecules.
Micronutrients play many essential roles in the body.
Minerals
Minerals are solid inorganic substances that form crystals and are classified depending on
how much of them we need. Trace minerals, such as molybdenum, selenium, zinc, iron, and
iodine, are only required in a few milligrams or less. Macrominerals, such as calcium,
magnesium, potassium, sodium, and phosphorus , are required in hundreds of milligrams.
Many minerals are critical for enzyme function, while others are used to maintain fluid
balance, build bone tissue, synthesize hormones, transmit nerve impulses, contract and relax
muscles, and protect against harmful free radicals in the body that can cause health
problems such as cancer.

Table 1.1.11.1.1: Minerals and Their Major Functions.

Minerals Major Functions

Macro

Sodium Fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction

Chloride Fluid balance, stomach acid production

Potassium Fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction

Bone and teeth health maintenance, nerve transmission, muscle

Calcium
contraction, blood clotting

Phosphorus Bone and teeth health maintenance, acid-base balance

Magnesium Protein production, nerve transmission, muscle contraction

Sulfur Protein production

 Table 1.1.11.1.1: Minerals and Their Major Functions.

Minerals Major Functions

Trace

Iron Carries oxygen, assists in energy production

Protein and DNA production, wound healing, growth, immune

Zinc
system function

Iodine Thyroid hormone production, growth, metabolism

Selenium Antioxidant

Copper Coenzyme, iron metabolism

Manganese Coenzyme

Fluoride Bone and teeth health maintenance, tooth decay prevention

Chromium Assists insulin in glucose metabolism

Molybdenum Coenzyme

Vitamins
 Table 1.1.21.1.2: Vitamins and Their Major Functions.

Vitamins Major Functions

Water-soluble

Thiamin (B1) Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance

Riboflavin (B2 ) Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance

Niacin (B3) Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance

Pantothenic acid
Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
(B5)

Pyridoxine (B6) Coenzyme, amino acid synthesis assistance

Biotin (B7) Coenzyme, amino acid and fatty acid metabolism

Folate (B9) Coenzyme, essential for growth

Cobalamin (B12) Coenzyme, red blood cell synthesis

C (ascorbic acid) Collagen synthesis, antioxidant

Fat-soluble

Vision, reproduction, immune

A
system function

Bone and teeth

health
D maintenance,
immune system
function

E Antioxidant, cell membrane protection

The thirteen vitamins are categorized as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. The water-
soluble vitamins are vitamin C and all the B vitamins, which include thiamine, riboflavin,
niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folate and cobalamin. The fat-soluble vitamins
are A, D, E, and K. Vitamins are required to perform many functions in the body such as
assisting in energy production, making red blood cells, synthesizing bone tissue, and
supporting normal vision, nervous system function, and immune system function.

Vitamin deficiencies can cause severe health problems and even death. For example, a
deficiency in niacin causes a disease called pellagra, which was common in the early
twentieth century in some parts of America. The common signs and symptoms of pellagra
are known as the “4D’s—diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death.” Until scientists
discovered that better diets relieved the signs and symptoms of pellagra, many people with
the disease ended up hospitalized in insane asylums awaiting death.
 Other vitamins were also found to prevent certain disorders and diseases such as scurvy
(vitamin C), night blindness (vitamin A), and rickets (vitamin D).

Introduction to Nutrition
 Introduction to nutrition
 Why is nutrition important?
 BMI and children
 Body fat distribution and health risk
 Waist circumference and health risks
 Associated health conditions
 Essential nutrient requirements
 Energy balance
 Carbohydrates
 Protein
 Fats and oils
 Vitamins
 Minerals
 Water
 Balanced diet
 Healthy eating pyramid
 Glycaemic index and glycaemic load
 Tips for healthy eating

Introduction to nutrition
Nutrition is defined as the processes by which an animal or plant
takes in and utilises food substances. Essential nutrients include
protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamins, minerals and electrolytes.
Normally, 85% of daily energy use is from fat and carbohydrates and
15% from protein. In humans, nutrition is mainly achieved through
the process of putting foods into our mouths, chewing and
swallowing it. The required amounts of the essential nutrients differ
by age and the state of the body, for example: physical activity,
diseases present (e.g. prostate cancer, breast cancer or weakened
bones – known as osteoporosis), medications, pregnancy and
lactation.

Why is nutrition important?

Nutrition is essential for growth and development, health and
wellbeing. Eating a healthy diet contributes to preventing future illness and improving quality
and length of life. Your nutritional status is the state of your health as determined by what you
eat. There are several ways of assessing nutritional status, including anthropometric (i.e.
physical body measurement), food intake and biochemical measurement.
Your body mass index (BMI) is a good indicator of your nutritional status. It takes into account
your weight and height, and correlates well with total body fat expressed as a percentage of
 body weight. The correlation depends on age, with the highest correlation seen in ages 26–55
years and the lowest in the young and the elderly. If you take your weight in kilograms and
divide it by your height in metres squared, the figure you obtain is your BMI.
___weight (kg)___
BMI = height x height (m )
2

High values indicate excessive fat stores and low values indicate insufficient fat stores. Your BMI can
therefore be used as a diagnostic tool for both over-nutrition and under-nutrition. If your BMI is between
25.0 and 29.9 you are classisfied as overweight. If it is above 30.0, you are classified as obese. The
healthy BMI range is 18.5–24.9. However, the BMI is best used together with waist circumference.
Body Mass Index (BMI) Calculator
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BMI calculations will overestimate the amount of body fat for:

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 Body builders;
 Some high performance athletes;
 Pregnant women.
BMI calculations will underestimate the amount of body fat for:
 The elderly;
 People with a physical disability who are unable to walk and may have muscle wasting.
BMI is not the best measure of weight and health risk. A person’s waist circumference is a
better predictor of health risk than BMI.

 For more information, see Body Mass Index (BMI).

BMI and children

The healthy weight range for adults of a BMI of 20 to 25 is not a suitable measure for children.

For adults who have stopped growing, an increase in BMI is usually caused by an increase in
body fat. But as children grow, their amount of body fat changes and so will their BMI. For
example, BMI usually decreases during the preschool years and then increases into
adulthood.
 For this reason, a BMI calculation for a child or an adolescent must be compared against age
and gender percentile charts. These charts should be used only by health professionals such
as your general practitioner, child health nurse, or dietitian.

Body fat distribution and health risk

A person’s waist circumference is a better predictor of
health risk than BMI. Having fat around the abdomen or a
‘pot belly’, regardless of your body size, means you are
more likely to develop certain obesity-related health
conditions. Fat predominantly deposited around the hips
and buttocks doesn’t appear to have the same risk. Men, in
particular, often deposit weight in the waist region.

Studies have shown that the distribution of body fat is

associated with an increased prevalence of diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol and
cardiovascular disease.
Generally, the association between health risks and body fat distribution is as follows:

 Least risk – slim (no pot belly);

 Moderate risk – overweight with no pot belly;
 Moderate to high risk – slim with pot belly;
 High risk – overweight with pot belly.

Waist circumference and health risks

Waist circumference can be used to indicate health risk.

For men:

 94 cm or more – increased risk;

 102 cm or more – substantially increased risk.
For women:

 80 cm or more – increased risk;

 88 cm or more – substantially increased risk.
Being physically active, avoiding smoking and eating unsaturated fat instead of saturated
fat have been shown to decrease the risk of developing abdominal obesity.
When there is an imbalance between your nutrient requirements and your intake, malnutrition
sets in. There are two forms of malnutrition – under-nutrition and over-nutrition. Over-nutrition
is common in many developed countries, including Australia.
  For more information, see Waist Circumference (WC).

Associated health conditions

Dietary factors are associated with some leading causes of death, such as:

 Coronary heart disease;

 Some types of cancer;
 Stroke;
 Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Essential nutrient requirements

Nutrients can be described as the chemical components of food and can be classified into six
broad groups: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. Water is not
technically a nutrient, but it is essential for the utilisation of nutrients. Nutrients perform various
functions in our bodies, including energy provision and maintaining vital processes such as
digestion, breathing, growth and development.

Energy balance
Your energy requirement depends on your age, size and activity level. If your energy intake
equals the amount of energy you expend, then you are in energy balance. If your intake
exceeds your expenditure, the excess energy is converted to body fat and you gain weight.
On the other hand, if your intake is less than your expenditure, your body uses up fat stores
and you lose weight. Therefore, for weight to remain stable, the total amount of calories that
are consumed must not exceed the total that is used up through metabolic processes (e.g.
exercising, sweating, breathing). Energy intake must match energy output. The average
energy intake is about 2800 kcal/day for men and 1800 kcal/day for women, although this
varies with body size and activity level.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharide (e.g. glucose, fructose,
galactose), disaccharide (e.g. sucrose, lactose, maltose) and polysaccharide (e.g. starch,
fibre). Carbohydrates must be reduced to the simplest form of glucose (through digestion)
before your body can make use of them. Carbohydrates should make up at least 55% of your
total energy intake. The brain is a special part of the body that depends primarily on glucose
for its energy and requires about 100 g/day of glucose for fuel. In some situations, the body
can compensate for decreased levels of carbohydrates by using alternative energy pathways
such as burning fatty acids.

Protein
Protein is important for the production, maintenance and repair of tissues in the body. When
energy intake is insufficient, protein intake must be raised. This is because ingested proteins
are preferentially directed towards glucose (sugar) synthesis and oxidation. The tissues and
organs in the body are made up of protein and protein compounds. Enzymes (biological
catalysts), antibodies and hormones also consist of protein. The building blocks of protein are
called amino acids. The body can make all of the 20 amino acids except eight, which are
termed essential amino acids. These are isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. Histidine is essential only for infants. The
number and nature of amino acids present in a particular protein determines that protein’s
characteristics.
For adults, the recommended dietary allowance of protein is about 0.75 g/kg body weight per
day. Animal products tend to have the highest amount of proteins, followed by legumes
(beans), cereals (rice, wheat, corn) and roots. Animal protein (from meat, eggs, fish, milk)
contains all the essential amino acids and is normally referred to as ‘complete’ or ‘high
biological value’ protein. Protein derived from plants lack one or two essential amino acids.
However, a good combination of plant-based protein can be of equal value to animal protein.
For example, legumes lack methionine but have adequate amounts of lysine. Cereals, on the
other hand, lack lysine but have a lot of methionine. Therefore, a mixture of rice and beans will
supply all the essential amino acids.
Excess protein cannot be stored in the body, so we need to consume protein daily.
Consuming too much protein is not recommended because it promotes increased calcium
excretion through urine, which increases the risk of developing osteoporosis. Additionally, too
much protein intake may lead to a greater concentration of the amino acid homocysteine in
the blood, and the subsequent conversion to thiolactone. Thiolactone is associated with
increased levels of atherosclerosis and endothelial damage.

Fats and oils

Most of the fats we consume occur in foods as triglycerides. A
triglyceride is comprised of three fatty acid molecules attached to a
glycerol molecule. Fatty acids are made up of carbon and hydrogen
atoms and can be either saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty
acids (SFA) have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms attached
to the carbon chain, while unsaturated fatty acids have less than the
required hydrogen atoms. For example, monounsaturated fatty
acids (e.g. oleic acid) have two hydrogen atoms missing.
Monounsaturated fats are found mainly in nuts, avocados, olive oil,
canola oil, grapeseed oil, peanut oil, flaxseed oil, sesame oil, corn oil,
safflower oil, sunflower oil, etc.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have more than two hydrogen
atoms missing (e.g. linoleic acid and linolenic acid). Linoleic and
linolenic acids are regarded as essential fatty acids (EFAs) because
the body cannot make them. There are two categories of EFAs:
omega-3 and omega-6. The number that comes after “omega-” represents the position of the
first double bond, counting from the terminal methyl group on the molecule. Omega-3 fatty
acids are derived from linolenic acid and omega-6 from linoleic acid. Alpha linolenic acid (ALA)
is converted into eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and later into docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in
the body. Sources  of omega-3 fats include salmon, mackerel, sardines, anchovies, tuna,
flaxseed oil, walnuts, etc. Sources of omega-6 fats include palm oil, soybean oil, canola oil,
sunflower oil, nuts, etc. Evidence from research indicates that omega-3 fatty acids
 reduce inflammation and help prevent certain chronic diseases such as heart
disease and arthritis. Omega-3 fatty acids are highly concentrated in the brain and appear to
be crucial to brain function as well as normal growth and development. Infants who do not get
enough omega-3 fatty acids from their mothers during pregnancy are at risk of mental
impairment.
Generally, saturated fatty acids raise blood cholesterol levels, whereas unsaturated fatty acids
lower them. Saturated fats are found in foods such as butter, meat and dairy fats. Trans
fats are artificially created during food processing. In the body, trans fats act in a similar way to
saturated fats and may raise cholesterol levels. These fats are considered to be harmful to
your health. Trans fats are found mainly in deep-fried fast foods and processed foods made
with margarine.
Fats are a concentrated and rich source of energy. It is recommended that your total fat intake
is no more than 30% of your energy (calorie/kilojoule) intake. Polyunsaturated fat should be
less than 10% of energy, and saturated fat and trans fat together should be less than 10%.
The rest of your fat intake should consist of monounsaturated fat.

Vitamins
Vitamins constitute a group of nutrients that are needed in small quantities. Like amino and
fatty acids, most vitamins cannot be made in the body and must be obtained from dietary
sources. Only vitamin D can be manufactured by the body. Essential vitamins are grouped
into two families: water soluble and fat soluble. Water soluble vitamins can dissolve in water
(thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, folic acid). These cannot be stored by the body and
need to be consumed every day. Fat soluble vitamins can dissolve in a fat medium (vitamins
A, D, E, K). These are taken into our bodies when we consume fat-containing foods. Vitamins
are needed for various reasons, including the formation of hormones and blood cells. They
generally act as coenzymes. An inadequate supply of vitamins in our diet leads to the
development of diseases.
 Vitamin A: Derived from carotene, vitamin A affects vision, reproduction, and the formation and
maintenance of skin, mucous membranes, bones and teeth. Deficiency results in night blindness
(difficulty in adapting to darkness). The body obtains vitamin A from either carotene (vitamin A
precursor) or by absorbing ready-made vitamin A from plant-eating organisms. Carotene is found in
dark green leafy vegetables and yellow-orange fruit/vegetables. Pre formed vitamin A is found in milk,
butter, cheese, egg yolk, liver, and fish-liver oil.
 Vitamin B complex: The vitamin B complex is a mixture of eight essential vitamins necessary to
enhance immune and nervous system function, and promote cell growth and division. Pregnant or
lactating women, alcoholics and the elderly are more likely to suffer from vitamin B deficiency.
 Vitamin B1 (thiamine): Thiamine, or vitamin B1, acts as a catalyst in carbohydrate metabolism.
Thiamine deficiency causes beriberi, a vitamin deficiency disorder characterised by muscular weakness,
swelling of the heart and leg cramps. In severe cases, beriberi may lead to heart failure and death. The
richest dietary sources of thiamine are organ meats (liver, heart, and kidney), brewer’s yeast, lean
meats, eggs, leafy green vegetables, whole or enriched cereals, wheat germ, berries, nuts, and legumes.
 Vitamin B2 (riboflavin): Riboflavin, or vitamin B2, acts as a coenzyme in the metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats, and respiratory proteins. The best sources of riboflavin are liver, milk, meat, dark
green vegetables, whole grain and enriched cereals, pasta, bread and mushrooms.
 Vitamin B6 (pyroxidine): Pyridoxine, or vitamin B6, is necessary for the absorption and metabolism
of amino acids. It also plays a role in the body’s use of fats and in the formation of red blood cells. The
 best sources of pyridoxine are whole grains, cereals, bread, liver, avocados, spinach, green beans and
bananas.
 Folic acid (vitamin B9 or folacin): Folic acid is a coenzyme needed for forming body protein
and haemoglobin. Folic acid deficiency is associated with neural tube defects. Dietary sources are organ
meats, leafy green vegetables, legumes, nuts, whole grains and brewer’s yeast. Folic acid is lost in foods
stored at room temperature and during cooking.

Minerals
Minerals are essential, acting as cofactors of enzymes (i.e. enzymes would not exist or
function without minerals). Some of the minerals necessary for health are:

 Calcium: Calcium is a very important mineral in the diet, especially for women at menopause. The
major function of calcium is to build and help maintain strong bones. It can stop the onset
of osteoporosis and reduce bone loss and fragility. It is involved in blood clotting. Calcium deficiency
can develop when there is a lack of vitamin D.
 Iron: Iron in food exists as haem and non-haem iron. Haem iron, found in red meat, is relatively well
(20–30%) absorbed. Non-haem iron, found mostly in cereals, pulses, certain vegetables (e.g. spinach)
and eggs, is generally less well absorbed. Non-haem iron absorption depends on other factors in the
diet. For example, vitamin C and animal protein enhance non-haem iron absorption, while tea, coffee
and phytates inhibit it.
 Zinc: Zinc represents only 0.003% of the human body, but is essential for synthesising
protein, DNA and RNA. It is required for growth in all stages of life. Sources include meats, oysters
and other seafood, milk, and egg yolk.
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0

Food SourceAmountCalcium (mg)Number of Serves

Dairy beverages
0
Milk- cow‘s (reduced fat 1.5%)250ml263
0
Milk- cow‘s (regular fat)250ml245
0
Milk- cow‘s, chocolate flavoured (calcium enriched)250ml500
0
Milk- cow‘s, flavoured250ml283
0
Milk- cow‘s, liquid (reduced fat 1.5%)250ml352
0
Milk- cow‘s, liquid (reduced fat 2.5%, calcium enriched)250ml500
0
Milk- cow‘s, liquid (regular fat, vitamin enriched)250ml367.5
0
Milk- cow‘s, powdered (regular)100 grams875
0
Milk- cow‘s, powdered (skim)100 grams1250
0
Milk- evaporated (full cream)250ml638
0
Milk evaporated (skim <0.5% fat)250ml615
Dairy substitute beverages
 0
- Chocolate, regular1(300ml) carton334
0
- Chocolate, reduced fat250ml352
Yoghurt
0
Milk- goat‘s, powdered100 grams978
0
Milk- goat‘s, liquid250ml275
0
Milk- rice (calcium enriched)250ml315
0
Milk- sheeps- liquid250ml483
0
Milk- soy (flavoured)250ml293
0
Milk- soy (reduced fat)250ml302
0
Milk- soy- unflavoured (full cream, calcium enriched)250ml400
0
Milk- soy- unflavoured (reduced fat <0.5%, calcium enriched)250ml340
0
Milk- soy- unflavoured (reduced fat 1.5%, calcium enriched)250ml340
Cheese
0
- Cheddar40g310
0
- Edam40g360
0
- Parmesan40g460
Ice cream
0
- regular100g119
0
- low fat100g146
Meat
0
- Beef, Steak grilled100g6
0
- Lamb Chop, midloin, grilled100g8
Chicken
0
- roasted/skin100g13
0
- roasted/no skin100g14
Other
0
Salmon - grilled100g21
0
Eggs - boiled1 large25
0
Broccoli100g31
0
Apricots- dried50g33
0
Almonds50g117
0
Baked Beans1/2 cup47
0
Spinach/Silverbeet100g53
0
Apples1 medium8
0
Oranges1 medium38
0
Bread- wholemeal1 slice24
 0
Total calcium for other foods not listed above 
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How much calcium do you need daily to maintain good
health?
Food Standards Australia and New Zealand.@AUSNUT 2007- Australian Nutrition Reference Database. 2007. (cited
April 7, 2011) Available from: http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumerinformation/ausnut2007/

Disclaimer
This calculator includes a small number of foods that are rich calcium sources, or that are commonly
eaten. While the calculator may give an estimate of your calcium intake, it should not be relied upon for
an accurate assessment of dietary calcium intake. For a comprehensive dietary assessment, see an
Accredited Practising Dietitian. This information will be collected for educational purposes, however it
will remain anonymous.

Water
For adults, 1–1.5 mL water per kcal of energy expenditure is usually sufficient to allow for
normal changes in physical activity, sweating, and dietary solute load. Water losses consist of
50–100 mL/day through faeces (stools), 500–1000 mL/day by evaporation, and approximately
1000 mL/day through urine. If external losses increase, we must increase the amount of water
we ingest. In special circumstances such as diarrhoea and vomiting, water requirements
further increase.

Balanced diet
It is critical that nutrients in our body are available in sufficient amounts and in the right
proportions. This can be achieved by eating a balanced diet. We must eat a variety of foods,
since different foods contain different nutrients in varying amounts. In stressing the importance
of variety in our diet, Nutrition Australia encourages all Australians to ensure that their daily
diet includes 30 individual foods. This may appear impossible at first thought, but in reality can
easily be attained by eating typical diets based on carefully selected foods. Food selection
based on the ‘Healthy Eating Pyramid’ can assist you in planning your meals for a balanced
and healthy diet.

A healthy diet consists mainly of plant foods (e.g. fruits and vegetables, potatoes, cereals,
etc.) and moderate amounts of animal products (e.g. milk, fish, lean red meat and poultry).
Fats and oils should normally provide less than 30% of our energy, and less than 10% of this
should be saturated fat. Lean red meat, poultry and fish, eggs and dairy foods are rich sources
of animal protein. Dairy foods, apart from supplying quality protein, are good sources of
calcium. Good vegetable sources of protein include legumes (e.g. peanuts, lentils, kidney
beans), soya products (e.g. tofu), grains, nuts and seeds.

Healthy eating pyramid

The food pyramid is a simple practical guide to selecting varied foods for meals. The
Australian Nutrition Foundation Inc. (Nutrition Australia) has developed its own food pyramid.
The rationale behind the food pyramid emphasises the need to include generous amounts of
plant-based foods (cereals, legumes, fruits and vegetables) and moderate amounts of animal
products (meat, fish, milk, eggs) in our diets. Furthermore, our diet should contain only small
amounts of energy-dense foods (e.g. sugar, fats and oils). The base of the pyramid (plant-
based foods) is broad, and the top (animal products) is narrow. Eating according to the
structure of the food pyramid ensures we consume a healthy diet. With care the food pyramid
can also assist vegetarians and vegans to consume a nutritionally balanced diet, although
some people will require dietary supplements (e.g. vegans will require vitamin B12).

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Glycaemic index and glycaemic load

Carbohydrates should make up at least 55% of our total daily energy intake. The quality and
quantity of these carbohydrates are important in blood sugar and appetite control. After you
consume carbohydrate-containing foods, your pancreas secretes insulin to break the
carbohydrates down into their building blocks. Insulin acts to lower blood glucose levels. When
your blood glucose levels decrease to a particular level, your brain is sent a signal and you
become hungry again.
Even though different foods may contain the same amounts of carbohydrate, their effects
on blood glucose control may be very different. This has lead to the development of measures
such as the glycaemic index (GI) and glycaemic load (GL) of a food product. The concept of
GI was formulated by Jenkins and colleagues in 1984. They found that blood glucose
response to carbohydrate foods is independent of the amount of carbohydrates they contain.
The limitation of the GI lies in the difficulty of translating the concept into practice, since the
glycaemic effect of foods is not constant and can vary depending on the way the food is
cooked.
Low GI and GL foods have been shown to be associated with health advantages such as
decreased blood sugar levels. Foods with a low GI (less than 55) cause a slower and lower
rise in blood glucose levels. These include breads such as mixed-grain and oat breads,
barley, pasta, noodles, beans, sweet potatoes, green peas and milk. Foods with a high GI
(greater than 70) cause a faster and higher rise in blood glucose levels. High GI foods include
white bread, steamed white rice and chips.

By incorporating low GI foods into your diet, you will bring down the average GI of your meal,
have a lower, slower blood sugar response to the meal and feel ‘full’ for longer.  By consuming
low GI foods, you are more likely to be satisfied and feel full for longer periods of time. This
helps you to maintain a healthy weight and avoid diseases such as heart disease, diabetes
and some cancers.

 For more information, see Glycaemic Index (GI) and Glycaemic Load (GL)