Hardware

Hardware
System Performance
Performance Calculation
Throughput – Is the volume of work that can
be processed by the computer system in a
given time
Instruction Mix – the combination of the
execution time for representative instructions
and frequency of such information
occurrences found in programs represent the
performance of the computer’s processor.
Example of an Instruction Mix
Type of Instruction Instruction Execution Frequency of

time Occurence
Transmission 200 nanoseconds 65%
instructions
Calculation instructions 400 nanoseconds 20%
Decision instructions 300 nanoseconds 10%
Jump instruction 100 nanoseconds 5%
Total 100%
MIPS (Million Instruction Per
Second)
MIPS represents on average the number of
instructions that a processor can execute in
units of millions per second.
1,000,000 instructions / second = 1
instruction / microsecond
It takes 1 microsecond to execute one
instruction
If we calculate the MIPS of the processor of
the given instruction mix example,
Ave. Instruction mix = 200 ns X 0.65 + 400
ns X 0.2 + 300 ns x 0.1 + 100 ns X 0.5
= 245 ns (1 instruction / 245 ns)
Convert to instructions per second = 4.08 X 106

instructions/second OR 4.08 MIPS
Problem: In a processor whose basic operating time
(clock time) is 0.05 microseconds, when the values of
the clock number required to execute an instruction and
the instruction frequency rate are the ones shown in the
table, approximately what is the MIPS average value of
the processor performance?
Instruction Type Clock number Use Frequency

required for
instruction execution
Operation between 4 40%
register
Operation between 8 50%
memory and register
Unconditional branch 10 10%
Answer: 3 MIPS
CPI = CPI of instruction X ratio of instruction1 + CPI of
instruction 2 X ration of instruction2 + …..
a.) Compute the expected value of the CPI for CPU
CPI = 4 X 0.4 + 8 X 0.5 + 10 X 0.1
= 1.6 + 4 + 1
= 6.6 clocks
b) Compute average instruction execution time from clock time.
Since clock time is 0.05 microsecond,
Average instruction execution time = 0.05 X 6.6 = 0.33ms
= 1instruction / 0.33 ms
c. Convert to instruction per second = 3 X 106 instructions /

second = 3MIPS
CONSTRUCTION OF
MAGNETIC DISK
Construction of a Magnetic Disk
Storage Capacity of Magnetic
Disk
Given a magnetic disk with the following
specification, what is the storage capacity
in Mbytes?
⚫ Number of cylinders: 800 cylinders
⚫ Track/ cylinder : 19 tracks
⚫ Storage capacity/ track = 20,000 bytes
Answer: 304MB
Hard disk with Blocking
⚫ Just as on a magnetic tape, data is
recorded by blocks on a hard disk.
However, if a block cannot fit into a track, it
cannot be recorded. A block cannot be
recorded across multiple tracks.
Block 1 IBG Block 2 IBG Block 3 IBG Block n
Track Length
Cannot be recorded
⚫ First, data is recorded on a track, and when
that track is filled, the recording proceeds to
the next track which is a track on the
corresponding circumference of the next
⚫ Given a magnetic disk with the following
specifications, how many cylinders are
required when 80,000 records of 200 bytes
each are stored in a sequential access file
of 10 records/block.
⚫ Specifications are
⚫ Cylinder number: 400 cylinders
⚫ Track / cylinder : 19 tracks
⚫ Storage capacity/ tracks : 20, 000 bytes
⚫ Inter-block gap(IBG): 120 bytes
⚫ 1. First, the number of blocks of the whole
file is calculated.
⚫ Since the number of records is 80,000 and the
blocking factor is 10, the number of blocks is
determined as follows:
80,000 records ÷ 10 records/ block =
8, 000 blocks
⚫ 2. The length of one block, including the
inter-block gap is calculated.
⚫ 200 bytes/record x 10
records/block + 120 bytes/block
= 2, 120 bytes/block.
⚫ 3. The number of blocks that can be
recorded in 1 track is calculated.
20, 000 bytes ÷ track / 2,120
bytes/block = 9.43 blocks per track
⚫ Since a block cannot be recorded across

multiple tracks, the decimals are omitted,
and the number of blocks that can be
recorded in 1 track becomes 9 blocks/track.
⚫ 4. The number of tracks required for the
whole file is calculated.
8,000 blocks ÷ 9 blocks/track =
888.88... tracks
⚫ Rounding it up to the next whole

number, it becomes 889 tracks.
⚫ 5. The number of cylinders required to
record the whole file
889 tracks ÷ 19 tracks/cylinder =
46.78 cylinder
⚫ Rounding it up to the next whole

number, it becomes 47 cylinders.
Magnetic Disk
Sequence for Read-Write Operation
(1) Magnetic head moves to the target

track. (seek operation)
(2) Waits for the sector to rotate and come
around. (rotational latency)
(3) Reads and writes to and from the target
sector. (data transfer time)
Sequence for Read-Write
Operation
Access time
Seek Time Search Time

Data
Transfer
Time
Latency /
overhead
The reading /
The reading / writing
The reading / writing writing operation
operation starts
instruction is given by is completed
the control unit
Performance of Magnetic Disk
Access time – Average seek time + Average search
time + data transfer time
Seek time – the time it takes to move the magnetic
head to the desired track.
Search time (Rotational latency) – the lapse of time
until the target data reaches the magnetic head
position.
❑ Average search time – time required to make ½
revolution.
Data Transfer time – the time elapsed between
when the magnetic head data access starts and
when the transfer completed.
Given a magnetic disk unit with the following
specifications, what is the access time of this
magnetic disk when a record of 9,000 bytes is
processed?
Specifications
Capacity per track : 15,000 bytes
Magnetic disk rotation speed: 3, 000
revolutions/minute.
Average seek time: 20 milliseconds
1. First, the average search time is calculated.
Since the rotation speed of the magnetic disk is
3,000 revolutions/minute, through the following
operation
3,000 revolutions/minute ÷ 60 seconds/minute =
50 revolutions/second
It is determined that the magnetic disk makes 50
revolutions per second. Therefore, the time
required to make 1 revolution is 0.02 seconds
or 20 milliseconds.
Average search time = 10 milliseconds
2. Since in 1 revolution, the information
contained in 1 track passes through the
magnetic head, considering that the disk
makes 50 revolutions per second, the data
transfer speed is as follows:
Data transferred speed = 50 tracks/second X
15,000 bytes/track = 750 X103 bytes/second
The time it takes to transfer 9,000 bytes of
data can be calculated as follows.
(9X103 bytes) ÷ (750 X 103 bytes/track) =
0.012 seconds = 12 milliseconds
3. Therefore the access time is as follows,
Average seek time + Average search time +
Data transfer time
= 20 ms + 10 ms + 12 ms = 42 milliseconds
System Reliability
⚫ One of the measures used to indicate the
safety and efficiency is known as RASIS
⚫ R – Reliability
⚫ A – Availability
⚫ S - Serviceability
⚫ I – Integrity
⚫ S - Security
MTBF
⚫ MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures)–
represents the degree of reliability.
⚫ MTBF = Total normal operation time ÷ total

number of times normally executed
MTTR
⚫ MTTR (Mean Time To Repair) – The degree of
S(Serviceability) in RASIS is indicated by the
average time in which the equipment is not
acting normally.
⚫ MTTR = repair time ÷ no. of failures

System Reliability
System Availability
→ a percentage that indicates the level of
uninterrupted availability
→ indicated by MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURE
(MTBF) or MEAN TIME TO REPAIR (MTTR)
Availability of Complex Systems
(1) Serial System

→ a system that only operates when all of the devices
from which it is configured are operational
AVAILABILITY = A1 x A2
(2) Parallel System
→ a system that operates as long as at least one device
is operational
AVAILABILITY = 1 – (1 – A1) x (1 – A2)
From a viewpoint of reliability of systems, which of the
following is the appropriate
timing for measuring the availability of a system?
a) When failures begin to increase because of the aging of
the system through
long-term operations
b) When system operations are started
c) When the decision is made on whether or not to release
the system
d) When the problems found immediately after the start of
system operations have been resolved and the system is
becoming stable
ANSWER: D

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Type of Instruction Instruction Execution Frequency of

Decision instructions 300 nanoseconds 10%

Jump instruction 100 nanoseconds 5%

Convert to instructions per second = 4.08 X 106

Instruction Type Clock number Use Frequency

c. Convert to instruction per second = 3 X 106 instructions /

⚫ Since a block cannot be recorded across

⚫ Rounding it up to the next whole

⚫ Rounding it up to the next whole

(1) Magnetic head moves to the target

Seek Time Search Time

⚫ MTBF = Total normal operation time ÷ total

⚫ MTTR = repair time ÷ no. of failures

(1) Serial System

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