The Basic Structure of the Nervous

System
The Neuron
Dendrites
Cell Body
Axon Hillock
Axon
Nodes of Ranvier
Myelin Sheath
Axon Terminals
Synaptic Vesicles
Synapse
Glial Cells
Myelination
 NEURON
“ THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM”
 PARTS OF A NEURON
• A CLUSTER OF FIBERS AT ONE
• DENTRITE END OF A NEURON THAT
RECIEVES MESSAGES FROM
OTHER NEURONS.

• THE PART OF THE NEURON

• AXON THAT CARRIES MESSAGES
DESTINED FOR OTHER
NEURON.

• SMALL BULGES AT THE END

• TERMINAL BUTTONS OF AXON THAT SENDS
MESSAGES TO OTHER
NEURON.

• MYELIN • PROTECTIVE COAT OF FAT

AND PROTEIN THAT WRAPS
AROUND THE AXON.

• GAP BETWEEN TWO

• NODE OF RANVIER
MYELINATED AXONS
The Glial Cells
Functions of Glial
Cells
There are 9-times more glial cells
than neurons in the brain. They
communicate with neurons and each
other about the messages traveling
among neurons. They can alter
signals at the synapse and influence
where synapses are formed. They
may be critical in forming memories
and repairing nerve damage and
play a major role in diseases like
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
 The Neural Impulse

The direction of the Action Potential is always left to right. When the
neuron is not firing it is in Resting Potential.
Neurons have either excitatory or inhibitory influence on each other.
SYNAPES-THE SPACE BETWEEN TWO NEURONS
WHERE THE AXON OF A SENDING NEURON
COMMUNICATES WITH THE DENTRITES OF A
RECEIVING NEURON BY USING CHEMICAL
MESSAGES.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS-CHEMICALS THAT
CARRY MESSAGES ACROSS THE SYNAPES TO
DENTRITE AND SOME TIMES CELL BODY OF A
RECEIVER NEURON.
 TYPES OF NEURON

• SENSORY NEURON
• MOTOR NEURON
• ASSOCIATION NEURON
 HOW NEURON FIRE
• LIKE A GUN, NEURONS EITHER FIRE –THAT IS, TRANSMIT AN
ELECTRICAL IMPULSE ALONG THE AXON-OR DON’T FIRE.

• ALL-OR NONE LAW-THE RULE THAT NEURONS ARE EITHER ON OR

OFF.

• RESTING STATE-THE STATE IN WHICH THERE IS A NEGATIVE

ELECTRICAL CHARGE OF ABOUT 270 MILLIVOLTS WITHIN A NEURON.

• ACTION POTENTIAL-AN ELECTRIC NERVE IMPULSES THAT TRAVELS

THROUGH A NEURON WHEN IT IS SET OFF A TRIGGER CHANGING THE
NEURON’S CHARGE FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE.
 Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Brain and spinal cord Cranial nerves and spinal nerves
Integrative and control centers Communication lines between the
CNS and the rest of the body

Sensory (afferent) division Motor (efferent) division

Somatic and visceral sensory Motor nerve fibers
nerve fibers Conducts impulses from the CNS
Conducts impulses from to effectors (muscles and glands)
receptors to the CNS

Somatic sensory Somatic nervous Autonomic nervous

fiber
Skin system system (ANS)
Somatic motor Visceral motor
(voluntary) (involuntary)
Conducts impulses Conducts impulses
from the CNS to from the CNS to
skeletal muscles cardiac muscles,
Visceral sensory fiber smooth muscles,
Stomach and glands
Skeletal
muscle
Motor fiber of somatic nervous system

Sympathetic division Parasympathetic

Mobilizes body division
systems during activity Conserves energy
Promotes house-
keeping functions
during rest

Sympathetic motor fiber of ANS

Heart
Structure
Function
Sensory (afferent)
division of PNS Parasympathetic motor fiber of ANS Bladder
Motor (efferent)
division of PNS

Figure 11.2
 Divisions of the Nervous
System
• Central nervous system (CNS)
– Brain and spinal cord
– Integration & command center
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– Paired spinal and cranial nerves carry
messages TO and FROM the CNS
 Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
• Two functional divisions
1. Sensory (afferent) division
• Somatic afferent fibers—convey impulses from
skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
• Visceral afferent fibers—convey impulses from
visceral organs
2. Motor (efferent) division
• Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector
organs
 There are 2 divisions of this
Autonomic system
– Sympathetic – fight or flight
– Parasympathetic – rest and digest
 Nervous
Nervous
System
System
CentralNervous
Central NervousSystem
System PeripheralNervous
Nervous
Peripheral
(Processes, interprets &&
(Processes, interprets
System
Stores information;issues
issues System
Stores information; (Transmits informationtoto
Orders to muscles, glands
Orders to muscles, glands (Transmits information
&&organs)
organs) &&from
fromthe
theCNS)
CNS)

SpinalCord
Cord AutonomicNervous
Autonomic Nervous
Spinal SomaticNervous
NervousSystem
System System
Brain (Controlsthe
thebrain
brain Somatic System
Brain (Controls (Controls skeletal muscles)
(Controls skeletal muscles) (Regulatesglands,
(Regulates glands,blood
blood
&peripheral
& peripheralnerves)
nerves) Vessels & internal organs)
Vessels & internal organs)

SympatheticNervous
Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic
Parasympathetic
AfferentPathways
Afferent Pathways System
System
(Mobilizesbody
bodyfor
foraction,
action,
NervousSystem
Nervous System
(Mobilizes (Conserves energy,
(Goto
(Go toCNS)
CNS) Energy output; fight-or-
Energy output; fight-or- (Conserves energy,
Flight) Maintains a quiet state)
Maintains a quiet state)
Flight)

EfferentPathways
Efferent Pathways
(FromCNS)
(From CNS)
 Histology of Nervous Tissue
• Two principal cell types
1. Neurons—excitable cells that transmit
electrical signals
 Histology of Nervous Tissue
2. Neuroglia (glial cells)—supporting cells:
• Astrocytes (CNS)
• Microglia (CNS)
• Ependymal cells (CNS)
• Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
• Satellite cells (PNS)
• Schwann cells (PNS)
 Beginning at the Top
Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere
The Analytic Hemisphere. Dominant in The Synthetic Hemisphere. Specialized
most people. Interprets in facial recognition. Has
actions, moods, & thought its own consciousness.
Perceives
processes. Constructs
melodies, patterns, & analyzes
theories about actions &
nonverbal patterns. Judges
feelings, & tries to bring
grammatical correctness of a
order & unity to our
sentence. It is holistic and
conscious lives. It is
has limited language skills.
specialized for language
Has a larger volume of an
in 95% of right-handed &
“association cortex” for
75% of left-handed. Makes
complex information pro-
causal inferences. Solves problems via
established methods & well-ordered cessing. It makes leaps of insight.
plans.
Corpus Callosum
The fibers connecting
the left and right
hemispheres of the
brain.
Contralateral Control
The left hemisphere controls the right side
of the body and the right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body.

What purpose does

Contralateral Control serve?
 Functions of the Nervous
System
1. Sensory input
– Info gathered by sensory receptors
2. Integration
– Interpretation of sensory input
3. Motor output
– Activation of effector organs (muscles and
glands) produces a response
 Histology of Nervous Tissue
• Two principal cell types
1. Neurons—excitable cells that transmit
electrical signals
 Histology of Nervous Tissue
2. Neuroglia (glial cells)—supporting cells:
• Astrocytes (CNS)
• Microglia (CNS)
• Ependymal cells (CNS)
• Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
• Satellite cells (PNS)
• Schwann cells (PNS)
 Astrocytes
• Most abundant, versatile, and highly
branched glial cells
• Cling to neurons, synaptic endings, and
capillaries
• Support and brace neurons
 Astrocytes
• Help determine capillary permeability
• Guide migration of young neurons
• Control the chemical environment
– Participate in information processing in the
brain
 Capillary

Neuron

Astrocyte

(a) Astrocytes are the most abundant

CNS neuroglia.
Figure 11.3a
 Microglia
• Small, egg shaped cells with thorny
processes
• Migrate toward injured neurons
• Phagocytize microorganisms and neuronal
debris
• Closest to immune cell you’ll get in CNS
 Neuron
Microglial
cell

(b) Microglial cells are defensive cells in

the CNS.

Figure 11.3b
 Ependymal Cells
• Range in shape from squamous to
columnar
• May be ciliated
– Line the central cavities of the brain and
spinal column
– Separate the CNS interstitial fluid from the
cerebrospinal fluid in the cavities
 Fluid-filled cavity
Ependymal
cells
Brain or
spinal cord
tissue
(c) Ependymal cells line cerebrospinal
fluid-filled cavities.

Figure 11.3c
Oligodendrocytes
• Branched cells
• Processes wrap CNS nerve fibers, forming
insulating myelin sheaths
 Myelin sheath
Process of
oligodendrocyte

Nerve
fibers

(d) Oligodendrocytes have processes that form

myelin sheaths around CNS nerve fibers.

Figure 11.3d
 PNS
Satellite Cells
• Satellite cells
– Surround neuron cell bodies in the PNS
– Satellite glial cells are glial cells that cover the
surface of nerve cell bodies in sensory
sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia.
– derived from the neural crest of the embryo
during development
– They are thought to have a similar role to
astrocytes in the central nervous system-
protective, cushioning cells
 PNS- Schwann Cells
• Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)
– German physiologist Theodor Schwann
– Surround peripheral nerve fibers and form
myelin sheaths
– Similar role like Oligodendrocytes of CNS.

– Function- support and Insulation in PNS.

– supporting nerve regeneration in PNS
– Schwann cell transplantation as a therapy for
spinal cord injury, both in aiding regrowth and
myelination of damaged CNS axons
Satellite
Cell body of neuron
cells
Schwann cells
(forming myelin sheath)
Nerve fiber

(e) Satellite cells and Schwann cells (which

form myelin) surround neurons in the PNS.

Figure 11.3e
 Neurons (Nerve Cells)
• Special characteristics:

– Long-lived ( 100 years or more)

– High metabolic rate—constant oxygen and

glucose
Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)
– Network of neurofibrils (neurofilaments)

• Axon hillock—cone-shaped area from

which axon arises
Dendrites Cell body
(receptive regions) (biosynthetic center
and receptive region)

Nucleolus

Axon
(impulse generating
and conducting region)

Nucleus Impulse
direction Node of Ranvier
Nissl bodies
Axon
Axon hillock Schwann cell terminals
(b) Neurilemma (one inter- (secretory
node) Terminal
region)
branches
Figure 11.4b
 Processes
• Dendrites and axons
• Bundles of processes are called
– Tracts in the CNS
– Nerves in the PNS
 The Axon
• One axon per cell arising from the axon
hillock
• Long axons (nerve fibers)
• Release neurotransmitters to excite or inhibit
other cells
• Occasional branches ~90 degrees (axon
collaterals)
 Axons: Function

• Conducting region of a neuron

• Generates and transmits nerve impulses

(action potentials) away from the cell body
 Myelin Sheath
• Myelin is a fatty white substance that
surrounds the axon.
• It form an electrically insulating layer.
• The production of the myelin sheath is
called myelination or myelinogenesis.
• It functions to:
– Protect and electrically insulate the axon
– Increase speed of nerve impulse transmission
 Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
• Schwann cells wraps many times around
the axon
– Myelin sheath—concentric layers of Schwann
cell membrane

• Neurilemma—peripheral bulge of
Schwann cell cytoplasm
 Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
• Nodes of Ranvier
– Myelin sheath gaps between adjacent
Schwann cells
– Sites where axon collaterals can emerge
Schwann cell
plasma membrane
Schwann cell 1A Schwann cell
cytoplasm envelopes an axon.
Axon Schwann cell
nucleus

2 The Schwann cell then

rotates around the axon,
wrapping its plasma
membrane loosely around
it in successive layers.

Neurilemma 3 The Schwann cell

Myelin sheath cytoplasm is forced from
between the membranes.
The tight membrane
wrappings surrounding
(a) Myelination of a nerve the axon form the myelin
fiber (axon) sheath.

Figure 11.5a
 Myelin Sheaths in the CNS
• Formed by processes of oligodendrocytes,
not the whole cells

• Nodes of Ranvier are present

• No neurilemma

• Thinnest fibers are unmyelinated

 The biological clock
• Why the probability of heart attack
increasing in the morning at 8 o’clock ?

• When we eat or play or sleep or tested

The answer of these question lie in the

secret world of the biological clock
 The biological clock
• Finally, scientists began to discover the
truth about the biological clock inside our
bodies and found out that it is there in
every cell of our body!

• There are specific genes within the cell

responsible for time keeping.
 Biological clock rate
• All of us have biological clock but it’s differ
form one person to another

• The normal rate is 24 hours

• The maximum rate is 25
• The minimum rate is 22
Biological clock
From 6 AM to 8 AM
 From 6 AM to 8 AM

• Start of day and Getting out of bed

• biological clock affect on wake up early but
also age
 Wake up
• From 10 to 21 year sleep late and wake up
late

• From 21 to 55 years sleep late and wake

up early

• From 55 years we sleep early and wake

up early
From 8 AM to 11 AM
 Different biological clock

There is a special
clock in the
heart to set its beats,
in the liver ,
in the kidney.

So, in every cell of our

body, there is a clock
for time keeping!
 Exposure to light
• At sunrise and at Sunset because
biological clock is more sensitive to light

• At sunrise make us wake up early

(increase clock speed)
• At sunset make us sleep late (decrease
clock speed)
 Night shift
• Found that Diseases of cancer increases
for people that have work at evening to
morning
STAGES OF SLEEP
 What Happens When We Sleep?
• Sleep occurs in a recurring cycle of 90 to 110
minutes and is divided into two categories:
• Non-REM (which is further split into four
stages) and REM sleep.
• There are four stages in the non-REM sleep.
• REM stands for Rapid Eye Movement.
 Brain Waves

• Beta

• Alpha

• Theta

• Delta
Schizophreni
a
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder
characterized by abnormal social
behavior and failure to understand what
is real.

Common symptoms include false beliefs,

unclear or confused thinking, hearing
voices, reduced social engagement and
emotional expression, and a lack of
motivation.

People with schizophrenia often have

additional mental health problems such
as anxiety disorders, major depressive
illness, or substance use disorder.
Bipolar Disorder
 Comparison of
bipolar disorder and
schizophrenia
Similarity-
1)Both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia appear to result from gene–
environment interaction.
2)combined heritability for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia of approximately
60%, with environmental factors accounting for the remainder

Differences-
•Schizophrenia is a primary psychotic disorder, and bipolar disorder is a primary
mood disorder but can also involve psychosis.
•With schizophrenia -- the thought disorder -, is present all the time. a bipolar
person will have, between episodes of mania, periods of time when they are
completely normal.
•Schizophrenia is thought disorder while bipolar disorder is mood episodes.
•People with schizophrenia may have trouble understanding information and
using it to make decisions (executive functioning).
•People with schizophrenia have a greater tendency to be suspicious and
paranoid.
•Bipolar disorder is a fairly common mental disorder compared with
Schizophrenia
Anxiety
OCD- Phone, Cleanness

Specific phobia- Animal, storm, airplain

Social phobia- eating/drinking in front of others, being center of

attention, stage fear, talking over phone

Panic disorder- sudden feeling of intense anxiety and fear that reach a
peak within 5-10 minutes (panic attack)- shortness of breath or chest
pain

Generalized anxiety disorder- persistence and excessive anxiety for 6

months or more. Associated with fatigue, irritation, restlessness,
sleep disturbance, depression

Posttraumatic stress disorder- people who witness traumatic events,

suffer from more than a month
How is Anxiety Different from Stress?
Stress comes from the pressures we feel, adrenaline is released. its extended
stay causes depression, a rise in BP and other negative effects. One of these
negative effects is anxiety. With anxiety, fear overcomes all emotions
accompanied by worry- chest pains shortness of breath and panic attacks.

Stress we experience in our day-to-day lives is associated with frustration &

nervousness, where anxiety often comes from a place of fear, unease & worry.

Stress is caused by an existing stress-causing factor or stressor. Anxiety is stress

that continues after that stressor is gone.

Unchecked acute stress to become chronic stress which can be anxiety.

The difference of helplessness. When it comes to stress, you can deal with
things and master them but anxiety is helplessness.

stress can have several separate and distinct causes (often happening
concurrently), anxiety often takes one specific (or even future) cause of stress
Depression
Depression
Depression
 TREATMENTS FOR DEPRESSION

1) Psychotherapy

2) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

3) Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors-

SSRIs
SSRIs block the reuptake of Serotonin
Treatment-resistant
depression(TRD)
major depressive disorder that do not respond
adequately to appropriate courses of at least two
antidepressants.

Some factors that contribute to inadequate treatment

are: early discontinuation of treatment, insufficient
dosage of medication, patient noncompliance,
misdiagnosis, and concurrent psychiatric disorders.

Cases of treatment-resistant depression may also be

referred to by which medications they are resistant to
Treatment-resistant
depression(TRD)

Drug treatment.
Three basic categories of drug treatment that can be
used when a medication course is found to be
ineffective.

Dose increase- increasing the dosage of an

antidepressant
Switching antidepressants
Adding medication- lithium, triiodothyronine
Behavioral theories of depression
explain the etiology of depression based on the behavioural
sciences, and they form the basis for behavioral therapies
for depression.

1)Behavioral Activation- combination of a stressful event in

an individual's life and their reaction to the event that produces
a depressive episode.

Two main coping mechanisms, rumination and distraction.

Ruminators spend time focusing on the stressful event and
their feelings.
distractors engage in activities that distance them from the
event and their feelings.
Behavioral theories of depression
2) Reinforcement contingencies
depression results from a loss of adequate reward cont

Positive behaviors no longer rewarded

extinct less frequently

lack of responsiveness and arousal

Depression