Physics of the Solid Earth (1)

Physics of the Solid Earth (1)

Dr. William K. Mohanty
Associate Professor
Department of Geology and Geophysics
IIT, Kharagpur
Seismology Group
IIT Kharagpur
Seismology is the study of the generation,
propagation, and recording of elastic waves in the
Earth (and other celestial bodies) and of the
sources that produce them
Sumatra Earthquake Recorded at IIT,
Kharagpur Seismic Observatory
The joy of being a seismologist comes to you,
when you find something new about the earths
interior from the observation of seismic waves
obtained on the surface, and realize that you did
it without penetrating the earth or touching or
examining it directly
Keiiti
Keiiti
Aki, Presidential address to the
Aki, Presidential address to the
Seismological Society of America, 1980
Seismological Society of America, 1980
Schematic geometry of seismic experiment
Seismology Group
IIT Kharagpur
Introduction to Seismology
Basic Concepts:
Generates
Seismic Waves
Propagate away
from source and
samples the
Earth structure
Recorded ground motion is SEISMOGRAM
Earthquakes
(Passive Source)
Free Surface ground
motions caused by
these propagating
waves recorded at
surface detectors
(SEISMOMETERS)
SEISMIC
SOURCES
Natural Events Man-Made Events
Tectonic Earthquakes Controlled Sources
(Explosions, vibrators)
Volcanic Tremors and
Earthquakes
Reservoir Induced
Earthquakes
Rock Falls/Collapse of
Karst cavities
Mining Induced
Rock Bursts/Collapses
Strom Microseisms
Cultural Noise
(Industry, Traffic etc.)
Various Kinds of Seismic Sources
Seismology Group
IIT Kharagpur
Earthquakes to the progressive accumulation of strain
energy in the rock mass surrounding a pre-existing fault
and the sudden release of this energy by faulting when
the fracture strength is exceeded
Elastic
Elastic
-
-
Rebound Theory
Rebound Theory
Earthquake Zones
Seismology Group
IIT Kharagpur
Interior of Earth
Major Tectonic Plates of the Earth
Seismology Group
IIT Kharagpur
Frequency of Occurrence of Earthquakes
(based on observation since 1900)
Earthquake focus
Seismology (Class 2)
Seismology (Class 2)
Dr. William K. Mohanty
Associate Professor
Department of Geology and Geophysics
IIT, Kharagpur
Seismology Group
IIT Kharagpur
Body waves
P- Waves
S-waves
Rayleigh Wave
Love Wave
Surface waves
P-wave velocity ( ) =

3
4
+ K
S-wave velocity () =

Where, K is the bulk modulus or incompressibility,

the shear modulus or rigidity and the density.
Seismic wave propagation
Long-period vertical component seismogram
showing various seismic phases
Ray paths for the seismic phases labeled on
the seismogram
Travel-time curves for surface focus
Notation of various phases through Mantle and Core
Earths P velocity, S velocity, and density as a function of depth
Earths Interior
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS AND ITS
MITIGATION
Dr. William K Mohanty
Assistant Professor
Department of Geology and Geophysics
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
Ground shaking
Structural Hazards
Liquefaction
Landslides
Retaining structures failures
Lifeline Hazards
Tsunami and Seiche Hazards
GROUND SHAKING
Most important of all seismic hazards
When the earthquake occurs, seismic waves radiate
away from the source and travel rapidly through the
earths crust. Produce shaking at the ground surface,
which may last from few seconds to minutes
Strength and duration of shaking at a particular site
depends on
a. Size
b. Location of earthquake
c. Characteristics of the site
Final portion of the trip of seismic waves form source to
the ground surface often through soil
Soil deposits act as filters.
GROUND MOTION PARAMETERS
Strong ground motion data are essential to
understand the high-frequency nature of crustal
seismogenic failure processes, the nature of
seismic radiation from the source, and the nature
of crustal wave-propagation phenomena near the
source
a) The Amplitude
b) Frequency content
c) Duration of the motion
THE AMPLITUDE
w w a w v / ) ( ) ( =
w w v w u / ) ( ) ( =
where , and are the transformed displacement,
velocity and acceleration respectively.
u v a
PEAK HORIZONTAL ACCELERATION
(PHA)
PEAK HORIZONTAL VELOCITY (PHV)
PHV characterize ground motion amplitude
accurately at intermediate frequencies.
Structures or facilities (tall or flexible buildings,
bridges etc.), PHV provide accurate indication of
the potential damage.
PEAK DISPLACEMENT
Associate with low frequency.
Difficult to determine accurately.
Less commonly used as a measure of ground
motion.
EFFECTIVE ACCELERATION
FREQUENCY CONTENT PARAMETERS
Frequency content describes how the amplitude of a ground motion is
distributed among different frequencies
GROUND MOTION SPECTRA

=
+ + =

1
0
) sin( ) (
n
n n n
t w C C t x
where C
n
and
n
are the amplitude and phase angle respectively of the
n
th
harmonic of the Fourier series
RESPONSE SPECTRA
The response spectra describes the maximum response of a
single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF)
PREDOMINANT PERIOD
The predominant period is defined as the period of
vibration corresponding to the maximum value of the
Fourier amplitude spectrum
V
max
/a
max
V
max
/a
max
should be related to the frequency content of the
motion
For a simple harmonic motion of period T, V
max
/a
max
=T/2
For earthquake motion that include many frequencies, the
quantity 2 (V
max
/a
max
) provides, which periods of the
ground motions are most significant
Site Condition V
max
/a
max
Rock 5.5 cm/sec/g = 0.056 sec
Stiff soils (<200 ft) 110 cm/sec/g =0.112 sec
Deep stiff Soils (7200 ft) 135 cm/sec/g = 0.138 sec
Seed and Idris (1982) (less than 50 km
from source)
The corresponding periods of equivalent harmonic
waves for the rock, stiff soil and deep stiff soil site
conditions are 0.35 sec, 0.70 sec and 0.87 sec
respectively, which indicates a shift towards
longer period (lower frequency) motion on softer
soil deposits
DURATION
Duration (sec)
Magnitude Rock Sites Soil Sites
5.0 4 8
5.5 6 12
6.0 8 16
6.5 11 23
7.0 16 32
7.5 22 45
8.0 31 62
8.5 43 86
Typical earthquake durations at epicentral distances less than 10 km
EFFECTS OF LOCAL SITE
CONDITIONS ON GROUND MOTION
At most sites the density and S wave velocity of material
near the surface are smaller than at greater depths
If the effects of scattering and material damping are
neglected, the conservation of elastic energy requires that
the flow of energy (energy flux,
s
u
2
) from depth to the
ground surface be constant
Since and
s
decrease as waves approach the ground
surface, the particle velocity u must increase
EFFECTS OF TOPOGRAPHY
EFFECTS OF BASIN
The effects of basin geometry on ground motion is of great
interest in geotechnical earthquake engineering
The curvature of a basin in which softer alluvial soils have
been deposited can trap body waves and cause some incident
body waves to propagate through the alluvium as surface
waves
These waves can produce stronger shaking and larger
duration
PEAK GROUND ACCELERATION AS A FUNCTION OF
MAGNITUDE AND DISTANCE FROM THE FAULT, AS GIVEN
BY THE GROUND-MOTION PREDICTION EQUATION OF
ABRAHAMSON AND SILVA (1997)
PROCEDURE FOR MODIFYING GROUND MOTION
PARAMETERS FROM A SEISMIC HAZARD ANALYSIS TO
ACCOUNT FOR THE EFFECTS OF LOCAL SITE CONDITIONS
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
k i k ij k j k ij
f S f P f E f O =
Suppose a network has recorded J events by I stations (each event may not be
recorded by all I stations). Then the amplitude spectrum of the j
th
event recorded at the
i
th
station for the k
th
frequency, O
ij
(f
k
) can be written in the frequency domain as a
product of a source term E
j
(f
k
), a path term, P
ij
(f
k
), and a site effect term, S
i
(f
k
),
(1)
Taking the natural logarithm, equation (1) becomes:
(2)
This linear expression often forms the basis of separating the source, path, and site
effects
) ( ln ) ( ln ) ( ln ) ( ln
k i k ij k j k ij
f S f P f E f O + + =
METHODOLOGIES FOR SITE RESPONSE ESTIMATION:
1. Reference Station Spectral Ratio (SSR) Estimate
The traditional spectral ratio is estimated with respect to a
reference site. Suppose, at a reference site (i=R) there is negligible
site response (lnS
R
=0) and if the interstation spacing is too small
compared to the epicentral distances, so that P
ij
~P
Rj
, then the site
response at each site can be estimated from,
(3)
Equation (3) constitutes the geometric average spectral ratio. If the
reference site has a non-negligible site response, then the spectral
ratios become relative site-response estimates

= =
=

=
J
j
k ij k ij
J
j
k Rj
k ij
k
SR
i
f O f O
J f O
f O
J
f S
1 1
)) ( ln ) ( (ln
1
) (
) (
ln
1
) ( ln
2. Site Response by Horizontal-to-Vertical-Spectral Ratio or Receiver Function Technique
Thus the receiver function SR
ij
(f
k
) can be computed at each i site for the j
th
event at the central frequency f
k
as,
(4)
where, H
ij
(f
k
)|
NS ,
H
ij
(f
k
)|
EW
and V
ij
(f
k
) are the Fourier spectra of the NS, EW
and vertical components respectively. A pictorial representation of site
response computation is depicted in the Figure .
The standard deviation represents the scatter of individual spectral ratios and
hence the statistical uncertainty of the estimated site response can be
calculated as
(5)
( )
( ) ( )
( )
k ij
EW k ij NS k ij
k ij
f absV
f absH f absH
f SR
2 2
| |
2
1
+
=
( ) { }
5 . 0
1
2
1
1

=
J
j
ave
i ij
J
i
SR SR
FFT of Signal (S) and Background Noise (B)
10
0
10
1
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
F
F
T
(
c
m
/
s
e
c
/
H
z
)
Time(sec)
10
0
10
1
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
F
F
T

(
c
m
/
s
e
c
/
H
z
)
Time(sec)
10
0
10
1
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
F
F
T
(
c
m
/
s
e
c
/
H
z
)
Time(sec)
(f)
(d) (e)
Spectra of (S-B) with Smoothening
(g) (h)
(i)
10
0
10
1
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
F
F
T
(
c
m
/
s
e
c
/
H
z
)
Time(sec)
10
0
10
1
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
F
F
T
(
c
m
/
s
e
c
/
H
z
)
Time(sec)
10
0
10
1
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
F
F
T
(
c
m
/
s
e
c
/
H
z
)
Time(sec)
(b) (a) (c)
Time
(sec)
V
el
oc
ity
(c
m
/s
ec
)
Time
(sec)
Time
(sec)
Vertical
Component
NS Component EW Component
V
el
oc
ity
(c
m
/s
ec
)
V
el
oc
ity
(c
m
/s
ec
)
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
c
m
/
s
e
c
)
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
c
m
/
s
e
c
)
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
c
m
/
s
e
c
)
DEVELOPMENT OF PREDICTIVE
RELATIONSHIP
Predictive relationships usually express ground motion
parameters as functions of magnitude, distance and in some
cases, other variable
Y = f (M, R, P
i
)
Y: Ground Motion Parameter
M: Magnitude
R: Distance from source to site
P
i
:other parameter
A typical predictive relationship may have the form
[ ] ) ( ) ( ) exp( ln ln
8 7 6 5 3 2 1
4
site f source f R C M C C R C M C M C C Y
C
+ + + + + + + =
ESTIMATION OF PEAK ACCELERATION
(Campbell and Bozorgnia, 1994)
where R is the closest distance to seismic rupture in km. The source
term F, takes on value of 0 for strike-slip and normal faulting and 1 for
reverse, reverse-oblique and thrust fault
S
SR
= 1 for soft-rock site (sedimentary deposit of Tertiary age and
crystalline rock)
S
HR
= 1 for hard-rock (older sedimentary, metamorphic and crystalline
rock)
S
SR
= S
HR
= 0 for alluvium site
[ ]
2
2
) 647 . 0 exp( 149 . 0 ln 328 . 1 904 . 0 512 . 3 ) ( ln
w w
M R M gals PHA + + =
HR SR w
S R S R F M R ) ln 222 . 0 405 . 0 ( ) ln 171 . 0 440 . 0 ( ) 0957 . 0 ln 112 . 0 125 . 1 ( + + +

=
38 . 0
0691 . 0 889 . 0
ln
M
PHA

M7.4
M>7.4
LOCATION OF CHAMOLI EARTHQUAKE
STATIONS WHICH RECORDED THE MAINSHOCK
AND THE AFTERSHOCKS OF CHAMOLI
EARTHQUAKE
OBSERVED PEAK GROUND MOTION (TRIANGLES)
VS. HYPOCENTRAL DISTANCE R DURING THE
CHAMOLI EARTHQUAKE
EAST-WEST COMPONENT OF ACCELERATION
AND VELOCITY TRACES AT SITES IN DELHI
DURING THE CHAMOLI EARTHQUAKE
SPECTRAL RATIOS OF SOFT SITES TO
RIDGE OBSERVATORY
OBSERVED AND PREDICTED HORIZONTAL A
max
AND V
max
AS FUNCTION OF M
w
AT DELHI SITES
Predicted Peak Ground Motion at Sites in Delhi
Simulated Horizontal Ground Motion at CPCB and RO
Hypocentral location in 3-Dimension
Distance = A = ts-tp
Azimuth =
Where

Three Component Single Station
o u + = Z
|
.
|

\
|
=

NS
EW
A
A
1
tan u
( )
0
90 s u
Direction of first motion

Angle
o

Vertical

E-W

N-S

up

W

S

0
0


down

E

N

0
0


up

W

N

90
0


down

E

S

90
0


up

E

N

180
0


down

W

S

180
0


up

E

S

270
0


down

W

N

270
0


o
can be determined from this table
Locating an epicenter
LOCATING EARTHQUAKES
Forward-Modeling
T
i predicted
= f(x
i
,v)=t
iobserved

F(M) = d

Inverse Modeling
d= Gm

Magnitude
Magnitude is a measure of the strength of an earthquake or strain
energy released by it, as determined by seismographic observations.
It is a function of amount of energy released at focus and is
independent of the place of observation.
General form of all magnitude scales
M = log (A/T)max + f (A, h) + C
s
+ C
r

Where
A = max. amplitude in thousandths of mm,
T = period of the seismic wave in seconds,
f = correction factor for epicentral distance (A) and focal depth (h),
C
s
= correction factor for the seismological station, and
C
r
= regional correction factor.
Magnitude Scales
Magnitude scales are based on a few simple assumptions -
For a given source-receiver geometry larger events will produce wave
arrivals of larger amplitudes at the seismic station
The decay of ground displacement amplitudes with epicentral distance and
their dependence on source depth h, i.e. the effects of geometric spreading and
attenuation of the considered seismic waves, is known at least empirically in a
statistical sense. It can be compensated by a so-called calibration function
(, h). The latter is the log of the inverse of the reference amplitude A
o
(, h) of
an event of zero magnitude, i.e. (V,h)= log A
o
(, h). The logarithm is used
because of the enormous variability of earthquake displacement amplitudes
Magnitudes should be a measure of seismic energy released and thus be
proportional to the velocity of ground motion, i.e. to A/T with T as the period
of the considered wave
The the maximum value (A/T)
max
in a wave group for which (, h) is known
should provide the best and most stable estimate of the event magnitude
The effects of prevailing azimuth dependent source directivity can be
corrected by a regional source correction term C
r
and the influence of local site
effects or amplitudes depending on local crustal structure, near-surface rock
type, soft soil cover and/or topography may be accounted for by a station
correction C
s



Local Magnitude, M
L

M
L
= log Amax - log A
o

M
L
= log A - 2.48 + 2.76 log A
M
D
= a
o
+ a
1
log D+ a
2
A
Duration Magnitude,
M
D

Body Wave Magnitudes (M
B
)
M
b
= log (A/T) + Q (h, A )
Where
A = actual ground motion amplitude in micrometer, and
T = corresponding period in second.
Surface-Wave Magnitude (M
s
)
M
s
= Log (A/T) + 1.66 log A + 2.0
Where

A = Spectral amplitude, the horizontal component of the Rayleigh wave, with a
period of 20 s, measured on the ground surface in micron,
T = Period of seismic wave in second, and
A = Epicentral distance in degree.
Moment Magnitude, M
w

Where M
0
is in Nm.


0 . 6 log
3
2
0 10
= M M
W
A = fault area (length x depth) m
2

d = longitudinal displacement of the fault , m and
u
= modulus of rigidity (app. 3 x 10
10
Nm
-2
for the crust
and 7 x 10
10
Nm
-2
for the mantle
Relationship between different magnitude
scale (Gutenberg and Richter, 1956)
M
B
= 0.63M
S
+ 2.5
M
S
= 1.27 (M
L
1) 0.016M
2
L

Log M
o
= 1.5 M
S
+ 16.1

Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale
Intensity is a measure of the effect that an
earthquake produces at a given location.
Intensity
Isoseismal map for the Arkansas
earthquake of December 16,1811
Isoseismal map of Kutch (Bhuj) earthquake of 26 January 2001.
log a
max
= I
o
/3-1/2
M = 1+ 2/3 I
o
Energy-Magnitude Relations
Log Es=2.4m-1.2 (Es in joule)
Log Es = 1.5Ms+4.8
Log Es=1.96Ml+2.05
Magnitude Vs Ground motion and Energy
Magnitude of Earthquake and their effects
Aftershocks and Fault Area
Omoris Law:
( )
p
t K
C
n
+
=
Where , n = frequency of aftershocks at time t after the main shock.K, C,
and P are constants that depend on the size of the earthquake, and P
value is usually close to 1.0 1.4
0 . 6 02 . 1 log + =
S
M A
Where , A is measured in sq-cm
Attenuation Relation
LnY =c
1
+c
2
M-c
3
lnR-c
4
R+c
5
F+c
6
S+c
( ) | |

+ +
+
=
2
8 7
2
8 7
exp
) ( exp
M c c r
M c c r
R
Log a = -1.02 + 0.249M log R 0.00255 R
R
2
=D
2
+ H
2
; H=7.3 km, D=closest distance to surface
projection of the source in km
M=Moment magnitude
(Joyner and Boore, 1981)
Earthquake Prediction
Long Term Years in advance
Intermediate- Weeks in advance
Short Term- Hours or days in advance
Long Term
Recurrence Interval (Seismic Gap)
Fault Characteristics
Time of last earthquake
Intermediate
and
Short Term
Precursory phenomena
Change in o/|
Increase in seismic activity
Emission of the radioactive gas
Ground water fluctuation
Changes in taste and temperature in wells and springs
Teleseismic P-wave travel time delays
Variation of geomagnetic, geoelectric fields, resistivity
Geodetic, leveling measurement
Animal behavior
Precursory phenomena