ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

NERVOUS
SYSTEM
LECTURE OUTLINE

 STRUCTURE OF NEURONS
 CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
 PARTS OF BRAIN CORTICAL LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ( CNS ) AND PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM ( PNS )
 PARTS OF SPINAL CORD, SIMPLE REFLEX AND
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 CONDUCTION OF ACTION POTENTIAL IN NEURON
SYNPTIC TRANSMISSION
FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Sensory Function : Nervous System uses its

millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes
occurring both inside and ouside of the body. Those
changes are called STIMULI, and the gathered
information is called Sensory Input
 Integrative Function : The Nervous System
process and interprets the sensory input and make
decision about what should be done at each moment.
 Motor Function : The Nervous System then sends
information to muscles, glands and organs
(effectors), so they can respond correctly.
 INTRODUCTION
Nervous system is responsible to receiving and
transmitting signal to and from different part of
body.

 Cells of the nervous system, called nerve cells

or neurons, are specialized to carry "messages"
through an electrochemical process.
 The human brain has approximately 100 billion
neurons.
 Neurons are similar to other cells in the body because:

1) Neurons are surrounded by a cell membrane.

2) Neurons have a nucleus that contains genes.
3) Neurons contain cytoplasm, mitochondria and
other organelles.
4) Neurons carry out basic cellular processes
such as protein synthesis and energy production.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS

 What are the major functional components of the

Nervous System?
 Brain
Central Nervous System (CNS)
 Spinal Cord
 Afferent Tracts
 Efferent Tracts Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 Interneurons
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Cells are grouped into two functional categories
 Neurons
 Do all of the major functions on their own, are
1. Afferent
2. Interneurons
3. Efferent
 Neuroglia
 Play a supporting role to the neurons
 Divided into CNS and PNS Neuroglia
 CNS
 Astrocytes – PNS
 Oligodendrocytes
 Microglia » Neurolemmocytes
 Ependymal cells » Satellite cells
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

We will take a
look at the
general
structure of a
neuron & it’s
function
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Neurons
 Functional Classification :
Afferent
 Picked up by sensory receptors
thru body
 Carried by nerve fibers of
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
into CNS
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Neurons
 Functional Classification:
Interneurons
 Conduct action potential (AP)
within the CNS
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Neurons
 Functional Classification :
Efferent
 Carried away from the CNS by
nerve fibers into PNS
 Innervate muscles and glands
 Causes these organs to contract
or secrete
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Sensory (afferent) vs Motor (efferent)

 Remember: SAME
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Neuroglia
 Functional Classification
CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM ( CNS )
The integration
of
all three major
functions
 BRAIN
 Jelly-like mass of tissue , weighing around 1.4kg ,
containing of a thousand million of neurons
 75% of water

 20% of oxygen

 Brain is divided into

3 major regions :
- Forebrain
- Midbrain
- Hinbrain
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ( CNS )
 CNS is comprised from Brain and Spinal Cord ,
which are located in and protected by the skull
and the vertebral column.
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
WHITE AND GREY MATTER

Gray Matter White Matter

Consists of Consists of
 Non myelinated axon terminals
– Myelinated axons
 Dendrites
 Cell Bodies Functions in
Functions in – Formation of tracts
 signal processing (integration) • ascending or descending (SC)
 Neurocrine / neurohormone • commissural, association,
secretion projection (B)
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
o Fluids that surrounds the brain and the spinal cord and also
circulate within the cavities of the CNS
o Circulate between 2
meaningeal layers called pia
malter & arachnoid.
 THE BASE OF THE BRAIN

 The base of brain contains the cerebellum and brainstem.

 Cerebellum
- control equilibrium coordination &
contribute to the generation of
muscle tone
- participating in some types of memory

 Brainstem
- connect the brain with the spinal cord
- It is a compact structure in which multiple pathway
transverse from the brain to the spinal cord and vise
versa.
PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
( PNS )
CNS PNS

( SENSORY ) ( MOTOR )
AFFERENT EFFERENT
NEURON NEURON

SOMATIC AUTONOMIC

Voluntary Involuntary
- skeleton, -breathing, keep
muscle your heart
movement beating

SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC
DIVISIONS DEVISIONS
LECTURE OUTLINE
 Peripheral Nervous System
 Overview
 Divisions
 Somatic
 Autonomic

 Sympathetic & parasympathetic Divisions

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
 What is the PNS?
 Continuation of the CNS
 Relays all information to and from the CNS
 Has its own integration centers
 Ganglia of the autonomic nervous system
 Plexuses of the enteric nervous system

 Where does the CNS end and the PNS

begin?
 PNS begins when the spinal nerves exit the vertebral
column
 What are the functional systems of the
PNS?
 Somatic System
 Autonomic System
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
SOMATIC DIVISION
 Somatic Division has
 Afferent components
 Senses

 Special & General

 Efferent components
 Motor

 Somatic

 voluntary muscle control

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM DESIGN & FUNCTION
 ANS is designed to
 Maintain homeostasis by
 Working with the endocrine system
 Being influenced by emotional/behavioral states

 Utilizing reflex pathways that trend towards being

antagonistic in nature
 Thelink between the CNS and the ANS is the
hypothalamus which
 monitors
 Blood chemistry
 Temperature

 Hunger

 Influences ANS, endocrine and behavioral responses

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM DESIGN &
FUNCTION

 ANS Pathway is two neurons + ganglia

 1st neuron
 Exits the CNS
 preganglionic neuron

 2nd neuron
 postganglionic Neuron that goes to target cells
 point of Synapse creates autonomic ganglion

preganglionic postganglioni target

neuron c neuron

CNS autonomic
ganglion
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM DESIGN &
FUNCTION

 ANS consists of two antagonistic systems

Sympathetic Division
•Fright
•Flight
Parasympathetic Division •Fight
•Rest and Digest
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM DESIGN &
FUNCTION

 How does a two neuron system achieve antagonizing

results?
 Different neurotransmitters released by the postganglionic
neurons
 Effect is determined by ACh is used by
postganglionic neurons of
 the receptors on the target cells
the parasympathetic division

preganglionic postganglioni
Parasympatheti target
c Division neuron c neuron
mainly muscarinic
ACh is utilized by receptors
CNS both at the ganglia mainly adrenergic
receptors
preganglionic postganglioni
Sympathetic target
Division neuron c neuron
Norepinephrine is used
by postganglionic
neurons of the
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM DESIGN &
FUNCTION

 Parasympathetic Division
Specifics
 Preganglionic neurons exit at the
cranial and sacral regions
 Majority of parasympathetic outflow
is via the vagus nerve (75%)
 Utilize mainly muscarinic
receptors and to a lesser extent
nicotinic receptors
 Nicotinic = ICR events
 Ionotropic for Na+, K+ and Ca2+
 Muscarinic = GPCR events

 Metabotropic
 May be + or –
 5 different forms of receptors
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM DESIGN &
FUNCTION
 Sympathetic Division Specifics
 Two neuron pathway uses
norepinephrine (NE)
 Binds to preferentially to alpha
1&2 receptors and Beta-3 receptors
 NE binds equally (with E) to Beta-1
receptors
 NE binds less preferentially to
Beta-2 receptors
 Adrenal sympathetic pathway
uses epinephrine
 Binds to preferentially to Beta-2
and equally with Beta-2 receptors

 Receptors:
 1 receptors when activated
activates phospholipase C
 2 receptors when activated
decrease cAMP production
 β1, β2, β3 receptors all increase
cAMP production
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM INTEGRATION
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM INTEGRATION
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Conduction of
action potential in
neuron synaptic
transmission
 1. DEFINITION
 The junction between two neurons is called a
synapse.
 It is a specialized junction where transmission of
information takes place between a nerve fibre
and another nerve, muscle or gland cell.
 It is not the anatomical continuation. But, it is
only a physiological continuity between two nerve
cells.
 2. STRUCTURE
The synapse consists of:

1. A presynaptic ending that contains

neurotransmitters, mitochondria and other cell
organelles.
2. A postsynaptic ending that contains receptor
sites for neurotransmitters.
3. A synaptic cleft or space between the
presynaptic and postsynaptic endings. It is
about 20nm wide.
5. SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
 It is the process which nerve cells communicate
among themselves or with muscles and glands.

 The synapse is the anatomic site where this

communication occurs.

 It can be of 2 types:
A. Electrical transmission

B. Chemical transmission
A. ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION
In these synapses the membranes of the two cells
actually touch, and they share proteins. This allows the
action potential to pass directly from one membrane to
the next. They are very fast, but are quite rare, found
only in the heart and the eye.

In a chemical synapse, electrical activity in the

presynaptic neuron is converted into the release of a
chemical called a neurotransmitter that binds to
receptors located in the plasma membrane of the
postsynaptic cell.
 Chemical Electrical
Synapse synapse
Use neurotransmitters Impulse is transmitted
(chemical mediator) for through gap junctions or
transmission of impulse low-resistance bridges
Transmission is one way Transmission is two-way

They are seen at most of the They are found only in

synaptic junctions in the special areas like retina,
body olfactory bulb, Lateral
vestibular nucleus, Cerebral
cortex, Hippocampus etc.
Synaptic cleft is present Synaptic cleft gets
replaced by low-
resistance bridges

Synaptic delay (0.5 Synaptic delay is absent

msec) is present because of low
(slower) resistance bridges
(faster)

Sensitive to hypoxia and Insensitive to hypoxia

pH changes and pH changes
Allows for large number of There are not too many
synapses per neuron with synapses on a single
a variety of neuron thus transmission
neurotransmitters. This across it is simple, rapid
results in infinite and efficient.
processing of information.
This particularly helps in
process of learning and
memory.

More vulnerable to Does not get fatigued

Synaptic fatigue
Conduction is slower due Conduction is of same
to presence of synaptic speed as nerve conduction
delay
It shows synaptic It does not show
properties (one-way synaptic properties
conduction, synaptic
delay, summation,
convergence and
divergence, occlusion
phenomenon and
subliminal fringe)
It is found in higher It is mainly found in
vertebrates and thus invertebrates and
evolution-wise, it is lower vertebrates.
more advanced
6. TRANSMISSION OF
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
I. At the end of the pre-synaptic neuron there are
voltage-gated calcium channels. When an action
potential reaches the synapse these channels open,
causing calcium ions to flow into the cell.
II. These calcium ions cause the synaptic vesicles to
fuse with the cell membrane, releasing their
contents (the neurotransmitter chemicals) by
exocytosis.
III. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic
cleft.
IV. The neurotransmitter binds to the neuroreceptors
in the post-synaptic membrane, causing the
channels to open.
B. SYNAPTIC DELAY
 During the transmission of impulses via the synapse,
there is a short delay in the transmission. It is due to
the time taken for:

i. Release of neurotransmitter
ii. Movement of the neurotransmitter from the axon
terminal to the postsynaptic membrane
iii. Action of the neurotransmitter to open the ionic
channels in the postsynaptic membrane
10. CLINICAL
A problem with communication between nerves at
synapses is often the basis for disease, like the
following:

 Parkinson’s Disease
 Alzheimer's Disease

 Depression

 Anxiety

 Schizophrenia