Biology

Class – 12 Biology
Chapter 1 – Reproduction in Organisms
Life Span: The period which begins from birth and ends with the natural death of
An organism is known as its life span.
Reproduction is an important biological process by which an organism will give
Rise to another organism similar to itself.
Some basic facts about reproduction are discussed below.
 Reproduction is the process that ensures that species are continued from
Generation to generation. It leads to the development of genetic vavariation.
 This variation in genetics is inherited during reproduction.
 Reproduction in which only one parent is called asexual.
 Reproduction in which two parents of the opposite sex are involved in the
Fusion of male and female gametes is known as sexual reproduction.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 In this asexual reproduction, only one parent participates in producing the
offspring. As a result, the offspring produced are identical to each other and
also to the parents.

 Asexual reproduction is most commonly seen in unicellular organisms, as well
as in plants and animals with relatively simple organizations. It is also seen in
organisms that are multicellular.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
The most commonly seen modes of asexual reproduction in the case of animals
are as follows:
1. Fission:
 Fission, commonly known as binary fission, takes place in prokaryotic
microorganisms and a few multicellular organisms too.
 After a growth period, the organism is split into independent organisms. Some
single-celled eukaryotes go through binary division via mitosis.
 In different organisms, part of an individual is separated and a second
individual is formed.
 For example, in lots of asteroid echinoderms, this technique takes place while
the central disk separates.
 Some sea anemones and a few polyps also reproduce via division.
 In some cases, it is seen that the nucleus divides several times by amitotic
divisions. This leads to the formation of several new copies of nuclei.
Cytoplasmic division does not take place during this time. The cytoplasm will
accumulate around each nucleus. Therefore, many unicellular and seedless
offspring are formed from a single cell. This method of propagation is known
as multiple fission. Eg Amoeba and Paramecium.
2. Budding
 The budding is a type of asexual reproduction that occurs from the growth of
part of a cell or a region of the body that leads to the separation of the original
organism into two individuals.
 The budding process is common in some invertebrates such as corals and
hydras.
3. Sporulation or Spore Formation:
 Sporulation is also known as sporogenesis. It is a form of asexual reproduction
that involves spores. Spores, from "sporā" which means "seed" and "genesis"
which means "birth" or "origin", are dormant reproductive cells that are similar
to seeds in that they serve as units of multiplication.
 As spores are different from the seeds, they lack the embryo created by the
fusion of male and female gametes.
 Spores have thick walls and are very resistant to various adverse conditions
such as high temperatures and low huhumidity.
 When the conditions are right, they germinate to give birth to new individuals.
Spores are found in some plants and fungi.
Fragmentation:
 Fragmentation refers to the breaking up of the parent organism into fragments
and each fragment is capable of becoming a new organism. This is observed infungi (e.g. yeasts and
lichens), molds, vascular and nonvascular plants,
cyanobacteria, and animals (e.g. stars, planarians, and many annelids).
 This form of asexual reproduction in animals can also be unintentional. Human
activity, predation, and other environmental factors can cause them to break up
into fragments.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
The modes of asexual reproduction which are seen commonly in plants are:
1. Fission: It is known to be the simplest of all asexual methods. It is commonly
found in fungi and algae. Single-cell stem cells divide mitotically to form two
identical daughter cells and the mother. Each daughter cell eventually becomes an
independent organism.
2. Buds:
 Some algae produce branches of Advent like in the case of Dictyota, Fucus, or
buds like in Protosiphon. Like yeast, mushrooms produce sprouts.
 These structures are the result of uneven division and adhere to the mother cell.

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Class – 12 Biology

Chapter 1 – Reproduction in Organisms

An organism is known as its life span.

Reproduction is an important biological process by which an organism will give

Rise to another organism similar to itself.

Some basic facts about reproduction are discussed below.

Generation to generation. It leads to the development of genetic vavariation.

 This variation in genetics is inherited during reproduction.

 Reproduction in which only one parent is called asexual.

Fusion of male and female gametes is known as sexual reproduction.

 In this asexual reproduction, only one parent participates in producing the

also to the parents.

as in plants and animals with relatively simple organizations. It is also seen in

organisms that are multicellular.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

 Fission, commonly known as binary fission, takes place in prokaryotic

microorganisms and a few multicellular organisms too.

single-celled eukaryotes go through binary division via mitosis.

 In different organisms, part of an individual is separated and a second

the central disk separates.

divisions. This leads to the formation of several new copies of nuclei.

accumulate around each nucleus. Therefore, many unicellular and seedless

as multiple fission. Eg Amoeba and Paramecium.

organism into two individuals.

 The budding process is common in some invertebrates such as corals and

 Sporulation is also known as sporogenesis. It is a form of asexual reproduction

to seeds in that they serve as units of multiplication.

fusion of male and female gametes.

such as high temperatures and low huhumidity.

Spores are found in some plants and fungi.

 Fragmentation refers to the breaking up of the parent organism into fragments

cyanobacteria, and animals (e.g. stars, planarians, and many annelids).

 This form of asexual reproduction in animals can also be unintentional. Human

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

1. Fission: It is known to be the simplest of all asexual methods. It is commonly

buds like in Protosiphon. Like yeast, mushrooms produce sprouts.

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