PHYSICS I

Faculty of Engineering
Center of Preparatory Year

Academic Year
2021-2022
Contents

CHAPTER 1 Temperature and Heat

1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………….. 3

1.2 Temperature ………………………………………………………. 3
1.3 Thermal Expansion ………………………………………………...7
1.4 Heat ………………………………………………………………… 9
1.5 Conservation of energy …………………………………………….13
Problems ………………………………………………………......14

CHAPTER 2 Pressure and Fluid

2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………. 16

2.2 Some properties of matter ……………………………………….. 16
2.3 Pressure …………………………………………………………….17
2.4 Pascal’s Principle …………………………………………………. 20
2.5 Archimedes’ Principle ……………………………………………..21
Problems ……………………………………………………….... 24

CHAPTER 3 Force and Motion

3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………… 26

3.2 Physical Quantities ………………………………………………..26
3.3 Concept of Force …………………………………………………. 30
3.4 Newton’s Laws …………………………………………………... .30
3.5 Types of Force …………………………………………………….. 31
Problems ………………………………………………………... 35

CHAPTER 4 Simple Harmonic Motion

4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………… 37

4.2 Simple Harmonic Motion …………………………………………37
4.3 The block–spring system ………………………………………… 38
Problems ……………………………………………………….... 40

CHAPTER 5 Electric Field

5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………….42

5.2 Electric Charge ……………………………………………………42
5.3 Coulomb’s Law …………………………………………………....43
5.4 Electric Field ………………………………………………………45
5.5 Motion of Charge in electric field ………………………..............46
Problems ………………………………………………………....48
 CHAPTER 1
Temperature and Heat
Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Temperature and Heat

1.1 Introduction

We associate the concept of temperature as the measure of how hot or cold an object feels we touch it.
While our senses provide us with qualitative indications of temperature, they are unreliable and often
misleading. For example, a metal ice tray feels colder to the hand, for example, than a package of frozen
vegetables at the same temperature in the freezer, because metals conduct thermal energy more rapidly
than a cardboard package.
What we need is a reliable and reproducible method of making quantitative measurements that
establish the relative “hotness” or “coldness” of objects.
In this chapter, we deal with a physical quantity known as temperature, which is one of the seven SI
base quantities.

1.2 Temperature
Generally, when a substance is heated, some of the absorbed energy is stored within the particles,
while some of the energy increases the motion of the particles. This is registered as an increase in the
temperature of the substance. Therefore, the temperature can be defined in terms of kinetic energy as:
A temperature is the average kinetic energy of the molecules in the substance.

Thermometer
Thermometer is a device used to measure a temperature of a system.
which comes from the Greek words "thermos" (hot) and "metron" (measure).
All thermometers are based on the principle that some physical property of a system changes as the
system’s temperature changes. Some physical properties that change with temperature are

1. The volume of a liquid,

2. The dimensions of a solid
3. The pressure of a gas at constant volume
4. The volume of a gas at constant pressure
5. The electric resistance of a conductor, and
6. The color of an object.
A common thermometer used consists of a mass of liquid usually mercury or alcohol that expands into a
glass tube when heated in this case the physical property that changes is the volume of a liquid. Any
temperature change in the range of the thermometer can be defined as being proportional to the change
in length of the liquid column. The thermometer can be calibrated by placing it in thermal contact with
some natural systems that remain at constant temperature.

An additional practical problem of any thermometer is the limited range of temperatures over which it can
be used.

A mercury thermometer, for example, cannot be used below the freezing point of mercury, which is
-39 °C, and an alcohol thermometer is not useful for measuring temperatures above 85°C, the boiling
point of alcohol.

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Electronic thermometer
Electronic thermometers detect temperature changes using a thermoresistive device in which the electrical
resistance changes in response to changes in temperature Fig. shown below. This device may be
a thermistor or a thermocouple and is incorporated into the tip of a probe. Thermistors are very small and
therefore respond rapidly to changes in temperature. The current flow from a thermistor is translated into
a temperature reading that is displayed on a digital readout.

Temperature Scales
There are three common temperature scales in use today, Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.

The Celsius Scale:

The degree Celsius is a unit of temperature on the Celsius scale, a temperature scale originally known
as the centigrade scale.
The Celsius temperature range is defined by setting zero oC as the temperature at ice point. The other
point at which Celsius was set as 100 oC was defined as the boiling point of water. and there are 100
intervals between these two points. The symbol oC stands for degrees Celsius.

The Fahrenheit Scale:

A common temperature scale in everyday use in the United States is the Fahrenheit scale. This scale sets
the temperature of the ice point at 32 °F and the temperature of the boiling point of water at 212 °F, and
there are 180 intervals between these two points. The symbol oF stands for degrees Fahrenheit

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The Kelvin Scale:

The Kelvin scale, which is the standard metric system of temperature measurement and perhaps the
most widely used temperature scale among scientists. The Kelvin temperature scale is similar to the
Celsius temperature scale in the sense that there are 100 intervals between the freezing point and the
boiling point of water. However, the zero mark on the Kelvin temperature scale is 273.15 units cooler
than it is on the Celsius scale. So a temperature of 0 Kelvin is equivalent to a temperature of -273.15
°C. Notice that the degree symbol is not used with Kelvin system.

The symbol K stands for Kelvin. The limiting temperature of a body is taken as the zero Kelvin,
called the absolute zero. This scale is used mostly in basic scientific calculations and studies.

Temperature Conversions

TK = TC + 273 ⟹ TC = TK – 273
TF = TC + 32 ⟹ TC = [ TF – 32 ]

Change in temperature
∆TK = ∆TC

∆TF = ∆TC ⟹ ∆TC = ∆TF

∆T is also known as the temperature difference or the increase/decrease in temperature

Note
Only the Kelvin scale is based on a true zero value of temperature. The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are
based on an arbitrary zero associated with one particular substance—water—on one particular
planet—Earth. Thus, if you encounter an equation that calls for a temperature T or involves a ratio of
temperatures, you must convert all temperatures to kelvins. If the equation contains a change in
temperature T, using Celsius temperatures will give you the correct answer, but it is always safest to
convert temperatures to the Kelvin scale.

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Example 1.1
On a day when the temperature reaches 50 oF, what is the temperature in degrees Celsius and in
kelvins?
Solution
 TF = 50 oF
 TC = [ TF – 32 ] = [ 50 – 32 ] = [ 18 ] = 10 oC.
 TK = TC + 273 = 10 + 273 = 283 K.

Example 1.2
A pan of water is heated from 25 oC to 80 oC. What is the change in its temperature on the Kelvin
scale and on the Fahrenheit scale?
Solution
 TC1 = 25 oC , TC2 = 80 oC.
∆TC = TC2 – TC1 = 80 – 25 = 55 oC.
 ∆TK = ∆TC = 55 K
 ∆TF = ∆TC = × 55 = 99 oF.

Example 1.3
A temperature of an object is measured - 40 oC, what is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit?
Solution
 TC = - 40 oC
 TF = TC + 32 = × - 40 + 32 = -72 + 32 = - 40 oF.

Example 1.4

At what temperature is the Fahrenheit scale reading equal to

i. Twice that of the Celsius scale
ii. Half that of the Celsius scale?
Answer:
i. TF = 2TC
 TF = 2 × ( [ TF – 32 ] ) ⟹ TF = [ TF – 32 ] ⟹ TF = TF – 32 ⟹ TF – TF = – 32

TF ( – 1 ) = – 32 ⟹ TF ( ) = – 32 ⟹ TF = – 32 × ⟹ TF = 320 oF
TF = 320 oF ⇔ TC = 160 oC (TF is twice of TC)

ii. TF = TC

 TF = ×( [ TF – 32 ] ) ⟹ TF = [ TF – 32 ] ⟹ TF = TF – 32 ⟹ TF – TF = – 32

TF ( – 1 ) = – 32 ⟹ TF ( ) = – 32 ⟹ TF = – 32 × ⟹ TF = – 12.31 oF
TF = – 12.31 oF ⇔ TC = – 24.62 oC (TF is half of TC)

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1.3 Thermal Expansion

Most bodies expand as their temperatures increase. This phenomenon plays an important role in
numerous engineering applications, such as the joints in buildings, highways, railroad tracks, bridges
. . . etc. Such thermal expansion is not always desirable.

In a figure shown above, Thermal expansion joints are used to separate sections of roadways on
bridges. Without these joints, the surfaces would buckle due to thermal expansion on very hot days or
crack due to contraction on very cold days.

Thermal expansion is a consequence of the change in the

average separation between the atoms in an object. To
understand this, model the atoms as being connected by stiff
springs. At ordinary temperatures, the atoms in a solid oscillate
about their equilibrium positions with an amplitude of
approximately 10-11 m and a frequency of approximately 1013
Hz. The average spacing between the atoms is about 10-10 m.
As the temperature of the solid increases, the atoms oscillate
with greater amplitudes; as a result, the average separation
between them increases. Consequently, the object expands.

Unlike gases or liquids, solid materials tend to keep their

shape when undergoing thermal expansion

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Thermal expansion of solid materials

i. Linear Expansion
If a rod of length L and temperature T experiences a small change in temperature ∆T, its length
changes by an amount ∆L:
∆L = Li ∆TC and Lf = Li + ∆L

Where
• α : The coefficient of linear expansion.
• ∆L : The change in length or the increasing in length.
• Li : The initial length.
• Lf : The final length.
It may be helpful to think of thermal expansion as an effective magnification or as a photographic
enlargement of an object
Because the linear dimensions of an object change with temperature, it follows that surface area and
volume change as well.
ii. Surface Area Expansion
The change in area of a rectangular plate is proportional to the initial area Ai and to the change in
temperature according to the relationship

∆A = γ Ai ∆TC and Af = Ai + ∆A
Where
• γ : The coefficient of area expansion ( γ = 2 ).
• ∆A : The change in area or the increasing in area.
• Ai : The initial area.

iii. Volume Expansion

The change in volume is proportional to the initial volume Vi and to the change in temperature according
to the relationship
∆V = β Vi ∆TC and Vf = Vi + ∆V
Where
• β : The coefficient of volume expansion ( β = 3 ).
• ∆V : The change in volume or the increasing in volume.
• Vi : The initial volume.
This assumes that the average coefficient of linear expansion of the solid is the same in all directions, that
is, the material is isotropic
Table shown below lists the average coefficient of linear expansion for various materials. Note that for
these materials is positive, indicating an increase in length with increasing temperature.
Materials ( in oC-1 )

Steel 11 ×10-6

Concrete 12 ×10-6

Copper 17 ×10-6

Brass 19 ×10-6

Aluminum 24 ×10-6

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Example 1.5
A segment of steel railroad track has a length of 30.000 m when the temperature is 0.0°C. What is its
final length when the temperature is 40.0°C?
Solution
 TC1 = 0 oC , TC2 = 40 oC , Li = 30 m, α = 11 ×10-6 oC-1 (for steel)
 ∆TC = TC2 – TC1 = 40 – 0 = 40 oC
∆L = α Li ∆TC = 11 ×10-6 × 30 × 40 = 0.013 m
Lf = Li + ∆L = 30 + 0.013 = 30.013 m

Example 1.6
Find the change in volume of an aluminum sphere with an initial radius of 10 cm when the sphere
is heated from 0.0 oC to 100 oC. Take the volume expansion coefficient β = 72 ×10-6 oC-1

Solution
 TC1 = 0 oC , TC2 = 100 oC , r = 10 cm
 ∆TC = TC2 – TC1 = 100 – 0 = 100 oC

 Vi = r3 = × 103 = 4188.8 cm3

∆V = β Vi ∆TC = 72 ×10-6 × 4188.8 × 100 = 30.16 cm3

1.4 Heat

We are all familiar with the fact that two objects at different initial temperatures eventually reach some
intermediate temperature when placed in contact with each other. For example, when hot water and cold
water are mixed in a bathtub, the final temperature of the mixture is somewhere between the initial hot
and cold temperatures. Likewise, when an ice cube is dropped into a cup of hot coffee, it melts and the
coffee’s temperature decreases.
It is useful to define two often-used phrases: thermal contact and thermal equilibrium.
• Two objects are in thermal contact if energy can be exchanged between them due to a temperature
difference.
• Two objects are in thermal equilibrium if they are in thermal contact and there is no net exchange of
energy.
• The exchange of energy between two objects because of the differences in their temperatures is
called heat
We can develop a formal definition of temperature. Consider two objects A and B that are not in thermal
contact with each other, and a third object C that acts as a thermometer—a device calibrated to measure
the temperature of an object. We wish to determine whether A and B would be in thermal equilibrium if
they were placed in thermal contact. The thermometer (object C) is first placed in thermal contact with A
until thermal equilibrium is reached, as in Figure a, whereupon the reading of the thermometer is
recorded. The thermometer is then placed in thermal contact with B, and its reading is again recorded at
equilibrium
Fig. b. If the two readings are the same, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other. If A and B
are placed in thermal contact with each other, as in Fig. c, there is no net transfer of energy between them.

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We can summarize these results in a statement known as the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

This statement can easily be proved experimentally and is very important because it enables us to define
temperature.

We can think of temperature as the property that determines whether or not an object is in thermal
equilibrium with other objects. Two objects in thermal equilibrium with each other are at the same
temperature.

• The transferred energy due to temperature change is called heat.

• Heat is positive (energy gained) when energy is transferred from environment to the system.
• Heat is negative (energy lose) when energy is transferred from system to environment.

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

If the system consists of a sample of a substance, we find that the quantity of energy required to raise the
temperature of a given mass of the substance by some amount varies from one substance to another. For
example, the quantity of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C
is 4186 J, but the quantity of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of copper by 1°C is only 387 J.

we shall use heat as our example of energy transfer, but keep in mind that we could change the temperature
of our system by means of any method of energy transfer.

The heat capacity C of an object is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the object’s
temperature by one degree Celsius.

∆Q = C ∆TC ⟹ ∆Q = C ( TC2 - TC1 )

 The heat capacity for any object is proportional to its mass m.

 The heat capacity has a unit of J/oC or J/K.
Specific heat is essentially a measure of how thermally insensitive a substance is to the addition of energy.
The greater a material’s specific heat, the more energy must be added to a given mass of the material to
cause a particular temperature change.

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The specific heat c is the heat capacity per unit mass c =

∆Q = c m ∆TC ⟹ ∆Q = c m ( TC2 - TC1 )

 The specific heat refers to a unit mass of the material of which the object is made.
 The specific heat has a unit of J/ kg oC or J/ kg K.

Note that TC1 and TC2 are the initial and final temperatures of the object.

Table shown below lists the specific heats of some substances at 25°C and atmospheric pressure:

Materials c ( in J/kg.oC )

Water (at 15 °C) 4186

Wood 1700

Copper 387

Iron 448

Aluminum 900

Steam 2010

Example 1.6
A 50.0 g sample of copper is at 25.0 °C. If 1200 J of energy is added to it by heat, what is the final
temperature of the copper?
Solution

 ∆Q = 1200 J , m = 50 g = 0.05 kg , TC1 = 25 oC , TC2 = ? , c = 387 J/kg.oC (Copper)

∆
∆Q = m c ∆TC ⟹ ∆TC = = = 62 oC
. ×
TC2 = TC1 + ∆TC = 62 + 25 = 87 oC

Example 1.7

What is the amount of energy required to increase a temperature of 30 kg of iron by 10 oC

Solution
 ∆Q = ? , m = 30 kg , ∆TC = 10 oC , c = 448 J/kg.oC (Iron)
∆Q = m c ∆TC = 30 × 448 × 10 = 134.4 kJ

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Heat Transfer

There are three ways in which heat energy may get transferred from one place to another. These are
conduction, convection and radiation

i. Conduction
Heat is transmitted through the solids by the process of conduction only. When one end of the solid is
heated, the atoms or molecules of the solid at the hotter end becomes more strongly agitated and start
vibrating with greater amplitude. The disturbance is transferred to the neighboring molecules.

Conduction is the most common form of heat transfer and occurs via physical contact.

ii. Convection
It is a phenomenon of transfer of heat in a fluid (gas or liquid) with the actual movement of the particles
of the fluid. When a fluid is heated, the hot part expands and becomes less dense. It rises and upper colder
part replaces it. This again gets heated, rises up replaced by the colder part of the fluid. This process goes
on.
This mode of heat transfer is different from conduction where energy transfer takes place without the
actual movement of the molecules.
iii. Radiation
Thermal radiation generates from the emission of electromagnetic waves. These waves carry the energy
away from the emitting object. It is the phenomenon of transfer of heat without any material medium.

The sun is a clear example of heat radiation that transfers heat across the solar system. At normal room
temperatures, objects radiate as infrared waves (invisible waves).

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1.5 Conservation of energy (Calorimetry)

Consider a hot metal of temperature Tx , cx and mass mx placed in water of known mass mw
and temperature Tw :
 Energy leaves the metal is equal to the energy enters the water (energy conservation).
 When the thermal equilibrium is reached, the metal and water would have the same final
temperature Tf.

Calorimetry is the technique used to measure a thermal equilibrium temperature for water when hot
sample (metal) place in it.

 Calorimeter: It is a device used for Calorimetric process in which the energy transfer occurs.

When a hot metal x is placed in water, after some time they will reach to the thermal equilibrium.
The following steps will show you how to find the final equilibrium temperature Tf and the specific
heat of the metal cx :
∆Qcold = – ∆Qhot
cw mw ∆Tw = – cx mx ∆Tx
cw mw ∆Tw = – cx mx ∆Tx
cw mw ( Tf – Tw ) = – cx mx ( Tf – Tx )
cw mw ( Tf – Tw ) = cx mx (Tx – Tf )
w( ) w w w " ! ! !
!( ! )
cx = cw and Tf =
w w " ! !

Example 1.8

A 0.0500 kg ingot of metal is heated to 200.0°C and then dropped into a beaker containing
0.400 kg of water initially at 20.0°C. If the final equilibrium temperature of the mixed system is
22.4°C, find the specific heat of the metal.
Solution

 Metal: Tx = 200 oC , mx = 0.05 kg , cx = ?

 Water: Tw = 20 oC , Tf = 22.4 oC, cw = 4186 J/kg oC (specific heat of water)
( w) . ×( . – ) . $
) = 4186 × . = 4186 ×
w
= 452.5 J/kg oC
!( !
cx = cw
×( – . ) .

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Questions
1- In the definition of the temperature we use a word “average”. Why?
2- Which is the smaller temperature intervals increment a degree Celsius or a degree Fahrenheit?
Why?
3- Why does absolute zero temperature is an unattainable temperature?
4- At what temperature in Celsius scale in which the kelvin and Fahrenheit scales have the same
reading
5- Get a relation between β in terms of γ
6- Is it possible for two objects to be in thermal equilibrium if they are not in contact with each
other? Explain

Problems

Q1
(a) In 1964, the temperature in the Siberian village of Oymyakon reached -71 oC. What temperature
is this on the Fahrenheit scale?
(b) The highest officially recorded temperature in the continental United States was 134 oF in Death
Valley, California. What is this temperature on the Celsius scale?
Q2
An aluminum flagpole is 33 m high. By how much does its length increase as the temperature
increases by 15 oC?
Q3
At 20 oC, a brass cube has edge length 30 cm. What is the increase in the surface area when it is
heated from 20 oC to 75 oC?

Q4
A pair of eyeglass frames is made of epoxy plastic. At room temperature (20.0 °C), the frames have
circular lens holes 2.20 cm in radius. To what temperature must the frames be heated if lenses 2.21 cm in
radius are to be inserted in them? The average coefficient of linear expansion for epoxy is 1.30 ×10-4 oC-1
Q5
A metal rod 40 cm long at 40 °C is heated to 60°C. The length of the rod is then measured to be
40.0136 cm. What is the type of the metal?

Q6
When 540 J is added as heat to a 30.0 g metal, the metal’s temperature rises from 25.0 oC to 45.0 oC.
What is the type of the metal?

Q7
A 30 g of water at 25 oC. Calculate the amount of energy needed to boil this water.

Q8
A 1.5 kg iron horseshoe initially at 600 oC is dropped into a bucket containing 20.0 kg of water at
25.0 oC. What is the final temperature? (Ignore the heat capacity of the container, and assume that a
negligible amount of water boils away).

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 CHAPTER 2
Pressure and Fluid
Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Pressure and Fluid

2.1 Introduction
Matter most commonly exists as a solid, liquid, or gas; these states are known as the three common phases
of matter. In this chapter we focus on liquid and gas, because they are known as a fluid.
Fluid statics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies incompressible fluids at rest. It encompasses the
study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium as opposed to fluid dynamics,
the study of fluids in motion.
In this chapter we discuss Fluid Statics. A fluid at rest has no shear stress. Consequently, any force
developed is only due to normal stresses i.e., pressure. Such a condition is termed the hydrostatic
condition. In fact, the analysis of hydrostatic systems is greatly simplified when compared to that for
fluids in motion.
A fluid is defined as a substance that has no fixed shape and yields easily to external pressure. They are of
two kinds- Gases and Liquids.

2.2 Some properties of matter related to a fluid

i. Mass and Weight

Mass
• The amount of "matter" in an object.
• Its symbol is m and its unit is kg
The mass of an object will never change, you will always have the same mass on Earth as you have in
outer space.

Weight
• The force exerted on an object by gravity.
• Its symbol is W and its unit is N.
The weight of an object can change based on its location.
Mathematical formula:
W=mg , Where g is the magnitude of the gravity in m/s2

ii. Volume and Density

Volume:
• The space occupied by the 3 dimensional object.
• Its symbol is V and its unit is m3.
Mathematical formula:
Spherical volume: V = 4πr3/3 , Where r is the radius of the sphere.
Rectangular volume: V = L× × w×× h , Where L , w and h are length , width and height respectively.
× w , then The volume V = A×
Since the rectangular area A = L× ×h
Density:
• Density is a measure of mass per volume.
• The average density of an object equals its total mass divided by its total volume.
• Its symbol is % and its unit is kg/m3
An object made from a comparatively dense material (such as iron) will have less volume than an object
of equal mass made from some less dense substance (such as water).
Mathematical formula:
% = m/V

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2.3 Pressure

Pressure is defined as the force exerted on an object. The force is applied perpendicular to the surface of
objects per unit area. The basic formula for pressure is
&
P=
'
• The force applied normally to the surface per unit area
• SI unit of the pressure is Pascal (Pa) ⟹ 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
A good example of how the force on small area can result in a very high pressure is seen in:
it is easier to hammer a sharp pin than to hammer a blunt pin. This is because the area at the end of the
sharp pin is smaller than the area at the end of a blunt pin. This leads to an increase in pressure leading
to hammer the sharp pin easily.

i. Pressure due to weight

Since the weight of an object is equal to the force it exerts due to gravity, an object can exert downward
pressure due to its weight and the force of gravity. The pressure you exert on the floor is your weight
divided by the area of the soles of your shoes. If the force is due to the weight W of the object, the
equation is then:

(
P=
'
A good example of how the weight on small area can result in a very high pressure is seen in:
Women's shoes with high spiked heels. These types of shoes can cause damage to some floors due to the
very high pressure on the floor at the heel.

ii. Pressure due to atmosphere

The earth’s atmospheric air is surrounded by a layer of gases and so this air surrounding the earth exerts a
pressure known as the atmospheric pressure. Its value at sea level is 101325 Pa.

Atmospheric pressure is closely related to the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight
of air above the measurement point
Patm is the approximate average pressure of the atmosphere at sea level.

• Patm = 1 atm = 1.01325 ×105 Pa ⟹ Patm ≈ 105 Pa = 100 kPa

• 1 bar = 105 Pa (exactly)

It is measured using a mercury barometer (hence atmospheric pressure is also known as barometric
pressure), indicating the height of a column of mercury which exactly balances the weight of the
column of atmosphere over the barometer.

atmospheric pressure can also be expressed in several different systems of units (not SI) such as

• 1 atm = 14.7 Ib/in2 psi: Pounds per square inch (Ib/in2)

• 1 atm = 760 torr
• 1 atm = 760 mm Hg

Notice that:
• 1 torr ≈ 133.33 Pa

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Atmospheric pressure drops as altitude increases. As the pressure decreases, the amount of oxygen
available to breathe also decreases. At very high altitudes, atmospheric pressure and available oxygen
get so low that people can become sick and even die.

iii. Pressure due to fluid at rest

All fluids exert pressure like the air inside a tire. The particles of fluids are constantly moving in all
directions at random. As the particles move, they keep bumping into each other and into anything else in
their path. These collisions cause pressure, and the pressure is exerted equally in all directions. When
particles are crowded together in one part of an enclosed space, such as the air particles first entering a
tire, they quickly spread out to fill all the available space. That’s because particles of fluids always move
from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. This explains why air entering a tire through
a tiny opening quickly fills the entire tire.
Fluid pressure is a measurement of the force per unit area on an object in the fluid or on the surface of a
closed container. This pressure can be caused by gravity, acceleration, or by forces outside a closed
container. Since a fluid has no definite shape, its pressure applies in all directions.
The pressure is the same in all directions in a fluid at a given point. This is true because of the
characteristic of liquids and gases to take the shape of their container.

Statics fluid means the fluid at rest (hydrostatics)

The pressure exerted by a static fluid depends only upon the depth of the fluid, the density of the fluid,
and the acceleration of gravity.

The gauge pressure = ρ g h

Variation of pressure with depth has the following properties:

• The pressure is directly proportional with depth (pressure increases as the depth increases).
• The pressure in a fluid depends only on depth (for the same fluid)
• The pressure is the same at all points having the same depth from a liquid surface.
• The pressure is not affected by the shape of the container that contains the fluid.

In fact, atmospheric pressure does add to the pressure in any fluid not enclosed in a rigid container
i.e. the fluid is open to the atmosphere:

Total pressure or the absolute pressure: Pabs = Patm + ρgh

The gauge pressure: ρgh = Pabs - Patm

The gauge pressure is the difference of the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure

Characteristics of gauge pressure:

• The gauge pressure is positive: when Pabs > Patm (example: inflated tires)
• The gauge pressure is negative: when Pabs < Patm (example: condensing steam turbines)
• The gauge pressure is positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures
below it.

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Example 2.1

Find the pressure at depths of 10 m and 10 km in water (open to atmosphere).

(Assume Patm = 105 Pa , ρ = 103 kg/m3, and g = 10 m/s2).
Solution

 At h = 10 m
Pg = ρ g h = 103 × 10 × 10 = 105 Pa
*
Total pressure: Pabs = Patm + ρ g h = 105 + 105 = 2 ×105 Pa ⟹ Pabs = * = 2 atm

 At h = 10 km = 10 ×103 m

Pg = ρ g h = 103 × 10 × 10 ×103 = 108 Pa

*
Total pressure: Pabs = Patm + ρ g h = 105 + 108 = 1001 ×105 Pa ⟹ Pabs = * = 1001 atm

Example 2.2
What gauge pressure must a machine produce in order to suck mud of density 1800 kg/m3 up a tube by a
height of 1.5 m?
Solution

 ρ = 1800 kg/m3 , h = 1.5 m

Pg = ρ g (- h) = 1800 × 9.8 × (- 1.5) = - 26460 Pa

Measuring Pressures

i. The Mercury Barometer:

• It is used to measure atmospheric pressure

• The closed end of the tube is nearly in a state of vacuum, i.e. with P = 0
• For 1 atm the height of mercury is measured to be exactly 760 mm

Patm = ρ g h

ii. The Open-Tube Manometer:

A manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure a pressure

• It is used to measure the gauge pressure of a gas

Pabs = Patm + ρ g h

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2.4 Pascal’s Principle

Pascal's principle, also called Pascal's law, in fluid (gas or liquid) mechanics, states that
in a fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one part is transmitted without loss to
every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container

• Any increase in pressure at the liquid surface must be transmitted to every point in the liquid.

When we move the input piston downwards a distance d1, the output piston moves upwards
a distance d2, for small values of d1:

• The output work done is the same as the input work done (for small d1)
• Same volume V of the incompressible liquid is displaced at both pistons

&+ &,
The pressure on both leveled pistons is the same: P1 = P2 ⟹ =
'+ ',

', ',
F2 = F1 : F2 is larger than F1 by
'+ '+

• The force at the output piston is larger than the force at the input piston
• The area at the output piston is larger than the area at the input piston
• The output pressure is the same as the input pressure

Application of Pascal’s law

The hydraulic lever: hydraulic brakes and car lifts.

• A hydraulic device used to magnify a force

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Example 2.3

For the car lift shown in the Fig. the pistons on the left and right have areas 25 cm2 and 750 cm2
respectively. The car and the right piston have a total weight of 15000 N. What force must be applied on
the left piston (if it has negligible weight)? What pressure will produce this force?

Solution

• A1 = 25 cm2 , A2 = 750 cm2 , F2 = 15000 N

&+ &,
'+ ',
P1 = P2 ⟹ =

'+
',
F1 = F2 = 15000 × = 500 N

• A1 = 25 cm2 = 25 ×10-4 m2

&+
= 200000 Pa = 2 ×105 Pa ≈ 2 atm
'+ -.
P1 = =

2.5 Archimedes’ Principle

physical law of buoyancy, discovered by the ancient Greek mathematician and inventor Archimedes,
stating that anybody completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or liquid) at rest is acted upon by
an upward, or buoyant, force, the magnitude of which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body.
• A body fully or partially immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body.

• The buoyant force is equal in magnitude to the weight of the displaced fluid

Fb = Wf = mf g
Where

• Fb is called a buoyant force

• Wf is the weight of the displaced fluid
• mf is the mass of the displaced fluid

Archimedes' principle of buoyancy. Here

a 5 kg object immersed in water is shown
being acted upon by a buoyant (upward)
force of 2 kg, which is equal to the
weight of the water displaced by the
immersed object. The buoyant force
reduces the object's apparent weight by 2
kg, that is, from 5 kg to 3 kg.

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Notes

• mass = density × volume ⟹ m = ρV

• Weight = mg ⟹ W = ρVg
• The weight of the object: Wo = m g or Wo = ρoVo g
• The weight of the displaced fluid: Fb = Wf = mf g or Fb = Wf = ρfVf g

Floating (a = 0)

Floating occurred when the object displaces its own weight of fluid

• The weight of the object is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid: Wo= Wf = Fb
• The mass of the object is equal to the mass of the displaced fluid: mo= mf
• The volume of the object is not equal to the volume of the fluid: Vo ≠ Vf
• ∵ mo = mf ⟹ ∴ ρo Vo = ρf Vf ⟹ ρo ho = ρf hf ( because Ao = Af )
• In static equilibrium the block comes to rest (a = 0) and is said to be floating.

Example 2.4
In a Fig. a block of density ρo = 800 kg/m3 floats face down in a fluid of density ρf = 1200 kg/m3 . The
block has height h = 6 cm. By what depth hf is the block submerged?
Solution
 ρo = 800 kg/m3, ρf = 1200 kg/m3 , ho = 6 cm , hf = ?
12
1
hf = ho = 6 = 4 cm

Sinking

Sinking occurred when the object displaces less than its own weight of fluid

• The weight of the object is larger than the weight of the displaced fluid: Wo > Fb
• The mass of the object is larger than the mass of the displaced fluid: mo > mf
• The density of the object is larger than the density of the displaced fluid: ρo > ρf
• When the object is fully immersed in fluid: Vo = Vf
• The object is moving downward ( a ≠ 0 ) when ρo > ρf

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 Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Pressure and Fluid

Notes

 If Fb > Wo : the object accelerate upward rising to the top ( a ≠ 0 ) when ρf > ρo

If ρo = ρf : the object is in rest inside the fluid (totally immersed)

Apparent Weight in a Fluid

 The weight of object in air: Wo = mo g

Tension = Wo = mo g (true weight)

If the object is fully immersed in the fluid:

• The weight of the object in the fluid is less than the weight of the object in the air

Tension = Wo - Fb (apparent weight)

1 1
⟹ Fb = Wo
12 12
mf = mo

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Pressure and Fluid

Example 2.5

A piece of steel has a mass ms = 0.5 kg and a density ρs = 7.8 ×103 kg/m3. The steel is suspended in air by
a string attached to a scale. After that, the steel is immersed in a container filled with water of density
ρw = 103 kg/m3. Find the tension in the string before and after the steel is immersed.
Solution

• mo = 0.5 kg , ρo = 7.8 ×103 kg/m3 , ρf = 103 kg/m3

 Before the steel is immersed: T = Wo = mo g = 0.5 × 9.8 = 4.9 N

1 3
 After the steel is totally immersed: Fb = Wo = 4.9 × 3 = 0.63 N
12 . ×
T = Wo - Fb = 4.9 – 0.63 = 4.3 N

Questions

1- Starting from general pressure equation P = F/A. Derive a gauge pressure equation ρgh

Problems

Q1
To suck lemonade of density 1000 kg/m3 up a straw to a maximum height of 4.0 cm, what minimum
gauge pressure (in atmospheres) must you produce in your lungs? Take g = 10 m/s2

Q3
Crew members attempt to escape from a damaged submarine 100 m below the surface. What force must
be applied to a pop-out hatch, which is 1.2 m by 0.6 m, to push it out at that depth?
Assume that the density of the ocean water is 1024 kg/m3 and the internal air pressure is at 1 atm.

Q4
A 5 kg object is released from rest while fully submerged in a liquid. The liquid displaced by the
submerged object has a mass of 3 kg. Find the acceleration of the object. Take g = 10 m/s2

Q5
A block floats face down in a fluid in which the ratio of fluid to the block densities is 1.5. If the block is
3 cm submerged in the fluid. What is the height of the block?

24
 CHAPTER 3
Force and Motion
Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Force and Motion

3.1 Introduction

Some physical quantities are scalar quantities whereas others are vector quantities. When
you want to know the temperature outside so that you will know how to dress, the only
information you need is a number and the unit “degrees oC” or “F”. Temperature is
therefore an example of a scalar quantity.

3.2 Physical quantities

i. Scalars

Scalars are quantities that are described by a magnitude (or numerical value).
Examples: Speed, Distance, Mass, Energy.

ii. Vectors

Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.
Examples: Velocity, Displacement, Weight, Force, acceleration, Electric and Magnetic fields

Distance Vs displacement

• Distance: The total length of the path is the distance travelled by the object. It is a
scalar quantity.

• Displacement: the shortest distance between the initial and final position of the
object. It is a vector quantity.

Speed Vs Velocity

• Speed: It is the distance travelled in unit time. It is a scalar quantity.

• Velocity: It is the rate of change of displacement of the particle. It is also the speed of the
particle in a given direction. The velocity is a vector quantity.

Vector
• A vector 5A⃗ has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of 5A⃗ is a scalar and written as
A or|A
⃗|
• A vector A 5⃗ in Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates may be represented as
5⃗ = Ax 8i + Ay 8j + Ak k:
A
Where Ax , Ay and Az are called the components of 5A⃗ in the x, y, and z directions respectively.

Unit Vector
• A unit vector is a dimensionless vector having a magnitude of unity.
• Unit vectors are used to specify a given direction and have no other physical
significance.
• We shall use the symbols 8i , 8j and k: to represent unit vectors pointing in the positive x,
y, and z directions, respectively.

Notice that | 8i | = | 8j | = | k: | = 1

5⃗ is given by |A
• The magnitude of vector A 5⃗| = ; A< 2 + Ay 2 + Az 2

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 Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Force and Motion

Example 3.1

Two vectors are given as 5A⃗ = 2 8i + 4 8j + 2 k: and B

5⃗ = 8i + 2 8j + k: . Determine

a) | 5A⃗ + B5⃗ |
b) 5A⃗ - B
5⃗
c) | 5A⃗ - 2B
5⃗ |

Solution

5⃗ | = √ 32 + 62 + 32
| 5A⃗ + B = √54 = 7.35
a)
5⃗ = ( 2 8i + 4 8j + 2 k:) - ( 8i + 2 8j + k: ) = 8i + 2 8j + k:
5⃗ - B
A
b)
5⃗ = 2 ( 8i + 2 8j + k: ) = 2 8i + 4 8j + 2 k:
 2B
5⃗ = ( 2 8i+ 4 8j + 2 k: ) - ( 2 8i + 4 8j + 2 k: ) = 0 ⟹ | 5A⃗ – 2 B
5A⃗ - 2 B 5⃗ | = 0

Example 3.2

Two vectors are given as 5A⃗ = 2 8i - 4 k: and B

5⃗ = 4 8j - 4 k: . Determine the direction of B 5⃗ with
5⃗ - A
+ x axes
Solution
5⃗ - 5A⃗ = (4 8j - 4 k:) - ( 2 8i - 4 k: ) = - 2 8i + 4 8j
B

G
θ = tan-1( ) = tan-1 ( ) = - 63.4 o ( second quadrant )
<

θ+x = 180 - 63.4 = 116.6o

Example 3.3

If 5A⃗ = 2 8i - 4 8j + 3 k: and B
5⃗ = 2 8j + 2 k:
5⃗ along z- axes
a) The component of A
5⃗ along y- axes
b) The component of A
5⃗ along x- axes
c) The component of B
Solution

a) Az = 3
b) Ay = - 4
c) Bx = 0

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Force and Motion

Vectors Multiplication

i. Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors 5A⃗ and B
5⃗, written as 5A⃗ • B
5⃗ is defined geometrically
As the product of the magnitudes of 5A⃗ and 5B⃗ and the cosine of the angle between them.
5A⃗ • B
5⃗ = AB cos θ

Where θ is the smaller angle between A and B

Properties of the dot product

• 8i . 8i = 8j . 8j = k: . k: = 1 otherwise 0
• Two vectors A and B are said to be perpendicular to each other if 5A⃗ • B
5⃗ = 0
• 5A⃗ • B 5⃗ • 5A⃗
5⃗ = B
• The result of the dot product (Also is called scalar product) is scalar.

Example 3.4
5⃗ = 2 8i + 4 8j + 8 k: and B
Apply the dot Product on the two vectors A 5⃗ = 8i - 2 8j + k:

Solution
5⃗ = ( 2 8i + 4 8j + 8 k: ) • ( 8i - 2 8j + k: ) = 2 - 8 + 8 = 2
5⃗ • B
A
Example 3.5

Apply the dot Product on the two vectors 5A⃗ = 2 8i - 4 k: and B

5⃗ = 4 8j + 3 k:

Solution
5⃗ = ( 2 8i - 4 k: ) • ( 4 8j + 3 k: ) = - 12
5A⃗ • B

Example 3.6

Given that 5A⃗ = ( - 2 8i + 4 8j ) , 5B⃗ = ( 3 8i - 4 8j + 2 k: ) , Find the angle between 5A⃗ and B
5⃗

Solution
5⃗ = ( - 2 8i + 4 8j ) • ( 3 8i - 4 8j + 2 k: ) = – 6 – 16 = - 22
5A⃗ • B

A = H 22 + = √20 = 4.47214
2
4

B = H32 + (−4 )2 + 22 = √29 = 5.38516

55⃗
A .5555⃗
B − 22
cos θ = = ⟹ θ = cos -1 ( ) ≈ 156o
AB 4.47214 × 5.38516 .

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The cross product of two vectors 5A⃗ and B

5⃗ written as 5A⃗ B
5⃗ is a vector quantity
ii. Cross Product

Whose magnitude is the area of the parallelepiped formed by A 5⃗ and B5⃗. (see the Figure)
And is in the direction of advance of a right-handed screw as A 5⃗ is turned into B5⃗.
5A⃗ B
5⃗ = AB Sin Θ

Properties of the cross product

• In the cross product 8i × 8i = 8j × 8j = k: k: = 0 otherwise

8i × 8j = k: , 8j × 8i = - k:

8j × k: = 8i , k: 8j = - 8i

k: 8i = 8j , 8i × k: = - 8j

5⃗ × P
• O 55⃗ ≠ P
55⃗ × O
5⃗
5⃗ × P
• O 55⃗ = - P
55⃗ × O
5⃗
5⃗
• Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel to each other if A 5⃗ = 0
B

• The result of the cross product is vector.

Apply the cross Product on the two vectors 5A⃗ and B 5⃗ = - 8j – 2 k:.
5⃗ = 2 8i – 2 8j , B
5⃗, A
Example 3.7

Solution
i8 j8 k:
5⃗
A 5⃗ = Q2 J2
B 0Q
0 J1 J2

5⃗
A 5⃗ = 8i [ (-2 * -2) - (-1 * 0) ] - 8j [ (2 * -2) - (0 * 0) ] + k: [ (2 * -1) - (0 * -2) ]
B

= 8i (4 - 0) - 8j (- 4 - 0) + k: (- 2 - 0) = 4 8i + 4 8j - 2 k:

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Force and Motion

3.3 The Concept of Force

Everyone has a basic understanding of the concept of force from everyday experience.
You exert a force on a ball when you throw or kick it. In this example, the word force is
associated
with muscular activity and some change in the velocity of an object.

• In physics, a force is any interaction that can accelerates an object. Force can also be
described as a push or a pull.
What happens when several forces act simultaneously on an object?
In this case, the object accelerates only if the net force acting on it is not equal to zero.
• The net force acting on an object is defined as the vector sum of all forces acting on
the object.
(We sometimes refer to the net force as the total force, the resultant force).
• When the velocity of an object is constant (including when the object is at rest), the
object is said to be in equilibrium.

Unit of Force
The SI unit of force is the newton, which is defined as the force that, when acting on an object of
mass 1 kg, produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2. the newton can be expressed in terms of the
following fundamental units of mass, length, and time: 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2

3.4 Newton’s Laws

The three laws of motion were first compiled by Isaac Newton, first published in 1687.
Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and
systems.

Newton’s First Law

An object will remain at rest, or in motion with constant velocity, unless it experiences a
net external force.
∑555⃗T = 0
Newton’s first law explains what happens to an object when no forces act on it. It either
remains at rest or moves with constant speed.
• Newton’s first law is sometimes called the law of inertia.
Where inertia means the resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion.
• Any isolated object (one that does not interact with its environment) is either at rest or
moving with constant velocity.

What happens when several forces act simultaneously on an object?

In this case, the object accelerates only if the net force acting on it is not equal to zero. The net
force acting on an object is defined as the vector sum of all forces acting on the object.
(We sometimes refer to the net force as the total force, the resultant force, or the unbalanced
force.) If the net force exerted on an object is zero, the acceleration of the object is zero and its
velocity remains constant. That is, if the net force acting on the object is zero, the object either
remains at rest or continues to move with constant velocity. When the velocity of an object is
constant (including when the object is at rest), the object is said to be in equilibrium.

30
Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Force and Motion

Newton’s Second Law

The acceleration of an object is related to its mass and the resultant force acting on it by
the relation

∑555⃗
T = m U5⃗
The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object
Newton’s third Law
To every action there must be a reaction equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
F1 = - F2
The negative sign indicates to the opposite direction
Newton’s third law tells us that, the forces always occur in pairs (action and reaction), or that a
single
isolated force cannot exist.

Example 3.8
A 3 kg object undergoes an acceleration given by 5a⃗ = 2 8i – 8j (m/s2). Find the magnitude of the
resultant
force acting on it.
Solution
• m = 3 kg
5F⃗ = m 5a⃗ = 3 (2 8i – 8j) = 6 8i – 3 8j (N)

FR = H6 + (−3 ) = √45 = 6.71 N

Constant acceleration
The following equations describe the motion of a particle with constant acceleration:

νf = νi + a t
νf 2 = νi2 + 2 a x

x = νi t + a t 2
Where
• νi is the initial velocity and νf is the final velocity.
• x is the displacement, a is the acceleration and t is the time.

5.6 Types of force

i. Weight
The weight of an object is defined as the force of gravity on the object and may be calculated as
the mass times the acceleration of gravity, W = mg. Since the weight is a force, its SI unit is the
newton.

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Force and Motion

ii. Normal force

The normal force is the force that surfaces exert to prevent solid objects from passing through
each other. Normal force is a contact force. It makes sense that the force is perpendicular to the
surface since the normal force is what prevents solid objects from passing through each other.
The normal force is an everyday force that is felt when a surface pushes against an object that is
placed on that surface. For example, when a book is placed on a table, the normal force keeps the
book from falling through the table.

iii. Forces of friction

An object moving on a surface or through a viscous medium such as air or water encounters
resistance as it interacts with its surroundings. This resistance is called friction. Forces of
friction are essential in our everyday lives. Friction makes it possible to grip and hold things,
drive a car, walk, and run. Even standing in one spot
would be impossible without friction, as the slightest shift would instantly cause you to slip
and fall.
The force that resists the intended motion and directed along the surface
Consider a block resting on a horizontal table, as in Fig. a shown, where its weight W is
balanced by
an equal but opposite normal force N. In Fig. b, we apply a force F on the block, attempting
to pull it to the right. The block will remain stationary if F is not large enough. The frictional
force f acts to the left and keeps the block stationary, i.e. F = f. We call this frictional force
the force of static friction fs
If we increase F, the static frictional force fs increases, while the block remains at rest. When
the applied
force F reaches a certain value, the block will be on the verge of slipping and the frictional
force will be maximum and denoted by fs,max, see Fig. c. When F exceeds fs,max, the block
moves to the right, see Fig. d.
When the block is in motion, the frictional force becomes less than fs,max and is called
the force of kinetic friction fk , see Fig. e The horizontal net force F – fk accelerates the block
to the right.

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Force and Motion

• The friction force is directed along the surface, opposite to the direction of the
intended motion.
• The maximum friction force is fs,max = µ s N
• Kinetic friction force fk = µ k N
Where
µ s is coefficient of static friction, and µ k : coefficient of kinetic friction ( µ k < µ s ) and ( fk < fs,max )
Experimentally, one finds that both fs and fk are proportional to the magnitude of the normal
force N acting on the block through a dimensionless constant μ. The values of the dimensionless
coefficients μs and μk depend on the nature of the surfaces, not on their areas.

iv. Tension force

The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a cable, rope, wire or string when it is
pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends. It is directed along the length of the cable and
pulls equally on the
objects on the opposite ends of the wire.

Example 3.9
In the fig. shown below. Calculate the magnitude and direction from positive x-axis of the resultant
force.

Solution

Fx = - 20 - 30 cos 45 + 40 cos 70 = - 27.532 N

Fy = 50 + 30 sin 45 - 40 sin 70 = 33.625 N

FR = ;FX2 + Fy2 = ; (−27.532)2 + (33.625)2 = 43.5 N

Fy .$
θ = tan-1( ) = tan-1( ) = - 50.7 o (Second quadrant)
FX .

 θ+x = 180 – 50.7 = 129.3o

Example 3.10

A 3 kg block starts from rest at the top of a 30° incline and slides a
distance of 2 m down the incline in
1.5 s. Find
(a) The magnitude of the acceleration of the block.
(b) The friction force acting on the block.
(c) The coefficient of kinetic friction between block and plane.
(d) The speed of the block after it has slid 2 m.
Solution

• m = 3 kg, x = 2 m, θ = 30o , t = 1.5 s , νi = 0 ( rest) , mg = 29.4 N

< ×
a) x = νi t + a t 2 ⟹ x = a t 2 ⟹ a =
t 2 = = 1.778 m/s2
1.52

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Force and Motion

b) +↙ ∑Fx = 29.4 sin 30 – fk = m a

fk = 29.4 sin 30 - m a ⟹ fk = 29.4 sin 30 - 3×9.8 = 9.37 N
c) +↖ ∑Fy = N – 29.4 cos 30 ⟹ N = 29.4 cos 30 = 25.46 N
f_ .
fk = µ k N ⟹ µk = = = 0.368
` 25.46

d) νf 2 = νi2 + 2 a x ⟹ νf = H2 a <

νf = H 2 × 1.778 × 2 = 2.667 m/s

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Force and Motion

Questions

1- Does a force always produce motion?

2- Differentiate between a Dynamic and Kinematic.

Problems

Q1
5⃗ + C
555⃗. ( A
In figure shown below. Determine B 5⃗ )

5A⃗

5⃗
B

5C⃗

Q2
The parachute on a race car of weight 8820 opens at the end of a quarter-mile run when the car
is travelling at 55 m/s. What is the total retarding force required to stop the car in a distance of
1000 m in the event of a brake failure?
Q3
Two forces pulled an object of mass m = 3 kg as shown in below figure. Calculate the magnitude
of the acceleration of the object.

Q4
A 4 kg object under the forces shown in figure. Calculate the magnitude and direction (θ) of a
force F required to move the object vertically upward with an acceleration of 5 m/s2.

35
 CHAPTER 4
Simple Harmonic Motion
 Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Simple Harmonic Motion

4.1 Introduction

Our world is filled with oscillations in which objects move back and forth repeatedly. Many
oscillations are merely amusing or annoying, but many others are dangerous or financially important.
The basic type of oscillation called simple harmonic motion.

Any object that repeats its motion at regular time intervals is said to perform a periodic or harmonic
motion. If the motion is a sinusoidal function of time, we call it simple harmonic motion.

4.2 Simple Harmonic Motion

A SHM is the motion of a particle when the when its acceleration is proportional to displacement but in
the opposite direction.

From the figure shown above, the particle is oscillating about the origin of an x axis, repeatedly going
left and right by identical amounts.

Periodic Time, Frequency and Angular velocity

 A periodic time is the time required to complete one cycle.
 A Frequency is the number of cycles made in one second.
 The angular velocity of an object is the rate of change of its angular displacement with
respect to time.

ν
, ω= = 2πf and ω=
d
f=

Where f is the frequency in Hz and ω is the angular velocity in rad/s.

Simple Harmonic Motion Equations

x (t) = xmax cos ( ω t + ϕ )

Where
• xmax is the maximum displacement also called Amplitude (A)
• (ωt + ϕ) is the phase of the motion.
• ϕ is the phase constant of the motion.

If the particle is at its maximum position x = xmax = A at t = 0, the phase constant is ϕ = 0 and the
graphical representation of the motion is shown in figure shown below

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 Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Simple Harmonic Motion

Velocity and Acceleration of SHM

We can find an expression for the velocity ν of a particle moving with a harmonic motion by take a
first derivative of the displacement:

e <(f)
= - ω xmax sin ( ω t + ϕ )
ef
Velocity expression: ν(t) =

• The magnitude of the maximum velocity: νmax = ω xmax

Also we can find an expression for the acceleration a of a particle moving with a harmonic motion by
take a first derivative of the displacement velocity:
g ν(h)
Acceleration expression: a(t) = = - ω2 xmax cos ( ω t + ϕ )
gi
⟹ a(t) = - ω2 x(t)
• This equation is the hallmark of simple harmonic motion. It states that the acceleration is
proportional to the displacement but opposite in sign
• The minus sign indicates to that, the particle’s acceleration is opposite to its displacement.
• The magnitude of the maximum acceleration: amax = ω2 xmax

The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion

Once we know the acceleration as a function of time, we can use Newton’s second law to find what
force must act on the particle to produce this acceleration

We can apply Newton’s second law to describe the force responsible for SHM:

 F= m a ⟹ F = m ( - ω2 x ) ⟹ F = - ( m ω2 ) x ----------- eq.1

The minus sign indicates to that, the Force on the particle is opposite to its displacement

 In SHM the force is a restoring force that it fights against the displacement.
 Restoring Force attempting to restore the particle to the center point at x = 0.

4.3 The block–spring system

A block is attached by spring and moves in Simple Harmonic Motion as shown in the bellow figure.

From Hooke’s law: F = - k x ----------- eq.2

∵ eq.1 = eq.2 ⟹ ∴ - k x = - ( m ω2 ) x
j
k = m ω2 ⟹ ω =;
Where k is the spring constant in N/m and m is the mass in kg.
• The period of motion can be determined in terms of k from:
2π m
= 2π ;
ω k
T=

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 Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Simple Harmonic Motion

Example 4.1
A block whose mass m is 680 g is fastened to a spring whose spring constant k is 65 N/m.
The block is pulled a distance x = 11 cm from its equilibrium position at x = 0 on a frictionless
surface and released from rest at t = 0.
a) What are the angular frequency, the frequency, and the period of the resulting motion?
b) What is the amplitude of the oscillation?
c) What is the maximum speed νmax of the oscillating block?
d) What is the magnitude of the maximum acceleration a max of the block?
e) What is the phase constant for the motion?
f) What is the displacement function x(t) for the spring–block system?
Solution
680 11
 m = 680 g = 1000
= 0.68 kg , xmax = 11 cm =
100
= 0.11 m , k = 65 N/m.
a)
j 65
• ω =; =;
0.68
= 9.78 rad/s
ω 9.8
• ω = 2πf ⟹ f =
2π 2π
= = 1.56 Hz
1 1
f 1.56
• T= = = 0.64 s

b) Amplitude: xmax = 0.11 m

c) νmax = ω xmax = 9.78 × 0.11 = 1.1 m/s
d) amax = ω2 xmax = 9.782 × 0.11 = 10.52 m/s2
e) At t = 0 and for x = xmax
m <opq
ϕ = cos-1 [ ] = Cos-1 [ ] = cos-1 [ 1 ] = 0
mmax <opq
∴ϕ=0
f) x(t) = xmax cos (ω t + ϕ) = 0.11 cos (9.78 t)

Example 4.2
An object oscillates with simple harmonic motion along the x axis. Its position varies with time
according to the equation
π
4
x(t) = (4 m) cos (πt + ) , where t is in seconds and the angles in the parentheses are in radians.
Determine
a) The phase constant
b) The velocity of the object at t = 1s.
c) The acceleration of the object at t = 1 s.
Solution
 xmax = 4 m, ω = π rad/s.
π
4
a) ϕ = radian
π 180
b) ν(t) = - ω xmax sin (ω t + ϕ) ⟹ ν(t) = - 4π sin (πt + ) ⟹ ν(t) = - 4π sin (180 ×1 +
4 4
)
= 8.89 m/s
π 180
c) a(t) = - ω2 xmax cos (ω t + ϕ) ⟹ a(t) = - 4π2 cos (πt + ) ⟹ a(t) = - 4π2 cos (180 × 1 +
4 4
)
= 27.92 m/s2

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 Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Simple Harmonic Motion

Problems

Q1
The position of a particle is given by the expression
x(t) = (4 m) cos (3π t + π) , where t is in seconds and the angles in the parentheses are in radians.
Determine
(a) the frequency and period of the motion.
(b) the amplitude of the motion.
(c) the phase constant.
(d) the position of the particle at t = 0.25 s.

Q2
A piston in a gasoline engine is in simple harmonic motion. If the extremes of its position relative to
its center point are ± 5.00 cm, find the magnitude of the maximum velocity and acceleration of the
piston when the engine is running at the rate of 3600 rev/min.

Q3
A block of mass m=400 g is attached to a light spring of force constant k =10 N/m. The block is
pushed against the spring from x = 0 to xi = -10 cm, and then released to oscillate on a horizontal
frictionless surface.
(a) Find the angular frequency and the period of the block-spring system.
(b) Find the magnitude of the maximum speed and the maximum acceleration of the block.
(c) Write expressions for the position, speed, and acceleration of the block at any time.

40
CHAPTER 5
Electric Field
Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Electric Field

5.1 Introduction

In a series of simple experiments, it was found that there are two kinds of electric charges, which were
given the names positive and negative. We identify negative charge as that type possessed by electrons
and positive charge as that possessed by protons.
The electrostatic force between charged particles is one of the fundamental forces of nature.
Coulomb’s law, which is the fundamental law governing the electric force between any two charged
particles.

5.2 Electric Charges

• Charges of the same sign repel one another and charges with opposite signs attract one another.
• Total charge in an isolated system is conserved.
Electric charges can neither be created nor destroyed. According to the law of conservation of
electric charge, the total charge in an isolated system always remains constant. But the charges
can be transferred from one part of the system to another.
• Charge is quantized (i.e. multiple of e).
In nature, the electric charge of any system is always an integral multiple of the least amount of
charge. It means that the quantity can take only one of the discrete set of values. The charge,
q = n e where n is an integer.
where e is the smallest unit charge in nature and has the value: e = 1.6 ×10-19 C , the charge of an electron
is − e and of a proton is + e.

A Table shown below lists the charges and masses of the three elementary particles: the electron, the
proton, and the neutron.

Notice that
No charge smaller than e has yet been detected on a free particle. Recent theories propose the existence
− e/3 and + 2e/3 inside nuclear matter. Although a significant
of particles called quarks having charges−
number of recent experiments indicate the existence of quarks inside nuclear matter, free quarks have not
been detected yet.

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Electric Field

5.3 Coulomb’s Law

The force between two charged bodies was studied by Coulomb in 1785. Coulomb’s law states that the
force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The direction of forces is
along the line joining the two point charges.

The electrostatic force between two stationary charged particles separated by a distance r has a
magnitude:
|q1| |q2| 1
≈ 9 ×109 N.m2/C2
r2 4πε2
F = Ke ,Where Ke is coulomb's constant =

Where Ke is coulomb constant. Coulomb found that each charged particle (point charge) exerts a force of
that magnitude on the other particle. and the two forces form an action–reaction pair.
the quantity ℰo (called the permittivity constant of free space) has the value: ℰo ≈ 8.858 ×10-12 F/m

The electrostatic forces between two charged particles may be either attractive or repulsive.

Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition is to calculate the electric force experienced by a charge q1 due to other
charges q2, q3 ……. qn. The total force on a given charge is the vector sum of the forces exerted on it due
to all other charges.
Example 5.1
The electron and proton of a hydrogen atom (nucleus) are separated by a distance of 5.3 ×10-11 m.
Find the magnitude of the electrostatic force between the electron and the proton.
Solution
 q1 = - 1.6 ×10-19 C , q2 = 1.6 ×10-19 C , r = 5.3 ×10-11 m .
|w+ | |w, | .$ × -+x × .$ × -+x
= 9 ×10 ×
9
= 8.2 ×10-8 N (attractive force).
d, -++ ),
F = Ke
( . ×

Example 5.2
A particle of charge 3 ×10-6 C is 12 cm distant from a second particle of charge - 1.5 ×10-6 C. Calculate
the magnitude of the electrostatic force between the particles.
Solution

 q1 = 3 ×10-6 C , q2 = - 1.5 ×10-6 C , r = 12 cm = = 0.12 m

|w+ | |w, | × -y × . × -y
= 9 ×10 ×
9
d, ),
F = Ke = 2.81 N
( .

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Electric Field

Example 5.3

Two point charges. q1= + 20 μC and q2 = - 2 μ C are 0.2 m apart. Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force on a point charge q3 = +1 μC placed as shown in figure below.
Solution
 q1 = 20 µC =20 ×10-6 C , q2 = - 2 µC = - 2 ×10-6 C , q3 = 1 µC = 1 ×10-6 C , r3,1 = 0.3 m , r3,2 = 0.1 m

|w3 | |w+ | × -y × × -y
= 9 ×10 × 9
d, 3,+ ( . ),
F3,1 = Ke =2N

|w3 | |w, | × -y × × -y
= 9 ×10 × 9
d, 3,, ( . ),
F3,2 = Ke = 1.8 N

Fx = 2 – 1.8 = 2 N and Fy = 0
• The magnitude: FR = 0.2 N
• The direction: θ = 0o

Example 5.4
Consider three point charges located at the corners of a right triangle as shown in Figure, where
q1 = q3 = 5.0 μC, q2 = - 2.0 μC, and a = 0.10 m. Find the magnitude of the resultant force exerted on q3.
Solution

• q1 = q3 = 5 μC = 5 ×10-6 C, q2 = - 2 μC = - 2 ×10-6 C
× -y × × -y
|q1 | |q3 |
F13 = Ke 2 = 9 ×10 × 9
( √2 × . ) ,
= 11.25 N
(√2 a)

× -y × × -y
|q2| |q3|
F23 = Ke = 9 ×10 × 9
( . ),
2 = 9N
(a)

.
 θ = tan-1( ) = 45o
.

• Vector analysis
Fx = - 9 + 11.25 cos 45 = - 1.05 N

Fy = 11.25 sin 45 = 7.95 N

2 2
• FR = ;FX 2 + Fy 2 = ; (−1.05) + (7.95) = 8.02 N

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Electric Field

5.4 Electric Field

An electric field is said to exist in the region of space around the source charge. When another charge (the
test charge) enters this electric field, an electric force acts on it. As an example, consider Figure below,
which shows a small positive test charge qo placed near a second object carrying a much greater positive
charge Q. We define the electric field due to the source charge at the location of the test charge to be
the electric force on the test charge per unit charge.
Note that E is the field produced by some charge or charge distribution separate from the test charge, it is
not the field produced by the test charge itself. Also, note that the existence of an electric field is a
property of its source, the presence of the test charge is not necessary for the field to exist. The test
charge serves as a detector of the electric field.

The electric field E at a point in space is defined as the electric force F acting on a positive test charge qo
placed at that point divided by a magnitude of the test charge.
F
q2
E=

• At any point P, the total electric field due to a group of source charges equals the vector sum of the
electric fields of all the charges.
• If qo is positive, the force is in the same direction as the field.
• If qo is negative, the force and the field are in opposite directions.

The rules for drawing electric field lines are as follows:

• The lines must begin on a positive charge and terminate on a negative charge.
• The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or approaching a negative charge is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
• No two-field lines can cross.

Electric field lines for the field due to a single point charge:

• The electric field lines for a positive point charge are directed radially
outward.

• The electric field lines for a negative point charge are directed radially
inward.

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Electric Field

5.5 Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field

When a particle of charge q and mass m is placed in an electric field E, the electric force exerted on the
charge is q E according to Equation 23.8. If this is the only force exerted on the particle, it must be the net
force and causes the particle to accelerate according to Newton’s second law. Thus,
F = qE = ma
The acceleration of the particle is therefore
|}
a=
• If E is uniform (that is, constant in magnitude and direction), then the acceleration is constant.
• If the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration is in the direction of the electric field.
• If the particle has a negative charge, its acceleration is in the direction opposite the electric field.

Example 5.5
Determine the magnitude of the acceleration of a proton in the electric field of 0.5 kN/C directed along +x
.
Solution
 q = 1.6 ×10-19 C , E = 0.5 k N/C = 0.5 ×103 N/C , m = 1.673 ×10-27 kg .
Accelerated proton in electric field:
.$ × -+x × . × 3
qE
F = qE = ma ⟹ a= m = -,• = 4.8 ×1010 m/s2.
.$ ×

Example 5.6

An object having a net charge of 24 μC is placed in a uniform electric field of 610 N/C directed vertically.
What is the mass of this object if it floats in the field? (Take g = 9.8 m/s2)
Solution
 q = 24 µC = 24 ×10-6 C , E = 610 N/C.
Floating object in electric field: F = qE = mg
× -y ×$
qE
⟹ m=
g
= = 1.49 ×10-3 kg ≈ 1.5 g
.

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Electric Field

Example 5.7
Three point charges are arranged as shown in Figure. Find the magnitude of the electric field at point P
and its direction from the positive x-axis.
Solution
 q1 = 6 nC = 6 ×10-9 C , q2 = - 3 nC = - 3 ×10-9 C
 r1 = 0.3 m , r2 = 0.1 m
|w+ | $× -x
= 9 ×10 × 9
d+ , . ,
E1 = Ke = 600 N/C.

|w, | × -x
= 9 × 109 ×
d, , . ,
E2 = Ke = 2700 N/C.

Ex = - 600 N/C and Ey = - 2700 N/C

The magnitude: ER = E = ; Em + EG = H(− 600 ) + (− 2700 ) = 2765.9 N/C

‚ƒ
The direction: θ = tan-1( ) = tan-1( ) = 77.5 o (the third quadrant).
‚! $
The direction from positive x-axis: Ө+x = 180 + 77.5 = 257.5o

Example 5.8
Find the magnitude of the resultant electric field ant its direction from positive x-axis at point P for the
equilateral triangle shown in the figure due to the two charges?
Solution

• q2 = 2 µC = 2 ×10-6 C , q1 = - 4 µC = - 4 ×10-6 C
|w+ | × -y
= 9 ×10 × 9
= 144 ×103 N/C = 144 kN/C
d, ,
E1 = Ke
.
|w, | × -y
= 9 × 109 × = 72 ×103 N/C = 72 kN/C
d, ,
E2 = Ke
.

• Vector analysis

Ex = 72 Cos 60 + 144 Cos 60 = 108 kN/C.

Ey = 72 Sin 60 - 144 Sin 60 = - 62.4 kN/C.

E = ;Em + EG = H108 + (− 62.4 ) = 124.7 kN/C .

‚ƒ $ .
θ = tan-1( ) = tan-1( ) = - 30 o (the forth quadrant).
‚„

θ +x = 360o - 30o = 330 o

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Electric Field

Questions

1- What are the factors affect the magnitude of the electric force between two stationary
charges?
2- What are the types of the electric force when:
i. The two charges having same electric charges
ii. The two charges having opposite electric charges
3- Coulomb’s law is valid only for stationary charges. Explain briefly

Problems

Q1
A 7.5 nC point charge is located 1.8 m from a 4.2 nC point charge.
i. Find the magnitude of the electric force that one particle exerts on the other.
ii. Is the force attractive or repulsive?
Q2
Two charged balls in which q1 = q2 = 3 μC air if the repulsive force between them is 9 mN. Calculate the
distance between the balls.
Q3
Three charged sphere are placed as shown figure. Calculate the electric force on q1 = 1 μC placed at the
middle. Given that q2 = - 3 μC and q3 = - 4 μC.

Q4
Two unlike charges equal in magnitude are given as 2 ×10−8 C placed at A and B at a distance of 6 cm.
Calculate the electric force on the charge 1 ×10−8 C placed at P, where P is 4 cm on the perpendicular
bisector of AB.

Q5
Calculate the resultant of the electric field at point P as shown in the fig. and its direction from the
positive x - axes.

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 Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Electric Field

Answers to the Problems

CHAPTER 1

1. a) – 95.8 oF and b) 56.7 oC

2. 0.0119 m
3. 11.286 cm2
4. 55 oC
5. Copper
6. Aluminum
7. 9.42 kJ
8. 29.6 oC

CHAPTER 2
1. - 400 Pa
2. 7.23 ×105 N
3. 4 m/s2
4. 4.5 cm

CHAPTER 3
1. - 12
2. - 1.36 kN
3. 3.43 m/s2
4. 32.349 N

CHAPTER 4
1. a) 1.5 Hz , 0.667 s , d) 2.83 m
2. 18.85 m/s , 7106.12 m/s2
3. a) 5 rad/s , 1.26 s , b) 0.5 m/s , 2.5 m/s2
c) x(t) = (0.1 m) cos (5t + π)
ν(t) = - 0.5 sin (5t + π)
a(t) = - 2.5 cos (5t + π)

CHAPTER 5
1. 87.5 nN, repulsive
2. 3m
3. 0.225 N, θ = 180o
4. 8.64 ×10-4 N
5. 1113.6 N/C , θ+x = 279o
References

1. Physics for Scientists and Engineers 6th & 8th editions.

2. UniversityPhysicsVolume2.
3. Principles of Physics for Scientist and Engineer.

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