14

CHAPTER 3

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWER -DESIGN CONCEPTS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of a transmission line tower is to

support conductors carrying electrical power and one or two
ground wires at suitable distances above the ground level
and from each other. The transmission line towers cost
about 35 to 45 per cent of the total cost of the
transmission line. A transmission tower is a space truss
and is an indeterminate structure.

This chapter covers certain basic principles and

stipulations to be followed in the analysis and design of
transmission line towers, incorporating Indian electricity
rules (1956), Manual on transmission line towers (1977),
IS:802 (1977) and draft revision of IS:802 (1989).

3.2 TOWER CONFIGURATION

Depending upon the requirements of the transmission

system, various line configurations have to be considered
ranging from single circuit horizontal to double circuit
vertical structures and with single or V strings in all
phases, as well as any combination of these.

The configuration of a transmission line tower depends on

the following factors:

1. The length of the insulator assembly.

 15

2. The minimum clearances to be maintained between

conductors, and between conductor and tower.
3. The location of ground wire or wires with respect
to the outermost conductor.
4. The mid-span clearance required from
consideration of the dynamic behaviour of
conductors and lightning protection of the line.
5. The minimum clearance of the lowest conductor
above ground level.

The tower configuration is determined essentially

by three factors:

(a) Tower height.

(b) Base-width.
(c) Top hamper-width.

3.3 DETERMINATION OF TOWER HEIGHT

The factors governing height of a tower are :

1. Minimum permissible ground clearance (hi).

2. Maximum sag (h2)•
3. Vertical spacing between conductors (h3).
4. Vertical clearance between ground wire and top
conductor (h4).

Thus the total height of tower is given by :

H= h1+h2+h3+h4

Figure 3.1 shows the parameters h3, h2, h3 and h4

in a transmission line tower.
 16

Figure 3.1 - Determination of tower height

[Source: Reference(37)J
 17

3.4 CLEARANCES
3.4.1 General Remarks

Power conductors along the entire route of the

transmission line should maintain requisite clearance to
ground over open country, national highways, important
roads, electrified and unelectrified tracks, navigable and
non-navigable rivers, telecommunication and power lines
etc. as laid down in the various national standards issued
by the respective authorities.

3.4.2 Ground Clearance

Indian electricity rules (1956), under Clause 77

(incorporating amendments), stipulates clearance above the
ground of the lowest point of the conductor. For Extra
High Voltage (EHV) lines, this clause stipulates that the
clearance above the ground shall not be less than 5.1 m
plus 0.3 m for every 33,000 volts or part thereof by which
the voltage of the line exceeds 33,000 volts. The
permissible minimum ground clearance for different voltages
adopted in India are furnished in Table 3.1, and these are
applicable for transmission lines running in the open
country.

3.4.3 Horizontal Clearance

Clause 80(2) of Indian electricity rules (1956)

stipulates that the horizontal clearance between the
nearest conductor and any part of the structure shall be
based on maximum deflection due to wind pressure. It
should not be less than the values shown in Table 3.2,
corresponding to the voltage.
 18

TABLE 3.1 MINIMUM GROUND CLEARANCE

Permissible minimum ground

Voltage of the line
Clearance
(Kv)
(mm)
66 5490
132 6100
1 220
7016
| 400
8840
 19

TABLLE 3.2 HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE

..........
a. For high voltage lines upto and
including 11,000 volts 1.219 m
b. For high voltage above 11,000 volts
and upto and including 33,000 volts
1.829 m
c. For Extra High Voltage Lines (EHV)
(plus 0.305 m for every additional
33,000 volts or part thereof)
1.829 m
 20

3.5 CRITICAL PARAMETERS OF TOWER

The following aspects are considered essential for

fixing the tower outline:

a. Maximum sag of lower conductor.

b. Height and location of ground wire.
c. Length of cross arm and conductor spacing.
d. Minimum mid-span clearance.
e. Tower width at base and at top hamper.

3.5.1 Maximum Sag of Lower Conductor

The size and type of conductor, wind, climatic

conditions of the region and span determines the conductor
sag and tension. Span length is fixed from economic
consideration. The maximum sag for conductor span occurs
at the maximum temperature and still wind conditions. The
maximum value of sag is taken into consideration in fixing
the overall height of the steel tower structure. In
regions prone to snowfall, the maximum sag may occur at 0°,
with the conductor loaded with ice, in still wind
condition. While working out tension for arriving at the
maximum sag, the following stipulations laid down in Indian
electricity rules (1956) are to be satisfied.

a. The minimum factor of safety shall be two based on

their ultimate tensile strength.
b. Conductor tension at 32° Centigrade (90°F) without
external load shall not exceed the following
percentage of the ultimate tensile strength of the
conductor.
i) Initial unloaded tension : 35 percent
ii) Final unloaded tension : 25 percent
 21

In accordance with this stipulation, the maximum

working tension under stringent loading condition shall not
exceed 50% of the ultimate tensile strength of the
conductor. Sag tension computation made for final
stringing of the conductor therefore must ensure that
factor of safety of 2 and 4 is obtainable under respective
loading condition.

3.5.2 Height and Location of Ground Wire

Ground wire provides protection against direct

stroke of lightening. It intercepts the direct lightning
strokes and conducts the charge to the nearest ground
connections. The height and location of overhead ground
wires shall be such that the line joining the ground wire
to the outer most conductor shall make angles of
approximately 20 to 30 degrees with the vertical. The angle
is called shield angle. The practice is to specify 30° for
66 kV and 110 kV, 25 to 30 degrees for 220 kV. A lower
angle of 20° is suggested for 400 kV. The protective value
against direct strokes to the phase conductors approaches
100 percent, if the shield angle is less than 20°, but it
is not advisable to keep smaller angles from economic
considerations. On extra high voltage lines having wide
conductor spacing, the use of two earth wires provide
better protection.

3.5.3 Minimum Mid-Span Clearance

In case of direct lightning stroke on the mid-span

of over head ground wires, the critical condition occurs at
the mid-span during the propagation of surge current and
mid span 'flash over' may occur from ground wire to
conductor, before the current is discharged through the
 22

tower. The mid-span clearance between the earth wires and

conductor is therefore, kept more than the clearance at the
tower. The usual practice in this regard is to maintain
the sag of ground wire at least 10 % less than that of the
conductor, under all temperature conditions in still wind
at the normal spans, so as to give a mid span separation
greater than that at the supports. However, it is ensured
that under the minimum temperature and maximum wind
conditions, the sag of the ground wire does not exceed the
sag of the power conductor.

In the case of stroke to mid-span, on one of the

ground wires, when two ground wires are used, it is
preferable, if the striken ground wire flashes over to the
second ground wire instead of to the conductor. Therefore
it is necessary that the spacing between the two ground
wire is less than the mid-span clearance between ground
wire and conductor. Mid-span clearance vary with the span
length. Increased spans, increases the mid span clearance.
The design span normally adopted are 250 m for 66 kV, 305
to 335 m for 110 kV, 350 m for 220 kV, 350 to 400 m for 400
kV lines. The vertical clearance generally adopted at the
middle of the span between the ground wires and conductors
are given in Table 3.3.

3.5.4 Spacing of Conductors

Considerable differences are found in the conductor

spacings adopted in different countries and on different
transmission line systems in the same country. The spacing
of conductors is determined by considerations, which are
partly electrical and partly mechanical. The material and
diameter of the conductors should also be considered, when
deciding the spacing, because a smaller conductor,
 23

TABLE 3.3 MID-SPAN CLEARANCE

Span Vertical Clearance permissible at the 1

(m) middle of the span (mm) |
4000 I
299
300 5500
400 7000
600 8500
especially made of aluminium, having a small weight in
relation to the area presented to a cross-wind, will swing
out of vertical plane farther than a conductor of larger
cross-section. Usually, conductors will swing synchronously
(in phase) with the wind, but with long spans and small
wires, there is always a possibility of the conductor
swinging non-synchronously, and the conductor and the
maximum sag at the centre of the span are factors, which
are taken into account in determining the distance apart,
at which they are strung.

There are a number of empirical formulae in use,

deduced from spacings, which have been successfully
operated in practice, while research continues on minimum
spacings, which could be employed. The spacings, both
horizontal and vertical, between conductors commonly
adopted on typical transmission lines in India are given in
Table 3.4.

3.5.5 Tower Width at the Base

Spacing between the tower footings, i.e., the base

width at the concrete level (or at the foot of the bottom
panel) is the distance from the centre of gravity of one
corner leg to the centre of gravity of the adjacent corner
leg. This width depends upon the height, magnitude of the
physical loads imposed upon the tower calculated from the
size, type of conductors and wind loads and also upon the
height of application of external loads from ground level.
Towers with larger base result in low footing costs and
lighter main leg member at the expense of longer bracing
members. There is a particular base width, which gives the
best compromise for the total cost of the tower to be
minimum. Through experience expanded over a number of
 TABLE 3.4 SPACING OF CONDUCTORS

Vertical spacing Horizontal

between spacing between
Type of tower conductors conductors
(mm) (mm)
1. 66 kV single circuit
A(0-2°) 1030 4040
B(2-30°) 1030 4270
C(30-60°) 1220 4880
2. 66 kV Double Circuit
A(0-2°) 2170 4270
B(2-30°) 2060 4880
C(30-60°) 2440 6000
3. 132 kV Single Circuit
A(0-2°) 4200 7140
B(2-15°) 4200 6290
C( 15-30°) 4200 7150
D(30-60°) 4200 8820
4. 132 kV Double circuit
A(0-2°) 3965 7020
B(2-15°) 3965 7320
C( 15-30°) 3965 7320
D(30-60°) 4270 8540
5. 220 kV Single circuit
A(0-2°) 5200 8500
B(2-15°) 5250 10500
C( 15-30°) 6700 12600
D(30-60°) 7800 14000
6. 220 kV Double
Circuit
A(0-2°) 5200 9900
B(2-15°) 5200 10100
C( 15-30°) 5200 10500
D(30-60°) 6750 12600
7. 400 kV Single Circuit
horizontal
configuration 7800 12760
A(0-2°) 7800 12640
B(2-15°) 7800 14000
C( 15-30°) 8100 16200
I D(30-60°)
 2b

years, certain empirical relations have also been developed

■ for base widths. The ratio between total height of the
tower uptc the lower cross arm and base width is generally
between 2.8 and 4.4.

3.5.6 Width at the Top Hamper

Top hamper-width is the width of the tower at the

level of the lower cross arm in the case of barrel type of
towers (In double circuit towers it may be at middle cross
arm level) and waist line in case of towers with horizontal
configuration of conductors. The width of the top hamper is
mainly decided based on resistance required for torsional
loading. The torsional stresses are evenly distributed on
the four faces of a square tower.

The top hamper width is generally found to be about

one-third to one-half of the base width for tangent and
light angle towers and about 1/3.5 of the base width for
medium and large angle towers.

3.6 TYPES OF TOWER

3.6.1 Classification according to Number of Circuits

The majority of high voltage double circuit

transmission lines employ a vertical configuration of
conductor and single circuit transmission lines, a
triangular arrangement of conductors. Single circuit lines,
particularly 400 kV and above, generally employ a
horizontal arrangement of conductors. The number of ground
wires used on the line depends on the iso-ceraunic level of
the area, importance of the line and the angle of coverage
desired.
 27

3.6.2 Classification according to use

Towers are classified according to their use,

independent of the number of conductors they support. A
tower has to withstand the loadings ranging from straight-
runs to varying angles. To simplify the design and ensure
an overall economy in cost and maintenance, tower designs
are generally confined to a few standard types as follows :

(1) Tangent (suspension) towers

Suspension towers are used primarily on tangents, but

often are designed to withstand angles in the line
upto 2 ° in addition to the wind, ice, and broken
conductor loads. If the transmission line traverses
relatively flat, featureless terrain, ninety percent
of the line may be composed of this type of tower.
Thus, the design of tangent tower provides the
greatest opportunity for the structural engineer to
minimize the total weight of steel required.

(2) Angle towers

Angle towers, sometimes called semi-anchor towers, are

used where the line makes a horizontal angle greater
than 2° (Figure 3.2). As they must resist a
transverse load from the components of the line
tension induced by this angle, in addition to the
usual wind, ice and broken conductor loads, they are
necessarily heavier than suspension towers. Unless
restricted by site conditions, or influenced by
conductor tensions, angle should be located in such a
manner that the axis of the cross-arms bisects the
angle formed by the conductors.
 28

9 m Angle of deflection of line

T » Tension in conductor
P, a Transverse load due to component of
conductor tension = T sin &2
P2 » Longitudinal load due to component of lire
tension
= T cos 02

Figure 3.2 - Orientation of tower in an angle

lSource: Reference(37)]
 29

Theoretically, different line angles require

different towers, but for economy there is a limiting
number of different types of towers used. This number is a
function of all the factors, which make up the total
erected cost of a tower line. However,experience has
shownthat the following angle towers are generally
suitable for most of the lines:

1. Light angle - 2 to 15 degrees line deviation.

2. Medium angle - 15 to 30 degrees line deviation.
3. Heavy angle - 30 to 60 degrees line deviation
and dead ends.

While the angles of line deviation are for the

normal span, the span may be increased upto an optimum
limit by reducing the angle of line deviation and vice
versa. IS: 802 (Part I)-1977 recommends the above
classification.

It would be uneconomical to use 30° angle towers in

locations where angles higher than 2“ and smaller than 30°
are encountered. There are limitations to the use of 2°

angle towers at higher angles with reduced spans and the

use of 30“angle towers with smaller angles and increased
spans. The introduction of a 15° tower would effect
sizable economy.

3.7 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

3.7.1 General Remarks

Transmission line tower consists of linear

structural members rigidly connected to one another by
welding or bolting. For the purposes of analysis, it is
idealized as a space truss. A space truss is a 3-D
 30

assemblage of line members, each member being joined by

hinges. Space truss idealization lead to the following
assumptions:

1. The influence of gusseted connection in

transmitting moment is neglected.
2. Leg members that are continuous are assumed
to be hinged at the nodal points.
3. Loads are assumed to act only at the joints.

The use of high speed computers has enabled the

analysis of large structural systems to be carried out more
easily and accurately. Among the various methods available
for the truss analysis, the matrix formulation has the
advantage over other methods, since the operation of matrix
algebra can be provided in the form of a 'routine' in the
computer program. Figure 3.3 shows the space truss
idealization consisting of foundation leg members,
horizontal and diagonal braces.

3.7.2 Matrix Structural Analysis

Every structure must fulfill the dual requirements

of equilibrium and compatibility. The stiffness method
maintains the compatibility of the structures and makes use
of equilibrium conditions for the solution. For solving
pin-jointed trusses, the stiffness method generally leads
to fewer equations. Hence, the stiffness method is used
for the analysis of transmission line towers.

Let (Xjj and {8denote the nodal force and

displacement vector of the ith member in the local
 31

>?1'0h-(6

800416

Figure 3.3 - Space truss idealization

LSource: Referencel37)]
 32

co- ordinate system as shown in Figure 3.4. The member

stiffness equation is written as :

{*i) = E*jJ {**£} (3.1)

Where
{Xi>T = (XiL, ZiL, (3.2)
{6L) = (UiL,ViL,WiL,UiR,ViR,WiR) (3.3)

and [kj^] is the member stiffness matrix given by

10 0-1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

[*] Ei Ai 0 0 0 0 0 0
(3.4)
-10 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

In equation (3.4) and indicate the modulus of

elasticity and length of the i*"*1 member respectively. The

stiffness equation of all the members are formed in the

similar manner and they are transformed from the local co­
ordinate system to the global. Then the total structure
stiffness matrix is generated bysuperimposing the
individual member stiffness matrices. Thus,

[K] {d} = (L) (3.5)

Where
{d> =Nodal displacement vector referred
to global coordinate system

{L} = Vector of external loads

 33

Figure 3.4 - The global and local co-ordinate system

 34

[K] Total structure stiffness matrix

n
[K] S [Ti]T [ki] [ TjJ (3. C)
=
i=l

In equation (3.6), (T±3 is the transformation

matrix and the summation sign denotes superimposing the
member stiffness matrices of all the members. Solving
Equation (3.5) with respect to the nodal displacement
vector.
(d) —— (K)-1 (L) (3.7)
then
(di) [Ki]"1 (L) (3.8)
where

(di) = Nodal displacement vector of the ith member

referred to Global Coordinate Systems (GCS).

[Kjj"1 = Matrix formed by extracting the rows corresponding

to the vector {d^} from the matrix [K]”1.

The nodal displacement vector {<5^} of the i th

member referred to the Local Coordinate Systems (LCS) is
related to {d^ through the transformation matrix [Tj_].

{Si> = [Ti] {dL) (3.9)

From equations (3.1) and (3.9), the nodal force

vector {Xj} of the ith member is given by :

{Xj_} = [CL] (L) (3.10)

Where
[Ci] = [kiHTiHKi] -1 (3.11)
 35

3.8 TOWER DESIGN

3.8.1 General Remarks

Once the external loads acting on the tower are

determined, one proceeds with an analysis of the forces in
various members with a view to fixing up their sizes.
Axial force is the primary force for a truss element and
therefore, the member is designed for either compression or
tension. When there are multiple load conditions, certain
members may be subjected to both compressive and tensile
forces under different loading conditions. Hence, these
members are designed for both compression or tension acting
separately.

3.8.2 Bracing Systems

Once the width of the tower at the top and also the
level at which the batter should start are determined, the
next step is to select the system of braces. The following
bracing systems are usually adopted for transmission line
towers.

(i) Single web system

This system shown in Figure 3.5(a) is particularly

used for narrow-based towers, in cross arm girders
and for portal type of towers. Except for 66 kV
single circuit towers, this system has little
application for towers at higher voltages.

(ii) Double web or Warren system

This system shown in Figure 3.5(b), is made up of

 3b

diagonal cross braces. Shear is equally distributed

between the two diagonals, one in compression and
tne other in tension. Both the diagonals are
designed for compression and tension in order to
permit reversal of externally applied shears. The
diagonal braces are connected at cross points.
Since the shear per face is carried by two members
and critical length is approximately half that of a
corresponding single web system, it is apparent
that the individual members will be smaller than in
the single web system. This system is used for both
large and small towers and can be economically
adopted throughout the shaft except in the lower
one or two panels, where diamond or portal system
of braces is more suitable.

(iii) Pratt system

This system shown in Figure 3.5 (c) also contains

diagonal cross braces and in addition, it has
horizontal struts. These struts are subjected to
compression and the shear is taken entirely by one
diagonal in tension. The other diagonal acts as a
redundant member. It is often economical to use
Pratt braces for bottom two or three panels and
Warren system for the rest of the tower.

(iv) Portal system

The diagonals are necessarily designed for both

tension and compression, and therefore, this
arrangement provides more stiffness than the Pratt
system. The advantage of this system is that the
horizontal struts are supported at mid-length by
 37

the diagonals [Figure 3.5 (d)]. Like the Pratt

system, this arrangement is also used for the
bottom two or three panels in conjunction with the
Warren system for the other panels. It is
especially useful for heavy river crossing towers.

(v) Offset or Staggered bracing system

This bracing arrangement can be derived from the

Portal system and Warren system. The longitudinal
face is similar to that of Warren system and the
transverse face consist of staggered bracing
arrangement as shown in Figure 3.5 (e). The leg
members are thus supported at alternate points in
two directions. All diagonals are designed for
tension and compression and they share the web
shear. This arrangement has the advantage that the
struts carry no primary loads and are designed as
redundant members. The increased efficiency in the
legs, however, is obtained at the expense of
increasing the number of different diagonals and
correspondingly reducing the advantages of mass
production methods.

3.8.3 Determination of Member Sizes

The practices followed with regard to the minimum

angle sizes and minimum thickness of steel members adopted
in the designs, based on experience and judgement, are
briefly described below:

(a) Minimum angle size

The present practice is not to allow angle leg

 38

(a) Single web

system

(d) Portal system Longitudinal face Transverse face

(e) Offset or staggered bracing system

Figure 3.5 - Bracing systems

[Source:
Reference(37)3
 39

width less than 45 nun through which a bolt of 16 nun

diameter passes. This results in a number of main
braces, cross-arm braces and almost all the
redundant members of the tower being of this size,
even though a smaller size may be adequate from
stress requirements. Unequal angle size 45 x 30 x
5 nun can be used in place of equal angle 45 x 45 x
5 nun for a number of braces and for almost all the
redundant members.

(b) Minimum thickness and Slenderness ratio

IS:802-1977, code of practice for use of structural

steel in overhead transmission line towers,
specifies the minimum thicknesses which is
reproduced in Table 3.5. The limiting values of the
slenderness ratio for the design of transmission
tower members is shown in Table 3.6.

3.9 CONCLUSION

The various aspects described in this chapter have

been incorporated in the expert system program. The minimum
requirements based on experience and practice have been
used as constraints in the optimization program. Without
the implementation of these practical requirements,
optimization of tower weight will at best be, a theoretical
exercise.
 40

TABLE 3.5 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF TOWER MEMBERS

Minimum thickness (mm)

Galvanised Painted
Leg members and
lower members of
5 6
cross arms in
compression
Other members 4 5
 41

TABLE 3.6 SLENDERNESS RATIO-LIMITING VALUES

Leg members and main members 150

in the cross-arm in compression
Members carrying computed 200
stresses
Redundant members and those 250
carrying nominal stresses
Tension members 350