The Use of Information and Communication Technology

in the Sea Fishing Industry

C. CHAUVIN§, G. MOREL§, G. TIRILLY§

§ University of South Brittany (UBS), Study Group on Health, Work, Information and

Cognition, Research Centre, rue de Saint-Maudé, 56321 Lorient Cedex, France.

Tel: (33) 0297874521, fax: (33) 0297874500

Summary

The advent of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) has profoundly altered

relations between vessels and the shore. Thanks to these ICTs, a vessel is no longer cut off

from the land. The technologies in use in today’s fisheries, however, remain fairly

rudimentary. This paper describes the use of ICTs aboard offshore fishing vessels. It relies

on the concepts of ‘instruments’ and ‘usage scheme’ defined by Rabardel (1995) and

analyses the use of ICTs in terms of objectives, information sought, and communication

targets. It points to the prevalence of vessel-to-vessel interchange, and to a frequent use of

ICTs to seek out and locate fish. It shows the existence of a ‘key instrument’, the Inmarsat

Corresponding author. Email: christine.chauvin@univ-ubs.fr

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standard C, and defines the way in which fishermen are organised in cognition-sharing

networks.

Keywords: Information and Communication Technology; Mediated Activity, Instrument,

Fishery; Fishing vessels.

Introduction

The sea fishing industry presents three specific and peculiar characteristics. As one of the

very last ‘hunting and gathering’ activities practised in the Western world, it is highly

dependant on the abundance of natural resources, and is directly threatened by the decrease

in population of marine species. It must adapt to the legal measures put in place to protect

this resource, such as the authorised catch rates and quotas, as well as the limits imposed on

the fishing effort. Lastly, it is one of the most dangerous professions of the modern world.

The vessels run risks of collisions, running aground, fire, leaks in the hull, while the crews

are confronted with dangers such as falling, being struck, crushed, burned, cut; the

frequency and seriousness of these injuries are increased by the movement of the working

platform and the mass of moving equipment (Chauvin and Le Bouar, 2007).

In this extremely difficult context, the New Information and Communication Technologies

(NICT) answer, first of all, the legal requirements set by the Global Distress and Safety at

Sea System (GDSSS) and the Vessel Monitoring System (VMS). Since they require the use

of satellite communication systems, they essentially apply to vessels operating some

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distance from the shore.

1.1 The regulation framework

The purpose of the GDSSS is to improve search and rescue operations at sea. It uses two-

way radio communication techniques so that, regardless of the ship’s position, interchanges

are possible between vessels and the shore; basically, it constitutes an automatic, global

emergency communication network for vessels at sea. It was fully implemented on

February 1st 1999 and applies, on a global level, to all passenger vessels and all ocean-

going cargo vessels 300 tons or over. These ships are required to carry radio-electric

equipment complying with the international norms set by the system. In France, the

compulsory GDSSS radio communication equipment was defined in 2004 by division 219

of the ‘Journal Officiel’ (an official legal publication), extending the distress and safety at

sea system to other vessel categories, including fishing vessels (Journal Officiel, 2004).

According to their zone of operation and their type of navigation, these vessels must be able

to broadcast distress signals to a shore station or another vessel, and to receive distress

signals broadcasted by a shore station or another vessel. Four zones have been defined:

1 The A1 Ocean Zone extends 20 miles from the shore;

2 The A2 Ocean Zone coincides with the limits of the 2nd navigation category (less than

200 miles from a harbour);

3 The A3 Ocean Zone is defined as the zone covered by an Inmarsat geo-stationary

satellite,

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 4 The A4 Ocean Zone is situated outside the previous zones.

Fishing vessels operating within the A3 Ocean Zone must be equipped with an Inmarsat

Enhanced Group Call (EGC) receiver, which can be incorporated into an Inmarsat C

shipboard ground station.

Since January 1st 2005, the Satellite Vessel Monitoring System (SVMS) is applicable to all

EEC fishing vessels which are 15 metres long and over (not including vessels used

exclusively for aquaculture). The VMS gives the monitoring centres the precise location of

all fishing vessels integrated into the system. It informs the centre of the vessel’s current

position, as well as its previous positions, at regular intervals. This information can be

transmitted to the centre practically in real time, and the VMS can also supply the course

and speed of a vessel, thus enabling the monitoring centre to deduce its activities.

The VMS also allows the fishing vessel to broadcast information on its catch to the

monitoring centre in real time. The VMS indicates a probable fishing activity and furnishes

a reliable and efficient baseline for further investigations (controls at sea or back in port).

Thanks to this system, the monitoring authorities can check on a variety of factors, and

establish whether the vessel:

 is operating within a zone where fishing is not allowed,

 is operating in the exclusive economic zone of another member State or another

nation, or in waters overseen by a regional authority or a fishery management,

 has the necessary licences and quotas to fish in the area.

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The systems used for monitoring the vessels are mainly Inmarsat, Argos and EMSAT

(FAO, 1998).

To comply with the requirements of GDSSS and VMS, offshore fishing vessels over 15

metres in length have installed and begun to use satellite communication equipment.

1.2 NTIC aboard deep-sea fishing vessels

The main system in use on the bridge of fishing vessels today is Inmarsat. It uses 4 geo-

stationary satellites and offers various functions according to the standard used: Inmarsat A,

B, C, M, mini-M or Fleet. Standards A, B and C are authorised for GDSSS; standards A

and B allow for ‘face-to-face’ communication: the caller and callee can practically talk in

real time, which is compatible with the requirements of telephony. Inmarsat C is different:

as a data storage and dispatch system, it has a transmission lag of about five minutes, which

is not compatible with telephony but efficient for message and telex transmission. Inmarsat

C allows users to send messages by telex, Minitel, fax, land-based computers and to other

satellite phones using Inmarsat-C, A, B, M, mini-M, Fleet and Regional Broadband Global

Area Network (BGAN). The messages are initially stored in a ground station, then

transmitted through the RTC, X25, Telex, Minitel or Web networks. They can also be

addressed to a safe mail-box, to be consulted at leisure. Moreover, the Inmarsat

organisation has provided, within the Inmarsat Standard C, an automatic logging system

which can be used for the VMS. If the Global Positioning Sytem (GPS) is linked to an

Inmarsat C two-way transmitter, the vessel automatically broadcasts its position at

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predefined intervals. Mini-M is the smallest and lightest Inmarsat terminal (about 2 kilos).

This terminal has risen to the top of the market by concentrating in one device all the digital

technology needed to telephone, exchange faxes and data (e-mails, files, pictures,…). The

most recent of the maritime Inmarsat standards, the Fleet, offers a wide range of

communication services by voice, fax and data transmission. The Fleet range includes three

sub-standards, the Fleet 33, more specifically designed for leisure boating and fishing, and

the Fleet 55 and 77, designed for merchant vessels.

Besides Inmarsat, alternative or additional systems are:

 Eutelsat – European satellite telecommunications organisation, using 23

satellites strung along a geo-stationary orbit between 15° West and 70.5° East. These

satellites cover Europe, the Mediterranean and the Middle-East. Eutelsat offers two

message and tracking services designed for road transport and fishery industries.

Euteltracs is mainly used by road transport companies; it provides a safe link between

the head office and the fleet of vehicles, with automated itinerary and load-planning

applications, monitoring of the cold chain, shipping safety conditions and personnel

management. EMSAT was originally introduced in Europe to provide voice and data

transmission for distant oil or natural gas extraction sites. Its uses later spread to

vessel monitoring in the territorial waters of the EEC member countries.

 Two systems using low-orbit satellites: Iridium, which provides essential

communication services through a constellation of 66 satellites, and Globalstar, using

a constellation of 64 satellites.

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The actual equipment of fishing vessels in ICTs is fairly rudimentary, being in fact often

limited to the Inmarsat standard C and a satellite telephone. The latter is used sparingly, as

the cost of satellite communication limits the exchange of information. Some thought is

being put into potential evolution, both by system designers and European authorities. The

results are for example a project of low-cost Internet broadcasting, using radio frequencies

which reach up to 200 nautical miles from the shore, or a project of computerizing the

vessel logbook. In the logbook crews consign the volume of the catch, broken down into

categories such as species, size, fishing zones, etc. The electronic logbook should, in time,

become compulsory for all vessels over 15 metres. If the vessels were also equipped with

electronic scales, the catch could be declared to the gram.

In this context of profound changes, the authors intend to analyse the current uses of ICTs,

and to draw conclusions to assist in the design of future systems. For the purposes of this

study, we will primarily be looking at offshore fishing vessels, as exemplified by the

vessels of the Breton region. Of the 1636 vessels sailing out of Brittany in 2004, 228 were

fitted out for offshore fishing. These vessels are mainly trawlers, over 17 metres in length

and registered in the ports of Southern Brittany.

The use of ICTs, and the nature of the equipment found aboard different vessels were

explored through interviews of the heads of 7 fishing companies, and 45 fishing skippers.

Three periods were spent aboard fishing vessels: one aboard a 45-metre trawler, and two

aboard 22-metre trawlers. During these periods, all communications made or received by

the skipper were systematically logged, for periods covering one day to the entire fishing

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tour.

Theory and method of the analysis of ICT use

The purpose of this survey is to analyse the current use of ICTs, as a basis for

recommendations for the design of future systems. Our purpose is to apply the basic

approach of ergonomics—make sure the design takes into account the actual activity of the

users—to this specific ‘instrument system’.

1.3 An ‘ethnocentric’ approach of the ICTs

The concept of an ‘instrument system’ is used here according to the definition given by

Rabardel (1995). Rabardel put forward an ethnocentric view of technologies, based on the

way in which they are used. This view offers an alternative to technological rationalism and

is close, in its objective, to the ‘action research’ and ‘socio-technical’ approaches developed

by members of the London Tavistock Institute. Mumford (2006), in his story of socio-

technical design, recalls that a primary objective of socio-technical projects was to ensure

that both technical and human factors should be give equal weight in the design process. In

both ‘action research’ and ‘socio-technical’ approaches, researchers and future users of new

systems are involved in problem analysis, the planning and monitoring of action, and,

therefore in the design of instruments.

Rabardel’s works are, from a theoretical point of view, very close to the framework of

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activity theory proposed by Engeström for analysing and redesigning work (Engeström,

2000). Both, in fact, rely on the cultural-historical school of Russian psychology, developed

by Vygotsky, Leontev and Luria in the 1920s and 1930s. Because they focus on object-

oriented activity, on working practices, they differ from ethnographical approaches which

put stress on organizational culture (see, for example, Howard, 2002), even if they share the

same methodology which is first-hand observation.

Following Vygotsky (1978), who identified within the ‘tool’ a mediating function between

the subject and the object of his activity, Rabardel defined an ‘instrument’ as a mediating

entity between the subject and the object of his activity (Rabardel, 1995, Rabardel and

Beguin, 2005). For this author, an ‘instrument’ is made up of two closely-interrelated

components:

 the ‘artefact’ component, represented by the material device,

 the ‘scheme’ component, representing the activity.

The ‘scheme’ concept, and its associated concepts of ‘scripts’, ‘patterns’ and ‘frames’ are

fundamental in psychology. Together, they make up a generic structure describing the

relationship between variables, which have to be defined by their particularities to

understand a new situation, or to choose a course of action.

Rabardel uses the scheme concept to describe the use of instruments. He makes a

distinction between:

 Schemes of usage, relating to the management of the specific characteristics and

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 properties of an artefact,

 Instrumented action schemes or schemes of utilisation, relating to the primary or

main activities, directed toward the object of the activity— the artefact being the

means of performing the activity. Their content is defined by the overall action, the

purpose of which is the transformation of the object of the activity.

Rabardel explains that schemes have both a private and a social dimension, since users as

well as designers contribute to their development. He therefore refers to social usage

schemes. Around any socially elaborated and recognized artefact, there is a relatively stable

‘functionally shared value zone’, which is an enabling condition for communication and

interaction (Rabardel, 2002).

Both components of the instrument are therefore associated, but they do not necessarily

overlap. A single artefact can find a place in different utilisation schemes and, conversely, a

single utilisation scheme can call upon different artefacts. We can thus identify: the artefact

generally used for a given activity or in a given situation, the functions for which a back-up

artefact would have to be found in case of a breakdown of the usual artefact, the resources

for a replacement, the problems derived from a replacement, and the conditions of a

replacement (Rabardel and Bourmaud, 2003).

Rabardel points out the pluri-functionality of schemes, in that they fulfil epistemic

functions (aimed at understanding a situation), pragmatic functions (aimed at transforming

a situation and producing results) and heuristic functions (shaping and monitoring the

activity).

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Therefore, any instrument can potentially mediate in the three types of relationships: to

objects, to oneself and to others (see figure 1).

Mediation related to the purpose of the activity includes epistemic dimensions focussed on

the knowledge of the object (from the object to the subject), and pragmatic dimensions

focussed on the action of the subject: orientation, monitoring, regulation. Reflexive

mediations refer to the subject’s mediated relationship to himself. Interpersonal mediations

are included in the inter-personal relationship between subjects, and in inter-subjective

relationships.

INSERT HERE

Figure 1. Model of instrumented collective activity situations (according to Rabardel, 1995)

The theoretical framework suggested by Rabardel is a generic one, applicable to any

instrument and not only to ICTs. It is however very well adapted to ICTs, with their

utilisation schemes contributing to different types of mediations, especially mediations with

the object of an activity and interpersonal mediations. To apply the distinction made by

Pastré (2005), we can say that this type of instrument is exclusively dedicated to the

gathering of information, as opposed to other instruments expressing their capacities

through action.

1.4 Methodology

This study involves a whole industry: offshore fishing. Its objective is strategic; object and

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objective define both the population under scrutiny and, according to the taxonomy defined

by Mc Neese et al. (1999), the field of analysis, the method used, the representation of the

resulting data, and the study’s mode of validation. The population under scrutiny must be

wide. The study must be performed in real, hands-on situations, through investigative

methods. The type of data representation can only be conceptual, and the study validation

will be performed through a qualitative evaluation of the recommendations made, and a

post-implantation quantitative evaluation.

In the study presented here, preliminary interviews of the staff of seven fishing companies

enabled us to identify the characteristics of the population under scrutiny, and led us to

identify three vessel categories according to size, fishing zone, management (private

companies, cooperative structures, independent skippers), and equipment:

 Vessels 38 metres in length and over, operating out of an outpost in the port of

Lochinver and unloading their catch every ten days in this Scottish port. These

vessels carry crews of 9 to 14 sailors. They primarily look for coalfish and rattail fish,

scabbard fish and hake from the Irish Sea to the Southern Irish waters, including the

Faeroe Islands and the Western Scottish waters. In Brittany, 4 vessels belong to this

category. They are equipped with the Inmarsat standard C and Fleet 33, and also with

Iridium.

 About twenty vessels 30 to 35 metres in length, carrying crews of 7 to 8 sailors for

fishing tours of 10 to 16 days. These vessels trawl all the way up to Scotland or the

Northern Irish waters after monkfish, haddock, whiting and skate. In Brittany, about

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 20 vessels fall into this category. They belong to two main companies. Vessels

belonging to one of those companies are equipped with the Inmarsat standard C and

have access to both the Euteltracts services and the Eutelsat EMSAT; two of them are

moreover equipped with the Inmarsat Mini-M standard. The trawlers belonging to the

other company are equipped with the Inmarsat standard C and the Mini-M.

 182 vessels 17 to 25 metres in length, with crews of 5 to 6 men. They represent 80%

of the deep-sea fishing fleet. They mainly trawl the waters of Western Brittany and

Southern Ireland and specialise in monkfish, skate and whiting, and also prawns. This

type of fishing, often referred to as ‘independent deep-sea fishing’ is practised in

Northern Brittany (out of Saint-Brieuc, Saint-Malo and Morlaix), but primarily in

Southern Brittany, in the Bigouden area (the Guilvinec area is home to 60% of these

vessels), in Concarneau and Lorient. Most of the deep-sea fishing vessels belong to

independent skipper-owners, but there are several companies and cooperative

structures. All these vessels carry the Inmarsat standard C and Mini-M or the

Inmarsat standard C and EMSAT; a few are equipped with systems using low-altitude

satellites.

To identify the ICTs utilisation schemes, three periods were spent on board fishing vessels:

 One seven-day period aboard a fairly new (launched in 2000) 22.5-metre trawler

out of Saint-Brieuc, with a crew of five, fishing for monkfish and whiting. This vessel

is equipped with two Very High Frequency devices (VHF), three Single-sideband

modulation devices (SSB), the standard C and a satellite telephone. Aboard this

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 vessel, a systematic log of communications was held during one day of fishing.

 One 15-day period aboard a new (launched in 2005) 22-metre trawler, registered

in Guilvinec and fishing for prawn. Aboard this vessel, chronograms describe the 13

days of the fishing tour: they show the messages broadcast and received on the

easymail message service, as well as the VHF and SSB communications.

 One nine-day period spent aboard a 46-metre trawler, another new vessel built

in 2005, manned by a crew of 14 and operating 9-day fishing tours. This vessel

operates in Scottish waters, remaining in a single zone. It is equipped with a high-

speed Web connection through the Inmarsat Fleet 33 standard and the Skyfile

interface, which enable it to receive and send e-mails, and also with the Navimail

software to access the weather report in real time. Aboard this vessel, as for the

vessels described above, chronograms describe each day of fishing and show the

messages sent and received, as well as VHF and SSB communications.

A survey was made of a panel of 45 skippers, with a view of generalizing the results of our

observation, i.e., checking that the schemes we had observed were shared and stable

schemes, and also to identify the various artefacts used for each, so as to gauge their

adaptability. This survey included two phases: a phase of undirected dialogue or interviews

of 22 fishermen (2 skippers on board trawlers of 38 metres in length and over, 8 skippers on

board trawlers of 30 to 35 metres in length and 12 skippers on board trawlers of 17 to 25

metres in length), and a more directive scheme using a questionnaire filled out by 23 other

fishermen (mainly skippers on board 17 to 25 metre trawlers).

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ICT uses

The three periods spent aboard enabled us to pinpoint the activities/schemes for which the

skipper-owners of fishing vessels required the use of ICTs. These activities can be defined

by their objectives: seek out the fish, optimise the sale of the catch, obtain a weather report,

repair a breakdown or talk over technical problems, order supplies for the vessel and

exchange news.

The periods spent aboard also showed which artefacts were used by skipper-owners: these

were the standard C and satellite telephones, but also more ‘archaic’ tools like the VHF and

SSB; SSB was pioneered by telephone companies in the 1930s for use over long-distance

lines!

Last of all, our observation allowed us to identify the fishing skippers’ main

communication targets: colleagues, company, authorities, fish auction markets, family—

and the information they sought from each.

An analysis of the data returns made it possible to identify the implemented action schemes

by filling out the following table:

INSERT HERE

Table 1. Analysis framework of implemented action schemes

77 messages (sent or received) were logged on the bridge of the 46-metre trawler. Figure 2

shows a breakdown of these messages according to the various identified schemes. This

breakdown shows the predominance of the ‘locating the fish’ scheme.

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 INSERT HERE

Figure 2. Frequency of the different implemented action schemes on the bridge of the 46-metre trawler

(77 messages logged over a 9-day fishing tour)

This predominance recurs in an analysis of the data logged on the bridge of the 22-metre

trawler since the ‘locating the fish’ scheme accounts for 82% of the 43 messages broadcast

via the Easymail interface during 13 days of fishing, and the totality of messages received

(aside from group messages). It also appears in the analysis of the communications logged

on board the 22.5-metre trawler, since this scheme accounts for 75% of the 16 messages

sent during one day of fishing.

The action scheme focussed on locating the fish should therefore be closely analysed, as it

enables the fishing skipper to orient his activity. Other schemes play a part in the

orientation or monitoring of the fishing activity, for example the schemes focussing on

obtaining weather reports or optimising the sale of the catch. They are distinct from

schemes which have communication as their main function, and involve interpersonal

mediation.

1.5 The use of ICTs in orientation, monitoring and regulation of the fishing activity

The main functions of a fishing vessel aim at optimising vessel management and increasing

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profits. To do this, the skipper must haul the largest possible catch and optimise its sale,

while providing for the safety of the vessel and the crew (Morel and Chauvin, 2006).

Different ICT usage schemes are involved in the fulfilment of these main functions.

1.5.1 Locating the fish

In this scheme, information has to be sought on the catch made by colleagues in various

zones. This information is broadcast by telex (via the Inmarsat standard C), VHF and SSB,

to a network of co-workers. These broadcasts can be characterised according to two

dimensions: confidentiality and reliability.

Aboard the 46-metre trawler, two thirds of the information give-and-take were interchanges

between colleagues, giving information related to fishing. This information flowed between

six vessels belonging to the same company.

The usage schemes were as follows:

 Interchanges of information related to fishing by VHF;

 or telexing the five other vessels a report on the catch hauled during the last

few hours; reception of telexes containing similar information;

 or telexing the five affiliated vessels to name a ‘private’ SSB frequency. This

frequency would then be used to communicate confidential information: advice on

fishing itineraries or on fishing zones.

The artefact or artefacts used depend on the information’s degree of confidentiality.

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Aboard the 22-metre trawler, the messages broadcast— via the easymail interface— were

in great majority messages addressed to colleagues by Inmarsat C, short texts naming a

SSB frequency, or giving information on the vessel’s position or fishing results. As far as

reception was concerned, 13 of the 14 messages received were from colleagues. Once

again, communication was between skippers of vessels belonging to the same company.

This vessel’s skipper had 5 main communication targets to whom he sent messages and

who addressed their messages to him.

The pattern was identical aboard the 22.5-metre trawler, with communication consisting in

interchanges with the two other vessels belonging to the same company. The action

schemes were as follows:

 Exchanges of telexes describing the catch (by number of crates and baskets

and by species);

 Or, telexes identifying a SSB frequency, followed by a SSB interchange

relating to the catch made over the last few hours or the fishing zones.

The characteristics of the scheme implemented to locate the fish can be presented as in

table 2.

INSERT HERE

Table 2. Description of the “locating the fish” action scheme

Interviews of 45 other fishing skippers confirmed the importance of this scheme, which is

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shared by the whole fishing community. Every skipper interviewed named his colleagues as

his primary communication targets. The frequency of communication between colleagues is

several times a day. These communications use the telex (to give confidential information

or to name a SSB frequency on which the information will be given), VHF and SSB. The

information exchanged is related - in priority and for all the skippers interviewed - to the

fishing zones and the volume of the catch.

97% of the skippers interviewed do not use or seldom use the satellite telephone to contact

their colleagues.

All the skippers interviewed state they are satisfied by the mode and frequency of their

communication with their colleagues.

1.5.2 Provide for the safety of the vessel and crew

The interviews revealed that the weather report is consulted on a daily basis through

various media; the standard C and SSB being the most frequent combination (for 10 out of

the 23 skippers who filled out the questionnaire). A joint use of SSB and navtex 1 was also

mentioned (2 answers), as well as standard C and navtex (2 answers), or standard C, navtex

and SSB (2 answers). A very few use only navtex (3 answers), only standard C (1 answer),

only e-mails (1 answer) or only SSB (1 answer). Meteorological data is used for two

purposes: safety (safety of the vessel and the men, but also the equipment), and also to

locate the fish. It is known for instance that some species, like prawns, will not be found in

a heavy swell.

1
NAVTEX is an international automated medium frequency direct-printing service for delivery of
navigational and meteorological warnings and forecasts, as well as urgent marine safety information to ships.

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1.5.3 Manage and optimise sales

Optimising sales requires knowledge of the current bid prices of fish at the auction sales,

and also a knowledge of the vessels registered for the sale, as the latter can alter the balance

between supply and demand. This scheme requires different types of information:

 Information on the fish bid price. This is sent out on a daily basis by the

auction markets, via standard C.

 Information on the vessels registered for the sale. Two-thirds of the vessels

registered in Guilvinec use a radio session system to state their activity (type of

fishing, route) and to be informed as to the other vessels’ activities.

 Communication with the company (when vessels belong to a company) is

through standard C. This accounts for 2 to 3 communications per fishing tour

(especially toward the end of the tour), to determine the day of the sale according to

the amount of catch in the hold, the current bid prices, and the vessels intending to

take part in the auction.

Table 3 presents the ‘Optimising the sale’ action scheme.

INSERT HERE

Table 3. Description of the ‘Optimising the sale’ action scheme

Once the sale has taken place, some skippers want to be informed of their sale figures. For

independent skippers and at their request, this figure can be transmitted via standard C by

the local offices which handle the vessel’s management and accounting.

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1.6 Interpersonal Mediations

The skipper and crew members communicate with their family by satellite telephone (90%

of the people interviewed) or by Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) when

close to shore and, much more rarely, by fax or e-mail. The frequency of satellite

communications is variable; in most cases, each crew member uses the telephone for

personal calls once to three times per fishing tour. The crew members pay for these calls.

The calls are primarily made to give and receive news, but also to organise meetings and

book appointments (usage mentioned by 70% of the skippers). Calls from the family to the

vessel are exceptional.

70% of the skippers interviewed state that they are satisfied with this mode of

communication, but only 12% are satisfied by the frequency of calls. Those who are not

satisfied by the communication “mode” point to the problem of being cut off. Those who

are not satisfied by the frequency or length of calls complain about the cost.

Personal mediation is also established with colleagues operating within the same fishing

zone. These use VHF or SSB.

1.7 Other schemes

Other schemes relate to:

 Ordering supplies or equipment (7 skippers mention this usage). This scheme

primarily concerns the largest vessels, and specifically those remaining in a single

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 fishing zone: their supplies and equipment must be ordered and sent to an outpost.

 Repairing breakdowns. In case of breakdown, the skipper uses the satellite

telephone to inform the company and/or the supplier and to request assistance. The

great majority of skippers states they are satisfied with the mode and frequency of

these communications, but some complain about: the quality of satellite

communications, the fact that it can be difficult to reach someone who can resolve the

breakdown, the lack of visual supports to help with repairs.

 Routine communications are also established with the authorities (a telex to

state when a vessel is entering or exiting a zone).

 Exceptional interchanges occur with the tele-medical centre in Toulouse, in case

of serious health problems.

Finally, aside from these schemes, it can be noted that so-called ‘group communications’

do not always relate to the fishing activity. During a fishing tour, the 22-metre trawler

received 102 group messages, essentially weather (87), price of fish (13), and GDSSS

information (2).

These numerous messages are not always relevant. Messages from Satellite Monitoring

can, for example, relate to very distant zones. The numerous messages relating to the

weather are rarely read. Out of 87 messages received, only 11 had been opened!

Discussion

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The data gathered during the periods spent aboard the three vessels, and the interviews of

45 skippers, point to a stability of the ICT schemes of usage, and to the predominance of

their use in locating the fish. They also show that different artefacts can be used within the

same scheme, and define - beyond the concept of schemes - the networks through which the

fishermen organise their activity.

Several artefacts can be used to fulfil a single purpose. The choice of an artefact obviously

depends on the vessel’s equipment, which in turn depends on its size. Satellite telephone

communications between vessels are more frequent aboard the larger vessels, and are also

used for interchanges between a vessel and its owners but these vessels are equipped with

Inmarsat’s Fleet standard, and not only with standard C. In case of breakdowns aboard the

largest vessels, faxes or e-mails can be used to transmit additional data, to complement the

explanations given over the phone. The company’s organisation also has an incidence on

usage: aboard vessels belonging to the most structured companies, (and particularly aboard

vessels remaining within a fishing zone), requests for supplies are systematically made by

fax or e-mail, or by telephone. Aboard independent fishing vessels, orders are still often

written on a piece of paper and handed in to suppliers when the vessel calls into port.

It can however be noted that a fishing skipper often has a choice between several artefacts.

Following the footsteps of Rabardel and Bourmaud (2003), it is possible to analyse the

instruments of a relevant sub-system and to reach an objective through the FSRM (Failure

and Substitution of Resources Method). This method consists in determining: an artefact’s

frequency of use, the functions which will have to be replaced if this artefact breaks down,

the substitution resources, the substitution values (the underlying criteria and value systems

23
of the user’s action), and the conditions of substitution. When the fishing skipper contacts

his colleagues with the objective of obtaining information to help him locate the fish, he

can use the standard C, the VHF radio, the SSB or the satellite telephone. Observation of

his activity shows that his most frequent choice will be the standard C, or the standard C

jointly with VHF or SSB. Table 4 shows the underlying criteria (values) of this choice.

INSERT HERE

Table 4. Evaluation of the criteria of choice among the available artefacts for interchanges on fishing.

This table shows that the joint use of two instruments (Standard C and SSB or VHF)

enables the user to combine their advantages; confidentiality is guaranteed, and the verbal

exchange offers a vividness which is absent from telex messages. It also stresses the central

position of the standard C with its dual function: used for the transmission of information

on fishing, it is also the access key to a social network when it is used to inform group

members which VHF or SSB frequency is about to be used for verbal communication. It is

therefore valid to ask what the fishing skipper would do in case of breakdown of this

instrument. If the FSRM method is applied to the standard C (see table 5), we can see that

no other resource can take the place of this artefact and be used as an access key to the

network.

INSERT HERE

Table 5. The FRSM applied to the standard C.

24
The standard C is also the main instrument for establishing relations between the vessel and

the land, relating to the sale of the catch.

Even if some differences were observed, we note that aboard every vessel of the sample,

the standard C was the central instrument within an instrument system. As Rabardel and

Bourmaud (2003) postulated, instruments are not isolated entities but organised and linked,

whether they maintain dependency and/or equivalency relationships.

The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) available on the bridge of fishing

vessels contributes to different types of mediation.

First of all, there is mediation between the crew members and the object of their activity:

fishing and the vessel. This mediation includes a pragmatic dimension, since the

information provided orients their action, and/or an epistemic dimension, since it

contributes to a sum of knowledge. This mediation is channelled through the ICTs but also

through other persons; it is therefore also interpersonal mediation. The communication thus

established reveals - as pointed out by Licoppe and Smoreda (2005) - networks of

knowledge and affinities; it finds its place in inter-subjective relationships. Interpersonal

mediation comes first; they define the extant of the system within which the crew member

operates, and are primarily used to obtain the information he needs to fulfil his tasks. What

we have here is a socio-technical system which can be represented, as suggested by Stanton

et al. (2006), by three networks: the social network representing the relationship between

the individuals who make up this system, the task network representing the relationship

between the objectives of the various actors, and the knowledge network showing the

25
relationship between the information elements sought by the actors as they perform their

task. In sea fishing - as in the seagoing world in general (Busby and Hibberd, 2006) -

cognition is shared and the relevant information is sought from various sources. To obtain

the data which is necessary or useful to perform a task, each actor must use meta-

knowledge on other actors to know where to find it and determine how much he can trust it.

Figure 3 represents this system, which can be referred to as a socio-technical system.

INSERT HERE

Figure 3. Socio-technical system of sea fisheries, shown from the point of view of the fishing skipper

The grey tags show the fishing skippers’ tasks, as defined by their objective. The

rectangular tags show their communication targets. The figure is built on two circles,

representing the local network, and the overall network which includes the institutions

managing (among other things) group communications.

Conclusion

The most widely used modes of communication aboard offshore fishing vessels fall outside

the NICT domain: they are the telex (via the standard C), VHF and SSB. This study shows

that the standard C remains the offshore fisherman’s key means of communication — but a

means limited as to transfer capacity, and expensive to use. Because of this system’s limits,

the vessels are denied access to some services (the fish auction database for example, or

phone-in maintenance), users have to choose other means to communicate with their

26
families. The use of e-mail remains marginal however, and is usually only found aboard the

largest vessels. Two-thirds of the vessels practicing independent deep-sea fishing are not

equipped for e-mails. Likewise, the use of satellite telephones remains infrequent.

Communication between the vessels and the land - between the vessel and the company, or

between the sailor and his family - is restricted. There is a potential risk of trying to make

up for this lack by a proliferation of information and communication equipment on the

bridge, each instrument corresponding to a new need, and the sum of the instruments

bringing an information overload; in fact, integration of information on vessel bridges is

often inadequate, even on board large merchant vessels such as high-speed ferries (Olsson

and Jansson, 2006). It seems urgent to think out the transition from TIC to NTIC,

integrating for instance the research of Hanumantharao and Grabowski (2006). These

authors examined the impact of new technologies on distributed groups in general,

specifically in the shipping sector. They show that culture, organisational structures, as well

as the roles and responsibilities of individuals, are forces which can decrease or alter the

expected results when introducing new technologies (particularly ‘group communication’

technologies). It seems vital, in the field of sea fisheries, to define the various types of

groups, or the various networks, which will be impacted by the introduction of NICTs.

Our research shows that the sea fishery sector is a system which can be described at various

levels. At a very general level (European or even global) we find rules and regulations; this

is the authority level described by Rasmussen as governing any socio-technical system

(Rasmussen, 1997). Regulations require the use of certain communication systems, the

broadcasting of certain messages (related to the fishing zone and the fishing effort), and the

27
reception of other messages (distress signals). On a local level (the maritime quarter),

interpersonal relationships define the social network in which a fishing skipper is integrated

and on which he relies. Various actors make up this network: other fishermen with whom

he has friendly relations, the fish auction market, the company (or the management group

for independent skippers), the wife. The information he seeks from each of these actors is

necessary to the performance of his tasks, most of which tend to fulfil his functional

objectives: maximise fishing and optimise sales, while preserving the safety of his crew and

equipment. This information includes: the quantity or lack of fish (or of specific species) in

a given zone, weather forecasts in different fishing zones (the zone in which the vessel is

operating, other frequently-worked zones), the bid price of fish, the vessels taking part in

the auction, the takings after the sale.

One may notice that objectives sought at these different levels are contradictory. In fact, at

a global level, authorities tend to limit the fishing effort, while fishermen tend – at a local

level – to maximise fishing!

From a theoretical viewpoint, this analysis shows the necessity of updating certain concepts

and certain models to take into account the use of ICTs in the sea fishing industry.

Rabardel’s instrument analysis model must be placed within the wider scope of a network.

In the same way, the concept of a ‘socio-technical system’, defined by Rasmussen and

modelled according to different levels of abstraction, must evolve toward the concept of a

‘socio-technical network’, taking into account the same levels of abstraction.

From a practical viewpoint, our research leads us to formulate the needs of fishing skippers

in these terms: accessing the information they choose at the lowest possible cost.

The communication needs in the offshore fishing activity cannot be compared to those of

28
deep-sea fishing vessels but in both cases, the people needing to communicate are

organised in networks (vessels, companies or group of companies, fish auctions, family).

The tuna fishing companies have implemented an intranet system which facilitates

interchanges within this network, and makes it possible to regulate them (for instance,

individual mail-boxes are limited in number). An analysis performed aboard these vessels

would surely bring more light on the fisheries’ usage of NICTs and ICTs, on their

utilisation schemes and on the ‘networks’ of the sea fishing industry.

Acknowledgements

We thank all the companies in Brittany that helped us to perform this field study, the

fishermen that told us about their use of ITC and the crewmembers that welcomed us on

board fishing vessels.

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31
NAME OF THE SCHEME
Objective
Artefact used
Communication target
Information sought

Table 1. Analysis framework of implemented action schemes

32
NAME OF THE SCHEME ‘locating the fish’
Objective Locating the fish
Artefact used VHF or SSB
Or Telex
Or Telex + SSB
Communication targets Colleagues currently fishing
Information sought Catch obtained in a given zone

Table 2. Description of the ‘locating the fish’ action scheme

33
NAME OF THE SCHEME ‘Optimising the sale’
Objective Sell as well as possible
Artefact used Standard C and – for some – radio sessions
Communication targets Auction market, company, colleagues
Information sought Current price of fish
Vessels registered for the sale

Table 3. Description of the ‘Optimising the sale’ action scheme

34
 Cost Confidentiality Reliability of the Vividness of
information interchange
Telex 0.21 € Maximal Depends on the Very low
person spoken to
SSB or VHF None Low Very high
Telex + SSB or 0.21 € Very high Depends on the Very high
VHF person spoken to
Satellite telephone 0.5 € to 5 € per Maximal Depends on the Very high
minute person spoken to

Table 4. Evaluation of the criteria of choice among the available artefacts for interchanges on fishing.

35
Functions to be Substitution resources Substitution values Substitution conditions
replaced in case
of breakdown
Key None
Media SSB or VHF No confidentiality/ no Knowing the frequency used by the
cost receiver.
Satellite telephone Confidential/Expensive To limit the cost, the receiver must be
equipped with the same type of device.

Table 5. The FRSM applied to the standard C.

36
 Other subjects

Instrument

Subject
Object
Environment

INSERT HERE
Figure 1. Model of instrumented collective activity situations (according to Rabardel, 1995)

37
Figure 2. Frequency of the different implemented action schemes on the bridge of the 46-metre trawler
(77 messages logged over a 9-day fishing tour)

38
Figure 3. Socio-technical system of sea fisheries, shown from the point of view of the fishing skipper

39