ASSIGNMENT

ON
(CVE 712)

TOPIC
TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY

PREPARED BY
ABDULRAUF ISMAIL BUSAYO

POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA

YEAR ONE
SECOND SEMESTER
2020/2021 SESSION

LADOKE AKINTOLA UNIVERSITY OF

TECHNOLOGY, OGBOMOSO
OYO STATE

NOVEMBER 2021
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
1.0INTRODUCTION
1.1 TRAFIC FLOW THEORY
1.2 TYPES OF TRAFFIC FLOW

CHAPTER TWO

2.0TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS

REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 TRAFIC FLOW THEORY

Traffic Flow Theory is a tool that helps transportation engineers understand and
express the properties of traffic flow. At any given time, there are millions of
vehicles on our roadways. These vehicles interact with each other and impact
the overall movement of traffic, or the traffic flow. 

Whether the task is evaluating the capacity of existing roadways or designing

new roadways, most transportation engineering projects begin with an
evaluation of the traffic flow. Therefore, the transportation engineer needs to
have a firm understanding of the theories behind Traffic Flow Analysis.

This chapter is designed to help the engineering student understand the

fundamentals of Traffic Flow Theory. To begin exploring Traffic Flow Theory

These exercises will help increase your understanding of Traffic Flow Theory,
by presenting more complicated problems that require more thorough analysis.

a. Lab Exercise One: Flow Models

The attached data sets reflect field data taken at two sites in Huskytown. You
are an engineering intern and you have been asked by your supervisor to
analyze the data and prepare a brief report documenting any conclusions and
recommendations that you have.

Using the "attached" data sets, analyze the data. Assume Green shield’s model
for space mean speed as a function of density. 
Tasks to be Completed

Task 1: Using regression to determine the theoretical equation that describes the
speed as a function of density: 

 Plot the actual data and theoretical data and describe any correlation.
 Report all the important statistical results of the regression analysis.

Task 2: Using histograms, calculate and graph the following:

 flow
 speed 
 occupancy

Task 3: Using any analysis tools, plot: 

 Flow versus occupancy 

 Flow versus density 
 Speed versus flow
 Speed versus density.

Task 4: Write up a report stating the information specified above, as well as

your own conclusions about the data provided.

b. Lab Exercise Two: Shock Waves/Queue Formation

A freeway in Thrill Ville with two lanes in one direction has a capacity of 2000
vphpl under normal stable flow conditions. On a particular morning, one of
these lanes becomes blocked by a small accident for 15 minutes, beginning at 7
a.m. The arrival pattern of vehicles is as follows:

Time/Flow (vph)
7-8 a.m./4000
8-9 a.m./3900
9-10 a.m./3500
After 10 a.m /2800

This assignment is divided into two cases:

(a) The capacity of this section reduces to 1800 vphpl under unstable or forced
flow conditions, 

(b) The capacity of the section remains 2000 vphpl under forced flow
conditions.

Please determine the following for each case above:

1. How long a queue will be established due to this blockage? 

2. When will the maximum queue occur? 
3. How long will it take to dissipate the queue from the time of the
breakdown?

Tasks to be Completed

Task 1: Identify the type of problem and use the appropriate analytical tools to
answer the questions. State your analysis approach.

Task 2: Clearly lay out your solution and write up your solution in a brief
report. Make sure that you clearly label any and all graphs that you use as part
of your solution.
1.2 TYPES OF TRAFFIC FLOW
Traffic flow can be divided into two primary types. Understanding what type of
flow is occurring in a given situation will help you decide which analysis
methods and descriptions are the most relevant.

1. UNINTERRUPTED FLOW

The first type is called uninterrupted flow, and is flow regulated by vehicle-

vehicle interactions and interactions between vehicles and the roadway. For
example, vehicles traveling on an interstate highway are participating in
uninterrupted flow. 

2. INTERRUPTED FLOW

The second type of traffic flow is called interrupted flow. Interrupted flow is

flow regulated by an external means, such as a traffic signal. Under interrupted
flow conditions, vehicle-vehicle interactions and vehicle-roadway interactions
play a secondary role in defining the traffic flow. 
CHAPTER TWO

2.0 TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS

Traffic flow is a difficult phenomenon to describe without the use of a common

set of terms. The following paragraphs will introduce most of the common
terms that are used in discussions about traffic flow.

1. Speed (v)

The speed of a vehicle is defined as the distance it travels per unit of time. Most
of the time, each vehicle on the roadway will have a speed that is somewhat
different from those around it. In quantifying the traffic flow, the average speed
of the traffic is the significant variable. The average speed, called the space
mean speed, can be found by averaging the individual speeds of all of the
vehicles in the study area.

2. Volume 

Volume is simply the number of vehicles that pass a given point on the roadway
in a specified period of time. By counting the number of vehicles that pass a
point on the roadway during a 15-minute period, you can arrive at the 15-minute
volume. Volume is commonly converted directly to flow (q), which is a more
useful parameter.

3. Flow (q) 

Flow is one of the most common traffic parameters. Flow is the rate at which
vehicles pass a given point on the roadway, and is normally given in terms of
vehicles per hour. The 15-minute volume can be converted to a flow by
multiplying the volume by four. If our 15-minute volume were 100 cars, we
would report the flow as 400 vehicles per hour. For that 15-minute interval of
time, the vehicles were crossing our designated point at a rate of 400
vehicles/hour. 

4. Peak Hour Factor (PHF) 

The ratio of the hourly flow rate ( q60) divided by the peak 15 minute rate of
flow expressed as an hourly flow (q15). PHF= q60/ q15

5. Density (k)

Density refers to the number of vehicles present on a given length of roadway.

Normally, density is reported in terms of vehicles per mile or vehicles per
kilometer. High densities indicate that individual vehicles are very close
together, while low densities imply greater distances between vehicles.

Headway, spacing, gap, and clearance are all various measures for describing
the space between vehicles. These parameters are discussed in the paragraphs
below and are shown graphically in figure 1.0.

6. Headway (h) 

Headway is a measure of the temporal space between two vehicles. Specifically,

the headway is the time that elapses between the arrival of the leading vehicle
and the following vehicle at the designated test point. You can measure the
headway between two vehicles by starting a chronograph when the front
bumper of the first vehicle crosses the selected point, and subsequently
recording the time that the second vehicle’s front bumper crosses over the
designated point. Headway is usually reported in units of seconds.
7. Spacing (s)

Spacing is the physical distance, usually reported in feet or meters, between the
front bumper of the leading vehicle and the front bumper of the following
vehicle. Spacing complements headway, as it describes the same space in
another way. Spacing is the product of speed and headway. 

8. Gap (g)

Gap is very similar to headway, except that it is a measure of the time that
elapses between the departure of the first vehicle and the arrival of the second at
the designated test point. Gap is a measure of the time between the rear bumper
of the first vehicle and the front bumper of the second vehicle, where headway
focuses on front-to-front times. Gap is usually reported in units of seconds.

9. Clearance (c)

Clearance is similar to spacing, except that the clearance is the distance between
the rear bumper of the leading vehicle and the front bumper of the following
vehicle. The clearance is equivalent to the spacing minus the length of the
leading vehicle. Clearance, like spacing, is usually reported in units of feet or
meters.
Figure 1.0: Explanation of Parameters

10. Speed-Flow-Density Relationship

Speed, flow, and density are all related to each other. The relationships between
speed and density are not difficult to observe in the real world, while the effects
of speed and density on flow are not quite as apparent.

Under uninterrupted flow conditions, speed, density, and flow are all related by
the following equation:

q = k*v

Where 
q = Flow (vehicles/hour)
v = Speed (miles/hour, kilometers/hour)
k = Density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

Because flow is the product of speed and density, the flow is equal to zero when
one or both of these terms is zero. It is also possible to deduce that the flow is
maximized at some critical combination of speed and density. 
Two common traffic conditions illustrate these points. The first is the modern
traffic jam, where traffic densities are very high and speeds are very low. This
combination produces a very low flow. The second condition occurs when
traffic densities are very low and drivers can obtain free flow speed without any
undue stress caused by other vehicles on the roadway. The extremely low
density compensates for the high speeds, and the resulting flow is very low.

11. Special Speed & Density Conditions

The discussion of the speed-flow-density relationship mentioned several speed-

density conditions. Two of these conditions are extremely significant and have
been given special names.

12. Free Flow Speed

This is the mean speed that vehicles will travel on a roadway when the density
of vehicles is low. Under low-density conditions, drivers no longer worry about
other vehicles. They subsequently proceed at speeds that are controlled by the
performance of their vehicles, the conditions of the roadway, and the posted
speed limit.

13. Jam Density

Extremely high densities can bring traffic on a roadway to a complete stop. The
density at which traffic stops is called the jam density. 
14. Greenshield’s Model

Greenshield was able to develop a model of uninterrupted traffic flow that

predicts and explains the trends that are observed in real traffic flows. While
Greenshield’s model is not perfect, it is fairly accurate and relatively simple.

Greenshield made the assumption that, under uninterrupted flow conditions,

speed and density are linearly related. This relationship is expressed
mathematically and graphically below. See figure 1.0. 

v=A-B*k 

Where:
v = speed (miles/hour, kilometers/hour)
A,B = constants determined from field observations 
k = density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

As noted above, you can determine the values of the constants A and B through
field observations. This is normally done by collecting velocity and density data
in the field, plotting the data, and then using linear regression to fit a line
through the data points. The constant A represents the free flow speed, while
A/B represents the jam density.

Figure 1.0: Speed vs. Density

Inserting Greenshield’s speed-density relationship into the general speed-flow-
density relationship yields the following equations:

q = (A-B*k)*k or q = A*k – B*k2

Where:
q = flow (vehicles/hour)
A,B = constants 
k = density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

Figure 2.0: Flow vs. Density

This new relationship between flow and density provides an avenue for finding
the density at which the flow is maximized. 

dq/dk = A – 2*B*k

setting dq/dK = 0 yields: 

k = A/(2*B) 

Therefore, at the density given above, the flow will be maximized. Substituting
this maximized value of k into the original speed-density relationship yields the
speed at which the flow is maximized.
v = A – B*(A/(2*B)) or v = A/2

This indicates that the maximum flow occurs when traffic is flowing at half of
free-flow speed (A). Substituting the optimum speed and density into the speed-
flow-density relationship yields the maximum flow.

q = (A/2)*(A/(2*B)) or q = A2/(4*B)

Figure 3.0 shows the relationship between flow and speed graphically.

Figure 3.0: Flow vs. Speed

As you can see, Greenshield’s model is quite powerful. The following can be
derived from Greenshield’s model:

 When the density is zero, the flow is zero because there are no vehicles
on the roadway.
 As the density increases, the flow also increases to some maximum flow
conditions.
  When the density reaches a maximum, generally called jam density, the
flow must be zero because the vehicles tend to line up end to end (parking
lot conditions).

As the density increases the flow increases to some maximum value, but a
continual increase in density will cause the flow to decrease until jam density
and zero flow conditions are reached. 

15. Time-Space Diagrams

A time–space diagram is commonly used to solve a number of transportation-

related problems. Typically, time is drawn on the horizontal axis and distance
from a reference point on the vertical axis. The trajectories of individual
vehicles in motion are portrayed in this diagram by sloping lines, and stationary
vehicles are represented by horizontal lines. The slope of the line represents the
speed of the vehicle. Curved portions of the trajectories represent vehicles
undergoing speed changes such as deceleration.

Diagrams that show the position of individual vehicles in time and in space are
very useful for understanding traffic flow. These diagrams are especially useful
for discussions of shock waves and wave propagation. 

The time-space diagram is a graph that describes the relationship between the
location of vehicles in a traffic stream and the time as the vehicles progress
along the highway. The following diagram is an example of a time-space
diagram.
Time-space diagrams are created by plotting the position of each vehicle, given
as a distance from a reference point, against time. The first vehicle will
probably start at the origin, while the vehicles that follow won’t reach the
reference point until slightly later times. Reductions in speed cause the slopes of
the lines to flatten, while increases in speed cause the slopes to become greater.
Acceleration causes the time-space curve for the accelerating vehicle to bend
until the new speed is attained. Curves that cross indicate that the vehicles both
shared the same position at the same time. Unless passing is permitted, crossed
curves indicate collisions.

16. Shock Waves

Shock waves that occur in traffic flow are very similar to the waves produced
by dropping stones in water. A shock wave propagates along a line of vehicles
in response to changing conditions at the front of the line. Shock waves can be
generated by collisions, sudden increases in speed caused by entering free flow
conditions, or by a number of other means. Basically, a shock wave exists
whenever the traffic conditions change. 
The equation that is used to estimate the propagation velocity of shock waves is
given below.

vsw = (qb – qa)/(kb – ka)

Where
vsw = propagation velocity of shock wave (miles/hour)
qb = flow prior to change in conditions (vehicles/hour)
qa = flow after change in conditions (vehicles/hour)
kb = traffic density prior to change in conditions (vehicles/mile)
ka = traffic density after change in conditions (vehicles/mile)

Note the magnitude and direction of the shock wave. 

(+) Shock wave is travelling in same direction as traffic stream.

(-) Shock wave is traveling upstream or against the traffic stream.

For example, let’s assume that an accident has occurred and that the flow after
the accident is reduced to zero. Initially, the flow was several vehicles per hour.
Also, the density is much greater after the accident. Substituting these values
into the shock wave equation yields a negative (-) propagation velocity. This
means that the shock wave is traveling against the traffic. If you could look
down on this accident, you would see a wave front, at which vehicles began to
slow from their initial speed, passing from vehicle to vehicle back up the traffic
stream. The first car would notice the accident first, followed an instant later by
the second car. Each vehicle begins slowing after its driver recognizes that the
preceding vehicle is slowing. 
17. Queuing Theory

Queuing Theory can be used to analyze the flow of traffic on the approach to
and through an intersection controlled by a traffic signal. This is accomplished
by analyzing the cumulative passage of vehicles as a function of time. The
queuing diagram for interrupted flow shows the flow on one intersection
approach. Traffic is stopped from time t1 to t2 during the red signal interval. At
the start of the green interval (t2), traffic begins to leave the intersection at the
saturation flow rate (qG), and continues until the queue is exhausted. Thereafter,
the departure rate D(t), equals the arrival rate, A(t), until t 3, which is the
beginning of the next red signal. At this point, the process starts over. 

For further information on Queing Theory, consult the chapter entitled "Signal
Timing Design." 
Queuing Diagram for Interrupted Flow

REFERENCES

1.) Papacostas , C.S. and Prevedouros, P.D., Transportation Engineering and

Planning, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1993

2) http://www.bts.gov/ntl/subjects/traff-flow.html

3) http://www.tfhrc.gov/its/tft/tft.htm

4) http://www.tfhrc.gov/its/tft/tft.htm