CONTENTS

Sl.
Topics Page
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1. Introduction 1

2. The Evolution of Food and Nutrition Security 2

Concerns

3. Food and Nutrition Security and Gender 8

4. Current Diet and Nutrition Scenario 20

5. National Food Security Mission - Operational 43

Guidelines

6. Nutrition-oriented Agriculture and Food 55

Diversification

7. A Nutrition Secure India - Role of Agriculture 60

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 Introduction

Adequate nutrition is a basic human need. Only if people can satisfy their
nutritional requirements on a regular basis, and use and utilize adequate and safe food
with the respective energy, protein, vitamin and mineral content, is one of the most
important pre-condition for an active, healthy and decent life.

Ensuring Food and Nutrition Security is fulfilling basic needs and ethical
obligations
„Hunger is one of the worst violations of human dignity. In a world of plenty, ending
hunger is within our grasp. Failure to reach this goal should fill every one of us with
shame. The time for making promises is over. It is time to act. It is time to do what we
have long promised to do - eliminate hunger from the face of earth.”

Source: Kofi Anan, Secretary General of the United Nations, at the World Food Summit: five years
later in June 2002 in Rome

Prolonged lack of food and nutrients leads to various physical and mental
impairments of human beings. It prevents children from growing into productive members
of the society and be adults who are fully able to participate in the economic and social
development of their countries. Sustainable food and nutrition security is life saving for
people today and beneficial for future generations.

Human Rights and the Right to Food

Food insecurity and malnutrition are viewed as a violation of human rights. The
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly in 1966 defined and formalized the right to food as a basic
human right, which had already been mentioned in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights of the United Nations in 1948, and has been re-affirmed in 1974.

Right to Food

“Every man, woman and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger and
malnutrition in order to develop fully and maintain their physical and mental faculties”.
(Source: United Nations 1974)

However, “today, more than 800 million men, women and children are denied the
most basic human right of all: the right to food.”

(Source: Kofi Annan, Secretary General of the United Nations)

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 The Evolution of Food and Nutrition Security Concerns

Global FNS has a history of more than 50 year, and has evolved through a
sequence of definitions and paradigms. After the historic Hot Spring Conference

of Food and Agriculture in 1943, in which the concept of a “secure, adequate and

suitable supply of food for everyone” was accepted internationally, bilateral

agencies from donor countries such as the USA or Canada were created in the
1950s and started to dispose of their agricultural surplus commodities overseas.

In the 1960s, when it was acknowledged that food aid may hinder for
developing self-sufficiency, the concept of food for development was introduced
and institutionalized. The creation of the World Food Programme (WFP) in 1963
is one prominent example.

The food crisis of 1972/74 marked a dramatic turning point from the past
era of food abundance of donor countries to highly unstable food supplies and
prices on the world market. As a result, food security insurance schemes, which
assured international access to physical food supplies, were developed in the
1970s. Improved food security assurance was to be achieved through better
coordination among donor organizations and agencies and food availability
surveillance in recipient countries.

In the 1980s, following the success of the green revolution which helped to
increase food production (food availability), it was recognized that food
emergencies and even famines were not caused as much by catastrophic
shortfalls in food production as by sharp declines in the purchasing power of
specific social groups. Therefore, food security was broadened to include both
physical and economic access to food supply. In this decade, poverty alleviation
and the role of women in development was promoted.

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 In the 1990s, concrete plans were defined to eradicate or at least reduce
hunger and malnutrition drastically. In addition, the human right to adequate food
and nutrition was internationally reaffirmed and committed national governments
to a more proactive role. Finally, reduced international public support of donor
agencies reduced food aid to crisis management and prevention.

In the 2000s, decreasing hunger and malnutrition has increasingly come to

be seen in the context of overall development, poverty reduction and the
achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (SCN 2004). These
internationally accepted development targets can only be achieved, if adequate
food and nutrition are ensured for all members of a society

A holistic understanding of Food and Nutrition Security

Food security historically referred to the overall regional, national, or even

global food supply and shortfalls in supply compared to requirements. But, with
increased observation of insufficient food intake by certain groups (despite overall
adequacy of food supply), the term has more recently been applied mostly at a
community, local, household or individual level (Foster 1992). Further, the term
has been broadened beyond notions of food supply to include elements of access

However, food security is a concept that has evolved over time. The most
common definition proposed by the World Bank (1986) and was summed up by
Maxwell and Frankenberger as “secure access at all times to sufficient food for a
healthy life”.

According to a currently accepted definition (FAO 2000), Food Security is

achieved when it is ensured that all people, at all times, have physical, social and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. Food is here defined
as any substance that people eat and drink to maintain life and growth. As a
result, safe and clean water is an essential part of food commodities.

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Definition of Food and Nutrition Security

“Food and Nutrition Security is achieved, if adequate food (quantity, quality,

safety, socio-cultural acceptability) is available and accessible for and
satisfactorily utilized by all individuals at all times to live a healthy and happy life.”

The nutrition focus adds the aspects of caring practices and health
services and healthy environments to this definition and concept. This aims at
what is more precisely called ‘Nutrition Security’, which can be defined as
adequate nutritional status in terms of protein, energy, vitamins, and minerals for
all household members at all times and thus in principle is more than food
security.

To underline the importance of nutrition in our holistic approach our

definition combines food and nutrition and we use the term “Food and Nutrition
Security” emphasizing several aspects, i.e., not only ‘Availability’, ‘Accessibility’,
but also ‘Use and Utilization’ of food.

Aspects of Food and Nutrition Security

Two factors influence the framework: a physical and a temporal factor. The
physical determinant is the food flow: Availability, Accessibility and Utilization. The
temporal determinant of FNS refers to stability, which affects all three physical
elements. In this context availability refers to the physical existence of food, be it
from own production or on the markets. On national level food availability is a
combination of domestic food production, commercial food imports, food aid, and
domestic food stocks, as well as the underlying determinants of each of these
factors. Use of the term availability is often confusing, since it can refer to food
supplies available at both the household level and at a more aggregate (regional
or national) level. However, the term is applied most commonly in reference to
food supplies at the regional or national level.

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The Conceptual Framework of the Nutritional Status at Household Level

A reduced state of health may be due in part to tenuous access to health

care, poor housing and environmental conditions, and is possibly worsened by
malnutrition, which predispose individuals to diseases.

Food alone is not sufficient to secure a sustainable satisfactory nutritional

status and, therefore, aspects of health must be considered. As a result, nutrition
is the function of food intake and health status.

Food and Nutrition Security at the different social/administrative levels

Availability, Accessibility, Use and Utilization of food and the Stability of

these three elements differ in their nature, causes and effects at the Macro, Meso
and Micro level respectively. For example, food may be available in a country but
not in certain disadvantaged districts or among discriminated population groups.
The seasonality of food availability and utilization, for example, due to cyclic
appearance of diseases, may be a rural but not an urban phenomenon.

Measures to assess the availability of food at the macro level are different
from those used at the meso or micro levels.

At the macro level, precipitation records can predict future food production.
Food balance sheets provide information on food availability at national level. The
World Food Programme (WFP) developed the Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping
(VAM) project to analyse the vulnerability to food insecurity of target populations.
A prominent part of VAM is related to access to food. The demographic and
Health Survey (DHS), funded by USAID, provides health data for many countries
to help them design their national policy. FAO has developed the Global
Information Early Warning System (GIEWS), which collects data related to
temporary food insecurity. Under the leadership of WHO, several health
surveillance systems have been developed and implemented to monitor the
epidemiology of various forms of malnutrition and of selected diseases. At the
meso or sub-national level, food market surveys provide data on the availability of

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food. Qualitative surveys, such as food focus group discussions, provide
information on accessibility to food for those in greatest need. District health
surveys describe health conditions that may reflect food utilization problems.

Agricultural production surveys, intra-household food frequency interviews,

immunization surveys and anthropometric surveys of children under five can be
used to assess the availability, accessibility, and use & utilization of food and its
stability at micro level.

Most common Food and Nutrition Security indicators at different social and
Administrative levels

The most commonly used FNS indicators at different social levels

according to the matrix found in National food availability depends on supply and
demand. Therefore, data on the production of different food commodities, fertility
rate and the trends in internal population should be reviewed to determine the
national situation of food availability. Food prices and per capita food
consumption are indicators for national food accessibility. The rates of stunting,
wasting and underweight in children, low Body Mass Index (BMI) in adults, and
low birth weight are FNS impact indicators that designate the extent to which food
is adequately being used and utilized and converted into a satisfactory national
nutrition situation. Fluctuations in food prices and regional shortages of food
availability or accessibility are sensitive indicators for national food and nutrition
instability.

At the meso level delayed harvest time and reduced staple food production
are indications of reduced food availability. Food prices are sensitive indicators
for accessibility. Types of sewage disposal and diarrheal diseases (DD) rates
provide information on the effectiveness of food utilization. The comparison
between pre and post harvest food availability and accessibility as well as chronic
energy deficiency of women (low BMI) indicate temporal food and nutrition
insecurity.

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 1. The lack of stored food and the consumption of wild foods are indicators for
reduced food availability at household level.
2. A reduced number of meals per day and increased rate of under- or
unemployment may indicate low food accessibility.
3. Appearance of wasting, goitre or anaemia among household members are
outcome indicators of reduced food utilization at micro level.
4. Finally, changes in pre-harvest food consumption practices and migration
may be sensitive indicators for temporal food insecurity.

Examples of most common FNS indicators at different social and

administrative levels

Social Level Availability Accessibility Use & Stability

Utilization
Macro Food production Food price Stunting rate Food price
fertility rate wages per wasting rate fluctuation
population flows capita food LBW rate regional gaps
consumption
Meso Harvesting time Market and Latrine Pre-/post
staple food retail food coverage DD harvest food
production prices rate Women’s BMI
Micro Food storage Meal frequency Weight-for-age Pre-harvest
consumption of food frequency goitre anemia food practices
wild foods employment migration

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 Gender and Food and Nutrition Security

Food and Nutrition Security is linked to a number of cross cutting issues in

development of individuals and societies. These include gender, livelihoods,
poverty and poverty reduction, HIV / Aids as well as conflicts, crises and natural
disasters.

Women are the key to food and nutrition security. They play an important
role as producers of food, as managers of natural resources, in income
generation and as providers of care for their families. Yet, women often continue
to have limited access to land, education, credit, information, technology and
decision making bodies. Women are thus impaired in fulfilling their potential socio-
economic roles in food and nutrition security and in ensuring care, health and
hygiene for themselves and their families. This is aggravated by the fact that
women themselves are often more vulnerable or more affected by hunger and
malnutrition than men, especially by iron deficiency and undernourishment during
pregnancy and lactation.

Women’s rights

In many developing countries, women produce most of the food consumed

by their families and communities. Yet women rarely have secure tenure to the
land they work. In Nepal, India and Thailand, for example, less than 10 percent of
women farmers own land. Although traditional land tenure systems rarely granted
women outright ownership of land, they frequently protected their rights to work
and manage enough land to provide for their families’ needs. In many cases,
those rights are now being eroded by changing socio-economic conditions, land
shortages and tilting programmes that fail to recognize the value either of
customary tenure practices or of women’s contributions to agriculture. Improving
access to land for women is essential to increase both food security and
sustainable production. Only through such measures can it be ensured that
women possess collateral and the security to invest in land and technology.

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 A number of constraints limit women’s ability to improve their own and their
children’s nutritional status. These include, e.g., fewer employment opportunities
of poor women compared to men, significantly lower wages, less access to
resources and information, less involvement in decision making, lower enrolment
at school and earlier drop outs. In some countries, socio-cultural norms dictate
that girls marry early in adolescence and have their first child soon thereafter. In
conditions of gender inequality, women and girls are more poorly nourished
throughout the life cycle, show higher rates of mortality, have less access to
health care, and are subject to greater household food insecurity.

Almost 870 million people are suffering from hunger worldwide. In many
parts of the world, more women are affected by hunger than men, particularly
following natural disasters. Women are often economically and socially
disadvantaged: many household and community decisions are still made by men,
frequently to the detriment of women.

Female workers play an important role in agriculture and thus in food

production. They average 43% of the agricultural labour force in developing
countries, ranging from about 20% in Latin America to almost 50% in Eastern and
South-eastern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa (FAO 2012). Male out-migration in
search of work is increasing numbers of female farm managers. But while the
number of women in agriculture is on the rise, they still face many disadvantages.
Women often have limited or no access to land. Males are favoured, both in
quantity and quality; in land allocation, with women only gaining access to land
through a male relative or after the husband’s death. Moreover, women’s access
to financial services is limited, and they face inequities regarding access to
livestock, inputs such as seeds and fertilizers, technology, market information,
knowledge, skills and advisory services. Female illiteracy further aggravates the
situation (FAO 2011). It is estimated that yields on their farms could increase by
20–30%, and thus reduce the number of people facing hunger worldwide up to
17%, if women had the equitable access to productive resources (FAO 2011).
Improving women’s agricultural production is therefore smart economics.

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Alongside food production and processing, women are also responsible to feed
their families. If self-produced food is low in volume or diversity, women must find
the financial means to buy market food. Yet many women in developing countries
lack control over the household income, as well as income generation
possibilities. Some women do not even receive their own generated income, as
per cultural norms it is paid to their husbands. In turn, men are less likely to
spend money for the benefit of the entire household, and prefer non-food items.
There is a clear need to create awareness among men regarding the benefits of
an adequate diet for the whole family.

An increase in women’s control over household income usually has a

positive impact on dietary diversity, thus benefiting children’s health, nutrition and
education and consequently food and nutrition security. Women also tend to save
more of generated income, and thus improve the household’s food security in
times of natural disasters, such as drought. Intra-household food allocation can be
another limiting factor: even though a household may have enough food, girls and
women may still suffer from malnutrition.

The multiple roles of women are challenging in terms of time allocation.

Agricultural activities increase women’s workload and thus decrease the time left
to care for their children. As a consequence, many children drop out of school in
order to look after their younger siblings. Climate change and the progressive
degradation of natural resources also increase the burden of women while further
threatening food security. When extra household tasks are too great, e.g. caring
for sick relatives, women do not have enough time for food production or income
generation. This is particularly evident in societies affected by HIV / AIDS. Women
are key to breaking the vicious circle of generational malnutrition. Children born to
malnourished mothers often are underweight and face a 20% increased risk of
dying before the age of five (UNICEF 2007). The health and nutrition of mothers
directly influence the well-being of their children. The “window of opportunity”, i.e.
the period from the start of a woman’s pregnancy until the second birthday of the
child, is crucial. An insufficient supply of nutrients during a child’s first 1000 days

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can bring about lifelong repercussions, such as chronic health problems, cognitive
and physical deficits, or impaired immune functions. However, women’s ability to
give birth to well-nourished babies and to adequately feed and care for their
children is often undermined by their own poor nutritional status, low education,
and low social status. Also, many women lack access to sexual and reproductive
health services.

Steps to action and best practices

Promoting gender equality has been a fundamental principle of German

development policy for many years. The following steps to action and best
practices from concerned projects - implemented by Deutsche Gesellschaft fur
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH on behalf of German Federal
Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) - have been proven
as successful approaches and helpful starting points to increase the food and
nutrition security of households.

Policy advice

Carry out, at all levels, policy dialogue and advice regarding gender-
specific issues contributing to increased food security. Relevant topics include
reform processes, land rights, finance, and equal voice opportunity for women in
professional and rural organizations. The participation of female household heads
and married women in local councils is of particular importance.

Support gender-mainstreaming approaches, as well as better coordination

between sectors such as agriculture, health and education, at national and
regional level.

Access to and control over resources

Support equal access to land, in both quality and quantity. The distribution
of land titles and certificates should be gender equitable. This also applies to
other natural resources required for food production, such as equal access to

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irrigation water and pasture land. Women’s participation in community institutions
also needs to be increased. Support equal access to capital. Women and other
underprivileged groups should have access to income, credits and financial
advisory services. Their rights regarding (re-) investments and control over
income need to be strengthened

Sustainable land management, Ethiopia

In the Ethiopian highlands of Amhara, Oromia and Tigray more than 50 %

of the population - approximately 20 million people – live under the constantly
rising threat of food insecurity. On behalf of BMZ, GIZ works to strengthen the
competences, resources and capacity development of the Ministry of Agriculture,
its decentralized structures and of small-scale farmers, both male and female.
Approaches further develop and apply national ender-mainstreaming strategies
relating directly to rural development, in cooperation with local agricultural
authorities. Small-scale farm households - one fifth of them female headed -
receive advice and support regarding sustainable land management. To date,
77,000 hectares of land have been rehabilitated and a further 79,000 hectares of
forest are being maintained by participatory forest management principles.
Innovative and locally adapted cultivation techniques and erosion control
contribute to increased crop and livestock productivity for both male and female
farmers, and increase the resilience of rural households to the effects of climate
change. Women in particular benefit from the project, gaining better access to
advisory services, information and skills. Female and gender-sensitive male
advisors are key. The Ministry of Agriculture supports the access of women to
innovative techniques and promotes their participation in watershed user groups.
Due to cultural norms and traditions, women are often marginalised from
community organizations and cannot advocate for their interests. The National
Women’s Office supports the establishment of women’s groups and the
representation of women at community level. Women’s groups serve as dialogue
platforms for their development priorities, which include the promotion of animal
husbandry or fruit/vegetable production, with surplus creating additional income.

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Particularly innovative is the linkage of sustainable land management methods
with HIV/AIDS-education and family planning, which further reduces the pressure
on natural resources and increases food security. Support equal access to
agricultural inputs and advisory services for livestock and crop production.
Advisory guidance should accompany agricultural inputs such as seeds, fertilizer,
pesticides and veterinary medicine in order to achieve good results and increase
food production. Advisory services need to take into account financial and
intellectual capacity, as well as time availability of clients, and focus on both men
and women and their specific demands and tasks. It has proven successful to
initially start with gender-separated trainings, facilitating more open discussions.

Capacity development

• Apply participatory methods in all phases of project planning and

implementation.
• Sensitise partner institutions and project personnel regarding gender-
specific operating principles, together with recruitment, training and
promotion of local female specialists in long-term and short-term positions
in GIZ projects.
• Support women’s presence in advisory services, as well as gender-
sensitive training, thus strengthening and cross linking different institutions
and stakeholders regarding gender issues.

Monitoring and evaluation systems

Promote the systematic integration of gender-disaggregated data in

monitoring and evaluation systems. Project activities should aim to benefit men
and women equally.

Questions to be answered in gender studies

1. To what extent do women have access to land, capital, equipment, inputs,

advisory services and formal education?

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 2. How do socio-cultural and behavioral norms affect women’s decisive power
and role within the household and thereby compromise their ability to
secure adequate nutrition for the whole family?
3. How do policies and programs work together and coordinate across
sectors, e.g. include women’s access to reproductive health services,
family planning and nutrition education? How do projects create awareness
among male household heads?
4. To what extent are women organized and mobilized, e.g. in producer
groups or saving groups? To what extent do they have access to and
participate in local decision-making bodies?

Food and nutrition insecurity endanger the attainment of the MDGs

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger: Food insecurity and

malnutrition erode human capital, reduce resilience to shocks and reduce
productivity (impaired physical and mental capacity).

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education: Malnutrition reduces mental

capacity. Malnourished children are less likely to enroll in school; more are more
likely to enroll later. Hunger and malnutrition reduces school performance.

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women: Food secure and
better-nourished girls are more likely to stay in school and, subsequently, have
more control over future choices.

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality: Malnutrition is directly or indirectly associated

with more than 50% of child mortality. Malnutrition is the main contributor to the
burden of disease in the developing world.

Goal 5: Improve maternal health: Maternal health is compromised by an anti-

female bias in allocations of food, health and care. Food insecurity and
malnutrition are associated with most major risk factors for maternal mortality.

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Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases: Food insecurity spurs
coping mechanisms, such as migratory labor and/or prostitution, which increases
the spread of HIV/Aids. Malnutrition hastens the onset of Aids among HIV-
positive. Malnutrition weakens resistance to infections and reduces chances of
survival for those who have malaria.

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability: Food insecurity leads to

unsustainable use of forestlands and resources.

Source: UN SCN 2004, iii and FAO 2002,

Indicators for food and nutrition security at national and regional level

In order to assess and analyse the Food and Nutrition Security conditions in a
given country, multiple indicators have to be used to reflect the various levels and
dimensions of the problem. Typical indicators at macro level are: prevalence of
common diseases, HIV/AIDS infections, etc., mortality rates, national storage etc.
For purposes of organization, the overall framework of malnutrition will be recalled
by the following figure. The presentation of methods to analyse the Food and
Nutrition Security situation in a given country is based on this conceptual
framework.

Targeted food and nutrition security interventions

Targeted food and nutrition security interventions comprise a wide variety

of measures aiming at improving food and nutrition security of specific population
groups, which have been identified as vulnerable or food-insecure. The selection
of feasible and (most) suitable approaches of targeted interventions depends on
the prevailing conditions, the specific socio-economic features of the target
population, the nature and causes of their food deficits, and the available
resources and implementation capacities. Targeted interventions can be broadly
categorized as:

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1. Measures aimed at enhancing availability and access entitlement at the
individual or household level, such as measures to promote food
production among small and subsistence farmers, employment and income
generation measures, as well as targeted subsidy and transfer systems
also at the meso level.
2. Measures to improve food utilisation among the target groups, e.g. through
health and nutrition education, measures of preventive and curative health
care, provision of safe potable water, sanitation, promotion of suitable food
preservation, food preparation and feeding practices, etc.

Although targeted interventions may be defined under macro-level policies,

they are usually implemented at meso-level, i.e. as (components of) projects and
programmes in certain areas with a high incidence of food insecure and
vulnerable population groups (e.g. drought prone or disaster affected areas; low-
income urban districts; slum and squatter areas). Indispensable prerequisites for
targeted interventions are institutional capacities, which can identify and screen
the food insecure and vulnerable population groups, implement the measures to
ensure that the eligible target groups are effectively reached, and monitor
programme performance. The institutions involved may be local self-help groups,
community organizations, NGOs, government institutions, international and/or
donor organizations. Depending on the conditions and the type of intervention,
administrative, community or self-targeting approaches can be applied. The
following table provides an overview of the main types of targeted interventions to
improve food and nutrition security at household level, the relevant target groups,
and the expected outcome on the factors determining household food and
nutrition security.

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 Targeted food and nutrition security interventions, main target groups, and
Impact on household food entitlement

Type of interventions Target groups Impact on household

food entitlement
1. Improvement of productive – Small farmers – Increased agricultural
assets and targeted production
support, e.g. – (Semi-) subsistence income
= purchasing power
– Land (tenure) reform farmers
= increased household
Availability

– Tenant farmers
– Natural resource conservation food demand
– Victims of conflict, – Increased household
– Technology, water
e.g. landless returnees food supplies from own
– Input supply, production
– Agricultural credit
– Extension & training
2. Income generation schemes – Rural and urban poor – Increased cash income
(e.g. training, micro-credit
un- and under- = increased purchasing
programmes)
employed power
– Public works / employment
– Rural landless = increased household
generation schemes food demand & supplies;
– Victims of conflict,
– Food-for-work (FFW) – Increased income in
Access

e.g. landless returnees

programmes kind of food
= increased household
food supplies
3. Targeted food subsidies, e.g.: – Urban poor – Increased real income
– Fair price shops
– Rural poor due to lower food prices
– Subsidies for inferior goods = purchasing power
– Specific vulnerable = increased household
– Geographic targeting groups (see below) food demand
4. Direct food transfers, e.g. Specific vulnerable – Increased individual
– Relief assistance groups, e.g.
and/or household food
– disaster affected
– Special/supplementary supplies through direct
people, war invalids, food transfers
feeding programmes
landmine disabled,
Use and Utilization

– Nutrition and health internally displaced

education (hygiene) people (IDP)
– Undernourished
children
– Female headed
households
– Pregnant & lactating
women
– Elderly, disabled &
sick persons

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Actions to improve availability of food

The improvements of productive assets and targeted production support

are predominant the known agricultural support mechanisms. Small and
subsistence farmers constitute the major vulnerable and food insecure population
group in many countries. Enhancing their capacity to increase agricultural and
food production can simultaneously mitigate problems of access, availability and
stability. Although respective measures are part of overall agricultural sector
development policies, there is a need to adapt and tailor targeted interventions to
the specific needs, constraints and capacities of the target group of small and
subsistence farmers. Depending on the situation, the following approaches may
come under consideration.

Actions to improve availability of food

Field of actions Examples
Improvement of food − intensification and diversification of production,
Production and
– improvement of access to land (land and land tenure reform),
agricultural
productivity – appropriate technologies and improved agricultural input
packages (improved seeds, fertilizers, etc.)
– privatization of farms,
– crop protection,
– introduction /promotion of perennial crops (often in
combination with ecological stabilization of arable land),
– development of agricultural extension services,
– agricultural price policy,
– agricultural research for the development of improved farming
systems (including appropriate use of the potential of
biotechnology) geared towards small and subsistence
farmers
Development and − adapted livestock, veterinary, animal husbandry
introduction of
improvements
appropriate
technologies in the − artificial insemination,
fields of livestock,
forestry and fisheries − animal health and vaccination,

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 − promotion of agro-forestry,
− aquaculture
Resource − construction of terraces,
management
− afforestation and/or reforestation
− soil and water conservation measures
(e.g. soil and stone bunds, intercropping, vegetation strips)
Improvement and − small scale irrigation systems (e.g. water harvesting, river
extension of rural
diversion, ponds, small dams)
infrastructure
− construction of food stores, support to appropriated store
management (prevention of losses)
− construction and maintenance of feeder roads, roads and
bridges
− construction of market places
− micro-credit schemes for small farmers
Marketing of − price information system
agricultural products
− quality control
− advertising
− liberalisation of markets (internal, export, import)
Promotion of fair − remove export barriers (tariffs)
trade
regulations − remove import tariffs on inputs
− eliminate non-trade barriers on inputs
(e.g., approval of seeds and biotech products)
Promotion of agro- − cereal banks, central and decentralised grain reserves,
industry, food
processing and food − food safety regulations and control systems,
storage − food fortification
Organizational and − promotion and support of self-help groups, cooperatives
Institutional
development

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 Current Diet and Nutrition Scenario

Health and nutrition are the most important contributory factors for human
resource development in the country. India has been classified by the World Bank
as a country with a low-income economy, with per capita GNP of US $ 950. It
ranks 160 in terms of human development among 209 countries. Among the
Indian population, about 28% in the rural and 26% in the urban areas are
estimated to be below the poverty line, which is defined as the expenditure
needed to obtain, on an average, 2400 Kcal per capita per day in the rural areas
and 2100 Kcal in urban areas. Long-term malnutrition (under and over) leads to
stunting and wasting, non-communicable chronic diet related disorders, increased
morbidity and mortality and reduced physical work output. It is a great economic
loss to the country and undermines development.

Nutrients

Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are macronutrients, which are needed in

large amounts. Vitamins and minerals constitute the micronutrients and are
required in small amounts. These nutrients are necessary for physiological and
biochemical processes by which the human body acquires, assimilates and
utilizes food to maintain health and activity.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are either simple or complex, and are major sources of

energy in all-human diets. They provide energy of 4 Kcal/g. The simple
carbohydrates, glucose and fructose, are found in fruits, vegetables and honey,
sucrose in sugar and lactose in milk, while the complex polysaccharides are
starches in cereals, millets, pulses and root vegetables and glycogen in animal
foods. The other complex carbohydrates which are resistant to digestion in the
human digestive tract are cellulose in vegetables and whole grains, and gums and
pectins in vegetables, fruits and cereals, which constitute the dietary fibre
component. In India, 70-80% of total dietary calories are derived from
carbohydrates present in plant foods such as cereals, millets and pulses.

21
Dietary fibre delays and retards absorption of carbohydrates and fats and
increases the satiety value. Diets rich in fibre reduce glucose and lipids in blood
and increase the bulk of the stools. Diets rich in complex carbohydrates are
healthier than low-fibre diets based on refined and processed foods.

22
Proteins

Proteins are primary structural and functional components of every living

cell. Almost half the protein in our body is in the form of muscle and the rest of it
is in bone, cartilage and skin. Proteins are complex molecules composed of
different amino acids. Certain amino acids, which are termed “essential”, have to
be obtained from proteins in the diet since they are not synthesized in the human
body. Other nonessential amino acids can be synthesized in the body to build
proteins. Proteins perform a wide range of functions and also provide energy (4
Kcal/g). Protein requirements vary with age, physiological status and stress. More
proteins are required by growing infants and children, pregnant women and
individuals during infections and illness or stress. Animal foods like milk, meat,
fish and eggs and plant foods such as pulses and legumes are rich sources of
proteins. Animal proteins are of high quality as they provide all the essential
amino acids in right proportions, while plant or vegetable proteins are not of the
same quality because of their low content of some of the essential amino acids.
However, a combination of cereals, millets and pulses provides most of the amino
acids, which complement each other to provide better quality proteins.

Fats

Oils and fats such as butter, ghee and vanaspathi constitute dietary visible
fats. Fats are a concentrated source of energy providing 9 Kcal/g, and are made
up of fatty acids in different proportions. Dietary fats are derived from two sources
viz. the invisible fat present in plant and animal foods; and the visible or added
fats and oils (cooking oil). Fats serve as a vehicle for fat-soluble vitamins like
vitamins A, D, E and K and carotenes and promote their absorption. They are also
sources of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. It is necessary to have adequate
and good quality fat in the diet with sufficient polyunsaturated fatty acids in proper
proportions for meeting the requirements of essential fatty acids. The type and
quantity of fat in the daily diet influence the level of cholesterol and triglycerides in
the blood. Diets should include adequate amounts of fat particularly in the case of
infants and children, to provide concentrated energy since their energy needs per

23
kg body weight are nearly twice those of adults. Adults need to be cautioned to
restrict intake of saturated fat (butter, ghee and hydrogenated fats) and
cholesterol (red meat, eggs, organ meat). Excess of these substances could lead
to obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer.

Vitamins and minerals

Vitamins are chemical compounds required by the body in small amounts.

They must be present in the diet, as they cannot be synthesized in the body.
Vitamins are essential for numerous body processes and for maintenance of the
structure of skin, bone, nerves, eye, brain, blood and mucous membrane. They
are either water soluble or fat-soluble. Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat-soluble,
while vitamin C, and the B-complex vitamins such as thiamin (B), riboflavin (B),
niacin, pyridoxine (B ), folic acid and cyanocobalamin (B ) are water soluble. Pro-
vitamin like beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A in the body. Fatsoluble
vitamins can be stored in the body while water-soluble vitamins are not and get
easily excreted in urine. Vitamins B-complex and C are heat labile vitamins and
are easily destroyed by heat, air or during drying, cooking and food processing.

Minerals are inorganic elements found in body fluids and tissues. The
important macro minerals are sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium and sulphur, while zinc, copper, selenium, molybdenum, fluorine,
cobalt, chromium and iodine are micro-minerals. They are required for
maintenance and integrity of skin, hair, nails, blood and soft tissues. They also
govern nerve cell transmission, acid/base and fluid balance, enzyme and
hormone activity as well as the blood- clotting processes. Approximate Calorific
Value of Nuts; Salads and Fruits are given in annexure 1.

Balanced diet

A balanced diet is one, which provides all the nutrients in required amounts
and proper proportions. It can easily be achieved through a blend of the four basic
food groups. The quantities of foods needed to meet the nutrient requirements

24
vary with age, gender, physiological status and physical activity. A balanced diet
should provide around 50-60% of total calories from carbohydrates, preferably
from complex carbohydrates, about 10-15% from proteins and 20-30% from both
visible and invisible fat.

In addition, a balanced diet should provide other non-nutrients such as

dietary fibre, antioxidants and phytochemicals which bestow positive health
benefits. Antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, riboflavin and
selenium protect the human body from free radical damage. Other
phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavones, etc., also afford protection against
oxidant damage. Spices like turmeric, ginger, garlic, cumin and cloves are rich in
antioxidants. Balanced Diet for Adults - Sedentary/Moderate/Heavy Activity is
given in menu plans for sedentary adult man and woman are given below.

Balanced Diet for Adults - Sedentary/ Moderate/ Heavy Activity

(Number of portions)

Type of work
Foods gms/ml Sedentary Moderate Heavy
Man Woman Man Woman Man Woman
Cereals & millets 30 12.5 9 15 11 20 16
Pulses 30 2.5 2 3 2.5 4 3
Milk & milk 100ml 3 3 3 3 3 3
products
Roots & tubers 100 2 2 2 2 2 2
Green leafy 100 1 1 1 1 1 1
Other vegetables 100 2 2 2 2 2 2
Fruits 100 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sugar 5 4 4 6 6 11 9
Fat 5 5 4 6 5 8 6

To calculate the days requirement of above mentioned food groups for an individual,
multiply grams per portion with number of portions.

25
 Sample Meal Plan for Adult Man (Sedentary)

Cooked Servings
Meal Time Food Group Raw
Recipe Amounts
Breakfast Milk 100 ml Milk 1/2 Cup
Sugar 15 g Tea or 2 Cups
Coffee 1 Cups
Cereals 70 g Breakfast Item
Pulses 20 g
Lunch Cereals 120 g Rice 2 Cups
Pulkas 2 Nos.
Pulses 20 g Dhal 1/2 Cup
Vegetables 150 g Veg. curry 3/4 Cup
Vegetables 50 g Veg. salad 7-8 Slices
Milk 100 ml Curd 1/2 Cup
Tea Cereals 50 g Snack
Milk 50 ml Tea 1 Cup
Sugar 10 g
Dinner Cereals 120 g Rice 2 Cups
Pulkas 2 Nos.
Pulses 20 g Dhal 1/2 Cup
Vegetables 150 g Veg. curry 3/4 Cup
Milk (Curd) 50 ml
Vegetables 50 g
Fruit 100 g Seasonal 1 Medium

1 Cup = 200 ml
Note: For Non-Vegetarians-Substitute one pulse portion with one portion of egg/
meat/ chicken/ fish
Use 25 g visible fat per day.

Breakfast Items: Idli - 4 Nos. / Dosa - 3 Nos. / Upma - 1-1/2 Cup / Bread - 4
Slices/Porridge - 2 Cups / Corn flakes with milk - 2 Cups.

Snacks: Poha - 1 Cup /Toast - 2 Slices Dhokla - 4 Nos.

26
 Sample Meal Plan for Adult Woman (Sedentary)

Cooked Servings
Meal Time Food Group Raw
Recipe Amounts
Breakfast Milk 100 ml Milk or 1/2 Cup
Sugar 10 g Tea or 2 Cups
Coffee 1 Cup
Cereals 50 g Breakfast Item
Pulses 20 g
Lunch
Cereals 100 g Rice 1 Cup
Pulkas 2 Nos.
Pulses 20 g Dhal 1/2 Cup
Vegetables 100 g Veg. curry 1/2 Cup
Vegetables 50 g Veg. salad 7-8 Slices
Milk 100 ml Curd 1/2 Cup

Tea Cereals 50 g Snack

Milk 50 ml Tea 1 Cup
Sugar 10 g
Dinner Cereals 100 g Rice 1 Cup
Phulkas 2 Nos.
Pulses 20 g Dhal 1/2 Cup
Vegetables 100 g Veg. curry 1/2 Cup
Milk (Curd) 50 ml
Vegetables 50 g
Fruit 100 g Seasonal 1 Medium

Note: For Non-Vegetarians - Substitute one pulse portion with one portion of
egg/meat/chicken/fish
Use 20 g visible fat and <5g salt during preparation of meal per day.

Breakfast Items: Idli - 3 Nos. / Dosa - 2 Nos. / Upma - 1 Cup / Bread - 3 Slices /
Porridge - 1-1/2 Cups / Corn flakes with milk - 1-1/2 Cup.

Snacks: Poha - 1 Cup / Toast - 2 Slices

Dhokla - 4 Nos.

Food groups

Foods are conventionally grouped as:

1. Cereals, millets and pulses
2. Vegetables and fruits
3. Milk and milk products, egg, meat and fish 4.Oils &fats and nuts & oilseeds

However, foods may also be classified according to their functions

27
 Classification of foods based on function

Major Nutrients Other Nutrients

Energy Rich Foods Carbohydrates & fats

Whole grain cereals, millets Protein, fibre, minerals,
calcium, iron & B-complex
vitamins
Vegetable oils, ghee, butter Fat soluble vitamins,
essential fatty acids
Nuts and oilseeds Proteins, vitamins, minerals
Sugars Nil
Body Building Foods Proteins
Pulses, nuts and oilseeds B-complex vitamins,
invisible fat, fibre
Milk and Milk products Calcium, vitamin A, riboflavin,
vitamin B12
Meat, fish, poultry B-complex vitamins, iron,
iodine, fat
Protective Foods Vitamins and Minerals
Green leafy vegetables Antioxidants, fibre and other
carotenoids
Other vegetables and fruits Fibre, sugar and
antioxidants
Eggs, milk and milk products Protein and fat
and flesh foods

Points to ponder

• Choose a variety of foods in amounts appropriate for age, gender,

physiological status and physical activity.
• Use a combination of whole grains, grams and greens. Include jaggery or
sugar and cooking oils to bridge the calorie or energy gap.
• Prefer fresh, locally available vegetables and fruits in plenty.
• Include in the diets, foods of animal origin such as milk, eggs and meat,
particularly for pregnant and lactating women and children.
• Adults should choose low-fat, protein-rich foods such as lean meat, fish,
pulses and low-fat milk.
• Develop healthy eating habits and exercise regularly and move as much as
you can to avoid sedentary lifestyle.

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Foods consumed should be safe and clean

• Safe and good-quality food is essential for maintaining good health

• Naturally-occurring toxins, environmental contaminants and adulterants in

foods constitute a health hazard.

• Consumption of unsafe foods can lead to food-borne diseases.

What makes food unsafe

Microbes (bacteria and moulds) and their products are responsible for food
spoilage. Natural enzymes present in food also lead to its deterioration. Besides,
insects and rodents, adulterants, natural toxins and various chemical residues
beyond permissible levels, make the food unwholesome. In addition to moisture
and environmental conditions like temperature, storage time also influence the
quality of the food.

How do we select safe food?

Selection of the right food is the first step to ensure safe and good quality
diet. Food items purchased from reliable sources having a high turnover ensure
their freshness. Some foods carry certification mark assuring good quality. For
example AGMARK for honey and ghee; FPO (Fruit Products Order) for fruit and
vegetable products (jams, squashes, etc); ISI (Bureau of Indian Standards) for
food colours and essences.

Food grains purchased should be free from foreign matter and infestation
(rodent excreta and insect remains). They should be of uniform size and should
not be shrivelled, shrunken and mouldy. Foodstuffs should be free from artificial
colours. There is a risk of adulteration when fats/oils are purchased loose from
unsealed containers. Therefore, it is always safer to purchase reputed brand
products in sealed sachets/ containers. It is necessary to buy pasteurized milk in
sachets from a reputed dairy or a reliable vendor to avoid the risk of adulteration
and contamination. Milk products such as butter, ghee and khoa should also be
purchased from reliable sources. Whole spices, uniform in colour, size and shape

29
should be preferred. Since powdered spices are more likely to be adulterated,
always buy certified products. Fruits and vegetables that show patches,
mechanical damage and bruises, or are wilted and decayed with visible evidence
of insects and moulds, should be avoided. Eggs should be fresh and free from
cracks. Meat or poultry must be examined for characteristic colour, odour and
texture, and should be purchased fresh or frozen.

Freshness of fresh-water fish is indicated by a stiff body, bright, clear and

bulging eyes, reddish gills, tight scales and absence of stale odour or
discolouration. Fresh fish will not show any pitting on finger pressure.

Best practices of storage

Agricultural commodities should be dried adequately and protected from

moisture in a safe storage structure (eg. tin with a tight lid) to prevent damage
from moulds. Microbes like bacteria and mould produce toxins (eg. aflatoxins).
Rodent attacks, and the presence of insects and microbes, not only reduce the
availability of nutrients but render the foods harmful. Frequent and careful
disinfestation of the storage premises using pesticides like aluminium phosphide
is essential. Some traditional household practices such as application of edible
oils to grains, placing dried neem leaves in storage bins etc., are known to
prevent infestations.

Why do foodborne diseases occur

Foodborne infections and toxicities are common particularly with

consumption of susceptible foods such as milk products like khoa, meat, poultry
and even cooked foods like rice. Improper processing, handling and cooking, and
keeping cooked foods in warm conditions for several hours before eating,
promote bacterial growth and toxin production.

30
Handling perishable foods

Perishable foods like milk, meat, vegetables and cooked foods, are prone
to spoilage due to microbes. These foods should be stored under refrigeration,
preferably at a temperature of 10 oC or less, which retards multiplication of
microorganisms. However, even refrigerated foods, if stored for long, can get
spoiled. Cross contamination can be avoided by keeping cooked and raw food
separately.

In case food which is cooked has to be stored for some time, it should be
kept either hot (more than 60oC) or be cooled quickly (below 10 oC). Most
micro-organisms multiply at temperatures between 10 and 60oC. Refrigerated
cooked food should be heated before consumption. However, repeated heating
may be avoided.

Personal hygiene

Food handlers should observe good personal hygiene to maintain food

safety. They should be free from obvious signs of illness, wounds and sores.
Traditionally in India, cooked food is touched by the hands while preparing,
serving and eating. Use of spoons and ladles should be encouraged to avoid
contamination. Hands should be washed thoroughly before starting the
preparation of food and after every interruption. Household pets like cats and
dogs often harbour dangerous pathogens. They should be kept away from places
where food is cooked, stored or served.

Common adulterants

Foods may be adulterated with non-food material or inferior quality product.

Spoilt, stale or poor quality food is made attractive and fresh by adding harmful
colours or other chemicals. Frequently adulterated food items are milk and milk
products, cereals, pulses and their products, edible oils and spices. The different
classes of adulterants include non-permitted colours like metanil yellow; non-
edible oils like castor oil; cheaper agricultural produce like various starches in milk

31
powder; extraneous matter like husk, sand and sawdust; and metal contaminants
like aluminum or iron filings. Consumption of adulterated foods could lead to
disease outbreaks of epidemic proportions. Buying from a reliable and reputed
source, careful checking of foods before purchase and insisting on certified
brands will all minimize the risk of food adulteration.

How to minimize effects of pesticide residues

Pesticides, used during cultivation of crops, can remain as residues in

foodstuffs, especially vegetables and fruits. Exposure of the population to
pesticide residues may be harmful and can be minimized by washing the
foodstuffs thoroughly in running water or by peeling. Cooking and other
processes can also reduce such residues (Annexure 12). Insect control
operations such as disinfestation in the kitchen by spraying pesticides is another
source of contamination. Utmost care should be taken to ensure that eatables are
well covered and protected from exposure to such harmful agents.

Points to ponder

• Buy food items from reliable sources after careful examination

• Wash vegetables and fruits thoroughly before use.

• Store the raw and cooked food properly and prevent microbial, rodent and
insect invasion.

• Refrigerate perishable food items till consumption.

• Maintain good personal hygiene and keep the cooking and food storage
areas clean and safe.

What are common Indian food beliefs, fads and taboos

Food habits are formed early in childhood, passed on from the elders in
the family and perpetuated into adulthood. Food beliefs either encourage or
discourage the consumption of particular foods. There can be neutral, harmless
or harmful practices. Unfortunately, most of the harmful beliefs and prejudices

32
(taboos) are associated with the diets of women and children, who are also the
most vulnerable to malnutrition. Exaggerated beneficial or harmful claims in
respect of some foods, without scientific basis constitute food fads. In addition,
the concept of hot and cold foods is widely prevalent. Hot foods are believed to
produce heat in the body. Some examples are jaggery, sugar, groundnuts, fried
foods, mango, bajra, jowar, maize, eggs and meat. Papaya fruit is strongly
suspected to lead to abortion, though there is no scientific basis. Buttermilk, curd,
milk, green gram dhal, green leafy vegetables, ragi, barley flour and apples are
considered as cold foods which are actually nutritious. Vegetarianism is often
practised in India on religious grounds. Since vitamin B12 is present only in foods
of animal origin, vegetarians should ensure an adequate consumption of milk.
During certain illnesses like measles and diarrhoea, dietary restriction is
practised. This can aggravate malnutrition in young children.

Effects of the precooking process

Foods, in their natural state, contain different nutrients in varying amounts.

Cooking improves the digestibility of most foods. Flesh foods get softened on
cooking and become easily chewable. Proper methods of cooking render foods
palatable by improving the appearance, taste, flavour and texture, thereby
enhancing acceptability. In addition, they help in destroying disease causing
organisms and eliminating natural inhibitors of digestion. In the course of dietary
preparation, depending on the recipe, foods are subjected to various processes
such as washing, cutting, fermentation, germination and cooking. In the Indian
cuisine, fermentation (idli, dosa, dhokla) and germination (sprouting) are common
practices. These methods improve digestibility and increase nutrients such as B-
complex vitamins and vitamin C.

Effects of washing and cutting

Foods should be washed well before cooking and consumption to remove

contaminants like pesticide residues, parasites and other extraneous material.
However, certain precautions need to be taken while washing and cutting to

33
minimize the loss of nutrients. Repeated washing of food grains like rice and
pulses results in losses of certain minerals and vitamins. Vegetables and fruits
should be washed thoroughly before cutting. Cutting of vegetables into small
pieces exposes a greater surface area of the foodstuff to the atmosphere,
resulting in loss of vitamins due to oxidation. Therefore, vegetables should be cut
into large pieces. Cut vegetables should not be soaked in water for long, as
water-soluble minerals and vitamins get dissolved. Water in which the food grains
and vegetables have been soaked should not be discarded but put to use to
prevent nutrient loss.

What are the effects of cooking?

There are many methods of cooking like boiling, steaming, pressure

cooking, frying, roasting and baking. Boiling is the most common method of
cooking, during which heat-labile and water-soluble vitamins like vitamin B-
complex and vitamin C are lost. The practice of using excess water while cooking
rice should be discouraged since it leads to loss of vitamins; just sufficient water
to be fully absorbed should be used. Vegetables should be cooked on low heat
using just adequate water in a covered vessel to preserve flavour and nutrients
and to reduce cooking time. Use of baking soda for hastening cooking of pulses
should not be practiced, as it results in loss of vitamins. Frying involves cooking
food in oil/ghee/ vanaspati at high temperatures. Shallow frying involves use of
much smaller amounts of oils than deep frying. Repeated heating of oils
particularly PUFA-rich oils, results in formation of peroxides and free radicals and,
hence, should be avoided by using just enough oil. Similarly, oils which have
been repeatedly heated should not be mixed with fresh oil but should be used for
procedures such as seasoning.

Microwave cooking

Microwave cooking is convenient, fast and preserves nutrients and also useful
in reheating of food. But it can reheat or cook unevenly and leave some cold
spots in the food by which harmful bacteria can enter into our body. So it is

34
discouraged to use large amounts or big pieces in the microwave oven otherwise
mix the food in between for even heating or cooking. Never use partially heated
food. Don't cook frozen food in the microwave oven directly it leaves some parts
of the food partially cooked.

Always use glass or pottery dishes and food grade microwave friendly
plastic dishes and wrap to reheat foods.

Points to ponder

• Avoid food faddism and discard erroneous food beliefs.

• Do not wash foodgrains repeatedly before cooking.
• Do not wash vegetables after cutting.
• Do not soak the cut vegetables in water for long periods.
• Do not discard the excess water left over after cooking. Use only sufficient
water for cooking.
• Cook foods in vessels covered with lids.
• Prefer pressure/steam cooking to deep frying/roasting.
• Encourage consumption of sprouted/fermented foods.
• Avoid use of baking soda while cooking pulses and vegetables.
• Do not reheat the left over oil repeatedly.

Water

Water should be taken in adequate amounts and beverages should be consumed

in moderation

• Water is the major constituent of the human body.

• Beverages are useful to relieve thirst and to meet fluid requirements of the
body.
• Some beverages provide nutrients while others act as stimulants.
• Milk is an excellent beverage for all age groups as it is a rich source of
nutrients.

35
Need for water

Water accounts for 70% of our body weight. It is a constituent of blood and
other vital body fluids. Water plays a key role in elimination of body wastes and
regulation of body temperature. The body loses water through sweat, urine and
faeces. This loss must be constantly made good with clean and potable water. A
normal healthy person needs to drink about 8 glasses (2 litres) of water per day.
During very hot weather and while undertaking vigorous physical activity, this
requirement increases as a considerable amount of water is lost through sweat.

When is water considered safe and wholesome

Water should be safe and wholesome i.e., it should be free from disease-
causing agents like bacteria, viruses, parasites etc., and harmful chemical
substances like pesticides, industrial wastes, heavy metals, nitrates, arsenic and
excess of fluoride. Fluorosis, a disease with bone deformities and dental
problems, results from drinking water containing an excess of fluoride over long
periods. Generally, a concentration of 0.5 to 0.8 mg of fluoride per litre of drinking
water is considered safe.

How is water rendered safe?

If a water source is not safe for drinking, boiling it for 10-15 minutes is a
satisfactory method of purification of the water. It kills all disease-causing
organisms and also removes temporary hardness. However, boiling will not
remove other chemical impurities. Tablets containing 0.5 g of chlorine can
disinfect 20 litres of water. There are many modern gadgets, which claim to
provide safe and wholesome water. However, they vary in efficacy.

Milk

Milk is a well-accepted and wholesome food and beverage for all age
groups. It contains most of the nutrients necessary for growth and development. It
is, therefore, specially useful or feeding infants, toddlers, growing children and
expectant women and nursing mothers. All the macro- and micronutrients are

36
present in an easily digestible and assimilable form in milk. Milk proteins possess
high biological value which is almost equal to that of meat, eggs and other high-
quality animal proteins. Milk proteins are valuable supplements to most vegetarian
diets.

Milk is a rich source of bioavailable calcium which helps in the building up

of strong bones. Milk fat serves as a vehicle for important fat-soluble vitamins A,
D and E. Since milk fat is of the saturated type, those who have to be on a low fat
diet can consume skimmed/toned milk. For strict vegetarians, milk is the only
source of vitamin B12. Milk is also rich in riboflavin, but is a poor source of
vitamins C and iron. However, only pasteurized or boiled milk should be
consumed to ensure protection from disease-causing agents.

What is lactose intolerance ?

Lactose, the sugar present in milk, helps in the establishment of lactic acid
bacteria in the intestinal tract. If lactase, an enzyme required for digestion of
lactose, is not present in sufficient amounts, such individuals develop abdominal
symptoms on consumption of excess of milk. This is common in children following
diarrhoea and is described as lactose intolerance. Drinking small quantities of milk
at a time does not usually cause any gastrointestinal problems and there is no
need to discourage intake of milk by children except in severe cases of diarrhoea.

What are soft drinks ?

Soft drinks are generally of two categories : natural soft drinks and artificial
or synthetic soft drinks. Water is the main constituent of all beverages. Orange,
lemon, grape, mango, pineapple and apple are generally used in making fruit
juice. Cane sugar juice is also extensively used in India, particularly during
summer. Natural fruit juices provide in addition to energy, some vitamins (beta
carotenes, vitamin C) and minerals (potassium, calcium). Fruit juices being
potassium rich are ideal beverages for those suffering from hypertensi on.
However, they cannot be equated with fruits which also provide dietary fibre.

37
 Compared to natural fruit juices, synthetic drinks do not contain nutrients
unless they are fortified. Generally, synthetic drinks are prepared using
preservatives, artificial colours and flavours such as cola, orange, mango and
lime, and mostly they are carbonated. Carbonated beverages contain phosphoric
acid and may damage the enamel of teeth, and affect appetite if taken in
excessive amounts. Water used for preparation of beverages should be free from
disease-causing agents and harmful chemical impurities. Beverages like
buttermilk, lassi, fruit juices and coconut water are better alternatives to synthetic
drinks.

What about tea and coffee?

Tea and coffee are popular beverages. They are known to relieve mental
and muscular fatigue. This characteristic stimulating effect is due to their caffeine
content. A cup (150 ml) of brewed coffee contains 80-120 mg of caffeine and
instant coffee 50-65 mg, while tea contains 30-65 mg of caffeine. Caffeine
stimulates the central nervous system and induces physiological dependence.
Generally, low doses (20-200 mg) of caffeine produce mild positive effects like a
feeling of well-being, alertness and being energetic. Higher doses (>200 mg) can
produce negative effects like nervousness and anxiety, especially in people who
do not usually consume caffeine-containing beverages. Therefore, moderation in
tea and coffee consumption is advised so that caffeine intake does not exceed
the tolerable limits. Tannin is also present in tea and coffee and is known to
interfere with iron absorption. Hence, tea and coffee should be avoided at least
for one hour before and after meals.

Besides caffeine, tea contains theobromine and theophylline. These are

known to relax coronary arteries and thereby promote circulation. Tea also
contains flavonoids and other antioxidant polyphenols, which are known to reduce
the risk for coronary heart disease and stomach cancer. However, as a result of
its caffeine content, excess tea consumption is deleterious to health.
Decaffeinated coffee and tea are being marketed to obviate the adverse effects of
caffeine.

38
 Coffee consumption is known to increase blood pressure and cause
abnormalities in heartbeat. In addition, an association between coffee
consumption and elevated levels of total and LDL cholesterol ('bad' cholesterol),
triglycerides and heart disease has been demonstrated. Therefore, individuals
with heart disease need to restrict coffee consumption. Also, those who
experience adverse effects from caffeine should stop drinking coffee.

Tender coconut water

Tender coconut water is a nutritious beverage. It has a caloric value of

17.4 per 100 gm. The concentration of sugar steadily increases from 1.5% to
about 5.5% in the early months of maturation and this slowly falls to about 2% at
the stage of full maturity. Tender coconut water contains most of the minerals
such as potassium (290 mg%), Sodium (42 mg%), Calcium (44 mg%),
magnesium (10 mg%), Phosphorus (9.2 mg%), iron (106 mg%), and copper (26
mg%). It is a oral rehydration medium and keeps the body cool. However, in
patients with hyper kalaemia such as renal failure, acute adrenal insufficiency and
in patients with low urine output, Tender Coconut Water should be avoided.

Alcohol

Alcoholic beverages contain ethyl alcohol in varying proportions. Beer

contains 2-5% and wine 8-10% of alcohol , while brandy, rum and whisky contain
much higher concentrations (30-40%). Alcohol has been extensively abused as
an appetite stimulant and as a sedative-hypnotic drug. Alcohol intake, which is
initiated as an innocent social habit may gradually result in a serious addiction. It
may lead to several serious psycho-social problems and accidents. Alcohol
provides higher calories (7 Kcal/g) than carbohydrates and proteins and, thus, can
contribute to obesity. Ironically, excessive intake of alcohol is known to suppress
appetite and interfere with absorption and metabolism of nutrients, leading to
various nutritional deficiency diseases.

Excessive intake of alcohol suppresses appetite and as a result, leads to

several nutritional deficiency diseases. People who regularly consume more than

39
two alcoholic drinks (one equals about 30 ml of ethanol) are at a higher risk for
hypertension and stroke. Alcohol intake has also been shown to increase the risk
of cancer of the mouth, larynx and oesophagus, prostate and of the breast in
women. Excessive alcohol intake weakens the heart muscle (cardiomyopathy)
and also damages the liver (cirrhosis), brain and peripheral nerves. It also
increases serum triglycerides.

Processed and ready to eat foods

Processed and ready to eat foods are rich in salt, sugar and fats. They should be
consumed judiciously. Sugar should be used sparingly.

• Urbanization has increased the intake and demand for processed foods.
• There is a trend towards replacing traditionally cooked foods with
processed foods.
• Processed foods may not be nutritionally balanced unless fortified. Sugar,
a processed food, provides empty calories.

What are processed foods

Foods that are subjected to technological modifications either for

preservation or for converting into ready-to-use/eat foods, eliminating laborious
household procedures, are called “processed foods”. Some of the examples are
ready mixes, dehydrated foods, pasta products, canned foods, confectioneries,
bakery, dairy products and breakfast foods. Manufacture of processed foods
requires technology application and machinery, and as a result, processed foods
are expensive.

Do we need processed foods?

There is an increased demand for processed, ready-to-eat and

convenience foods due to changes in lifestyle. As more and more women go to
work outside, and families become nuclear, consumption of processed foods,
particularly in urban areas, will be on the increase. Today's consumer is looking

40
for convenient, easy-to-cook, and ready-to-eat foods which require less time to
prepare than traditional home-cooked foods. Food processing is must to preserve
highly perishable products like milk, meat, fish and fresh fruits and vegetables.
Food processing increases the seasonal availability of foods and enables easy
transportation and distribution over long distances.

Exercise and physical activity

Individuals over the age of 20 years should undertake a minimum of 30-45

minutes of physical activity of moderate intensity (such as brisk walking 5-6
km/hr) on most, if not all, days of the week. Greater health benefits can be
obtained by engaging in physical activity of longer duration or more vigorous
intensity (such as jogging, running, cycling and swimming).

Sedentary people embarking on a physical activity programme should

undertake a moderate intensity activity of short duration to start with and
gradually increase the duration or intensity. Other day-to-day activities like
walking, housework, gardening, will be beneficial not only in weight reduction but
also for lowering of blood pressure and serum triglycerides. It also elevates HDL
(good) cholesterol in blood. Simple modification in lifestyle like deliberately
climbing up the stairs instead of using the lift and walking for short distance
instead of using a vehicle could also immensely help in increasing our physical
activity.

Exercise programme should include 'warm up' and 'cool down' periods
each lasting for 5 minutes. During exercise, the intensity of exercise should
ensure 60-70% increase in heart rate.

Previously inactive men over the age of 40 years, women over the age of
50 years and people at high risk for chronic diseases like heart disease and
diabetes should first consult a physician before engaging in a programme of
vigorous physical activity such as running and swimming.

41
 *Energy Expenditure on various Physical Activities (Kcal/Hr)

Activity Kcal/hr Activity Kcal/hr

Cleaning/Mopping 210 Shuttle 348
Gardening 300 Table Tennis 245
Watching TV 86 Tennis 392
Cycling 15 (Km/hr) 360 Volley Ball 180
Running Dancing 372
12 (Km/hr) 750 Fishing 222
10 (Km/hr) 655 Shopping 204
8 (Km/hr) 522 Typing 108
6 (Km/hr) 353 Sleeping 57
Walking 4 (Km/hr) 160 Standing 132
Sitting 86

* Approx. energy expenditure for 60 Kg reference man. Individuals with higher body
weight will be spending more calories than those with lower body weight. Reference
woman (50 kg) will be spending 5% less calories.

CALORIES USED

A 60-kg man will use the number of calories listed doing each activity
below. A person who weighs more will use more calories, and someone who
weighs less will use fewer calories.

42
 Energy costs of physical activities

Energy
Activity Examples of Activities
(Kcal/min)
1 Sleeping, Resting, Relaxing 1.0
2 Sitting, Sitting (Light Activities); Eating, Reading 1.5
Writing, Listening, Talking
3 Standing, Standing (Light Activity); Washing Face, 2.3
Shaving Combing, Watering Plants
4 Walking (Slow), Driving, Dusting, Bathing, Dressing, 2.8
Marketing, Childcare
5 Light manual work, sweeping, cleaning utensils, 3.3
washing clothes,
other house chores
6 Warm-up & recreational activities, walking up/ down 4.8
stairs, cycling, fetching water
7 Manual work (moderate pace), Loading/unloading, 5.6
Walking with load, Harvesting, Carpentry, Plumbing
8 Practice of Non-competitive sport/ Games, Cycling (15 6.0
kmph), Gymnastics, Swimming, Digging
9 High intense manual work & sports activities – 7.8
Tournaments, Wood cutting, Carrying heavy loads,
Running, Jogging

Forty-five minutes per day of moderate intensity physical activity provides

many health benefits. However, even greater health benefits can be gained
through more vigorous exercise or by staying active for a longer time. This also
burns more calories. Regardless of the activity being selected, one can do it all at
once or divide it into two or three parts during the day.

43
 National Food Security Mission
Operational Guidelines

The National Development Council (NDC) in its 53rd meeting held on 29th
May, 2007 adopted a resolution to launch a Food Security Mission comprising
rice, wheat and pulses to increase the production of rice by 10 million tons, wheat
by 8 million tons and pulses by 2 million tons by the end of the Eleventh Plan
(2011-12). Accordingly, a Centrally Sponsored Scheme, ‘National Food Security
Mission’ (NFSM), has been launched from 2007-08 to operationalise the above-
mentioned resolution.

The National Food Security Mission has three components (i) National
Food Security Mission - Rice (NFSM - Rice); (ii) National Food Security Mission-
Wheat (NFSM - Wheat); and (iii) National Food Security Mission - Pulses (NFSM-
Pulses).

Mission objectives

Increasing production of rice, wheat and pulses through area expansion

and productivity enhancement in a sustainable manner in the identified districts of
the country;

• Restoring soil fertility and productivity at the individual farm level;

• Creation of employment opportunities; and
• Enhancing farm level economy (i.e. farm profits) to restore confidence
amongst the farmers.

Strategy

To achieve the above objectives, the Mission would adopt following

strategies:

1. Implementation in a mission mode approach through active engagement of

all the stakeholders at various levels.

44
 • Promotion and extension of improved technologies i.e., seed, Integrated
Nutrient Management (INM) including micronutrients, soil amendments,
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and resource conservation
technologies along with capacity building of the farmers.

• Flow of fund would be closely monitored to ensure that interventions reach

the target beneficiaries on time.

• Various interventions proposed would be integrated with the district plan

and targets for each identified district would be fixed.

• Constant monitoring and concurrent evaluation for assessing the impact of

the interventions for a result oriented approach by the implementing
agencies.

Mission structure

National level

A General Council (GC) will be constituted under the chairmanship of the

Union Agriculture Minister. A Mission Director will be appointed at the national
level. The composition of the GC will be as under:

(i) Minister of Agriculture Chairman

(ii) Secretary (A&C) Member
(iii) Secretary (DARE) & DG (ICAR) Member
(iv) Secretary, Ministry of Finance Member
(v) Adviser (Agriculture), Planning Commission Member
(vi) Agriculture Commissioner Member
(vii) Mission Director Member Secretary

The GC will be the policymaking body providing suitable directives and

guidance to the Mission and reviewing the overall progress and development of
the scheme. The GC will be empowered to lay down and amend the operational
guidelines, decide need based reallocation of resources across states and
districts and approve projects as per the requirements. However, the subsidy

45
norms as approved by the Government shall in no circumstances be exceeded for
any of the Mission components. The GC will meet at least twice a year.

A National Food Security Mission Executive Committee (NFSMEC) will be

constituted under the Chairmanship of Secretary, Department of Agriculture &
Cooperation to oversee the activities of the Mission and to approve the State
Action Plans. The NFSMEC will comprise the following:

(i) Secretary (A&C) Chairman

(ii) Secretary (DARE) & DG (ICAR) Member
(iii) Secretary, MOWR Member
(iv) Secretary, Department of Fertilizers Member
(v) Adviser (Agriculture), Planning Commission Member
(vi) Agriculture Commissioner Member
(vii) Five (5) experts on crop production Member
(viii) Mission Director Member Secretary

Function of the NFSMEC will be to oversee the activities of the Mission and
to approve the individual State Action Plans. The Chairman may nominate more
members to the committee as per requirement. The NFSMEC will meet once in
every quarter.

State level

A State Food Security Mission Executive Committee (SFSMEC) will be

constituted by the State Governments under the chairmanship of Chief Secretary
to oversee the activities of the Mission in the State. Secretary (Agriculture),
Secretary (Irrigation), Secretary (Power) and representatives from other
Departments concerned, State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), ICAR Institutes,
Lead banks, etc. will be the members of the SFSMEC. A State Mission Director
will be appointed in the scale of Director (from within the State Government or
outside). The constitution of the State Food Security Mission Executive
Committee (SFSMEC) will be as follows:

46
 (i) Chief Secretary of the State Chairman
(ii) Secretary (Agriculture) Member
(iii) Secretary (Irrigation) Member
(iv) Secretary (Power) Member
(v) Vice Chancellor(s) Member
(vii) Director/Project Director of ICAR Institutes Member
(viii) State Mission Director Member Secretary

The State Governments will have to nominate or create a suitable

autonomous agency registered under the Societies Registration Act for
implementing the Mission at the State and district levels. The agency thus
nominated will implement the Mission's programme in the State. Such an agency
could be the State Agricultural Management & Extension Training Institute
(SAMETI) at the State Level and the Agricultural Technology Management
Agency (ATMA) at the district level.

Separate accounts for the scheme would be maintained by the State and
the District level Agencies as per the Account code prescribed by the NFSMEC.
The annual accounts would be duly audited by a chartered accountant every
year. The State Level Agency will have the following responsibilities:

1. Prepare perspective and State Action Plan in consonance with the

Mission's goals and objectives and in close coordination with SAUs and
ICAR Institutes. Organize/conduct baseline survey and feasibility studies in
the area of operation (district, sub-district or a group of districts) to
determine the status of crop production, its potential and demand. Similar
studies would also be undertaken for other components of the
programmes.
2. Implementation of the Mission's programmes in the State through
Farmers Societies, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs),
Growers' associations, Self-Help Groups, State institutions and other
similar entities.
3. Organize workshops, seminars and training programmes for farmers
and other stakeholders at the State level with the help of State

47
 Agricultural Universities and ICAR Institutes in the State.

Funds would be directly received by it from the National Food Security

Mission to execute the approved Action Plan for the State.

District level

At the district level, the scheme will be implemented through the ATMA.
The State Level Agency will provide the required funds to the District Level
Agency for execution of the programme at the district / block level.

A District Food Security Mission Executive Committee (DFSMEC) will be

constituted for project formulation, implementation and monitoring of the scheme
components through the Agriculture Department. The District Collector or Chief
Executive Officer of the Zilla Parishad (as per existing norms of the State
Government) will be the Chairman of the DFSMEC.

DFSMEC will have representatives from the line Departments concerned

including SAUs, Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), ATMA, progressive farmers, self-
help groups of farmers and reputed NGOs as its members. The Deputy Director
(Agriculture) / District Agriculture Officer will be the Member Secretary of the
DFSMEC. The constitution of the DFSMEC will be as follows:

(i) District Collector/CEO of Zilla Parishad Chairman

(ii) Representatives from line Departments Member
(iii) Nominated progressive farmers Member
(iv) Representatives from self help groups of farmers Member
(v) Representatives from reputed NGOs Member
(vi) Representative of KVK / SAU in the District Member
(vii) Project Director ATMA Member
(viii) Deputy Director (Agriculture)/District Member Agricultural Officer

48
Project management team

A Project Management Team (PMT) will be constituted at the National level

under the leadership of Mission Director. A PMT will also be constituted at the
State and the district level under the leadership of a Project Manager drawn from
the State Government. At the State level, the Project Manager will be of the level
of a Director.

The PMTs will be assisted by technical experts to be appointed on

contractual basis for technology transfer and implementation of the Mission. The
PMTs will have the responsibility to ensure collaboration among various line
departments in the Centre/ State / District to achieve the targets.

The Project management team will have the following responsibilities:

(a) Guide the States/districts in organizational and technical matters.
(b) Help in the implementation and monitoring of the various interventions of
the NFSM.
(c) Assist the States/districts in capacity building programmes and record the
data on crop yield through crop cutting experiment samples.
(d) Assist the district and state agencies in concurrent evaluation based on
case studies in identified districts and document and disseminate the
success stories.
(e) Undertake publicity/information campaign to promote the Mission
objectives.

ICAR institutes/ SAUs, their research stations and KVKs functioning in the
district will provide technical support in formulation of projects, its implementation
and monitoring. The technical staff will be sourced from these organizations for
imparting training to the farmers and extension personnel involved in the
implementation and monitoring of the NFSM.

Role of Panchayati Raj Institutions

Panchayati Raj Institutions will be actively involved in following activities:

49
 (i) Selection of beneficiary and identification of priority areas for the
implementation of Mission interventions; and
(ii) Implementation of Local Initiatives in the identified districts.

Area of operation of food security mission

NFSM - Rice, NFSM - Wheat and NFSM - Pulses will be implemented in

136, 141 and 171 identified districts of different States, respectively.

The GC, based on the latest available data, is empowered to include or

exclude the districts for implementation of various components of the Mission.

Mechanism of fund flow

Funds for implementing the Mission's programme will be directly released

to the State Level Agency with the approval of the NFSMEC. The State Level
Agency would make funds available to the District Level Agency in accordance
with approved programme of the district. Funds would be released in installments
based on the progress reports and submission of utilization certificates.

The funds for the implementation of the activities of the components will be
released by the State/District Level Agency to the nodal departments which will
procure the required inputs for the district. The nodal departments will submit the
utilization certificate to the State/District Level Agency which, will be compiled and
a consolidated utilization certificate, duly authenticated by the DFSMEC and
SFSMEC will be submitted to the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India for further
releases.

Monitoring

The National Food Security Mission will have a strong mechanism of

monitoring and evaluation with the involvement of all the implementing agencies
and the line departments. At the district level, monitoring will be undertaken by
DFSMEC supported by the Project Management Team.

50
 Close monitoring of physical and financial targets of various program
interventions would be done by the monitoring teams. Format for monitoring these
interventions would be prescribed by NFSMEC.

At the State level, the activities of the Mission will be monitored by a

Committee to be constituted under the Chairmanship of the State Mission Director
with members from the line departments, SAUs, lead banks, ICAR institutes and
the national crop development directorates nodal for the State.

At the National level, the activities of the Mission will be monitored by a

Committee to be constituted under the Chairmanship of the Mission Director with
members from Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, SAUs, Directorate of Rice, Wheat and Pulses
Development, research institutions concerned and officials of State Departments
concerned.

Criteria for Identification of Areas and Beneficiaries

In accordance with the decision of the Government of India regarding

implementation of Special Component Plan (SCP) for Scheduled Castes and
Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) for Scheduled Tribes, 16% of the total allocation for SCP
and 8% for TSP will be earmarked.

• At least 33% allocation of the fund is to be made for small, marginal and
women farmers. The allocation to SC/ST farmers will be made proportionate
to their population in the district.
• All the farmers are entitled to avail the assistance for various components of
the Mission limited to 5 hectares in a season.
• All India Soil and Land Use Survey (AISLUS) will be the nodal agency for
identification of priority areas for the application of micronutrients, gypsum
and lime.
• Various interventions in the Mission are location specific. The System of
Rice Intensification (SRI) will be adopted in the districts which are

51
 considered suitable for adoption of technology as decided by the State
Agriculture Department on the basis of assured availability of water during
various stages of crop production.
• A district level Seed Committee will be constituted by the Chairman of
DFSMEC which will be tasked to verify the list of beneficiaries for seeds, its
indent and the ultimate distribution to end users. In case the subsidy on seed
is administered at source, the list of beneficiaries may be appproved post-
facto subject to random verification.

Zonal research stations of SAUs, KVKs, ATMA, reputed NGOs and other
line departments will be involved in planning and execution of demonstration,
training of farmers and their evaluation. The Project Management Team at the
district level will help in developing synergy among various line departments to
get the desired output.

Procedure for approval and implementation

The Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Government of India would

communicate the tentative annual outlay to each State, which in turn will indicate
component-wise district-wise allocation. The agencies at the district level will
prepare the annual action plan keeping in view their priority and potential and
submit the plan to the State Level Agency. The States concerned will be required
to prepare a State Action Plan based on the District Action Plans for the XI Plan.
States could engage the Project Management Team or alternatively, outsource to
technical consultants for preparing the Annual Action Plans and State Food
Security Mission Document. The State Level Agency will get the State Action Plan
vetted by the State Food Security Mission Executive Committee (SFSMEC) and
furnish the same to Ministry of Agriculture for consideration by the NFSMEC.

SFSMEC is empowered to make inter-componental changes based on the

local needs to the extent of 20 % of the total allocation for NFSM-Rice, NFSM-
Wheat and NFSM-Pulses.

52
Position of ongoing schemes

The Centrally Sponsored Scheme on Integrated Cereal Development

Programme (ICDP Rice/wheat) will be discontinued in the identified districts once
the NFSM-Rice and NFSM-Wheat become operational there.

The National Food Security Mission-Pulses (NFSM-Pulses) will be

implemented in existing as well as in additional area of 171 identified districts in
14 States of the country. The Pulse component of ISOPOM will cease to operate
in these 171 identified districts except for the components which are not covered
under NFSM-Pulses.

Mission interventions

Various interventions proposed under the three components (Rice, wheat

and Pulses) of NFSM are as follows:

Demonstration

i. Demonstrations of improved package of practices of rice and wheat, System

of Rice Intensification (SRI) and hybrid rice will be conducted at farmers'
fields to create awareness about the improved practices (improved/ hybrid
seed, fertilizer management and other practices).
ii. One demonstration on 0.4 ha for every 100 ha area of rice and 50 ha area of
wheat will be conducted during the XI plan period. Number of
demonstrations each year will be approximately 1/5th of the number for the
XIth five-year plan. Only one demonstration will be allocated to a farmer.
iii. The demonstrations will be conducted in a contiguous block by dividing the
fields in two blocks, one for improved practices and the other for farmer's
practices.
iv. These demonstrations will be collaboratively conducted by the State
Department of Agriculture, SAUs, ICAR institutes and KVKs and reputed
NGOs.
v. Selection of beneficiary farmers: Only the farmers willing to cooperate and
contribute some of the resources should be selected. Selection of

53
 beneficiaries should be done in a participatory manner by holding meetings
in the village by explaining the objectives of the demonstrations and role and
responsibilities including expectations from the participating farmer.
vi. Selection of site: Demonstration site should be easily accessible for the
farmers and the extension workers. It should not be on an isolated field. The
selected site should be the representative of Soil type, prevailing soil fertility
status of the area.
vii. Soil analysis: As far as possible soil fertility status of the selected field
should be known well in advance for deciding the use of fertilizer and soil
ameliorants.
viii. Identification of technologies to be demonstrated: This is very important
step in planning a demonstration. The improved practices to be
demonstrated should be identified in consultation with SAU through their
regional research stations/KVKs located in the area. However, the most
critical input should be given top priority such as in case of acidic soil,
correction of soil acidity through liming should be done while conducting a
demonstration on improved package. The variety to be included in the
package should not be older than five years.
ix. Development of package of inputs to be distributed: Once the
technologies to be demonstrated are identified, a package should be
finalized as to what inputs are to be provided for the conduct of these
demonstrations in the form of a demonstration kit. Similarly the contribution
of inputs to be provided by the beneficiary farmers (If required) may also be
decided.
x. Distribution of demonstration kits and training of participating farmers:
A training programme should be organised to brief the beneficiary farmers
about the procedure to be followed for conducting demonstrations. Farmers
should be informed about the critical operations for the demonstrations. The
demonstration kits may be distributed to the farmers during this training
programme. The demonstrations should be conducted by extension
functionaries of the state department of agriculture under the supervision of

54
 district consultants.
xi. District Consultant assisted by Technical Assistants of NFSM should monitor
the conduct of demonstrations throughout the cropping season and should
report the outcome in prescribed format to the district level PMT.
xii. Display board: A display board should be put on the demonstration plot. In
addition to other information, the display board should contain information
about the critical input or farm operation that is required to be demonstrated.
xiii. Field day: A field day is to be organised during reproductive phase of the
crop preferably at grain filling stage. The participation of scientists from
SAUs/KVKs should be ensured and some relevant extension literature
should also be made available to the participating farmers.
xiv. Reporting of the Results: The results of the demonstration should be
compiled at block, district and state level. At state level the results of the
demonstrations should be compiled in the form of a booklet.

55
 Nutrition-Oriented Agriculture and Food Diversification

Household food security is a pre-condition to achieving nutrition security.

To improve the households and community’s situation the efficiency of existing
utilisation of resources should be improved. At the same time conserving and,
where possible, enhancing the productive capacity of the resources can be an
aim. The strategy should involve sound land-use planning and subsequent
implementation of actions at community and household level to match demands
with the potentials of both the land and its people (FAO 1996).

Increased production and diversification of food need to be promoted in

such a way as to offer particular benefit to the rural poor. Measures should
include targeted interventions to increase the productivity of small-scale farmers
such as production incentives, development of an efficient marketing
infrastructure for food products and improved seeds. In addition more research
input would be required to improve the food production situation in rain-fed and
disadvantaged areas, e.g. areas where shifting cultivation is practised. To ensure
a proper impact of food production and diversification programmes, nutrition
agricultural measures have to be accompanied by effective extension services,
credit availability for men and women and encouragement in using inputs such as
fertiliser and improved seeds. Technology combined with investment in people -
especially education for men and women farmers, particularly on nutrition and
health – can show high rates of return.

In some rural areas the overriding nutritional problems are not just
associated with the shortage of food, but also with the lack of job and income.
Poor households are more likely to contain malnourished members. Women and
children are often the most severely affected. Producer incentives and new
technologies that increase production and employment in the agricultural sector,
including the establishment of small- and medium-scale food-processing facilities,
can help augment incomes, alleviate poverty and improve food security at
household level. Incorporating nutritional considerations in production policies and

56
programmes can avoid some of the negative effects sometimes associated with
new technology. The health and nutrition risks of technological change must be
mitigated through appropriate technology design. There is substantial scope for
agricultural, public health and nutrition workers and researchers to collaborate on
improving the designs of agricultural programmes.

Selected agricultural interventions to improve household food security

Improvement of staple food production is necessary to ensure sufficiency

of staple food (such as rice, sorghum, maize, etc.) throughout the year. Measures
recommended are ones to improve production such as irrigation systems,
terraces, up-land farming systems, etc. Interventions in the field of land
entitlements and management of water supply for agricultural production are also
included here. Introduction of improved and more productive seeds, improved soil
management, encourage-ment of marketing of seeds as well as the
implementation of essential infrastructure may become necessary. In up-land
areas measure to improve cultivation techniques including mixed cropping
systems and improved seed varieties could increase productivity. Promotion of
food diversification to increase production of nutritious food items, with special
emphasis on fat-, protein- and micro-nutrient rich foods. Examples are the
increased production of mung, soy, and various other beans or seeds (sun-
flowers, sesame, peanuts), various kinds of green leafy or yellowish coloured
vegetables to increase consumption of iron and Vitamin A. Products have to be
selected according to the production potential of the area, preferences of the
population as well as the predominant nutrition deficiency found in the area.
Specific measures can be implemented in up-land as well as in lowland areas,
home or village gardens. Fruit tree production is a valuable investment to improve
the quality of diet in the long term.

Increase production of food from animals; animal raising programmes,

including the introduction of new and more productive breeds, vaccination
programmes and fodder production. Raising of big animals (cows, buffaloes, etc.)

57
is mainly seen as a measure to increase household income, while poultry raising
can contribute directly to food consumption within the family. Fish raising is also a
valuable measure where appropriate places and water are available. However,
measures to be implemented at community and household level are not
independent from higher levels, they need political commitment, support and
structures through which the measures are implemented.

Food production in urban areas

Feeding the growing population of cities in developing countries has

become a major concern during the past decade. Food supply coming from rural
areas is and in the future will continue to be the base to ensure food security in
cities. But agriculture in and nearby cities has to play a very important
complementary function to
• increase agricultural production by using available land, water and waste
resources.
• improve quality and quantity of food supply (more food and fresh food rich in
micro- nutrients, introduction of home gardens, or poultry raising).
• improve the socio-economic situation, creating jobs and income from food
production especially of poor population groups,
• contribute to sustainable development of urban areas and to prevent food
crisis of large population groups.

Food quality and safety

Acceptable levels of food quality and safety can be achieved by

implementing and monitoring quality assurance measures along the entire food
chain. Food control measures are diverse and complex. The technical dimensions
involved are different for nearly every food product, for the various technologies
used in food preparation, processing and manufacturing and for the many types
of facilities in which food is produced. The various measures range from good
agricultural and good veterinary practices at the farm level to good manufacturing
and good hygienic practices applied in food processing. In view of the many

58
concerns of consumers and the scope and dimensions of food quality and safety
problems, technical assistance is often needed. Governments are expected to
ensure that the food industry produces safe food and that the risks to human
health and economic fraud or unfair trade practices are minimised.

Many developing countries do not have access to the latest information

related to new technologies. They may lack technically trained staff, equipment,
methods and facilities to analyse food for contaminants, toxins, chemical or drug
residues or microbiological contamination. In some countries the legal framework
related to food quality and safety needs to be revised and regulations governing
food standards are lacking or outdated. Food control infrastructure may be weak
and may not have sufficient financial support. Many countries need improved
regulatory food inspection and laboratory services, development of a food control
enforcement programme and administration and co-ordination of food control
activities.

Many developing countries rely on food exports for foreign exchange and
thus have a particular interest in strengthening national food control systems,
harmonising national food regulations with international standards and
establishing import and export food inspection and certification systems to ensure

conformity with the World Trade Organization’s agreements regarding sanitary

and phytosanitary measures and technical barriers to trade. (Whitehead 1999,

FAO, Food and Nutrition Division).

Nutrition education and communication

Promoting better eating habits and positive health behaviour is one of the
most challenging tasks in overall efforts to improve nutrition. In addition to access
to a variety of safe and affordable foods, people need accurate information as to
what constitutes a healthy diet and how to meet their nutritional needs. Besides
education, strategies to promote healthy diets must include motivation and the
creation of opportunities for people to change their behaviour while recognizing

59
individual preferences, lifestyles and constraints of time and resources
(FAO/WHO 1992). Dietary guidelines give the recommended dietary allowances
for an individual. They are most useful to serve as the basis and provide the
guiding principles for the dissemination of nutrition education messages. More
recently, governments and private organizations have issued dietary guidelines
reflecting growing concern about prevention of diet-related non-communicable
diseases.

60
 A Nutrition Secure India - Role of Agriculture

Suneetha Kadiyala, P K Joshi, S Mahendra Dev, T Nanda Kumar, Vijay Vyas

India continues to suffer from under-nutrition among large sections of its

population. The country is unlikely to realise the first millennium development
goal by 2015. How can agriculture be used to improve nutritional status?

India’s progress in improving nutrition has been unacceptably slow: given

the country’s positive economic trajectory, nutrition has improved at only half the
expected pace. Almost one in two Indian children is stunted and 40% are
underweight. One-third of all Indian women are underweight. Rates of
micronutrient deficiencies are extremely high, with almost 80% of children and
56% of women being anaemic.

Nutrition Insecurity in India

The data on nutrition indicators reveal significant socio-economic

inequalities. Several recent studies show the persistence of economic inequities
with respect to nutrition improvements over the last two decades (Sen et al 2011;
Subramanyam et al 2011; Pathak and Singh 2011). These findings, in the light of
India’s economic growth, suggest that India’s under-nutrition problem has roots in
systemic factors affecting virtually the entire population. The prevalence of
underweight among children is 14% to 20% higher among the scheduled castes
(SCs) and scheduled tribes (STs) than children from other castes. Moreover, the
reduction in the prevalence of under-nutrition has been far slower among children
belonging to SCs and STs than children from other castes (Thorat and Sabharwal
2011).

With sustained political commitment and leadership, countries such as

China, Vietnam, Senegal, Thailand and Brazil have taken bold actions to
successfully accelerate reductions in under-nutrition and are on track to reach the
first millennium development goal (MDG) target by the year 2015. For example,

61
Thailand, Vietnam and Brazil positioned nutrition as an investment and an integral
part of socio-economic development making this transformational change
possible. But India will meet the first MDG target only in 2043 with its present
pace of actions (Haddad 2009). In the meantime, under-nutrition continues to
exert a physical, cognitive and economic toll, costing India as much as 3% of its
gross domestic product (GDP) per year. The Copenhagen Consensus 2008 lists
combating micronutrient under-nutrition as the best development investment, with
the rate of return in terms of improved health, reduced deaths and increased
income opportunities more than 15 times that of the investment.

Need for Meaningful Convergence

The multiple causes of under-nutrition, at the individual, household and

societal levels, are now well-recognised. Globally and locally in India, reasonable
scientific consensus exists on what direct health and nutrition interventions will
work. The central and state governments allocate substantial resources to an
array of health and nutrition programmes or schemes, such as the Integrated
Child Development Services Scheme, mid-day meals, the reproductive and child
health programme and National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) to deliver these
direct interventions. The challenge for India now lies in making these interventions
truly effective at scale. While effectively scaling-up direct nutrition and health
interventions is essential, it is not enough: India must invest in cross-sectoral
efforts to act on the deep-rooted causes of under-nutrition in order to sustainably
tackle two-thirds of the under-nutrition burden. As noted above, under-nutrition
reductions in countries such as Brazil, China, Senegal and Thailand have shown
the need to complement these interventions with approaches that address under-
nutrition’s deep-rooted causes.

This comprehensive approach to solving the under-nutrition crisis is

gaining momentum in India. The prime minister’s National Council on India’s
Nutrition Challenges, formed in 2008 is multisectoral, with representation from
more than one dozen ministries. The council’s key recommendations include

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creation of new institutional arrangements that encourage different sectors to
work together. Several states, including Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and
Orissa are experimenting with moving nutrition into “Mission Mode” at the state
level to accelerate reductions in under-nutrition.

Under-nutrition in India (%)

Nutrition indicators NFHS II NFHS II

(1998-99) (2005-06)
Stunting (children <3) 51 45
Wasting (children <3) 20 23
Underweight (children <3) 43 40
Anaemia (<11.0g/dl) (children 6-35 months) 74 79
Vitamin A deficiency (children <5) NA 57
Women with BMI <18.5 36 33
Men with BMI <18.5 NA 28
Women with anaemia 52 56
Men with anaemia NA 24

Source: National Family Health Survey (NFHS)-3 (2005-06).http://www.nfhsindia.org/pdf/India.pdf

Why focus on agriculture?

The pathways through which agriculture affects nutrition are now widely ac-
cepted (World Bank 2007; Gillespie and Kadiyala 2011). Global evidence
suggests that many developing countries are exploiting these links, but India
seems to lag behind (Headey 2011). The challenges facing the agriculture sector
in India may be significant, but so are the opportunities. First, the agriculture
sector employs nearly 58% of the total Indian workforce and generates more than
55% of the rural income, so the potential for agriculture to influence nutrition at
scale is large. Second, more than 80% of rural women engaged in the labour
force work in the agriculture sector. This provides a significant opportunity to
unleash the gender dimensions of agriculture-nutrition linkages. Third, the
commitment of the Government of India and across the States to invest in

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agriculture is very strong. A policy space now exists to strengthen agriculture to
improve nutrition outcomes.

Some policy options

Several entry points exist for the agriculture sector to make agriculture
more pro-nutrition (Dev and Kadiyala 2011). Below are some specific policy
approaches as a starting point to make the agriculture sector more “pro-poor” and
“pro-nutrition”.

Leveraging existing platforms

The thrust of Indian agriculture sector is to move forward with key schemes
and missions such as Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), National Horticulture
Mission (NHM) and National Food Security Mission, initiated in the Tenth and the
Eleventh Five-Year Plans. Such large-scale platforms should focus on improving
Indian citizens’ nutrition security, especially in districts with a substantial overlap
between poverty and under-nutrition. RKVY, a bottom-up and demand-driven
platform, gives states the incentive to develop comprehensive plans for the
agricultural sector, taking into consideration the available technologies, agro-
climatic conditions and natural-resource issues. It encourages effective integration
of livestock, poultry and fish farming with the crop sector. RKVY’s flexibility and
decentralized planning and implementation make integrating nutrition-security
concerns into its agenda a possibility. NHM paid dividends by increasing
production of horticultural commodities. Now is the time to harness NHM’s
potential by realigning its goals and strategy from a nutrition perspective. The
opportunities to dovetail its implementation, leveraging other platforms such as
RKVY, National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) and state level nutrition
missions are worth serious exploration.

A minimum of 15% of all RKVY and NHM funds could be channelled to

plans that integrate nutrition security concerns into their planning, implementation
and monitoring. For example, RKVY, NHM and other platforms could use pro-

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nutrition funds for programmes that manage water, prevent agriculture-associated
waterborne diseases (such as malaria), develop an ecologically sound small-
ruminant sector, and create nutrition- sensitive value chains.

Improving access

While leveraging the existing platforms, as noted above, has a huge

potential to boost production of nutrient-rich foods, India can do more. Food still
constitutes, on average, more than half of the expenditures of Indian households.
The overall consumption pattern in the last two decades is one of stable rice and
wheat consumption for the poor, a rise in fat consumption, sharp declines in
coarse cereal consumption, continued decline in pulses consumption and rising
consumption of high-value foods (micro - nutrientrich fruits, vegetables, livestock
and fish). Given these contrasting trends, determining whether the average Indian
diet has improved or deteriorated during the last 25 years requires further
empirical investigation.

Improve access to nutrient-rich foods

The agriculture sector is responding to changing demand patterns. In

aggregate, the high-value food segment accounts for about 47% of the total value
of agricultural output. Because India has a large share of small and marginal
holdings, the country should explore providing incentives to small farmers to grow
vegetables and fruits for household consumption – a strategy that is successful in
Thailand. Pulse production in the last two decades, with the exception of 2010,
has remained stubbornly low. The urgent need for a technological breakthrough
to increase the yield potential of pulses is widely acknowledged. India now needs
to match this with the required investment in research and development and
effective extension services to ensure the poor and vulnerable have access to
pulses. A majority of the livestock and small ruminant population is concentrated
in marginal smallholdings, and women play a significant role in animal husbandry
through direct involvement in major operations like feeding, breeding,
management and healthcare. Therefore, progress in this sector will result in a

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more balanced development of the rural economy, particularly in poverty
reduction and improved access to nutrient-rich diets. Decentralized procurement
of food grains under the public distribution system must be mandated to ensure
revival of agriculture in resource-poor areas. Inclusion of nutritious and diverse
foods (such as millets, eggs, soy beans and so on) in the decentralized
procurement basket offers an excellent opportunity to provide locally acceptable
nutritious food to the people while mitigating the problems of storage of food
commodities. It also offers a real potential to fortify food commodities with key
micronutrients (for example, fortifying wheat with iron). Food stamps or conditional
cash transfers targeted to women for the purchase of perishable nutrient-rich
foods such as milk, fruits, and vegetables could be considered. Such reforms offer
a win-win solution, improving diet quality as well as stimulating and diversifying
local agricultural production.

Biofortification of staple crops

India must intensify and accelerate its efforts to realize the potential of
biofortified crops-not necessarily genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
Biofortification is a process of breeding higher levels of micronutrients (especially
zinc, iron and Vitamin A) directly into key staple foods using conventional
breeding methods or biotechnology. Several efforts to conventionally- bred (using
non-GMO breeding techniques) beta-carotene-rich sweet potato and iron- and
zinc-biofortified pearl millet are underway. India must prioritise public research
investment to ramp up the development of technologies and effective supply
chains to increase the production and consumption of these nutrient-rich foods.

Leveraging agriculture to empower women

Accelerating under nutrition reduction in India requires realigning

agriculture and rural development policy to empower women in agriculture.
Resources targeted to women and women’s groups significantly improve
agricultural productivity, women’s control of resources or assets, and health and
nutrition outcomes.

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 The country should promote women’s cooperatives, producer women’s
groups and other forms of group efforts, where they do not already exist. This
would enable women to overcome the constraints of small, marginally profitable
landholdings, thereby improving the dissemination of agricultural technology and
other inputs, as well as marketing of produce.

The NRLM under the Ministry of Rural Development offers significant

potential for convergence with the agricultural sector to empower women to care
for themselves and their children. NRLM’s federation of self-help groups (SHGs)
could radically alter the balance of power not only in the markets they participate
in as both producers and consumers, but also in their communities and
households.

Women’s groups, including SHGs under NRLM, can become instrumental

in meaningful convergence of health, nutrition, education and other broad-based
schemes addressing the deep-rooted causes of under-nutrition. Examples of such
group-centric pro-nutrition approaches include producing and consuming nutrient-
rich foods through homestead horticulture and poultry interventions; establishing
and maintaining micronutrient food fortification units; producing and marketing
low-cost, nutrient-dense supplementary foods; developing primary food
processing; enabling women and their children to access essential health and
nutrition services; and catalyzing critical behaviour change for optimal health and
nutrition outcomes in the long run through community mobilization, including the
involvement of panchayati raj institutions, around nutrition-specific issues and
actions.

Empowering women in agriculture, which is essential to India’s nutrition

security, requires securing women’s rights to land, providing efficient and effective
legal support and enhancing women farmers’ access to inputs. For example,
entitling women in land records as cultivators on family farms, where women
operate the land registered under the name of the male household members,
would make a significant difference in accessing various government programme

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benefits. The government could accomplish this with a comprehensive,
countrywide directive that recognizes women’s claims in all government land
transfers, including transfers for social protection, income generation (crop
cultivation, fish cultivation), or resettlement. While linking women in agriculture to
the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is certainly
in the discourse, these linkages are yet to be operationalised.

Institutions of information, extension, credit, inputs and marketing needs

have a profound gender bias that must be corrected urgently by taking into
account women’s mobility, domestic responsibilities and social constraints.
Improving employment conditions and support systems for women are vital to
strengthen their capacity to care for themselves and their children. Easy access to
maternity entitlements and optimum quality daycare and healthcare facilities for
children within the community or at the work place are critical to translate higher
incomes into health and nutrition benefits.

Recommendations

India’s central development strategy should be to systematize structural

and sector-specific measures the government can implement immediately to
promote nutrition security while not losing sight of the long-term changes needed
to create a modern, inclusive and just India. Establishing a vibrant and effective
governance mechanism and institutional frameworks with budgets, authority,
timelines and accountability to demonstrate progress towards reductions in under-
nutrition should be given the top priority.

Agriculture is fundamental to India’s inclusive and sustainable structural

economic transformation. It must therefore play a more significant role in
promoting nutrition security. The government can maximize the potential of
existing architectures across sectors to make them more pro-nutrition oriented
and to promote meaningful coherence and convergence across sectors. This
policy note highlighted some practical policy options for such an engagement,
within the existing agriculture-related mechanisms, schemes and platforms.

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 To incentivise states, 15% of the budget of the existing programmes (for
instance, RKVY, NRLM, NHM and others) should go to district-level action plans
(particularly in those districts where under-nutrition is high) that can demonstrate
progress in relevant nutrition security indicators. Translating these investments
into nutrition outcomes will also require India and its states to pursue effective
social behaviour change communication and mobilization strategies to change
demand, behaviours and consumption patterns, especially for adolescent girls,
vulnerable mothers and young children.

Critical steps include pilot programmes to pressure-test new pro-nutrition

approaches to understand their feasibility, scope and niche; scaling up such
innovations; and operations research to improve programme implementation.
Commitment to tracking agriculture programmes for relevant nutrition indicators
and evaluating the impact of the programmes on nutrition outcomes is central to
understanding which approaches reduce the under-nutrition burden, where, and
why. India must also scale up its investments in integrated data systems
(including health, nutrition, economic, and livelihoods) at regular intervals for
diagnostics, problem solving and tracking progress.

Ignoring the agriculture-nutrition pathways in India will have enormous

economic and social costs.

About the Authors:

Suneetha Kadiyala (s.kadiyala@cgiar.org) is with the Poverty, Health, and
Nutrition Division, International Food Policy Research Institute, New Delhi. P K Joshi is
with the International Food Policy Research Institute, New Delhi. S Mahendra Dev is with
the Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai. T Nanda Kumar is a
member of the National Disaster Management Authority, Government of India. Vijay Vyas
is a member of the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister of India.

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References:

“Dietary Guidelines for Indians” – A Manual, National Institute of Nutrition,

Hyderabad, 2010.

Gender and Food and Nutrition security, Federal Ministry of Economic

cooperation and Development, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, 2013

Georg Bokeloh, Göttingen, Maria Gerster-Bentaya, Stuttgart, Lioba Weingärtner,

Rottenburg, “Achieving Food and Nutrition Security”- Actions to Meet the
Global Challenge, A Training Course Reader, on behalf of Federal Ministry
of Economic Cooperation and Development, InWEnt-Capacity Building
International, Germany, 2009

National Food Security Mission, Operational Guidelines, Department of

Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, 2007

Suneetha Kadiyala, P K Joshi, S Mahendra Dev, T Nanda Kumar, Vijay Vyas -

“A Nutrition Secure India Role of Agriculture”, Economic & Political Weekly EPW
February 25, 2012 vol XLVII no 8

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