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Platforms & Sensors

Sensors

• Framing systems
Analog Camera - uses a lens to form an image at the focal plane. A shutter
opens at selected intervals to allow light to enter
enter, where the image is recorded
on photographic film
Digital Camera - type of camera that records an image on an 2D array of
photosensitive detectors that is then recorded as a digital image file

• Imaging Systems
Pushbroom / scanning

• Spectrometers

• Non imaging
Atmosphere Profiler/ altimeters

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Aerial Photo & Photogrammetry

Advantages Disadvantages
great flexibility in timing of image acquisition Expensive
Repeat coverage often infrequent
higher spatial resolution
Different sun angles
well accepted technology
f t turn
fast t around
d time
ti
stereoscopic imagery

Basic Philosophy

1/f = 1/U + 1/V

U = object distance = object to lens
V = image distance = lens to focal plane
f is
i constant,
t t
In aerial photos, u is large, 1/U goes to zero,
so v must equal f
Negative plane, Positive plane

Quality depends on
Focal length & Lens properties, Stop, Fstop,
film quality, etc.,

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Most aerial photo mapping missions require overlapped coverage of successive

aerial photos along a flight line. : Why?

O l
Overlap: 60%
60%, Side
Sid llap: 20
20-30%,
30%

Flight lines, Air base, height are

Flights along flight lines @
determined on the basis of camera &
constant speed, height, direction.
purpose.
Drift, Crab
Mosaics: Uncontrolled & Controlled

Film: Panchromatic (minus blue), Infra-red, colour

Maps & Aerial Photos :Perspective and Projection

On a map, objects and features are both

planimetrically and geometrically accurate. This is
due to the fact that maps use an orthographic
projection (i.e. using parallel lines of site) and constant
scale to represent features.

Aerial photographs on the other hand are created using

a central or perspective projection. Therefore, the
relative position and geometry of the objects depicted
depends upon the location from which the photo was
taken.

Because of this we get certain forms of Distortion and Displacement in Air Photos.

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Block of Vertical Aerial

Photography Compiled into
an Uncontrolled Photomosaic

3-4 3-5 3-6

Original scale = 1:6,000

Focal length = 6” (152.82 mm)
a. 4-5
b.
4-6 4-4
March 30, 1993

Block of
Aerial Photography
Compiled into
an Uncontrolled
Photomosaic

Geometry of Aerial Photographs

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Classification of Aerial Photos

Vertical (axis inclination is vertical. Upto 30 is permitted)

Oblique (axis inclination is > 30)
1. High angle oblique; and
2. Low angle oblique. Vertical Aerial Photograph

Low--oblique Aerial Photography

Low

Low--oblique photograph of a bridge

Low

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High--oblique Aerial Photography

High

High--oblique photograph of the

High
grand Coulee Dam

Aerial Photographs
Advantages of V.A.photographs
• Tilt no more than 3 degrees from the vertical

pp y constant throughout
• The scale is approximately g the p
photo

• Within limitations, a vertical air photo can be used as a map substitute

Vertical aerial photographs are often easier to interpret than oblique and
are better for stereo vision.

Advantages of an oblique aerial photograph

• Given a constant altitude and camera you can cover a

much larger area on a single photo

• Some objects not visible on vertical photos may be seen

on oblique.

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Scale of a Vertical
Aerial
Photograph

Scale

Scale
The ratio of distances between corresponding points on a
photograph (or map) and on the ground.

Scale can be defined as: Mainly used in relation to:

Representative Fraction (RF) photographs
Photo Scale Reciprocal (PSR) photographs
Equivalence maps

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Scale

Representative Fraction (RF) (Definition #1)

Ratio of the distance on a photograph to the same distance on the ground,
andd expressed
d as a simple
i l fraction.
f ti
Example: 1 / 15,840 (the photo distance is 1 / 15,840 times the ground
distance)
Units are the same (numerator and denominator), thus the ratio is unitless

 photo distance 
RF   
ground distance  

RF usually expressed as a ratio on maps (e.g. 1:24000)

•Also called as photo scale (PS)

Scale

Representative Fraction (RF) (Definition #2)

R ti off the
Ratio th focal
f l length
l th off the
th camera lens
l andd the
th flying
fl i
height of the aircraft at time of exposure.

 focal length 
RF   
 flying height above terrain

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Scale

Photo Scale Reciprocal (PSR) (Definition #1)

Ratio of the ground distance divided by the photograph distance.
Example: 15,840 (the ground distance is 15,840 times the photo
distance)
• The inverse of RF
• Unitless
• The smaller the PSR, the closer you are to the actual landscape

 ground distance 
PSR   
 photo distance 

Also called as Photo Scale Factor (PSF)

Scale

Photo Scale Reciprocal (PSR) (Definition #2)

Ratio of the flying height of the aircraft divided by the focal

length of the camera lens.

 flying height above terrain 

PSR   
 focal length 

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Scale

Equivalence
Ratio of the distance on a photograph to the same distance on
the ground, and expressed as a ratio.
Examples:

• 4 inches = 1 mile
• 1 inch = 1000ft.
Units usually not the same.

Variation in Scale

Variation in Scale
As just mentioned, scale is probably not constant across a photograph.

Within a single photograph, scale is a function of tilt and topography.

Therefore, RF can be re-defined as:
Photo

Lens
 focal length 
RF   
 flying
y g height
g above terrain 

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

Focal Length
Angle of coverage increases as the focal length decreases

Focal Focal
plane plane
Focal Focal
length length
Lens Lens

Angle
A l off Angle
A l off
coverage coverage

Ground Ground

Variation in Scale

Variation in Scale
Assuming flat terrain, what will happen to PSR if the focal length is increase by 2
Times ?
Times.?

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Variation in Scale

Variation in Scale
Tilt causes variation within a single photograph.
S l are different
Scales diff t on either
ith side
id off the
th tilt.
tilt

Scale

Example #1
Given: RF = 1: 31,680
What are the PSR and the Equivalence
q scale (in
( inches per
p mile)?
)
First, PSR is the inverse of RF
 1   31,680 
RF    PSR     31,680
 31,680   1 

Then, add units to the unitless RF

 1 inch 
EQ   
31 680 inches 
 31,680
(12 in. = 1 ft.)

 1 inch 
EQ    (5280 ft. = 1 mi.)
 2640 feet 
 1 inch   2 inches 
EQ      or 2 inches  1 mile
 0.5 mile   1 mile 

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Scale

Example #2 EQ is 1 inch = 1 mile

What are the RF and PSR?

Hint: Make the EQ ratio unitless

 1 inch 
EQ   
 1 mile 
 1 inch   1 mile   1 foot 
EQ       

 1 mile   5280 feet   12 inches 
 1 
EQ   
 63 360 
63,360
Thus

RF  1 / 63,360

PSR  63,360

Types of Scale

Average Scale
Average between two points, for part of a photograph, an entire photograph, or
several photographs.

Will be different from one photograph to the next, depending on variation in

topography.

Nominal Scale
The nominal scale is specified
p in a photo
p contract.

It is the desired average scale; or, the goal of an air photo mission.

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Types of Scale

Point Scale

• Photo scale at a point on the ground at a given elevation.

• Every point at a different elevation has a different scale.

• Range of point scale in a photograph = f (focal length of a

lens) / min and max flying height (variation in elevation
within a given photograph)

Basic Scale Equations

Average Scale Calculations

Example #1. Average scale between two road junctions.

1.14 in.

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Basic Scale Equations

Average Scale Calculations (continued)

Example #1. Average scale between two road junctions.
Photo
h di
distance: 1.14 inches
Ground distance: 1395 feet
Elevation of point A: 526 feet
Elevation of point B: 584 feet
 GD 
PSR    Must be expressed in the same units
 PD 

 1395 feet   12 inches 

PSR  
555  1.14
1 1 inches   1 foot 

PSR  14,680
555

 All points 555 feet above mean sea level are at a PSR of 14,680
 Rounded to the nearest 10 by convention.

Basic Scale Equations

Average Scale Calculations

Example #2. Average scale between two (other) road junctions.
Flying height above mean sea level: 8000 feet
Average elevation of landscape features: 800 feet
Focal length of lens: 6 inches

A - E
PSR    Must be expressed in the same units
 f 

 8000 feet - 800 feet 

PSR  
800  0.5 feet 

PSR  14,400
800

 All points 800 feet above mean sea level are at a PSR of 14,400.

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Basic Scale Equations

Average Scale Calculations

Example #3. Using a map and a photograph with limited information.

Distance between two points on a photograph: 1.14 inches

Elevation of point A: 526 feet
Elevation of point B: 584 feet
Distance between those same two features on a map: 3.48 inches
Map scale: 1 inch = 400 feet

1. Calculate the "ground distance" between the points using the map info.

 400 feet 
GD  3.48 i h 
3 48 inches   1392 feet

f t
 1 inch 
2. Calculate the PSR.

 GD   1392 feet   12 inches

PSR      14,650
555  PD   1.14 inches  1 foot 

Basic Scale Equations

Flying Height Calculations

Example #4. What is the flying height of the aircraft (H)?

PSR: 14,650
A - E
PSR   
f 
Average elevation: 555 feet
: 6 inches (0.5 ft.) 

Hint: Solve for A f (PSR)  A  E 

f (PSR)  E  A

0.5 feet (14650)  555 feet  A

7,880 feet  A
7880 - 555 = 7325 feet = H

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Annotation on the Perimeter of An Aerial Photograph

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

Fiducial marks
• Optically projected geometric figures located at either the four corners of a
photograph, or on the four sides of a photograph.

• They define the coordinate axes and

geometric center of a single aerial
photograph.

• The x-axis most nearly defines the

direction of flight.

• The y-axis most nearly defines the

flight line.

• The intersection of the fiducial marks

represents the “principal point” of the
photograph.

Vertical Aerial Photographs

The three photo centers

Different types of distortion and
displacement radiate from each
each.

Principal point: geometric center

of the photograph, and the intersection
of the X and Y axes.

Lens distortion is radial

Ground
PPoint

from the Principal Point

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

The three photo centers

2

Nadir: The point vertically

beneath the camera at the time the
photograph was taken.

Topographic displacement
is radial from the nadir

Usually difficult to locate on a single

Nadir
Ground

PPoint
aerial photograph

Vertical Aerial Photographs

The three photo centers

3

Isocenter: The point that falls on a

line halfway between the Principal Point
and the Nadir.

Tilt displacement radiates

from the isocenter
Isocenter
Nadir

Ground
PPoint

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

The three photo centers

On a truly vertical aerial photograph,
photograph all three photo centers
will be located in the same place. This place can be located
by drawing lines between opposite fiducial marks (as when
defining the Principal Point).

In lab, we are going to assume that all of our photos are

truly vertical.

Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement

Distortion: The shift in position of a landscape feature
on a photograph that alters the perspective characteristics of
the image.
• Film and print shrinkage (negligible)
• Atmospheric refraction of light rays (negligible)
• Motion of the landscape feature
• Lens distortion

Displacement: Any shift in the position of a landscape

feature on a photograph that does not alter the perspective
characteristics of the image.
• Curvature of the earth (negligible)
• Tilt
• Topographic relief

Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement:

Lens Distortion
• Radiates from the Principal Point.

• Causes landscape features to appear either further away, or closer to, the
Principal Point than they really are.

• Most serious near the edges of a photograph.

• Can
C beb calculated
l l t d by
b calibrating
lib ti the
th lens,
l andd developing
d l i a “distortion
“di t ti
curve” for the lens.

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Distortion and Displacement:

Tilt Displacement
• Radiates from the isocenter of a photograph.

• Caused by the aircraft not being perfectly horizontal at the time of exposure
of the film.

• If the amount of tilt is known, photographs can be rectified.

• If we can determine the direction of the tilt, in terms of “upper side” of the tilt
and the “lower side" of the tilt, we can determine how landscape features are
being displaced
displaced.

Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Tilt Displacement

X-axis tilt: Y-axis tilt:

wings up Nose up
or down or down
Isocenter
Isocenter

Nadir

Ground
Nadir

Ground
PPoint
PPoint

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Tilt Displacement

Photo

PPoint Ground
Nadir
Isocenter

Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Tilt Displacement

S
Some llandscape
d ffeature
(a’) is being displayed
on a photograph (point Displacement
a) that is displaced
radially inward from a c
the appropriate place
Photo
on the photograph (c)
by the amount d.

b a’
Ground
d

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

• Radiates from the nadir of a photograph.

• Varies directly with the height of the landscape feature.

• Varies directly with the radial distance from nadir to the top of a landscape feature.
• There is no displacement at nadir.
• Varies inversely with the flying height above the base of the landscape features.

• We can view in 3-dimensional images because of it.

• We can use the “similar

similar triangles
triangles” theory to arrive at an equation to allow
us to calculate topographic displacement.

In the example that follows, we will assume that the nadir and the Principal
Point are the same (since topographic displacement is radial from the nadir,
yet the nadir is often difficult to determine, and the Principal Point is not).

Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Units in inches or mm,, r
same scale as photo: d r’
negative
r = distance on the photo f
from the nadir to the lens
displaced landscape
H-h
feature.
r’ = actual place on the H
photo where the A R
l d
landscape feature
f should
h ld h
be located.
d = relief (topographic) E
displacement.
f = focal length.

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Units in feet or meters: r
d r’
h = height of the negative
landscape feature. f
A = altitude of the aircraft lens
above sea level.
H-h
E = elevation of the
landscape feature. H
H = Flying height above A R
th base
the b off the
th landscape
l d h
feature at nadir.
R = distance from the E
nadir to the landscape
feature.

Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Similar triangles: r
d r’
 f  r negative
    
 ( H  h )  R f
lens
Thus
H-h
 f R  H
r 
 H h A R
h

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Similar triangles: r
d r’
 f   r'  negative
  
H   R f
lens

Thus H-h
H
 f R
r'    A R
 H  h

Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

We are usually interested

in two things: d
negative
d (object topographic lens
displacement
on a photograph)

h (object height)
h

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Calculate “d”: Calculate “d” (cont.):
d  r  r' Remember,
 fR 
 f R   f R r 
d     H h
 H h  H 
So, substituting r for the above term
 f R  H   f R  H  h 
d        rh Hd
 H  h  H   H  H  h  d    h  
 f R H   f R H   f R h  H   r 
d            or,
 ( H  h) H    ( H  h) H   ( H  h ) H  
 rh   ( A  E) d 
 f RH   f RH   f Rh  d    h  
d           A E   r 
 ( H  h ) H   ( H  h) H   ( H  h) H 
 f Rh 
Where d = displacement of landscape
d    feature on photo, and h = height of
 ( H  h) H  landscape feature

Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Example #1: A Ridgeline rh
d   
H 
Flying height above the base of the
 3.0 inches (1000 feet ) 
landscape feature at nadir = H d   
= 10,000 feet  10,000 feet 

Height of the landscape feature d  0.3 inches

relative to nadir = h = 1,000 feet
If the photo scale was 1 : 12000, what
is the error on the ground?
Radial distance from the nadir to the
landscape feature’s location on the ground error  0.3 inches (12000)
photo = 3.0 inches ground error  3600 inches
ground error  300 feet
What is the displacement on the photo
relative to nadir?

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Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Example #2: Tree Height

Suppose we have the measured

displacement of a tree, on flat 2.1 mm
ground, or d = 2.1 mm.
79.4 mm
The distance from the top of the tree
to the nadir of the photograph is
79.4 mm, or r = 79.4 mm. Nadir

The flying height of the aircraft, A, A = 10,000 feet

above sea level is 10,000 feet. E = 2,000 feet

The elevation of the area, E, from a

topographic map is 2,000 feet.

What is the height of the tree?

Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Example #2:

What is the height of the tree?

2.1 mm
 ( A  E) d 
h   79.4 mm
 r 
 (10000 feet  2000 feet ) 2.1 mm 
h   
 79.4 mm  Nadir
 (8000 feet ) 2.1 mm 
h    A = 10,000 feet
 79.4 mm  E = 2,000 feet
h  211 .6 feet

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