Lesson 1: Literary Reading through a Biographical Context

You may use several sociological, economic, and cultural

There are reasons to read literature through the biographical perspectives when reading using the sociocultural context.
context (Gioia and Kennedy 2007):
● Understanding the author’s life can help you Marxism literature shows class struggle and materialism.
understand his or her work thoroughly. Thus, it looks into the social classes portrayed in the work. It
● Reading the author’s biography or autobiography also looks into how the text serves as propaganda material.
helps you see how much his experiences shape his or It also examines oppression, social conflicts, and solution to
her work directly and indirectly. these struggles as shown in the literary work.

Here are biographical strategies that you may use: Feminism perspective examines the role of women in the
● Research what the author believes in and also what he or literature. It looks into how the female character may be
she does not. empowered or discriminated against.
● Analyze how the author’s belief system is reflected in his
or her work. Queer Theory perspective is concerned with the queer or
● Look at the author’s other works and analyze if there is a the third gender. The perspective itself was named in 1991.
pattern with regard to the theme that is indicative of his or Under this perspective, the third gender, meaning the gay,
her life and beliefs lesbians, and other characters or persona in the literature
that may fall under queer are being examined.
When you are reading literature through a biographical
context: Historicism or traditional historical criticism is a perspective
● In what year was the text written and published? dealing with the history that influenced the writing of
● Is there anything significant that happened in the author’s literature.
life during this time? What were the circumstances that
happened to the author before the writing of the text? Post Colonialism a literary perspective that looks into the
● Were there several drafts of the text? What can you say changes in the attitude of the post-colonies after the
about the changes that the author made? What aspects do colonial period. Through this perspective, the dependence
you think the author struggled with during the revision? or independence of decolonized countries or people is being
What is the effect of the revisions to the published text? examined.
● Are there characters and situations in the text that could
be representative of or are similar to the ones in the New Historicism is another perspective in the sociocultural
author’s life? context. It focuses not only on the history of when the
● How will knowing about the author amplify your literary text was written but also on how the history
appreciation of the work? happened. In New Historicism, the abovementioned
perspectives can be integrated with each other.
Take note of the following before reading a text through a
biographical context: When reading a text or writing a critique through the
● You should not assume that all works are confessional, sociocultural context, set aside your personal political
biographical, or even “true to life.” ideologies.
● A literary text is according to the author’s perspective and
will be heavily influenced by him or her, but it is not the only Lesson 3: Literary Reading through a
way of studying literature. Linguistic Context

Lesson 2: Literary Reading through a Here are some reasons to read literature through the
Sociocultural Context linguistic context:
• Reading the text on its own, regardless of the author’s
The following are reasons to read literature through biography and sociocultural context may help you
sociocultural context (Gioia and Kennedy 2007): understand the literary text by analyzing the words,
● Reading using the sociocultural context helps you sentences, patterns, imagery, etc. of the text.
understand the social, economic, political, and • Analyzing the literary text’s grammar, syntax, or phonemic
cultural forces affecting the work that you are pattern may help you find the meaning of the text within its
reading. form and help you interpret it by simply analyzing the
● Analyzing the sociocultural context of the text makes you content of the literary work.
examine the role of the
audience (readers) in shaping literature. The following are some strategies you may use to read a text
through the linguistic context:
How can we analyze a text through a sociocultural context? ● Analyze the diction or choice of words in the text.
Here are guide questions that you ● Examine the texts’ syntax or use of sentences, clauses,
may answer when you are reading literature through the phrases, line cuts, etc.
sociocultural context: ● Observe the use of figurative language.
● What is the relationship between the characters or the ● Analyze the mood and tone of the text.
speakers in the text and their society? ● Observe the text’s overall structure.
● Does the text explicitly address issues of gender, race, or ● Analyze the content of the text.
class? How does the text resolve these issues?
● Who has the power? Who does not? What is the reason Here are guide questions that may help you when you read
for this setup? literature through the linguistic context:
● How does this story reflect the nation? What does this say
about the country and its inhabitants? ● What were the striking words in the text? What words
● Who has economic or social power? Is there oppression or were unfamiliar to you? Which words attracted your
class struggle? How do the characters overcome this? Does attention? What words were dramatic?
money or finances play a large role in the narrative? ● What nouns are the most prominent? Are these concrete
● What is the prevailing social order? Does the story or or abstract nouns? What about verbs? Does the author use
poem accept or challenge it?
common words or lofty diction? Are the words short or long? Here are the three main goals of critical reading that require
Is there any word that has two or more meanings? inference from reading within the text (Kurland 2000):
● Are the sentences in the usual order of subject-predicate?
What are the dependent clauses? What are the independent ● First is to recognize the author’s purpose, which involves
clauses? If you restructure a sentence or a phrase, would it inferring a basis for choices of content and language.
make a difference? Is the voice active or passive? Is there a ● Second is to understand the tone and persuasive elements
rhythm in the sentence structure in relation to the length of of the text, which involves classifying the nature of language
the sentences or lines? choices used by the author.
● What literary devices are used? Are there images? Do ● Third is to recognize bias, which involves classifying the
those images stand for anything aside from their literal nature of patterns of choice and language used in the text.
meaning?
● What is the tone? Is the speaker happy about the subject? The following critical reading strategies will help you cope
Is the tone negative or positive? with different reading texts:
● What is the structure of the text? Is it a narrative? Is it
linear or nonlinear? What is the point of view of the text? Is ● Previewing. Before you begin reading the text, preview it
it a poem? What type of poem is it? by gathering important information about it. Previewing
● Does the language help in delivering and understanding its helps prepare your mind for the barrage of information that
content? Is there a theme? What is it saying about its subject is to come when you do the actual reading. When you
matter? How do the literary elements contribute to the preview a text, you skim it to get the big picture or an
effectiveness of the text? overview of the entire text. Consider the following:
● What is the text saying about the world in general? ❏ Who wrote the text? What are the author’s other works?
❏ Where and when was the text published? What were the
Take note of the following before reading a text through the major events around the time the text was written or
linguistic context: published?
● Even if literature uses language, it does not mean that the ❏ What can you infer about the text based on the title?
structure of literature and the language are the same. Some ❏ What seems to be the general progression or organization
writers may not follow grammatical rules, and this kind of of ideas based on the chapter titles or section headings and
deviation may be used in your analysis. You may ask, “Why is subheadings?
the text not following standard grammar?” and other similar
❏ What is your purpose for reading the text?
questions.
● The characteristics of the language in which the text was
● Annotating. Annotating involves highlighting or making
written may help in analyzing the text. You may also ask,
notes of important ideas in the text. This can be done by
“Why is the text written in this language?”, “Is this
doing the following:
considered a weak language or a strong language?” and
❏ With a pencil or a pen in hand, underline important ideas
other similar questions.
such as the thesis, topic sentences, and key concepts. Also,
● You may consult literary approaches that focus on
highlight unfamiliar words so you can look them up later.
language. Structuralism, post-structuralism, and formalism
have linguistic aspects. These approaches may lead you in ❏ Make notes such as questions and comments or
your view of reading through the linguistic context. responses on the margins as you read.
❏ Develop a symbol system. You may draw symbols to mark
Structuralism relays the texts being examined to a larger important words or sentences so that the text will not
structure. The structure may be a particular genre, a range appear cluttered.
of intertextual connections, a model of a universal narrative
structure, or a system of recurrent patterns or motifs. ● Contextualizing. When you contextualize, you consider the
historical, cultural, or biographical context of the text.
Formalism (or New Criticism) is a school of literary criticism Identify the context(s) in which the text was written and
and literary theory that focuses on the structure of a determine how this context differs from your own. Keep in
particular text. It examines a text without taking into mind that your understanding of a particular concept is
account any outside influence. influenced by these contexts, in the same way that they
influence an author’s.
Post-structuralism is the reaction to structuralism. In the
linguistic context, there may be underlying structures that ● Outlining and Summarizing. Outlining and summarizing
may have different interpretations based on how the words the text help you identify the main ideas in the text and
or phrases were used in the text. express them again in your own words. In outlining the text,
you identify the basic structure of the text (i.e., the main
Lesson 4: Critical Reading Strategies in Literature ideas and the supporting ideas) and make connections
between those ideas. Outlining helps you understand how
To help you in your critical reading, listed below are the the author developed the text through the ideas presented.
steps or modes of analysis that are reflected in three types of After making an outline, you can now summarize the text.
reading and discussion as presented by Daniel J. Kurland Summarizing the text allows you to present your
(2000): understanding of the text by reviewing and synthesizing
● What a text says is the restatement. At first, you simply important ideas, and then restating them in your own words.
talk about the same topic as what is written in the original
text. ● Analyzing. Analyzing a text deals with examining the
● What a text does is the description. Next, you discuss and information presented to support the author’s argument(s).
examine the aspects of the discussion or the content of the In analyzing a text, you look at the evidence, sources, and
text. author’s bias(es). Consider the following questions:
● What a text means is the interpretation. As you read ❏ Is there enough evidence to support the author’s
critically, you should analyze the text and assert a meaning argument? Does the evidence relate to and support the
for the text as a whole. thesis or the main point the author is trying to convey?
❏ Are the pieces of evidence relevant, credible, and up-to-
date?
❏ Are the sources of information credible? 5. Euphony is the use of devices such as alliteration, rhyme,
❏ Why did the author take that particular position? What is and assonance; meant to create a
the author’s background that may have led to or influenced pleasant experience to the ear.
his or her position?
“Than Oars divide the Ocean,
● Rereading. Rereading requires a repeated examination of Too silver for a seam—
the text to enable you to improve your comprehension of Or Butterflies, off Banks of Noon
the text and to identify ideas that you may not have noticed Leap, plashless as they swim.”
in initial reading. Critical readers read the text more than Excerpt from “A Bird came down the Walk” by Emily
once to fully grasp the meaning of the text and what the Dickinson
author is conveying.
The verse above made use of rhyme (seam and swim) and
● Responding. After you have developed a clear alliteration (oar and ocean, silver
understanding of the text, you are now ready to respond to and seam, butterflies and banks) to create a pleasant sound
the text. Responding to the text means drawing meaning as it is being read.
from what you have read and presenting it in writing or
talking about it to others. When you respond to a text, you 6. Onomatopoeia is the use of words that mimic the natural
express your thoughts, feelings, and questions about the sound of what is being described.
text. You can write why you agree or disagree with the text
or the author’s arguments, or you can interpret the text. You buzz, meow, bark, hiss, squeak
can also respond to a text by discussing it with others.
Sharing the information that you gained from a text with The examples can easily be identified as a bee, cat, dog,
others who have read the same text is a good way to check snake, and mouse because of the sound those animals are
your understanding. associated with.

Lesson 1: Sound Devices 7. Repetition is the repetition of words or phrases to form

rhythm or to emphasize an idea.
Common Sound Devices
1. Alliteration is the repetition of similar sounds, either “In every cry of every man,
consonants or vowels, at the beginning of closely spaced In every infant’s cry of fear
words. In every voice, In every ban
The mind-forg’d manacles I hear”
Suffering Stan stays in the sun to keep from having to stutter. Excerpt from “London” by William Blake

The alliteration in the sentence is evident not only in the In the example above, the phrase “in every” is repeated for
repetition of the first letter of several words (s) but also the t rhythm and emphasis.
sounds in the words Stan, stays, to, and stutter.
8. Rhyme is the repetition of identical (or similar) sounds in
2. Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds that form two or more words, most often at the end of lines in a poem.
internal rhymes in a line. There are four different kinds of rhymes: full rhymes, slant or
half rhymes, near rhymes, and sight rhymes.
Faye’s days are lazy and wasteful.
a. Full rhymes are words that sound alike on both the
The long sound is repeated in the words Faye, days, lazy, and consonant and vowel sounds; all their syllables rhyme.
wasteful. beach, reach, teach
linger, finger
3. Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds, usually
at the end of words. b. Slant or half rhymes are words that have the same final
consonant sounds but different initial consonants and
Wash the leash off of mush to keep Ash from having a rash. vowels.
call, bowl, sell
The sh sound is repeated but different vowel sounds precede back, wreck, tuck
the end consonant in the words wash, leash, mush, Ash, and
rash. c. Near rhymes are words with the same final vowel sounds
but different final
4. Cacophony is the use of jarring, unpleasant sounds, consonants.
usually harsh because the sounds do soil, coin, choice
not go together; meant to convey disorder and would crane, rake, tale
sometimes be hard to pronounce.
d. Sight rhymes are when words or the end of words are
“Twas brillig, and the slithy toves usually spelled the same but are pronounced differently.
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; love, trove
All mimsy were the borogoves bough, enough
And the mome raths outgrabe” call, appall
Excerpt from “Jabberwocky” by Lewis Carroll
Lesson 2: Figurative Language
The italicized words do not have any meaning (their
definitions were created by Carroll); however, their sounds Literary authors use figurative language or figures of speech
are disordered to convey the message of chaos and disarray. to deliver a more effective, persuasive, and impactful
message. This enriches a literary text to further elevate the
themes and concepts presented in it.
 The Malacañang Palace released a statement regarding the
1. An analogy is a comparison that presents the similarities President’s health.
between two concepts or ideas.
In the example above, the term Malacañang Palace was used
Just as a sword is the weapon of a warrior, a pen is the to substitute for the representative from the Office of the
weapon of a writer.” President of the Philippines since Malacañang Palace is
In the example, the sword and the pen were compared the proper noun for the place where the Philippine president
because both of them are weapons resides and takes office.
or instruments used by a warrior and a writer, respectively.
8. An oxymoron is a combination of two ideas that appear to
Both occupations will not function without their respective be opposite or contradictory.
instruments.
complete break
2. A cliché is a word, a phrase, a sentence, or a whole text dirty white
that used to be perceived as clever but has become démodé. tuck out
One reason may be through frequency of use and that it no
longer provides surprise to the reader nor vivid imagery. This Complete break is an oxymoron since a break is a temporary
is something that must be avoided in writing. event and the word complete is associated with
permanence. Dirty white is contradicting because white is
Raining cats and dogs associated with leanliness and spotlessness. Tuck out is also
lovely as a rose contradicting because tucking as a motion is directed toward
quick as lightning the inside of a certain place or thing.

The abovementioned statements are so overused that they 9. A paradox is an assertion that seems to be contradictory
no longer give an artistic effect. or silly but actually reveals some truth.

3. Connotation is the secondary or suggestive meaning of "I must be cruel to be kind."

the word, one that is not its literal or primary meaning in the - Hamlet, William Shakespeare
dictionary. To better understand connotation, it would be
helpful to become familiar with denotation as well. Being cruel is the opposite of being kind; however, this is a
Denotation is the literal meaning of the word, one paradox many parents are familiar with. Some actions such
that is usually its primary meaning in the dictionary. as giving their children a curfew or restricting some of their
spending may be seen as cruel, but it is actually beneficial or
green home kind for the children in the long-run.
green products
green living 10. Personification is a statement or statements wherein an
animal, object, or abstract idea is given human attributes or
The word green in the examples does not only refer to the characteristics.
color but has also become synonymous to being
environmentally sound. The flowers bathe in sunlight, and the grass reached out to
the sky.
4. Euphemism is used to substitute for a description that is The verbs bathe and reach are actions that are performed
considered harsh or blunt. This figurative language is most normally by humans, not by flowers and grass.
often used for delicate matters such as sex, death or
violence, and embarrassing topics. However, personification was used to present a vivid
imagery of how the flowers are under the sun and how tall
She is with our Creator now. the grass is.

This means that the subject has died. Other euphemisms for 11. Simile compares two seemingly unlike objects by using
death are “gone to heaven,” “eternal peace,” “at rest,” and the words like or as.
“left the earth.”
Our soldiers are as brave as lions.
5. Hyperbole is a gross exaggeration to achieve an effect,
usually for humor or emphasis. The adjective brave was used to compare lions and soldiers.
The use of the word as makes the statement a simile.
I was dying of boredom while I was waiting in line.
12. Synecdoche is used when a part or portion of something
The use of the term dying is an exaggeration since boredom is used to represent the whole or vice versa.
is not a possible cause of death.
I brought my wheels.
6. Metaphor compares two seemingly unlike objects that How many heads are coming to the party?
have similar or common characteristics without the use of
like or as. In the first example, wheels are used to stand for the term
car. In the second example, heads stand for people.
The assignment was a breeze.
Lesson 3: Other Literary Techniques
The assignment and breeze are unlike objects. Using breeze
to describe the assignment means that it was easy since the 1. An allusion is a passing reference, without explicit
word breeze is associated with the words pleasant and easy. identification, to a literary or historical person, place, or
event, or to another literary work or passage.
7. Metonymy is a word or phrase that is substituted for
another that is closely associated to it.
I scored a line of nine in all my exams, except for math. Math 2. The atmosphere in prose refers to the creation of a mood
is my waterloo. or feeling by the use of descriptions and setting.

Waterloo is an allusion to the Battle of Waterloo (a city in At low tide, when the bed was dry and the rocks glinted with
Belgium) where Napoleon faced his broken bottles, the stone fence of the Spaniard’s compound
defeat in 1815. set off the house as if it were a castle. Sunrise brought a
wash of silver upon the roofs of the laundry and garden
2. An allegory is a narrative in which the characters and sheds which had been built low and close to the fence. On
their actions, and sometimes the setting are contrived by the dull mornings the light dripped from the bamboo screen
author to represent something happening in the current which covered the veranda and hung some four or five yards
situation. It may be historical, political or ideological in form. from the ground.
- Excerpt from “The Bread of Salt” by N. V. M. Gonzalez
Jose Rizal’s El Filibusterismo is an allegorical novel. “Bapor
Tabo,” for example, was a symbol of the state of the The atmosphere set by the excerpt is a transition to light
Philippines wherein Rizal compares the slow movement of from darkness. This can help in
our country to that of the boat because there is no clear analyzing the story as a coming-of-age story.
direction as to where it is going.
3. Characterization in prose refers to how the author
3. A dichotomy divides a concept, idea, story, or plot into describes the character, either directly
two equal and contradictory parts; or between two opposing or indirectly through action, using details or nuances to add
groups. This is often used for creating conflicts in stories and depth.
plays.
The first children who saw the dark and slinky bulge
In Modesto de Castro’s Urbana at Felisa, the dichotomy approaching through the sea let themselves think it was an
between the life of a woman in the city (Urbana) and the life enemy ship. Then they saw it had no flags or masts and they
of a woman in the province (Felisa) was portrayed. thought it was a whale. But when it washed up on the beach,
they removed the clumps of seaweed, the jellyfish tentacles,
4. Juxtaposition is a technique wherein two or more ideas, and the remains of fish and flotsam, and only then did they
places, characters, and their actions are placed side by side see that it was a drowned man.
to develop comparisons and contrasts. - Excerpt from “The Handsomest Drowned Man in the World”
by Gabriel Garcia Marquez
In popular culture, the use of “Reality vs. Expectation
Memes” is an example of juxtaposition wherein what a The given excerpt from Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “The
person expects and what really happens are compared and Handsomest Drowned Man” shows an example of
contrasted. characterization.

Lesson 4: Literary Elements in Prose 4. The problem or challenge faced by the character or
characters in the story is called the conflict. There are three
Prose, such as short stories and novels, need particular possible conflicts:
literary elements and literary techniques to make it come
alive. These techniques are important in engaging the a. Man vs. Man
readers to read on and think about what they have read. Some conflicts may be between a character and another
character in the story. In J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Hobbit, Gollum
Literary elements are used by writers to make a text has a conflict with Bilbo Baggins over passing the cave. Their
interesting to the readers. At the same time, these elements conflict led to playing a riddle game, which Bilbo won and led
can be used to analyze and understand the text better. These him to have the ring.
elements are the following:
b. Man vs. Nature
1. The plot is the sequence of events that make up the story, This kind of conflict arises when the hero of the narrative is
told in either a chronological or a nonchronological order. struggling against forces of nature. This kind of conflict is
The usual plot order is: evident in epics from the Philippines and around the world. It
is also present in certain biblical stories. For example, Noah
a. Exposition: introduces the character(s), setting, situation faced a struggle against the great flood.
b. Rising action: situation becomes complicated, action gains
force c. Man vs. Himself
c. Climax: highest point of tension in the story This kind of conflict is seen when a character is struggling in
d. Falling action: events that lead to the resolution of the his or her decisions or actions. In J.R.R. Tolkien’s Lord of the
conflict Rings trilogy, Frodo faced many different internal conflicts.
e. Resolution or Denouement: loose ends are tied up, other Whether to take the journey or not and whether to destroy
matters are drawn to a close the ring or not are among them.

5. The perspective or vantage point of the speaker or the

narrator is called the point of view. There are four common
types of point view that can be used and observed in a
literary work.

a. First person - The character within the story is the one

telling it and uses his or her perspective. It uses the pronoun
I in the main narrative of the story.
As I walked along the shore, the sun was setting, and the
waves were starting to crawl to my feet.
b. Second person - The narrator in the story is talking to the
reader as if the reader is also a character in the story. It uses
the pronoun you in the main narrative of the story.
You are about to take part in a wonderful journey.

c. Third-person objective - The narrator gives an unbiased

point of view since the telling of the story does not mention
the characters’ thoughts, opinions, or feelings.
Ms. Garcia entered the class. The whole class fell silent.

d. Third-person omniscient - The narrator is not part of the

story but could see and narrate what the characters are
feeling and thinking.
The students were all excited for the first day of class.
Students of section Acacia did not know who their adviser
will be. Since their section is known to be the noisiest in their
batch, most teachers would like to avoid being their adviser.
As Ms. Garcia, the strictest teacher in school, entered their
room, the whole class fell silent, and she thought it was just
as well that they knew they should be quiet in her class.
Matt, usually the noisiest one, gulped and looked anxious,
already knowing his antics would not be tolerated when Ms.
Garcia is around.

6. The setting is the time and place where the story is set. It
can also include the weather, thesocial and political climate,
and the cultural environment.
In Ernest Hemingway’s “Hills Like White Elephants,” the train
station and its location serve as a third character,
representative of the psychological state of the two main
characters.

7. Theme, on the other hand, is the central idea of the story,

and to an extent, the purpose for
its utterance.
One of the main themes in Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for
Godot” is the absurdity of human life.

Literary Techniques Used in Prose

Literary techniques are used in texts to convey its meaning.

Literary techniques give more emphasis to a writer's ideas to
make them stand out. Here are two of the most common
literary techniques used in prose:

1. A flashback is a scene or a passage that interrupts the

present action of a plot to introduce
a past event.
a scene of a woman taking care of her baby flashing back to
the time when she could not conceive and have been going
to the hospital with her husband

2. Foreshadowing, on the other hand, is the use of clues or

indication suggesting at a future event in the story. This is
used to arouse the reader's’ curiosity and build up suspense.
A locked cabinet mentioned early in the story turns out to
contain a valuable art piece that will save the protagonist
from financial difficulties.