1

I. ABSTRACT

Refractometry is a technique for obtaining a substance's refractive

index. The refractive index of a substance is defined as the ratio of the speed
of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in another substance (Pharmaceutical
Analysis). Through Abbe’s Refractometer Simulation, toluene was analyzed
in sodium light (589 nm) to acquire its refractive indices at different
temperatures and as these temperatures become higher, its corresponding
polarisability and refractive indices gradually decrease while its percentage
error steadily increases. Toluene was also analyzed at a constant temperature
of 35°C to obtain its correlative refractive indices using different light sources
and was found that at 35°C in red light (652 nm) showed the highest
polarisability of 3.850667E-22 and observed refractive index of 1.639 and
lowest percentage error of 5.47%. Bending of Light was done through a glass
medium that has a constant 1.500 experimental ray refractive index. Snell’s
Law was best used in calculating the medium refractive indices of samples
Mystery A and Mystery B. It is possible to identify what material the light is
passing through as every material has its own corresponding refractive
indexes. Upon calculations, Mystery A’s refractive index is 2.4228 which
resembles a diamond medium (2.417) and Mystery B’s refractive index is
1.4002 which is close to a glass medium. Clausius Mossotti’s equation is used
to calculate the density prior to obtaining both sample's computed refractive
index. It can be deduced that a substance density and polarizability has a direct
relationship.
Keywords: Clausius Mossotti; polarisability, Refractive Index, Refractometry,
Snell’s Law

II. INTRODUCTION

Refractometry is a method that quantifies the occurrence of refraction

when light passes through any given substance, most commonly of unknown
nature. During this process, the observer measures the refractive index of the
 2

material which determines how much light is refracted. Through this index, an
observer can identify an unknown sample, and can even measure the purity of
a known liquid compound based on reference literatures. By comparing how
near the refractive index from previous sources, we can determine how pure
the sample is currently under inspection. With these concepts at hand, it can
be said that refractometers are instruments that are intended for the speed of
light. The results gathered may not directly reflect the speed of light, but
relatively present its relation in air. Refractive index incorporates this
comparison giving us an indication regarding a particular material. The index
indicates how much faster light travels in the air in comparison with material
under scrutiny.
Index of refraction can be used in a variety of professional applications
from determination of substance purity and concentration of medications to
measurement of substance present in the sample. Moreover, these methods can
also be used for quality control of operating fluids present in different
machines and engines. On the other hand, aside from individual physical
properties, this technique can also determine the mixing ratio of mixtures
containing multiple compounds. In general, refractometry can be used as a
quantitative measurement for numerous useful applications; applying the
concept in quantum setting to observe significant behaviors that may involve
light and its interaction with different materials.
In this experiment, we will explore the concepts that apply the refraction
of light through the substance in comparison with its travel in the air.
Furthermore, this experiment will investigate the physical application of
Snell’s Law in the determination of refractive indices based on the angle of
reflection and refraction. Ultimately, this experiment aims to give insights and
achieve the following:
1. To determine the refractive index of the given samples, both known and
unknown.
 3

2. To correlate the relationship of the variation in the refractive indices with

the following factors: (a) Temperature of the liquid sample and (b)
Wavelength of the light source
3. To determine the polarizability of the given liquid samples at a given
temperature.
III. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
When a significant amount of energy is added to atoms, many of them
are promoted to a higher energy state. They then emit light with just a few
distinct wavelengths, and the atom returns to its lower energy state. Excitation
is the method of injecting energy into a group of atoms, and the emission
spectrum of that atom form is the pattern of characteristic wavelengths released
by the atoms in response to excitation.
If h = E, where E is the difference in energy between the two states of
the atom, an atom in a lower energy state will absorb light of frequency v and
thus be promoted to a higher energy state. The phase of emission is the
opposite of this one.
The absorption of certain characteristic wavelengths of the EM
spectrum by atoms is powered by the input of energy in the form of EM
radiation. What we consider as the colors of substances are the absorption of
certain visible wavelengths by those substances, and the transmission or
reflection of others. Absorption is simply an excitation, and an atom's
absorption is often accompanied by emission of a wavelength that is equal to
or longer than the wavelength absorbed.
The refractive index of a material is a value that is peculiar to a
material. It is determined by the light's temperature and wavelength (color). If
you know the temperature and wavelength of a substance, you can use a
refractometer to calculate its concentration. However, different materials can
have the same refractive index at different concentrations. Since light
propagation through a dielectric can be imagined to occur by incident light
causing an oscillating dipole moment, which then radiates light of the same
 4

frequency, the refractive index is related to molecular polarizability. As a

result, the refractive index rises as the incident frequency approaches the
absorption frequency. A refractometer is a method for calculating the speed of
light. The outcome would be related to the speed of light in air rather than
being explicitly specified. (SCHMIDT - HAENSCH GmbH & Co. 2006 –
2021)
Any material that interacts with light has a refractive index (RI,
symbolized as n). This constant, dimensionless number defines how quickly
light travels through a particular medium in comparison to a reference medium
(usually vacuum or air). The lower the medium's optical density, the faster
light passes through it and the lower its refractive index. The wavelength of
light and the temperature of the material determine the refractive index of a
substance. If the calculation is not performed under normal conditions, a
reference to the refractive index must also define the wavelength and
temperature.
The Abbe refractometers are measured using liquids. High refractive
indices can be chosen for the reference media glasses (prisms). A mirror
captures light from a radiation source, which then strikes a double prism. The
incident light beams' angles of incidence at the interface are less than the
critical angle of total reflection if they pass through the double prism and
sample. The light / dark boundary line is calculated using a microscope and a
mirror with a suitable mechanism (shadow line).
The refractometer's operation is based on Snell's law, a physical theory
of light refraction. As light travels through more optically dense media, it
slows down, and when it passes through less optically dense media, it speeds
up. The change in speed is followed by a change of direction, and the light
does not refract in the second medium at all, but is completely reflected at a
certain angle of incidence. The critical angle is the angle at which this happens,
and it is the angle that the refractometer tests.
 5

REFRACTIVE INDEX:
Where:
n= index of refraction
𝑐 c= the velocity of light in a
𝑛=
𝑣 vacuum
v= the velocity of light in a
medium
SNELL’S LAW:
Where:
n1 = index of refraction of first
medium
n1sin (θ1) =n2sin (θ2) θ1 = angle of incidence
n2 = index of refraction of
second medium
θ2 = angle of refraction

POLARISABILITY (CLAUSIUS-MOSSOTTI EQUATION)

Where:
Ɛ0 = permittivity in free space
(Ɛ0 = 1)
n= refractive index of the
given liquid at a particular
temperature
NA = Avogadro’s number
(6.023x1023 mol-1)
M= molecular mass
ρ= density of the material
 6

IV. PROCEDURE
In this experiment, the researchers have identified the varying
refractive indices while alternating temperature and light sources.
Furthermore, these experiments determined the relationship of temperature
with index of refraction through a refractometer simulation. The following
simulation has been used to demonstrate the relationships between the
components of Snell’s Law taking into account the relationship between
refractive indices to angles of refraction and reflection. Here are the following
procedures that are undertaken to complete this experiment:
A. Abbe’s Refractometer Simulation. This part of the experiment aims to
determine the relationship of change in temperature and light sources to
the index of refraction. Furthermore, we have determined how the
refractive indices can change with a corresponding change in temperature
and light sources done with constant variables. Through these results, we
can solve the theoretical values of refractive indices and compare the
relationship between variables and discrepancies within the values.
a. Refractive Indices at Different Temperatures. In this part of the
experiment, the researcher will determine the behavior of the
refractive index in varying temperatures and in constant light
source. Here are the following steps that are executed to collect and
analyze the data:
1. Open Abbe’s Refractometer Simulation.
2. Choose your preferred view of the instrument, you can
choose from the front and side view.
3. Select the desired sample to be examined.
4. Choose a standard light source to be used for the rest of
this part of the experiment.
5. Set the temperature at your desired values.
6. Adjust the refractor scale position accordingly until the
boundary of the liquid sets along the intersection of the
 7

cross in the circle at the lower right corner of the

simulation.
7. List the refractor scale position and polarizability in the
data sheet.
8. Repeat steps 5 to 7 until all the data points are filled up.
9. Solve the theoretical values based on the values obtained
from the simulation. Afterward, graph the values
obtained.
b. Refractive Indices using different light sources. Succeeding
from the previous part, the researcher will determine the behavior
of refractive index in varying light sources and in constant
temperature. Here are the following steps that are executed to
collect and analyze the data:
1. Open Abbe’s Refractometer Simulation.
2. Choose your preferred view of the instrument, you can
choose from the front and side view.
3. Select the desired sample to be examined.
4. Choose a standard temperature to be used for the rest of
this part of the experiment.
5. Set the light source from your desired choice.
6. Adjust the refractor scale position accordingly until the
boundary of the liquid sets along the intersection of the
cross in the circle at the lower right corner of the
simulation.
7. List the refractor scale position and polarizability in the
data sheet.
8. Repeat steps 5 to 7 until all the data points are filled up.
9. Solve the theoretical values based on the values obtained
from the simulation. Afterward, graph the values
obtained.
 8

B. Bending of Light. This part explores the relationship between the

variables present in Snell’s Law which includes index of refraction and
angles of reflection and refraction. The index of refraction will be
determined from initial results presented in the experimentation. Here are
the following procedures that are done to complete the data:
1. Open PhET Colorado’s Bending of Light Simulation. Select the
more tools option to initiate the experiment.
2. Change the upper material into glass. You can also use the gauge
below and manually select glass within the choices.
3. Change the lower material into mystery A.
4. Open the light source by clicking the red button in the apparatus
located in the upper left corner of the simulation.
5. Drag the protractor in the tools section from the lower left corner
of the simulation to the center of the broken located in the center.
6. Observe and list down the angles of reflection and refraction
displayed in the experiment.
7. Repeat step 1 to 6, replacing the lower material into Mystery B.
8. Solve the index of refraction of the mystery material through
Snell’s law.
C. Data Analysis. For this part, the researcher will use the initial experimental
results from part A (both A.a and A.b) for the determination of temperature
using refractive index values. From the obtained value, we can determine
the relationship of the refractive index from the variables, specifically
temperature and light source. Furthermore, to ensure the accuracy of the
simulation used for this experiment, we will test the comparison of the
theoretical and experimental values to determine for lapses or errors in the
results of the experiment.
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V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

I. ABBE’S REFRACTOMETER SIMULATION

A. Refractive Indices at Different Temperatures (5 data points)

Sample: Toluene Light source: Sodium Light

Computed Observe
Temperature Polarisability
Refractive Refractive %Error
(˚C) (GPa)
Index (η) Index (η)

-80 3.1738090x-22 1.506 1.533 1.79%

-40 3.0596670E-22 1.456 1.515 4.05%

0 2.9457990E-22 1.413 1.497 5.94%

40 2.8322230E-22 1.377 1.479 7.41%

80 2.7189600E-22 1.345 1.461 8.62%

Table 1. Table of Values for Experimental and Calculated Refractive Indices at

Different Temperatures

Factors that affect the refractive index value of light, as it moves from one
medium to another, are the medium’s optical density, the light’s wavelength and
the temperature. In the first experiment using the Abbe’s refractometer, the
refractive index of Toluene was observed over five different temperatures.
Tabulated as seen in Figure 1, the polarizability was also recorded with its
corresponding temperature and observed refractive index. From this gathered data,
correlations between the temperature, polarizability and refractive index can be
deduced. As the temperature increased from -80°C to 80°C, the polarizability
decreased from 31.73809x10-23 to 27.18960x10-23 and the refractive index reduced
from 1.533 to 1.461. This means that the polarizability and observed refractive
 10

index are directly proportional to each other and that each of them are indirectly
proportional to temperature. With increased temperature, comes a decrease in
density and with this other correlation it can be said that the refractive index and
density also have a directly proportional relationship.

Refractive Indices at Different Temperatures

1.550
1.533
1.515
1.506 1.500 1.497
Refractive Index (η)

1.479
1.456 1.461
1.450
Computed Refractive
1.413 Index
1.400
Observed Refractive Index
1.377
1.350 1.345

1.300
-100 -50 0 50 100
Temperature

Figure 1. Graphical Representation of Comparison of Refractive Indices at

Different Temperatures

An explanation to this is when the temperature rises, the liquid (Toluene)

becomes less dense and viscous, creating a medium where light can travel faster. A
faster travel of light causes a smaller refractive index or bending of light. In the
opposite perspective: the denser the medium or liquid, the more difficult it will be
for light to travel, causing it to bend from one medium to another. The final column
filled after observation in the gathered data is the computed refractive index. These
values were obtained using the Clausius Mossotti’s equation where density was
firstly calculated before being substituted into the equation along with other
necessary values such as polarizability, molar mass, relative permittivity, and
Avogadro’s number to solve for the theoretical refractive index (n). The computed
 11

refractive index behaves in the same way as the observed index, although it reduces
faster from 1.5062 to 1.3449.

In the following graph, all the points of the observed and computed data are
plotted in a Temperature versus Refractive index graph. From here, it is visible that
all the points of the theoretical or computed data were lower than the observed and
that the negative slope of the computed data was greater and steeper in contrast to
the observed.

B. Refractive Indices using different light sources (5 data points)

Sample: Toluene Temperature: 350C

Computed Observe
Light source
Polarisability Refractive Refractive % Error
(Wavelength)
Index (η) Index (η)

Green Light
1.950001E-22 1.254 1.379 9.97%
(532nm)

Sodium Light
2.846403E-22 1.383 1.481 7.07%
(589nm)

Neon Light
3.528591E-22 1.491 1.590 6.64%
(632nm)

Red Light
3.850667E-22 1.554 1.639 5.47%
(652nm)

Table 2. Table of Values for Experimental and Calculated Refractive Indices using
different light sources
 12

Refractive Indices using different light sources

1.800

1.639
Refractive Index (η)
1.590
1.600
1.554
1.481
1.491
Series1
1.379
1.400 Series2
1.383

1.254
1.200
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
Light Sources

Figure 2. Graphical Representation of Comparison of Refractive Indices using

different light sources

Using the same simulation, the second part of this experiment is conducted by
keeping the temperature constant at 35°C over light sources of varying wavelengths.
Similar procedure is executed when gathering the observed data and recorded in the
table shown above. With an increase in wavelength, the observed refractive index also
increased from 1.481 to 1.590. Following the same calculation procedure as the
previous experiment, the theoretical refractive indexes were recorded in the table. It
behaved similarly to what was observed in the experiment. And similar to the previous
experiment’s graph, the computed data were all lower than the observed data. Thus, it
can be deduced that the wavelength and refractive index have a directly proportional
relationship. Based on further research, the relationship of wavelength and refractive
index is actually indirectly proportional, implying a significant source of error. On the
end of shorter wavelengths, the percentage error is greater compared to that of the
longer wavelengths.
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II. BENDING OF LIGHT

Ray Refractive Index Medium Refractive

Sample
(η) Index (η)

Mystery A 1.500 2.4228

Mystery B 1.500 1.4002

Table.3. Table of Values for Determination of Medium Refractive Index

Two unknown
samples were tested in the
Bending of Light
Simulation as a second
medium through which
light would travel coming
from a glass medium. The
virtual protractor enabled
the measuring of the angles of ray and medium refractive indexes of each mystery
sample which were jotted down for calculation purposes. Starting from a glass
medium, both samples had a ray refractive index of 1.500 and was recorded in the
table above. The medium refractive indexes of the two unknown samples were
calculated using Snell’s law which required the two angles and the ray refractive
index. This resulted in 2.4228 for Mystery A and 1.4002 for Mystery B. Through
the indices of refraction, it is possible to identify what material the light is passing
through as every material has its own corresponding refractive indexes. Based on
the reference values for the index of refraction, Mystery A has the closest value to
that of a diamond at 2.417 while Mystery B has a closer value to that of glass.
 14

Possible sources of error stem from the Abbe’s Refractor Simulation that was
used for the experiment. Errors in the simulation may have caused significant changes
in the results. The discrepancies present in the experiment proves a slight inaccuracy
on the reliability of the instrument or simulation used for this experiment.
 15

VI. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Upon the observation of the refractive index of Toluene in Abbe’s
refractometer, correlations between the temperature, polarizability and
refractive index can be concluded. Wherein, the polarizability and refractive
index of Toluene decreases as temperature increases which tells us that the
polarizability and observed refractive index are directly proportional to each
other and are inversely proportional to temperature. Also as temperature
increases, density decreases therefore they are inversely related to each other
and have a direct relationship with refractive index. Light travels faster in a
medium that is less dense and viscous that causes a small refractive index
while a denser medium makes it difficult for light to pass through causing a
larger refractive index. As the temperature rises, toluene becomes less dense
and viscous creating a medium where light can travel faster. From all the
datas gathered, it’s clear that theoretical datas are less than that from the
observed datas therefore giving us a negative slope as seen in the graphs
above. Shorter wavelengths give us greater percentage error compared to
longer wavelengths.
Snell's Law is well-known for its ability to predict an unknown
sample’s medium refractive index. Through the indices of refraction, it is
possible to identify what material the light is passing through as every
material has its own corresponding refractive indexes. Mystery A’s
computed value is closest to having a diamond medium whereas Mystery
B’s is closest to that of a glass medium.
The Abbe's Refractor Simulation, which was used for the experiment,
may be a source of error. Significant changes in the results may have been
caused by the simulation’s error. The discrepancies in the experiment’s
theoretical and observed datas demonstrate a minor inaccuracy in the
instrument. Therefore, a more precise and accurate simulation would be
highly recommended in future experiments to yield lower percentage error.
 16

VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Schmidt-haensch GmbH & Co. (n.d.). What is Refractometry? SCHMIDT-

HAENSCH. https://schmidt-haensch.com/knowledge/refractometry/

Basics of refractometry : Anton Paar Wiki. (n.d.). Anton Paar.

https://wiki.anton-paar.com/en/basics-of-refractometry/#factors-
which-influence-a-refractive-index-result

Rodriguez, E. (2019, March 11). Electromagnetic spectrum.

https://www.britannica.com/science/electromagnetic-spectrum.

Refractometer types : Anton Paar Wiki. (n.d.). Anton Paar. https://wiki.anton-

paar.com/en/refractometer-types/#abbe-refractometer

Pharmaceutical Analysis. (n.d.). O’Reilly Online Learning.

https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/pharmaceutical-
analysis/9789332515659/xhtml/chapter009.xhtml

“Index of Refraction: Definition, Formula, Example and a Brief

Explanation.” Science ABC, 23 Nov. 2019,
www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/what-index-of-refraction-
defintion-examples-water-air-
glass.html?fbclid=IwAR2RX7my0a23esOKFMa8l_B9AD2-
SbCxekF2-Vty9qiEwgL__rHF1fVF5E4.

All about Refractometry: Theoretical Basics, Applications, News. Krüss

laboratory equipment. https://www.kruess.com/en/campus-
kategorie/refractometry/.

Chem 211 - Refractometry.

http://academics.wellesley.edu/Chemistry/chem211lab/Orgo_Lab_Ma
nual/Appendix/Instruments/Refractometry/refractometry.html.
 17

VIII. NOMENCLATURE
In this experiment, the researchers have determined the relationship
between several factors that affect the refractive index of a sample.
Analyzing this experiment, we have utilized Snell's Law and Clausius
Mossotti’s equation which were used to determine the unknown. These
equations consist of the following variables and terminology that are
presented and defined in this table below:

SYMBOL DEFINITION UNIT

Angle of incidence Degrees

θ1

Angle of refraction Degrees

θ2

N A Avogadro’s number, 6.023x1023 mol-1 mol -1

Density of the given liquid g/cm3

ρ

n Index of refraction Unitless

n 1 Index of refraction of first medium Unitless

n 2 Index of refraction of second medium Unitless

M Molecular mass g/mol

Permittivity in free space Unitless

0

Velocity of light in a medium m/s

v

Velocity of light in a vacuum m/s

c
 18

APPENDICES
 19

APPENDIX A.1
RAW DATA
 20

APPENDIX A.1. I.

REFRACTIVE INDICES AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

Sample: Toluene Light source: Sodium Light

Computed Observe
Polarisability
Temperature (0C) Refractive Index Refractive
(GPa)
(η) Index (η)

-80 31.73809x10-23 1.5062 1.533

-40 30.59667x10-23 1.4557 1.515

0 29.45799x10-23 1.4133 1.497

40 28.32223x10-23 1.3769 1.479

80 27.18960x10-23 1.3449 1.461

 21

APPENDIX A.2. I.

REFRACTIVE INDICES USING DIFFERENT LIGHT SOURCES

Sample: Toluene Temperature: 350C

Light source Polarisability Computed Observe

(Wavelength) (GPa) Refractive Index Refractive Index
(η) (η)

Sodium Light
2.846403E-22 1.383 1.481
(589nm)

Green Light
1.950001E-22 1.254 1.379
(532nm)

Red Light (652nm) 3.850667E-22 1.554 1.639

Neon Light
3.528591E-22 1.491 1.590
(632nm)

APPENDIX A.2. I.

BENDING OF LIGHT

Ray Refractive Index Medium Refractive

Sample
(η) Index (η)

Mystery A 1.500 2.4228

Mystery B 1.500 1.4002

 22

APPENDIX A.2

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

 23

COMPUTATIONS

I. ABBE’S REFRACTOMETER SIMULATION

A. Refractive Indices at Different Temperatures

Sample: Toluene Light source: Sodium Light

Computations in Microsoft Excel:

Temperature Temperature M
Polarisability constant Ԑ
(˚C) (K) (g/mol)
-80 193 3.1738E-22 3 1 92.14

-40 233 3.0597E-22 3 1 92.14

0 273 2.9458E-22 3 1 92.14

40 313 2.8322E-22 3 1 92.14

80 353 2.7190E-22 3 1 92.14

Avogradro's
C1 C2 C3 C4 Exponent Denominator
No.
6.023E+23 0.8792 0.27136 591.75 0.29241 1.279359 0.188496

6.023E+23 0.8792 0.27136 591.75 0.29241 1.238557 0.198799

6.023E+23 0.8792 0.27136 591.75 0.29241 1.202451 0.208385

6.023E+23 0.8792 0.27136 591.75 0.29241 1.169918 0.217418

6.023E+23 0.8792 0.27136 591.75 0.29241 1.140207 0.226009

 24

Density
3ԑM/Nρ n^2 n
mol/dm^3 g/cm^3

4.6643 0.42976815 1.0679E-21 2.2686796648942E+00 1.5062

4.4226 0.40749424 1.1263E-21 2.1190026108106E+00 1.4557

4.2191 0.38874899 1.1806E-21 1.9974735415639E+00 1.4133

4.0438 0.37259809 1.2317E-21 1.8957921525507E+00 1.3769

3.8901 0.35843545 1.2804E-21 1.8088099350760E+00 1.3449

B. Refractive Indices using different light sources

Sample: Toluene Temperature: 35˚C

Computations in Microsoft Excel:

Light source Polarisability Temperature Temperature M

Ԑ constant
(Wavelength) (GPa) (˚C) (K) (g/mol)
Sodium
Light 2.846403E-22 35 303 1 3 92.14
(589nm)
Green Light
1.950001E-22 35 303 1 3 92.14
(532nm)

Red Light
3.850667E-22 35 303 1 3 92.14
(652nm)

Neon Light
3.528591E-22 35 303 1 3 92.14
(632nm)
 25

Avogradro's
C1 C2 C3 C4 Exponent Denominator
No.

6.023E+23 0.8792 0.27136 591.75 0.29241 1.177762 0.215205

6.023E+23 0.8792 0.27136 591.75 0.29241 1.177762 0.215205

6.023E+23 0.8792 0.27136 591.75 0.29241 1.177762 0.215205

6.023E+23 0.8792 0.27136 591.75 0.29241 1.177762 0.215205

Density
3ԑM/Nρ n^2 n
mol/dm^3 g/cm^3

4.0854 0.37642974 1.2192E-21 1.913721E+00 1.3834

4.0854 0.37642974 1.2192E-21 1.571181E+00 1.2535

4.0854 0.37642974 1.2192E-21 2.384921E+00 1.5443

4.0854 0.37642974 1.2192E-21 2.221904E+00 1.4906

 26

COMPUTATION OF ERROR

I. Abbe’s Refractometer Simulation

A. Refractive Indices at Different Temperatures

Sample: Toluene Light source: Sodium Light

Computed Observe
Temperature Polarisability
Refractive Refractive %Error
(˚C) (GPa)
Index (η) Index (η)
3.1738090E-
-80 1.506 1.533 1.79%
22
3.0596670E-
-40 1.456 1.515 4.05%
22
2.9457990E-
0 1.413 1.497 5.94%
22
2.8322230E-
40 1.377 1.479 7.41%
22
2.7189600E-
80 1.345 1.461 8.62%
22

Percentage error
Formula:
𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥 100
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Temperature: -80 ˚C Temperature: 0 ˚C

% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 1.497 − 1.413
1.533 − 1.506 % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥 100
1.413
=| | 𝑥 100 = 5.94 %
1.506
= 1.79 % Temperature: 40 ˚C
1.479 − 1.377
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥 100
Temperature: -40 ˚C 1.377
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 7.41%
1.515 − 1.456 Temperature: 80 ˚C
=| | 𝑥 100 1.461 − 1.345
1.456 % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥 100
= 4.05% 1.345
= 8.62%
 27

B. Refractive Indices using different light sources

Sample: Toluene Temperature: 35˚C

Computed Observe
Light source %
Polarisability Refractive Refractive
(Wavelength) Error
Index (η) Index (η)
Green Light
1.950001E-22 1.254 1.379 9.97%
(532nm)

Sodium Light
2.846403E-22 1.383 1.481 7.07%
(589nm)

Neon Light
3.528591E-22 1.491 1.590 6.64%
(632nm)

Red Light
3.850667E-22 1.554 1.639 5.47%
(652nm)

Percentage error
Formula:
𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥 100
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Light Source: Sodium Light (589nm)) Light Source: Red Light (652nm)
1.481 − 1.383 1.639 − 1.554
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥 100 % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥 100
1.383 1.554
= 7.07% = 5.47%

Light Source: Green Light (532nm) Light Source: Neon Light (632nm)
1.379 − 1.254 1.590 − 1.491
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥 100 % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | 𝑥 100
1.254 1.491
= 9.97% = 6.64%
 28

II. BENDING OF LIGHT

FORMULA:

Snell’s Law

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

Mystery A Mystery B
𝑛1 = 1.5 𝑛1 = 1
𝜃1 = 54.1° 𝜃1 = 54.1°
𝜃2 = 30.1° 𝜃2 = 60.2°
𝑛2 =? 𝑛2 =?

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
= =
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 (𝑛1 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 (𝑛1 )

𝑛2 = 𝑛2 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

𝑠𝑖𝑛54.1(1.5) 𝑠𝑖𝑛54.1(1.5)
𝑛2 = 𝑛2 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛30.1 𝑠𝑖𝑛60.2

𝒏𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟐𝟐𝟖 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟐
 29

APPENDIX A.3
SIMULATION SCREENSHOTS
 30

SIMULATION SCREENSHOTS

I. ABBE’S REFRACTOMETER SIMULATION

A. Refractive Indices at Different Temperatures

31
 32

B. Refractive Indices using different light sources

Sodium Light
 33

Green Light

Red Light
 34

Neon Light

II. BENDING LIGHT

Mystery A
 35

Mystery B
 36

APPENDIX A.4
SIMILARITY REPORT
37