College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology

Basic Electrical Engineering

Module I

Course Title : Basic Electrical Engineering

Course Number : EE-211
Course Description : This course covers the fundamentals of both DC and
AC circuits intended for non EE major students. It
covers the principles, basic laws and theorems used in
analyzing electrical circuits in both direct current and
alternating current conditions.
Total Learning Time : 3 unit (2 hours lecture per week and 3 hrs. Lab.)
Pre-requisites : Physics 2, Calculus 2

Overview:
The topics on this module have been given special treatment are the fundamental circuit
laws, theorems and techniques used in DC and AC circuit analysis and the use of voltmeter,
ammeter, Ohmmeter and other devices needed. It is extremely effective to make the circuit
analysis into two distinct parts, i.e., Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC) circuits,
this arrangement will permits the students to progress logically from the simpler to the more
complex kinds of electric networks. This self-tutorial module has been made to present examples
and problems that not only represent actual circuit conditions but yield realistic results. The scope
of the whole module is sufficiently enough to make it suitable for electrical and mechanical
engineering students, preparing them and ready to take the next higher subjects.

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Learning Outcomes:
After completing this course, the student must be able to:
1. Gain knowledge about the characteristics, uses and application of circuit
elements/devices and their parameters..
2. Apply the fundamental circuit laws, theorems and techniques used in DC and AC
circuit analysis.
3. Determine experimentally the laws and theorems used in circuit analysis. Use the
voltmeter, ammeter, Ohmmeter and other devices needed.
4. Familiarize themselves with the basic circuit elements such as voltage source and
resistors

Indicative Content:
1. Definitions, symbols used and types of circuit elements, circuit variables and circuit
parameters.
2. Resistance such as Definition, Factor that affect the resistance of a conductor,
Resistivity of commonly used conductors, Resistance as a function of temperature,
Conductance.
3. Ohm’s Law, Electrical Power, Electrical Energy.
4. Heating Effect of Electric Current
,
Pre-Assessment : 1. Memorize the symbols used in circuit elements, familiarize the factors
that affects the conductor, as well as the resistivity of conductor and resistance as function
of temperature. To familiarize also the conductance of the conductor.
2. Answer the evaluation of the Module 1

Discussion :
1. Definitions, symbols used and types of circuit elements, circuit variables and
circuit Parameters.

Electrical Engineering - is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design

and application of equipment, devices and systems which use electricity, electronics, and
electromagnetism.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering Retrieved: August 9, 2020

2
 Electrical engineering – is the branch of engineering that deals with the technology of
electricity, especially the design and application of circuitry and equipment for power generation
and distribution, machine control, and communications.

Source: https://www.yourdictionary.com/electrical-engineering Retrieved: August 9, 2020

Basic Electrical Terms and Definitions:

Alternating Current (AC) — An electric current that reverses its direction many times a
second at regular intervals.

Ammeter — An instrument for measuring the flow of electrical current in amperes.

Ammeters are always connected in series with the circuit to be tested.

Ampacity — The maximum amount of electric current a conductor or device can carry
before sustaining immediate or progressive deterioration.

Ampere-Hour (Ah) — A unit of measure for battery capacity. It is obtained by

multiplying the current (in amperes) by the time (in hours) during which current flows. For
example, a battery which provides 5 amperes for 20 hours is said to deliver 100 ampere - hours.

Ampere (A) — A unit of measure for the intensity of an electric current flowing in a
circuit. One ampere is equal to a current flow of one coulomb per second.

Apparent Power — Measured in volt-ampers (VA). Apparent power is the product of

the rms voltage and the rms current.

Armature — The movable part of a generator or motor. It is made up of conductors

which rotate through a magnetic field to provide voltage or force by electromagnetic induction.
The pivoted points in generator regulators are also called armatures.

Capacitance — The ability of a body to store an electrical charge. Measured in farads as

the ratio of the electric charge of the object (Q, measured in coulombs) to the voltage across the
object (V, measured in volts).

Capacitor — A device used to store an electric charge, consisting of one or more pairs of
conductors separated by an insulator. Commonly used for filtering out voltage spikes.
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 Circuit — A closed path in which electrons from a voltage or current source flow.
Circuits can be in series, parallel, or in any combination of the two.

Circuit Breaker — An automatic device for stopping the flow of current in an electric
circuit. To restore service, the circuit breaker must be reset (closed) after correcting the cause of
the overload or failure. Circuit breakers are used in conjunction with protective relays to protect
circuits from faults.

Conductor — Any material where electric current can flow freely. Conductive materials,
such as metals, have a relatively low resistance. Copper and aluminum wire are the most
common conductors.

Corona — A corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by the ionization of a

fluid such as air surrounding a conductor that is electrically charged. Spontaneous corona
discharges occur naturally in high-voltage systems unless care is taken to limit the electric field
strength.

Current (I) — The flow of an electric charge through a conductor. An electric current
can be compared to the flow of water in a pipe. Measured in amperes.

Cycle — The change in an alternating electrical sine wave from zero to a positive peak to
zero to a negative peak and back to zero. See Frequency.

Demand — The average value of power or related quantity over a specified period of
time.

Dielectric constant — A quantity measuring the ability of a substance to store electrical

energy in an electric field.

Dielectric strength — The maximum electric field that a pure material can withstand
under ideal conditions without breaking down (i.e., without experiencing failure of its insulating
properties).

Diode — A semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing the flow of
current in one direction only. Diodes allow current to flow when the anode is positive in relation
to the cathode.

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 Direct Current (DC) — An electric current that flows in only one direction.

Electrolyte — Any substance which, in solution, is dissociated into ions and is thus made
capable of conducting an electrical current. The sulfuric acid - water solution in a storage battery
is an electrolyte.

Electromotive Force (EMF) - A difference in potential that tends to give rise to an

electric current. Measured in volts.

Electron — A tiny particle which rotates around the nucleus of an atom. It has a negative
charge of electricity.

Electron theory — The theory which explains the nature of electricity and the exchange
of "free" electrons between atoms of a conductor. It is also used as one theory to explain
direction of current flow in a circuit.

Farad — A unit of measure for capacitance. One farad is equal to one coulomb per volt.

Ferroresonance — (nonlinear resonance) a type of resonance in electric circuits which

occurs when a circuit containing a nonlinear inductance is fed from a source that has series
capacitance, and the circuit is subjected to a disturbance such as opening of a switch. It can cause
overvoltages and overcurrents in an electrical power system and can pose a risk to transmission
and distribution equipment and to operational personnel.

Frequency — The number of cycles per second. Measured in Hertz. If a current

completes one cycle per second, then the frequency is 1 Hz; 60 cycles per second equals 60 Hz.

Fuse — A circuit interrupting device consisting of a strip of wire that melts and breaks an
electric circuit if the current exceeds a safe level. To restore service, the fuse must be replaced
using a similar fuse with the same size and rating after correcting the cause of failure.

Generator — A device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Ground — The reference point in an electrical circuit from which voltages are measured,
a common return path for electric current, or a direct physical connection to the Earth.

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCI) — A device intended for the protection of
personnel that functions to de-energize a circuit or portion thereof within an established period of
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time when a current to ground exceeds some predetermined value that is less than that required
to operate the overcurrent protective device of the supply circuit.

Henry — A unit of measure for inductance. If the rate of change of current in a circuit is
one ampere per second and the resulting electromotive force is one volt, then the inductance of
the circuit is one henry.

Hertz — A unit of measure for frequency. Replacing the earlier term of cycle per second
(cps).

Impedance — The measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to a current when a
voltage is applied. Impedance extends the concept of resistance to AC circuits, and possesses
both magnitude and phase, unlike resistance, which has only magnitude.

Inductance — The property of a conductor by which a change in current flowing

through it induces (creates) a voltage (electromotive force) in both the conductor itself (self-
inductance) and in any nearby conductors (mutual inductance). Measured in henry (H).

Inductor — A coil of wire wrapped around an iron core. The inductance is directly
proportional to the number of turns in the coil.

Insulator — Any material where electric current does not flow freely. Insulative
materials, such as glass, rubber, air, and many plastics have a relatively high resistance.
Insulators protect equipment and life from electric shock.

Inverter — An apparatus that converts direct current into alternating current.

Kilowatt-hour (kWh) — The product of power in kW and time in hours. Equal to 1000
Watt-hours. For example, if a 100W light bulb is used for 4 hours, 0.4kWhs of energy will be
used (100W x 1kW / 1000 Watts x 4 hours). Electrical energy is sold in units of kWh.

Kilowatt-hour Meter — A device used to measure electrical energy use.

Kilowatt (kW) — Equal to 1000 watts.

Load — Anything which consumes electrical energy, such as lights, transformers,

heaters and electric motors.

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 Load Rejection — The condition in which there is a sudden load loss in the system
which causes the generating equipment to be over-frequency. A load rejection test confirms that
the system can withstand a sudden loss of load and return to normal operating conditions using
its governor. Load banks are normally used for these tests as part of the commissioning process
for electrical power systems.

Mutual Induction — Occurs when changing current in one coil induces voltage in a
second coil.

Ohm — (Ω) A unit of measure of resistance. One ohm is equivilant to the resistance in a
circuit transmitting a current of one ampere when subjected to a potential difference of one volt.

Ohm's Law — The mathematical equation that explains the relationship between
current, voltage, and resistance (V=IR).

Ohmmeter — An instrument for measuring the resistance in ohms of an electrical

circuit.

Open Circuit — An open or open circuit occurs when a circuit is broken, such as by a
broken wire or open switch, interrupting the flow of current through the circuit. It is analogous to
a closed valve in a water system.

Parallel Circuit — A circuit in which there are multiple paths for electricity to flow.
Each load connected in a separate path receives the full circuit voltage, and the total circuit
current is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.

Piezoelectricity — Electric polarization in a substance (especially certain crystals)

resulting from the application of mechanical stress (pressure).

Polarity — A collective term applied to the positive (+) and negative ( - ) ends of a
magnet or electrical mechanism such as a coil or battery.

Power — The rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit.

Measured in Watts.

Power Factor — The ratio of the actual electrical power dissipated by an AC circuit to
the product of the r.m.s. values of current and voltage. The difference between the two is caused
by reactance in the circuit and represents power that does no useful work.
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 Protective Relay — A relay device designed to trip a circuit breaker when a fault is
detected.

Reactive Power — The portion of electricity that establishes and sustains the electric and
magnetic fields of AC equipment. Exists in an AC circuit when the current and voltage are not in
phase. Measured in VARS.

Rectifier — An electrical device that converts an alternating current into a direct one by
allowing a current to flow through it in one direction only.

Relay — An electrical coil switch that uses a small current to control a much larger
current.

Reluctance — The resistance that a magnetic circuit offers to lines of force in a magnetic
field.

Resistance — The opposition to the passage of an electric current. Electrical resistance

can be compared to the friction experienced by water when flowing through a pipe. Measured in
ohms.

Resistor — A device usually made of wire or carbon which presents a resistance to

current flow.

Rotor — The rotating part of an electrical machine such as a generator, motor, or

alternator.

Self Induction — Voltage which occurs in a coil when there is a change of current.

Semiconductor — A solid substance that has a conductivity between that of an insulator

and that of most metals, either due to the addition of an impurity or because of temperature
effects. Devices made of semiconductors, notably silicon, are essential components of most
electronic circuits.

Series-Parallel Circuit — A circuit in which some of the circuit components are

connected in series and others are connected in parallel.

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 Series Circuit — A circuit in which there is only one path for electricity to flow. All of
the current in the circuit must flow through all of the loads.

Service — The conductors and equipment used to deliver energy from the electrical
supply system to the system being served.

Short Circuit — When one part of an electric circuit comes in contact with another part
of the same circuit, diverting the flow of current from its desired path.

Solid State Circuit — Electronic (integrated) circuits which utilize semiconductor

devices such as transistors, diodes and silicon controlled rectifiers.

Transistor — A semiconductor device with three connections, capable of amplification

in addition to rectification.

True Power — Measured in Watts. The power manifested in tangible form such as
electromagnetic radiation, acoustic waves, or mechanical phenomena. In a direct current (DC)
circuit, or in an alternating current (AC) circuit whose impedance is a pure resistance, the voltage
and current are in phase.

VARS — A unit of measure of reactive power. Vars may be considered as either the
imaginary part of apparent power, or the power flowing into a reactive load, where voltage and
current are specified in volts and amperes.

Variable Resistor — A resistor that can be adjusted to different ranges of value.

Volt-Ampere (VA) — A unit of measure of apparent power. It is the product of the rms
voltage and the rms current.

Volt (V) — A unit measure of voltage. One volt is equal to the difference of potential
that would drive one ampere of current against one ohm resistance.

Voltage — An electromotive force or "pressure" that causes electrons to flow and can be
compared to water pressure which causes water to flow in a pipe. Measured in volts.

Voltmeter — An instrument for measuring the force in volts of an electrical current. This
is the difference of potential (voltage) between different points in an electrical circuit. Voltmeters

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have a high internal resistance are connected across (parallel to) the points where voltage is to be
measured.

Watt-hour (Wh) — A unit of electrical energy equivalent to a power consumption of

one watt for one hour.

Watt (W) — A unit of electrical power. One watt is equivalent to one joule per second,
corresponding to the power in an electric circuit in which the potential difference is one volt and
the current one ampere.

Wattmeter — The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the
supply rate of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit.

Waveform — A graphical representation ofelectrical cycles which shows the amount of

variation in amplitude over some period of time.

References: Wikipedia, EPQ #138 - Basic Electrical Terms and Definitions, NFPA-70, IEEE

Source: https://testguy.net/content/200-Basic-Electrical-Terms-and-Definitions
Retrieved: August 9, 2020

Electrical Symbols & Electronic Symbols

Electrical symbols and electronic circuit symbols are used for drawing schematic diagram.
The symbols represent electrical and electronic components.
Table of Electrical Symbols
Symbol Component name Meaning
Wire Symbols

Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current

Connected Wires Connected crossing

Not Connected Wires Wires are not connected

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 Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols

SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open

SPDT Toggle Switch Selects between two connections

Pushbutton Switch (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open

Pushbutton Switch (N.C) Momentary switch - normally closed

DIP Switch DIP switch is used for onboard configuration

SPST Relay
Relay open / close connection by an electromagnet
SPDT Relay

Jumper Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.

Solder Bridge Solder to close connection

Ground Symbols

Used for zero potential reference and electrical

Earth Ground
shock protection.

Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit

Digital / Common Ground

Resistor Symbols

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Resistor (IEEE)
Resistor reduces the current flow.
Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.
Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.
Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEC)

Trimmer Resistor Preset resistor

Thermal resistor - change resistance when

Thermistor
temperature changes

Photo-resistor - change resistance with light

Photoresistor / Light dependent
intensity change
resistor (LDR)
Capacitor Symbols

Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as
short circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.
Capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

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Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance

Inductor / Coil Symbols

Inductor Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field

Iron Core Inductor Includes iron

Variable Inductor

Power Supply Symbols

Voltage Source Generates constant voltage

Current Source Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source AC voltage source

Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical

Generator
rotation of the generator

Battery Cell Generates constant voltage

Battery Generates constant voltage

Generates voltage as a function of voltage or current

Controlled Voltage Source
of other circuit element.

Generates current as a function of voltage or current

Controlled Current Source
of other circuit element.

Meter Symbols

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 Measures voltage. Has very high resistance.
Voltmeter
Connected in parallel.

Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance.

Ammeter
Connected serially.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

Wattmeter Measures electric power

Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols

Lamp / light bulb

Lamp / light bulb Generates light when current flows through

Lamp / light bulb

Diode / LED Symbols

Diode allows current flow in one direction only -

Diode
left (anode) to right (cathode).

Allows current flow in one direction, but also can

Zener Diode flow in the reverse direction when above breakdown
voltage

Schottky Diode Schottky diode is a diode with low voltage drop

Varactor / Varicap Diode Variable capacitance diode

Tunnel Diode

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Light Emitting Diode (LED) LED emits light when current flows through

Photodiode allows current flow when exposed to

Photodiode
light

Transistor Symbols

Allows current flow when high potential at base

NPN Bipolar Transistor
(middle)

Allows current flow when low potential at base

PNP Bipolar Transistor
(middle)

Made from 2 bipolar transistors. Has total gain of

Darlington Transistor
the product of each gain.

JFET-N Transistor N-channel field effect transistor

JFET-P Transistor P-channel field effect transistor

NMOS Transistor N-channel MOSFET transistor

PMOS Transistor P-channel MOSFET transistor

Misc. Symbols

Motor Electric motor

Transformer Change AC voltage from high to low or low to high.

Electric bell Rings when activated

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Buzzer Produce buzzing sound

Fuse
The fuse disconnects when current above threshold.
Used to protect circuit from high currents.
Fuse

Bus

Bus Contains several wires. Usually for data / address.

Bus

Optocoupler / Opto-isolator Optocoupler isolates connection to other board

Loudspeaker Converts electrical signal to sound waves

Microphone Converts sound waves to electrical signal

Operational Amplifier Amplify input signal

Schmitt Trigger Operates with hysteresis to reduce noise.

Analog-to-digital converter
Converts analog signal to digital numbers
(ADC)

Digital-to-Analog converter
Converts digital numbers to analog signal
(DAC)

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 Crystal Oscillator Used to generate precise frequency clock signal

Direct current is generated from constant voltage

⎓ Direct current
level
Antenna Symbols

Antenna / aerial
Transmits & receives radio waves
Antenna / aerial

Dipole Antenna Two wires simple antenna

Logic Gates Symbols

NOT Gate (Inverter) Outputs 1 when input is 0

AND Gate Outputs 1 when both inputs are 1.

NAND Gate Outputs 0 when both inputs are 1. (NOT + AND)

OR Gate Outputs 1 when any input is 1.

NOR Gate Outputs 0 when any input is 1. (NOT + OR)

XOR Gate Outputs 1 when inputs are different. (Exclusive OR)

D Flip-Flop Stores one bit of data

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 Multiplexer / Mux 2 to 1
Connects the output to selected input line.
Multiplexer / Mux 4 to 1

Demultiplexer / Demux 1 to 4 Connects selected output to the input line.

2. Factors that affect the resistance of a conductor

List of factors affecting resistance
Resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. The thermistor is a temperature-dependent
resistor and its resistance decreases as temperature rises. The thermistor is a device used in a
circuit that senses temperature change.
There are four factors on which resistance depends.
1. Length(L)
2. it’s cross-sectional area(A)
3. the type of material
4. nature of material

The resistance of a wire depends on several factors:

• Material – Different materials have different resistances because some materials are
better conductors. Nichrome wire has a higher resistance than a copper wire of the same
size.
• Length – The longer a wire is the higher its resistance. When electrons travel down a
long wire they can collide with more metal ions than in a short wire.
• Thickness – A thin wire has a higher resistance than a thick wire.
• Temperature – The higher the temperature of a wire the higher its resistance. Metals
ions vibrate more at higher temperature and so collisions with electrons are more likely to
happen.

The resistance of a conductor depends on its:

• Length (R ∝ L)

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 • Cross-sectional area (R ∝ L/A)
• Materials (R ∝ ρ )
• Temperature ( R increases in a complex way with temperature- but only for
metals…)

Hence:

𝐿
R=ρ
𝐴

Where:
R – resistance of the wire in ohms (ῼ)
L – Length of wire in feet (ft.)
A – area in circular mils (CM)
ρ – resistivity of the wire in ohms-cir mils per ft.

Source:
https://www.google.com/search?q=Factors+that+affect+the+resistance+of+a+conductor&sxsrf=
ALeKk00vRiVZe- zpfx9F76CIubNkm RJAxQ:1596945540223&tbm=isch& source=iu&ictx=1
&fir=sozGXKTzDvff1M%252Cxq6SP3Bf-tPfHM%252C_&vet=1 &usg= AI4_-kQsYyogQg
TruSp9pRkxRfqdYz8xBA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjD8pndnY3rAhXKa94KHdM5CAcQ9QEwE
noECAkQFw&biw=2049&bih=985#imgrc=x6Fx25hTPEYTbM&imgdii=YTHay5sNV0N2tM
Retrieved: August 9, 2020

Resistivity of Commonly used Conductors

Electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity)
and its inverse, electrical conductivity - is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies
how strongly it resists or conducts electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that
readily allows electric current.
Resistivity - is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of
electrical resistivity is the ohm-meter (Ω⋅m).
For example, if a 1 m × 1 m × 1 m solid cube of material has sheet contacts on two opposite
faces, and the resistance between these contacts is 1 Ω, then the resistivity of the material is 1
Ω⋅m.

Resistivity
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 Resistivity of materials is the resistance to the flow of an electric current with some
materials resisting the current flow more than others

Electrical conductivity or specific conductance - is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity. It

represents a material's ability to conduct electric current. It is commonly signified by the Greek
letter σ (sigma), but κ (kappa) (especially in electrical engineering) and γ (gamma) are
sometimes used. The SI unit of electrical conductivity is siemens per metre (S/m).
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity
Retrieved: August 9, 2020

The material can resist the flow of the charges, and the measure of how much a material
resists the flow of charges is known as the resistivity.
Since electric conductors are generally round and have rather small diameters that are
conveniently expressed in mils (0.001 in. = 1 mil), it is desirable to use circular units rather than
square units to denote the cross-sectional area.

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Example 1
Using the given particulars calculate the resistances of the following conductors at 20℃:
(a) materials = copper, length = 1,000 ft, CM=3,220 cir mils;
(b) materials = aluminum, length = 4 miles, diameter = 162 mils;
(c) materials = Advance, length = 486 in., diameter = 0.0159 in.

Solution:

𝐿 (1,000)𝑓𝑡.
a) R=ρ𝐴 R = (10.37) ohms-cir mils per ft. X
(3,220) 𝑐𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠

R = 3.22 ohms

𝐿 4 𝑋 5,280
b) R=ρ𝐴 R = (17) ohms-cir mils per ft. X = 13.7 ohms
(162)2

𝐿 40.5
c) R=ρ𝐴 R = (294) ohms-cir mils per ft. X = 47.1 ohms
(15.9)2

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Example no. 2
A copper wire has a diameter of 0.325 in. and a resistance of 0.6 ohm at 20℃. Calculate
its length.

Solution:
𝑅𝑋𝐴 0.6 𝑋 (325)2
L=
𝜌
=
10.37
= 6,111.38 ft.

Example no. 3
What kind of materials is used in the construction of a 39-ohm rheostat ( a variable
resistance) if the wire has a length of 266 ft. and a diameter of 22.6 mils?

Solution:
𝑅𝑋𝐴 39 𝑋 (22.6)2
ρ= = = 75 0hm-cir mils per ft
𝐿 266

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Since the electrical resistance of a conductor such as a copper wire is dependent upon
collisional processes within the wire, the resistance could be expected to increase with temperature
since there will be more collisions, and that is borne out by experiment. An intuitive approach to
temperature dependence leads one to expect a fractional change in resistance which is proportional
to the temperature change:
You might have noticed on the table for specific resistances that all figures were specified
at a temperature of 20° Celsius. If you suspected that this meant specific resistance of a material
may change with temperature, you were right!
Resistance values for conductors at any temperature other than the standard temperature
(usually specified at 20 Celsius) on the specific resistance table must be determined through yet
another formula:

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 The “alpha” (α) constant is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance and
symbolizes the resistance change factor per degree of temperature change. Just as all materials
have a certain specific resistance (at 20° C), they also change resistance according to temperature
by certain amounts. For pure metals, this coefficient is a positive number, meaning that resistance
increases with increasing temperature. For the elements carbon, silicon, and germanium, this
coefficient is a negative number, meaning that resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
For some metal alloys, the temperature coefficient of resistance is very close to zero, meaning that
the resistance hardly changes at all with variations in temperature (a good property if you want to
build a precision resistor out of metal wire!). The following table gives the temperature coefficients
of resistance for several common metals, both pure and alloy:

Temperature Coefficients of Resistance at 20 Degrees Celsius

Material Element/Alloy “alpha” per degree Celsius

Nickel Element 0.005866
Iron Element 0.005671
Molybdenum Element 0.004579
Tungsten Element 0.004403
Aluminum Element 0.004308
Copper Element 0.004041
Silver Element 0.003819
Platinum Element 0.003729

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 Gold Element 0.003715
Zinc Element 0.003847
Steel* Alloy 0.003
Nichrome Alloy 0.00017
Nichrome V Alloy 0.00013
Manganin Alloy +/- 0.000015
Constantan Alloy -0.000074

* = Steel alloy at 99.5 percent iron, 0.5 percent carbon tys

Let’s take a look at an example circuit to see how temperature can affect wire resistance,
and consequently circuit performance:

This circuit has a total wire resistance (wire 1 + wire 2) of 30 Ω at standard temperature.
Setting up a table of voltage, current, and resistance values we get:

At 20° Celsius, we get 12.5 volts across the load and a total of 1.5 volts (0.75 + 0.75)
dropped across the wire resistance. If the temperature were to rise to 35° Celsius, we could easily
determine the change of resistance for each piece of wire. Assuming the use of copper wire (α =
0.004041) we get:

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Recalculating our circuit values, we see what changes this increase in temperature will bring:

As you can see, voltage across the load went down (from 12.5 volts to 12.42 volts) and
voltage drop across the wires went up (from 0.75 volts to 0.79 volts) as a result of the temperature
increasing. Though the changes may seem small, they can be significant for power lines stretching
miles between power plants and substations, substations and loads. In fact, power utility companies
often have to take line resistance changes resulting from seasonal temperature variations into
account when calculating allowable system loading.
REVIEW:
Most conductive materials change specific resistance with changes in temperature. This is
why figures of specific resistance are always specified at a standard temperature (usually 20° or
25° Celsius).
The resistance-change factor per degree Celsius of temperature change is called the
temperature coefficient of resistance. This factor is represented by the Greek lower-case letter
“alpha” (α).
A positive coefficient for a material means that its resistance increases with an increase in
temperature. Pure metals typically have positive temperature coefficients of resistance.
Coefficients approaching zero can be obtained by alloying certain metals.

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 A negative coefficient for a material means that its resistance decreases with an increase
in temperature. Semiconductor materials (carbon, silicon, germanium) typically have negative
temperature coefficients of resistance.
The formula used to determine the resistance of a conductor at some temperature other
than what is specified in a resistance table is as follows:

Source:
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-12/temperature-coefficient-
resistance/ Retrieved: September 14, 2020

The general rule is resistivity increases with increasing temperature in conductors and
decreases with increasing temperature in insulators. ... For some materials, resistivity is a
linear function of temperature. ρ = ρ0(1 + α(T − T0)) The resistivity of a conductor increases
with temperature.
What is the effect of temperature on conductance?
An increase in temperature may also cause an increase in the number of ions in solution
due to dissociation of molecules. As the conductivity of a solution is dependent on these factors
then an increase in the solution's temperature will lead to an increase in its conductivity.
According to Ohm’s law the voltage (V) set up across a solution is proportional to the flowing
current (I):
V=RxI

R - Resistance (ohm, Ω), V - Voltage (volt, V), I - Current (ampere, A).

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The resistance (R) is a constant of proportionality and can

𝑉
R=
𝐼

Conductance (G) is defined as the inverse of resistance:

1
G=
𝑅

the unit is in (Siemens, S).

• Electrical current - is the movement of charged particles (measured in Amps, A).
• Conductance - is a measure of how easily those charge particles move through a
solution/material (measured in Siemens, S).
• Conductivity - is the conductance (S) measured across a specified distance through a
material/solution (measured in Siemens per centimetre, S/cm)

Ohms Law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of
proportionality, the resistance,[1] one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this
relationship:[2] where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the voltage
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units
of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of
the current.[3] Ohm's law is an empirical relation which accurately describes the conductivity of
the vast majority of electrically conductive materials over many orders of magnitude of current.
However some materials do not obey Ohm's law, these are called non-ohmic.
The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published in 1827,
described measurements of applied voltage and current through simple electrical circuits
containing various lengths of wire. Ohm explained his experimental results by a slightly more
complex equation than the modern form above
Ohm's Law is a formula used to calculate the relationship between voltage, current and
resistance in an electrical circuit.
E=IxR

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Where:
E = voltage or impressed emf in volts (V)
I = circuit current in Ampere (A)
R = circuit resistance in ohms (Ω)
When spelled out, it means that:
voltage = current x resistance, or
volts = amps x ohms, or
V = A x Ω.

Named for German physicist Georg Ohm (1789-1854), Ohm's Law addresses the key quantities
at work in circuits:

Ohm's Law Unit of measure In case you're

Quantity Role in circuits
symbol (abbreviation) wondering:

Pressure that triggers E = electromotive force

Voltage E Volt (V)
electron flow (old-school term)

Current I Ampere, amp (A) Rate of electron flow I = intensity

Resistance R Ohm (Ω) Flow inhibitor Ω = Greek letter omega

Ohms law statement:

The current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance.

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How does Ohm’s Law work?
Ohm’s Law describes the current flow through a resistance when different electric
potentials (voltage) are applied at each end of the resistance. Since we can’t see electrons, the
model or an analogy of electric circuits used to help us understand circuits better is the water-
pipe analogy. Water flowing through pipes is a good mechanical system that is analogous to an
electrical circuit.
Here, the voltage is analogous to water pressure, the current is the amount of water
flowing through the pipe, and the resistance is the size of the pipe. More water will flow through
the pipe (current) when more pressure is applied (voltage) and the bigger the pipe, (lower the
resistance).
Different Applications of Ohm’s Law
The main applications of Ohm’s law are:
1. To determine the voltage, resistance or current of an electric circuit.
2. Ohm’s law is used to maintain the desired voltage drop across the electronic components.
3. Ohm’s law is also used in dc ammeter and other dc shunts to divert the current.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
Following are the limitations of Ohm’s law:
1. Ohm’s law is not applicable for unilateral electrical elements like diodes and transistors
as they allow the current to flow through in one direction only.
2. For non-linear electrical elements with parameters like capacitance, resistance etc the
voltage and current won’t be constant with respect to time making it difficult to use
Ohm’s law.

Electrical Power
Power is one of the key concepts and units associated with electrical science, measured in
watts, power is an important parameter.
An important aspect of any electrical or electronic circuit is the power associated with it.
It is found that when a current flows through a resistor, electrical energy is converted into heat.
This fact is used by electrical heaters which consist of a resistor through which current flows. Light
bulbs use the same principle, heating the element up so that it glows white hot and produces light.
At other times much smaller resistors and very much smaller currents are used. Here the amount

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of heat generated may be very small. However if some current flows then some heat is generated.
In this instance the heat generated represents the amount of electrical power being dissipated.

Power – is the rate at which work is done or ability to do or act; capability of doing or
accomplishing something or ability to act or produce an effect.
Electric power - is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical energy is transferred by an
electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second.

Power Formula:
P=ExI

Figure 1
Where:
P = Electrical Power in watts (W)
E= voltage in volts (V)
I = current in Ampere (A)
R = Resistance in ohms (Ω)

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Since: (from ohms law)
E=IxR --------- substitute this equation to power formula
P=ExI
P = (I x R) x I
P = 𝐼2 R in watts
Other Power Formula is indicated at figure 1 and it can be derived by substituting the other
variables of ohms law.
Electrical power is frequently converted to mechanical power as, for example, in the case of the
electric motor. The following are the useful equivalent values of power.
1 coulomb per second = 1 ampere
1 joule per second = 1 watt
1 horsepower (hp) = 748 watts
3
Sometimes 1hp is approximately equal to 4 kw.

1,000 watts = 1kilowatts or (1 kw)

Example no. 1

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Connection of Resistors

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