UNIT-V

MTI & PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

Introduction

The doppler frequency shift produced by a moving target may be used in a pulse radar just
as in the CW radar,
 to determine the relative velocity of a target or
 to separate desired moving targets from undesired stationary objects (clutter).

Although there are applications of pulse radar where a determination of the target's
relative Velocity is made from the doppler frequency shift, the use of doppler to separate
small moving Targets in the presence of large clutter has probably been of far greater
interest. Such a pulse Radar that utilizes the doppler frequency shift as a means for
discriminating moving from fixed targets is called an MTI (moving target indication) or a
pulse doppler radar. The two are based on the same physical principle, but in practice
there are generally recognizable differences between them.

 The MTI radar, for instance, usually operates with ambiguous Doppler measurement
(so-called blind speeds) but with unambiguous range measurement (no second-
time'-around echoes).
 The opposite is generally the case for a pulse doppler radar. Its pulse repetition
frequency is usually high enough to operate with unambiguous doppler (no blind
speeds) but at the expense of range ambiguities.

5.1 Description of operation.

A CW radar may be converted into a pulse radar as shown in by providing a power

amplifier and a modulator to turn the amplifier on and off for the purpose of generating
pulses. The main difference between the pulse radar of Fig. 4.l and the one described in
Chap. 1 is that a small portion of the CW oscillator power that generates the transmitted
pulses is diverted to the receiver to take the place of the local oscillator. However, this CW
signal does more than function as a replacement for the local oscillator. It acts as the
coherent reference needed to detect the doppler frequency shift. By coherent it is meant
that the phase of the transmitted signal is preserved in the reference signal. The
reference signal is the distinguishing feature of coherent MTI radar.

If the CW oscillator voltage is represented as A1 sin 2πf0t, Where A1 is the amplitude and f0
is the carrier frequency.

Let the reference signal be written as A2 sin 2πf0t

The echo signal from a moving target can be written

𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒐𝑹𝒐
Vecho = A3 sin { 2π(fo±fd)t - } = A3 sin { 2π(fo±fd)t - Φo }
𝒄

Where
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 A2 is the amplitude of reference signal
A3 is the amplitude of echo signal
fd is the Doppler shift in frequency.

Fig 4.1: Simple Pulse Doppler radar

The reference signal and the target echo signal are heterodyned in the mixer stage of the
receiver. Only the low-frequency (difference-frequency) component from the mixer is of
interest and is a voltage given by
𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒐𝑹𝒐
Vdiff = A4 sin { 2πfdt - 𝒄 }

Note that for stationary targets the doppler frequency shift will be zero; hence Vdiff
will not vary with time and may take on any constant value from +A4 to - A4
including zero. However, when the target is in motion relative to the radar, fd has a
value other than zero and the Vdiff will be a function of time.

Moving targets may be distinguished from stationary targets by observing the video output
on an A-scope (amplitude vs. range). A single sweep on an A-scope might appear as in Fig.
4.2. This sweep shows several fixed targets and two moving targets indicated by the two
arrows. On the basis of a single sweep, moving targets cannot be distinguished from fixed
targets. Successive A-scope sweeps (pulse-repetition intervals) are shown in Fig. 4.2 a to e.
Echoes from fixed targets remain constant throughout, but echoes from moving targets
vary in amplitude from sweep to sweep at a rate corresponding to the doppler frequency.
The superposition of the successive A-scope sweeps is shown in Fig. 4.2 f The moving
targets produce, with time, a "butterfly" effect on the A-scope.

Although the butterfly effect is suitable for recognizing moving targets on an A-scope, it is
not appropriate for display on the PPI. One method commonly employed to extract Doppler
information in a form suitable for display on the PPI scope is with a delay-line canceller
(Fig. 4.3).

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 Figure 4.2 (a-e) Successive sweeps of an MTI radar A-scope display (echo
amplitude as a function of time); (f) superposition of many sweeps; arrows indicate
position of moving targets.

The delay-line canceller acts as a filter to eliminate the dc component of fixed targets and to
pass the ac components of moving targets. The video portion of the receiver is divided into
two channels. One is a normal video channel. In the other, the video signal experiences a
time delay equal to one pulse-repetition period (equal to the reciprocal of the pulse-
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repetition frequency). The outputs from the two channels are subtracted from one another.
The fixed targets with unchanging amplitudes from pulse to pulse are canceled on
subtraction. However, the amplitudes of the moving-target echoes are not constant from
pulse to pulse subtraction results in an uncancelled residue.

Figure 4.3: MTI receiver with delay-line canceller.

The output of the subtraction circuit is bipolar video, just as was the input. Before bipolar
video can intensity-modulate a PPI display, it must be converted to unipotential voltages
(unipolar video) by a full-wave rectifier.

5.1.1 MTI Radar with Power Amplifier Transmitter

The simple MT1 radar shown in Fig. 4.l is not necessarily the most typical. The block
diagram of a more common MTI radar employing a power amplifier is shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig 4.4: MTI radar employing a power amplifier

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The significant difference between this MTI configuration and that of Fig. 4.1 is the manner
in which the reference signal is generated. In Fig. 4.4, the coherent reference is supplied by
an oscillator called the coho, which stands for coherent oscillator. The coho is a stable
oscillator whose frequency is the same as the intermediate frequency used in the receiver.
In addition to providing the reference signal, the output of the coho fc is also mixed with
the local-oscillator frequency fl . The local oscillator must also be a stable oscillator and is
called stalo, for stable local oscillator. The RF echo signal is heterodyned with the stalo
signal to produce the IF signal just as in the conventional super-heterodyne receiver. The
stalo, coho and the mixer in which they are combined plus any low-level amplification are
called the receiver-exciter because of the dual role they serve in both the receiver and the
transmitter.

The characteristic feature of coherent MTI radar is that tile transmitted signal must be
coherent (in phase) with the reference signal in the receiver. This is accomplished in the
radar system diagramed in Fig. 4.4 by generating the transmitted signal from the coho
reference signal. The function of the stalo is to provide the necessary frequency translation
from the IF to the transmitted (RF) frequency. Although the phase of the stalo influences
the phase of the transmitted signal, any stalo phase shift is canceled on reception because
the stalo that generates the transmitted signal also acts as the local oscillator in the
receiver. The reference signal from the coho and the IF echo signal are both fed into a mixer
called the phase detector. The phase detector differs from the normal amplitude detector
since its output is proportional to the phase difference between the two input signals.

Any one of a number of transmitting-tube types might be used as the power amplifier.
These include the triode, tetrode, klystron amplifier, traveling-wave tube, and the crossed-
field amplifier.

5.1.2. MTI Radar with Power Oscillator Transmitter

The block diagram of a typical MTI Radar with Power Oscillator Transmitter is shown in
the figure 4.5. Magnetron is normally used as power oscillator. The difference primarily lies
in the manner in which the reference signal is generated. Before the development of the
klystron amplifier, the only high-power transmitter available at microwave frequencies for
radar application was the magnetron oscillator. In an oscillator the phase of the RF bears
no relationship from pulse to pulse. For this reason the reference signal cannot be
generated by a continuously running oscillator. However, a coherent reference signal may
be readily obtained with the power oscillator by readjusting the phase of the coho at the
beginning of each sweep according to the phase of the transmitted pulse. The phase of the
coho is locked to the phase of the transmitted pulse each time a pulse is generated.

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 Figure 4.5 Block diagram of MTI radar with power-oscillator transmitter.

5.2 Delay line cancellers

The simple MTI delay-line canceller shown in Fig. 4.3 is an example of a time-domain filter.
The capability of this device depends on the quality of the medium used as the delay line.
The Pulse modulator delay line must introduce a time delay equal to the pulse repetition
interval. For typical ground-based air-surveillance radars this might be several
milliseconds. Delay times of this magnitude cannot be achieved with practical
electromagnetic transmission lines. By converting the electromagnetic signal to an
'acoustic signal it is possible to utilize delay lines of a reasonable physical length since the
velocity of propagation of acoustic waves is about 10 -5 times that of electromagnetic waves.
After the necessary delay is introduced by the acoustic line, the signal is converted back to
an electromagnetic signal for further processing. The acoustic delay line was generally the
solid fused-quartz delay line that used multiple internal reflections to obtain a compact
device. These analog acoustic delay lines were, in turn supplanted in the early 1970s by
storage devices based on digital computer technology. The use of digital delay lines
requires that the output of the MTI receiver phase-detector be quantized into a sequence of
digital words. The compactness and convenience of digital processing allows the
implementation of more complex delay-line cancellers with filter characteristics not
practical with analog methods.

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5.2.1.Filter characteristics of the delay-line canceller.

The delay-line canceller acts as a filter which rejects the d-c component of clutter. Because
of its periodic nature, the filter also rejects energy in the vicinity of the pulse repetition
frequency and its harmonics.
The video signal received from a particular target at a range Ro is
V1 = k sin { 2πfdt - Φo }

where Φo = phase shift and k = amplitude of video signal. The signal from the previous
transmission, which is delayed by a time T = pulse repetition interval (PRT) is
V2 = k sin { 2πfd (t-T) - Φo }
Everything else is assumed to remain essentially constant over the interval T so that k is
the same for both pulses. The output from the subtractor is

V = V1 - V2 = {2k sin πfdT} cos { 2πfd (t-T/2) - Φo }

It is assumed that the gain through the delay-line canceller is unity. The output from the
Canceller in the equation given above consists of a cosine wave at the doppler frequency&
with an amplitude 2k sin πfdT. Thus the amplitude of the canceled video output is a
function of the Doppler frequency shift and the pulse-repetition interval, or PRF. The
magnitude of the relative frequency-response of the delay-line canceller [ratio of the
amplitude of the output from the delay-line canceller, 2k sin πfdT to the amplitude of the
normal radar video k] is shown in Fig. 4.6.

Fig 4.6: Frequency Characteristics of Single delay line Canceller

5.3 Blind Speeds

The response of the single-delay-line canceller will be zero whenever the argument
πfdT in the amplitude factor of above equation is 0, π, 2π, . .., etc., or when
𝒏
fd = = n fp
𝑻

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where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , and fp = pulse repetition frequency. The delay-line canceller not only
eliminates the d-c component caused by clutter (n = 0), but unfortunately it also rejects any
moving target whose Doppler frequency happens to be the same as the prf or a multiple
thereof. Those relative target velocities which result in zero MTI response are called blind
speeds vn and are given by

𝒏𝝀 𝒏𝝀𝒇𝒑
vn = = n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
𝟐𝑻 𝟐

The blind speeds are one of the limitations of pulse MTI radar which do not occur with CW
radar. They are present in pulse radar because doppler is measured by discrete samples -
(pulses) at the prf rather than continuously. If the first blind speed is to be greater than the
maximum radial velocity expected from the target, the product 𝝀𝒇𝒑 must be large. Thus the
MTI radar must operate at long wavelengths (low frequencies) or with high pulse
repetition frequencies, or both. Unfortunately, there are usually constraints other than
blind speeds which determine the wavelength and the pulse repetition frequency.
Therefore blind speeds might not be easy to avoid. Low radar frequencies have the
disadvantage that antenna beamwidths, for a given-size antenna, are wider than at the
higher frequencies and would not be satisfactory in applications where angular accuracy or
angular resolution is important. The pulse repetition frequency cannot always be varied
over wide limits since it is primarily determined by the unambiguous range requirement.
Since commercial jet aircraft have speeds of the order of 600 knots, and military aircraft
even higher, blind speeds in the MTI radar can be a serious limitation.

5.3.1. Remedy for blind speeds

The effect of blind speeds can be significantly reduced, without incurring range
ambiguities, by
(a) Operating with more than one pulse repetition frequency. This is called a
staggered-PRF MTI.

(b) Operating at more than one RF frequency can also reduce the effect of blind
speeds.
5.4. Enhancement of clutter rejection ratio

Double cancellation. The frequency response of a single-delay-line canceller (Fig. 4.3)

does not always have as broad a clutter-rejection null as might be desired in the vicinity of
d-c. The clutter-rejection notches may be widened by passing the output of the delay-line
canceller through a second delay-line canceller as shown in Fig. 4.7. The output of the two
single delay-line cancellers in cascade is the square of that from a single canceller. Thus the
frequency response is 4 sin2 πfdT. The configuration of Fig. 4.7 is called a double delay-line
canceller, or simply a double canceller.

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 f (t) - f (t + T) -f (t + T) +f (t + 2T)

Fig 4.7: Double Delay line Canceller (a) Two Pulse double delay line canceller
(b) Three Pulse double delay line canceller

The relative response of the double canceller compared with that of a single-delay-line
canceller is shown in Fig. 4.8. The finite width of the clutter spectrum is also shown in this
figure so as to illustrate the additional cancellation of clutter offered by the double
canceller.

Figure 4.8 Relative frequency response of the single-delay-line canceller (solid curve)
and the double delay- line canceller (dashed curve). Shaded area represents clutter
spectrum.

5.4.1.Transversal filters

The three-pulse canceller shown in Fig. 4.7b is an example of a transversal filter. Its
general form with N pulses and N - 1 delay lines is shown in Fig. 4.9. It is also sometimes
known as a feed forward filter, a non-recursive filter, a finite memory filter or a tapped
delay-line filter. A recursive filter consists of feedback paths. The weights Wi for a three-
pulse canceller utilizing two delay lines arranged as a transversal filter are 1. -2, 1. The
frequency response function is proportional to sin2 πfdT. A transversal filter with three
delay lines whose weights are 1, -3, 3, - 1 gives a sin3 πfdT response. This is a four-pulse
canceller. Its response is equivalent to a triple canceller consisting of a cascade of three
single delay-line cancellers. (Note the potentially confusing nomenclature. A cascade
configuration of three delay line's, each connected as a single cancellers, is called a triple
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cancellers, but when connected as a transversal filter it is called a four-pulse canceller.)
The weights for a transversal filter with n delay lines that gives a response sinn πfdT, are
the coefficients of the expansion of (1 - x)n which are the binomial coefficients with
alternating signs:

Fig 4.9: General form of a transversal (or non-recursive) filter for MTI signal
processing.

The transversal filter with alternating binomial weights is closely related to the filter which
maximizes the average of the ratio Ic = (S/C)out/(S/C)in where (S/C)out is the signal-to
clutter ratio at the output of the filter, and (S/C)in is the signal-to-clutter ratio at the input.
The average is taken over the range of doppler frequencies. It is independent of the target
velocity and depends only on the weights Wi the autocorrelation function (or power
spectrum) describing the clutter, arid the number of pulses. For the two-pulse canceller (a
single delay line). the optimum weights based on the above criterion are the same as the
binomial weights, when the clutter spectrum is represented by a gaussian function. The
difference between a traversal filter with optimal weights and one with binomial weights
for a three pulse canceller (two delay lines) is less than 2 dB.4.5 The difference is also small
for higher order cancellers.

5.5. Multiple or Staggered PRFs

The use of more than one pulse repetition frequency offers additional flexibility in the
design of MTI doppler filters. It not only reduces the effect of the blind speeds, but it also
allows a sharper low-frequency cutoff in the frequency response than might be obtained
with a cascade of single-delay-line cancellers with sinn πfdT response.
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The blind speeds of two independent radars operating at the same frequency will be
different if their pulse repetition frequencies are different. Therefore, if one radar were "
blind " to moving targets, it would be unlikely that the other radar would be " blind" also.
Instead of using two separate radars, the same result can be obtained with one radar which
time-shares its pulse repetition frequency between two or more different values (multiple
prf's). The pulse repetition frequency might be switched every other scan or every time the
antenna is scanned a half beamwidth, or the period might be alternated on every other
pulse. When the switching is pulse to pulse, it is known as a staggered prf.

An example of the composite (average) response response of an MTI radar operating with
two separate pulse repetition frequencies on a time-shared basis is shown in Fig. 4.10.

The pulse repetition frequencies are in the ratio of 5 : 4. Note that the first blind speed of
the composite response is increased several times over what it would be for a radar
operating on only a single pulse repetition frequency. Zero response occurs only when the
blind speeds of each prf coincide. In the example of Fig. 4.16, the blind speeds are
coincident for 4/T1 = 5I T2. Although the first blind speed may be extended by using more
than one prf, regions of low sensitivity might appear within the composite passband.

The closer the ratio T1 : T2 approaches unity, the greater will be the value of the first blind
speed. However, the first null in the vicinity of fd = 1/T1 becomes deeper. Thus the choice of
T1/ T2 is a compromise between the value of the first blind speed and the depth of the nulls
within the filter pass band. The depth of the nulls can be reduced and the first blind speed
increased by operating with more than two PRFs. Figure 4.11 shows the response of a five-
pulse stagger (four periods) that might be used with a long-range air traffic control radar.'
In this example the periods are in the ratio 25 : 30 : 27 : 31 and the first blind speed is
28.25 times that of a constant prf waveform with the same average period. If the periods of
the staggered waveforms have the relationship n1 / T1 = n2 / T2 = . = nN / TN, where n1, n2,
..., N are integers, and if VB is equal to the first blind speed of a non-staggered waveform
with a constant period equal to the average period Tav = (T1 + T2 + . . . TN)/N, then the first
blind speed is given by
𝑣1 𝑛1+𝑛2+⋯…𝑛𝑁
=
𝑣𝐵 𝑁

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Figure 4.10 (a) Frequency-response of a single-delay-line canceller for fp = 1/T1;
(b) same for fp = 1/T2; (c) composite response with T1/T2 = 4/5.

Figure 4.11 Frequency response of a five-pulse (four-period) stagger.

A disadvantage of the staggered PRF is its inability to cancel second-time-around clutter

echoes. Such clutter does not appear at the same range from pulse to pulse and thus
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produces un-canceled residue. Second-time-around clutter echoes can be removed by use
of a constant PRF. providing there is pulse-to-pulse coherence as in the power amplifier
form of MTI. The constant PRF might be employed only over those angular sectors where
second-time-around clutter is expected or by changing the PRF each time the antenna
scans half-a-beamwidth or by changing the PRF every scan period (rotation of the
antenna).

5.6. Range gated doppler filters

The delay-line canceller, which can be considered as a time-domain filter, has been widely
used in MTI radar as the means for separating moving targets from stationary clutter. It is
also possible to employ the more usual frequency-domain bandpass filters of conventional
design in MTI radar to sort the doppler-frequency-shifted targets. The filter configuration
must be more complex, however, than the single, narrow-bandpass filter.

5.6.1.Collapsing loss

A narrowband filter with a passband designed to pass the doppler frequency components
of moving targets will "ring" when excited by the usual short radar pulse. That is, its
passband is much narrower than the reciprocal of the input pulse width so that the output
will be of much greater duration than the input. The narrowband filter "smears" the input
pulse since the impulse response is approximately the reciprocal of the filter bandwidth.
This smearing destroys the range resolution. If more than one target is present they cannot
be resolved. Even if only one target were present, the noise from the other range cells that
do not contain the target will interfere with the desired target signal. The result is a
reduction in sensitivity due to a collapsing loss.

The loss of the range information and the collapsing loss may be eliminated by first
quantizing the range (time) into small intervals. This process is called range gating.
The width of the range gates depends upon the range accuracy desired and the complexity
which can be tolerated, but they are usually of the order of the pulse width. Range
resolution is established by gating. Once the radar return is quantized into range intervals,
the output from each gate may be applied to a narrowband filter since the pulse shape need
no longer be preserved for range resolution. Collapsing loss does not take place since noise
from the other range intervals is excluded.

A block diagram of the video of an MTI radar with multiple range gates followed by clutter-
rejection filters is shown in Fig. 4.12. The output of the phase detector is sampled
sequentially by the range gates. Each range gate opens in sequence just long enough to
sample the voltage of the video waveform corresponding to a different range interval in
space. The range gate acts as a switch or a gate which opens and closes at the proper time.
The range gates are activated once each pulse-repetition interval. The output for a
stationary target is a series of pulses of constant amplitude. An echo from a moving target
produces a series of pulses which vary in amplitude according to the doppler frequency.
The output of the range gates is stretched in a circuit called the boxcar generator, or
sample-and-hold circuit, whose purpose is to aid in the filtering and detection process by
emphasizing the fundamental of the modulation frequency and eliminating harmonics of

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the pulse repetition frequency. The clutter rejection filter is a bandpass filter whose
bandwidth depends upon the extent of the expected clutter spectrum.

Figure 4.12 Block diagram of MTI radar using range gates and filters.

Following the doppler filter is a full-wave linear detector and an integrator (a low-pass
filter). The purpose of the detector is to convert the bipolar video to unipolar video. The
output of the integrator is applied to a threshold-detection circuit. Only those signals which
cross the threshold are reported as targets. Following the threshold detector, the outputs
from each of the range channels must be properly combined for display on the PPI or A-
scope or for any other appropriate indicating or data-processing device. The CRT display
from this type of MTI radar appears "cleaner" than the display from normal MTI radar, not
only because of better clutter rejection, but also because the threshold device eliminates
many of the unwanted false alarms due to noise. The frequency-response characteristic of
the range-gated MTI might appear as in Fig. 4.13. The shape of the rejection band is
determined primarily by the shape of the bandpass filter of Fig. 4.12.

Figure 4.13 Frequency-response characteristic of an MTI using range gates and filters.

5.6.2. Design of Band pass filter

The bandpass filter can be designed with a variable low-frequency cutoff that can be
selected to conform to the prevailing clutter conditions. The selection of the lower cutoff
might be at the option of the operator or it can be done adaptively. A variable lower cutoff
might be advantageous when the width of the clutter spectrum changes with time as when
the radar receives unwanted echoes from birds. A relatively wide notch at zero frequency is
needed to remove moving birds. If the notch were set wide enough to remove the birds, it
might be wider than necessary for ordinary clutter and desired targets might be removed.

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Since the appearance of birds varies with the time of day and the season, it is important
that the width of the notch be controlled according to the local conditions.

MTI radar using range gates and filters is usually more complex than an MTI with a single-
delay-line canceller. The additional complexity is justified in those applications where good
MTI performance and the flexibility of the range gates and filter MTI are desired. The better
MTI performance results from tile better match between the clutter filter characteristic and
the clutter spectrum.

5.7 Digital Signal Processing

The introduction of practical and economical digital processing to MTI radar allowed a
significant increase in the options open to the signal processing designer. The convenience
of digital processing means that the delay-line cancellers with tailored frequency-response
characteristics can he readily achieved. A digital MTI does not, in principle, do any better
than a we;; designed analog canceller; but it is more dependable, it requires less
adjustments and attention, and can do some tasks easier. Most of the advantages of a digital
MTI processor are due to its use of digital delay line rather than analog delay lines which
are characterized by variations due to temperature, critical gains, and poor on-line
availability.

A simple block diagram of a digital MTI processor is shown in Fig. 4.14. From the output
of the IF amplifier the signal is split into two channels. One is denoted I, for in-phase
channel. The other is denoted Q, for quadrature channel, since a 900 phase change (π/2
radians) is two detectors to be 900 out of phase. The purpose of the quadrature channel is
to eliminate the effects of blind phases, as will be described later. It is desirable to
eliminate blind phases in any MTI processor, but it is seldom done with analog delay-line
cancellers because of the complexity of the added analog delay lines of the second channel.
The convenience of digital processing allows the quadrature channel to be added without
significant burden so that it is often included in digital processing systems. It is for this
reason it is shown in this block diagram, but was not included in the previous discussion of
MTI delay-line cancellers.

Fig4.14: Block diagram of a simple digital MTI signal processor.

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Following the phase detector the bipolar video signal is sampled at a rate sufficient to
obtain one or more samples within each range resolution cell. These voltage samples are
converted to a series of digital words by the analog-to-digital (A/D) converter. The digital
words are stored in a digital memory for one pulse repetition period and are then
subtracted from the digital words of the next sweep. The digital outputs of the I and Q
channels are combined by taking the square root of I2 + Q2 . An alternative method of
combining, which is adequate for most cases, is to take III + IQI. The combined output is
then converted to an analog signal by the digital-to-analog (D/A) converter. The unipolar
video output is then ready to be displayed. The digital MTI processor depicted in Fig. 4.14
is that of a single-delayline canceller. Digital processors are likely to employ more complex
filtering schemes, but the simple canceller is shown here for convenience. Almost any type
of digital storage device can be used. A shift register is the direct digital analogy of a delay
line, but other digital computer memories can also be used effectively.

The A/D converter has been, in the past, one of the critical parts of the MTI signal
processor. It must operate at a speed high enough to preserve the information content of
the radar signal, and the number of bits into which it quantizes the signal must be sufficient
for the precision required. The number of bits in the A/D converter determines the
maximum improvement factor the MTI radar can achieve. Generally the A/D converter is
designed to cover the peak excursion of the phase detector output. A limiter may be
necessary to ensure this. An N-bit converter divides the output of the phase detector into
2N - 1 discrete intervals.

5.7.1.Blind Phases

In the above it was said that the addition of the Q channel removed the problem of reduced
sensitivity due to blind phases.

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 Figure 4.15 (a) Blind speed in an MTI radar. The target doppler frequency is equal to
the prf. (b) Effect of blind phase in the I channel, and (c) in the Q channel.

This is different than the blind speeds which occur when the pulse sampling appears at the
same point in the doppler cycle at each sampling instant, as shown in Fig. 4.15. Figure 4.15
b shows the in-phase, or I, channel with the pulse train such that the signals are of the same
amplitude and with a spacing such that when pulse a1 is subtracted from pulse a2, the result
is zero. However, a residue is produced when pulse a 3, is subtracted from pulse a4, but not
when as is subtracted from a4, and so on.
In the quadrature channel, the doppler-frequency signal is shifted 900 so that those pulse
pairs that were lost in the I channel are recovered in the Q channel, arid vice versa. The
combination of the I and Q channels thus results in a uniform signal with no loss. The phase
of the pulse train relative to that of the doppler signal in Fig. 4.15 b arid c is a special case to
illustrate the effect. With other phase arid frequency relationships, there is still a loss with
a single channel MTI that can be recovered by the use of both the I and Q channels. An
extreme case where the blind phase with only a single channel results in a complete loss of
signal is when the doppler frequency is half the prf and the phase relationship between the
two is such that the echo pulses lie on the zeros of the doppler-frequency sine wave. This is
not the condition for a blind speed but nevertheless there is no signal. However, if the
phase relationship is shifted 900 as it is in the Q channel, then all the echo pulses occur at
the peaks of the doppler-frequency sine wave. Thus, to ensure the signal will be obtained
without loss, both I and Q channels are desired.

5.7.2. Advantages of Digital Signal Processing

Digital signal processing has some significant advantages over analog delay lines,
particularly those that use acoustic devices.
 It is possible to achieve greater stability, repeatability, and precision with digital
processing than with analog delayline cancellers.
 The reliability is better.
 No special temperature control is required, and it can be packaged in convenient
size.
 The dynamic range is greater since digital MTI processors do not experience the
spurious responses which limit signals in acoustic delay lines.
 In an analog delay-line canceller the delay time and the pulse repetition period must
be made equal. This is simplified in a digital MTI since the timing of the sampling of
the bipolar video can be controlled readily by the timing of the transmitted pulse.
Thus, different pulse repetition periods can be used without the necessity of
switching delay lines of various lengths in and out. The echo signals for each inter-
pulse period can be stored in the digital memory with reference to the time of
transmission. This allows more elaborate stagger periods.
 The flexibility of the digital processor also permits more freedom in the selection
and application of amplitude weightings for shaping the filters.
 It has also allowed the ready incorporation of the quadrature channel for
elimination of blind phases.

167
In short, digital MTI has allowed the radar designer the freedom to take advantage of the
full theoretical capabilities of doppler processing in practical radar systems.

5.8. Limitations to MTI performance

The improvement in signal-to-clutter ratio of an MTI is affected by factors other than the
design of the doppler signal processor. Instabilities of the transmitter and receiver, physical
motions of the clutter, the finite time on target (or scanning modulation), and limiting in
the receiver can all detract from the performance of an MTI radar. Before discussing these
effects, let us see some relevant definitions

MTI improvement factor: The signal-to-clutter ratio at the output of the MTI system
divided by the signal-to-clutter ratio at the input, averaged uniformly over all target
radial velocities of interest.

Sub-Clutter visibility. The ratio by which the target echo power may be weaker than
the coincident clutter echo power and still be detected with specified detection and false
alarm probabilities. All target radial velocities are assumed equally likely. A sub-clutter
visibility of, for example, 30 dB implies that a moving target can be detected in the
presence of clutter even though the clutter echo power is 1000 times the target echo
power. Two radars with the same sub-clutter visibility might not have the same ability
to detect targets in clutter if the resolution cell of one is greater than the other and
accepts a greater clutter signal power; that is, both radars might reduce the clutter
power equally, but one starts with greater clutter power because its resolution cell is
greater and "sees" more clutter targets.

Clutter visibility factor. The signal-to-clutter ratio, after cancellation or doppler

filtering, that provides stated probabilities of detection and false alarm.

Clutter attenuation. The ratio of clutter power at the canceller input to the clutter
residue at the output, normalized to the attenuation of a single pulse passing through
the unprocessed channel of the canceller. (The clutter residue is the clutter power
remaining at the output of an MTI system.)

Cancellation ratio. The ratio of canceller voltage amplification for the fixed-target
echoes received with a fixed antenna, to the.

Inter clutter visibility. This describes the ability of MTI radar to detect moving targets
which occur in the relatively clear resolution cells between patches of strong clutter.
Clutter echo power is not uniform, so if radar has sufficient resolution it can see targets
in the clear areas between clutter patches. The higher the radar resolution, the better
the inter clutter visibility.

5.8.1.Equipment Instabilities

The stability of the equipment in MTI radar must be considerably better than that of
ordinary radar. It can limit the performance of MTI radar if sufficient care is not taken in
168
design, construction, and maintenance. The following can cause the apparent frequency
spectrum from perfectly stationary clutter to broaden and thereby lower the improvement
factor of an MTI radar.

 Pulse-to-pulse changes in the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the transmitter

signal.
 Changes in the stalo or coho oscillators in the receiver,
 Jitter in the timing of the pulse transmission,
 Variations in the time delay through the delay lines, and
 Changes in the pulse width

5.8.2. Internal fluctuation of clutter. Although clutter targets such as buildings, water
towers, bare hills or mountains produce echo signals that are constant in both phase and
amplitude as a function of time, there are many types of clutter that cannot be considered
as absolutely stationary. Echoes from trees, vegetation, sea, rain, and chaff fluctuate with
time, and these fluctuations can limit the performance of MTI radar.

5.8.3 Antenna scanning modulation. As the antenna scans by a target, it observes the
target for a finite time equal to to = n B/ fp = θB / θṡ where nB = number of hits received, f p =
pulse repetition frequency, θB, = antenna beamwidth and θṡ = antenna scanning rate. The
received pulse train of finite duration to has a frequency spectrum (which can be found by
taking the Fourier transform of the waveform) whose width is proportional to 1/to.
Therefore, even if the clutter were perfectly stationary, there will still be a finite width to
the clutter spectrum because of the finite time on target. If the clutter spectrum is too wide
because the observation time is too short, it will affect the improvement factor. This
limitation has sometimes been called scanning fluctuations or scanning modulation.

5.8.4. Limiting in MTI radar. A limiter is usually employed in the IF amplifier just before
the MTI processor to prevent the residue from large clutter echoes from saturating the
display. Ideally an MTI radar should reduce the clutter to a level comparable to receiver
noise.

5.9. Non-Coherent MTI

The composite echo signal from a moving target and clutter fluctuates in both phase and
amplitude. The coherent MTI and the pulse-doppler radar make use of the phase
fluctuations in the echo signal to recognize the doppler component produced by a moving
target. In these systems, amplitude fluctuations are removed by the phase detector. The
operation of this type of radar, which may be called coherent MTI, depends upon a
reference signal at the radar receiver that is coherent with. the transmitter signal.

It is also possible to use the amplitude fluctuations to recognize the doppler component
produced by a moving target. MTI radar which uses amplitude instead of phase fluctuations
is called non-coherent (Fig. 4.16). It has also been called externally coherent, which is a
more descriptive name. The non-coherent MTI radar does not require an internal coherent
reference signal or a phase detector as does the coherent form of MTI. Amplitude limiting
cannot be employed in the non-coherent MTI receiver; else the desired amplitude

169
fluctuations would be lost. Therefore the IF amplifier must be linear, or if a large dynamic
range is required, it can be logarithmic. A logarithmic gain characteristic not only provides
protection from saturation, but it also tends to make the clutter fluctuations at its output
more uniform with variations in the clutter input amplitude.

Fig 4.16: Block diagram of a non-coherent MTI radar.

The detector following the IF amplifier is a conventional amplitude detector. The phase
detector is not used since phase information is of no interest to the non-coherent radar.
Tile local oscillator of the non-coherent radar does not have to be as frequency-stable as in
the coherent MTI. The transmitter must be sufficiently stable over the pulse duration to
prevent beats between overlapping ground clutter, but this is not as severe a requirement
as in the case of coherent radar. The output of the amplitude detector is followed by an MTI
processor such as a delay-line canceller. The doppler component contained in the
amplitude fluctuations may also be detected by applying the output of the amplitude
detector to an A-scope. Amplitude fluctuations due to doppler produce a butterfly
modulation similar to that in Fig. 4.3, but in this case, they ride on top of the clutter echoes.
Except for the inclusion of means to extract the doppler amplitude component, the non-
coherent MTI block diagram is similar to that of a conventional pulse radar.

5.9.1. Advantages and limitations of non-coherent radar

The advantage of the non-coherent MTI is its simplicity; hence it is attractive for those
applications where space and weight are limited. Its chief limitation is that the target must
be in the presence of relatively large clutter signals if moving-target detection is to take
place. Clutter echoes may not always be present over the range at which detection is
desired. The clutter serves the same function as does the reference signal in the coherent
MTI. If clutter were not present, tlie desired targets would not be detected. It is possible,
however, to provide a switch to disconnect the non-coherent MTI operation and revert to
normal radar whenever sufficient clutter echoes are not present. If the radar is stationary, a
map of the clutter might be stored in a digital memory and used to determine when to
switch in or out the non-coherent MTI. The improvement factor of a non-coherent MTI will
not, in general, be as good as can be obtained with a coherent MTI that employs a reference
oscillator (coho). The reference signal in the non-coherent case is the clutter itself, which
will not be as stable as a reference oscillator because of the finite width of the clutter

170
spectrum caused by its own internal motions. If a nonlinear IF amplifier is used, it will also
limit the improvement factor that can be achieved.

5.10. Pulse Doppler Radar

A pulse radar that extracts the doppler frequency shift for the purpose of detecting moving
targets in the presence of clutter is either an MTI radar or a pulse doppler radar. The
distinction between them is based on the fact that in a sampled measurement system like a
pulse radar, ambiguities can arise in both the doppler frequency (relative velocity) and the
range (time delay) measurements. Range ambiguities are avoided with a low sampling rate
(low pulse repetition frequency), and doppler frequency ambiguities are avoided with a
high sampling rate. However, in most radar applications the sampling rate, or pulse
repetition frequency, cannot be selected to avoid both types of measurement ambiguities.
Therefore a compromise must be made and the nature of the compromise generally
determines whether the radar is called an MTI or a pulse doppler. MTI usually refers to
a radar in which the pulse repetition frequency is closely low enough to avoid ambiguities
in range (no multiple-time-around echoes) but with the consequence that the frequency
measurement is ambiguous and results in blind speeds, Eq. (4.8). The pulse doppler
radar, on the other hand, has a high pulse repetition frequency that avoids blind
speeds, but it experiences ambiguities in range.

The pulse doppler radar is more likely to use range-gated doppler filter-banks than delay-
line cancellers. Also, a power amplifier such as a klystron is more likely to be used than a
power oscillator like the magnetron. A pulse doppler radar operates at a higher duty cycle
than does an MTI. Although it is difficult to generalize, the MTI radar seems to be the more
widely used of the two, but pulse doppler is usually more capable of reducing clutter. Even
so, the pulse-doppler radar has an advantage over the CW radar in that the detection
performance is not limited by transmitter leakage or by signals reflected from nearby
clutter or from the radome. The pulse-doppler radar avoids this difficulty since its receiver
is turned off during transmission, whereas the CW radar receiver is always on. On the other
hand, the detection capability of the pulse-doppler radar is reduced because of the blind
spots in range resulting from the high prf.

*****

Solved Problems

1. Define blind speed. An MTI Radar operates at 5 GHz with PRF of 100 pps. Find the 3 lowest
blind speeds of this Radar. Explain the importance of staggered PRFs. [JNTU May 2013]
𝒏𝝀𝒇𝒑
vn = 𝟐 n = 0, 1, 2, . . .,

λ = c/f = 3 x 108 / 5 X 109 =0/06 m

𝝀𝒇𝒑 𝟎.𝟎𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
v1 = = = 3 m/s
𝟐 𝟐

Similarly v2= 6 m/s, v3 = 9 m/s

171
 Radar Systems - Pulse Radar

The Radar, which operates with pulse signal for detecting stationary targets is called Basic
Pulse Radar or simply, Pulse Radar. In this chapter, let us discuss the working of Pulse Radar.

Block Diagram of Pulse Radar

Pulse Radar uses single Antenna for both transmitting and receiving of signals with the help of
Duplexer. Following is the block diagram of Pulse Radar −

Let us now see the function of each block of Pulse Radar −

Pulse Modulator − It produces a pulse-modulated signal and it is applied to the

Transmitter.

Transmitter − It transmits the pulse-modulated signal, which is a train of repetitive pulses.

 Duplexer − It is a microwave switch, which connects the Antenna to both transmitter
section and receiver section alternately. Antenna transmits the pulse-modulated signal,
when the duplexer connects the Antenna to the transmitter. Similarly, the signal, which is
received by Antenna will be given to Low Noise RF Amplifier, when the duplexer connects
the Antenna to Low Noise RF Amplifier.

Low Noise RF Amplifier − It amplifies the weak RF signal, which is received by Antenna.
The output of this amplifier is connected to Mixer.
Local Oscillator − It produces a signal having stable frequency. The output of Local
Oscillator is connected to Mixer.
Mixer − We know that Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies that
are applied to it. Among which, the difference of the frequencies will be of Intermediate
Frequency (IF) type.
IF Amplifier − IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal. The IF amplifier
shown in the figure allows only the Intermediate Frequency, which is obtained from Mixer
and amplifies it. It improves the Signal to Noise Ratio at output.

Detector − It demodulates the signal, which is obtained at the output of the IF Amplifier.

Video Amplifier − As the name suggests, it amplifies the video signal, which is obtained at
the output of detector.

Display − In general, it displays the amplified video signal on CRT screen.

In this chapter, we discussed how the Pulse Radar works and how it is useful for detecting
stationary targets. In our subsequent chapters, we will discuss the Radars, which are useful for
detecting non-stationary targets.
 Radar Systems - Doppler Effect

In this chapter, we will learn about the Doppler Effect in Radar Systems.

If the target is not stationary, then there will be a change in the frequency of the signal that is
transmitted from the Radar and that is received by the Radar. This effect is known as the
Doppler effect.

According to the Doppler effect, we will get the following two possible cases −

The frequency of the received signal will increase, when the target moves towards the
direction of the Radar.
The frequency of the received signal will decrease, when the target moves away from the
Radar.

Now, let us derive the formula for Doppler frequency.

Derivation of Doppler Frequency

The distance between Radar and target is nothing but the Range of the target or simply range,
R. Therefore, the total distance between the Radar and target in a two-way communication
path will be 2R, since Radar transmits a signal to the target and accordingly the target sends an
echo signal to the Radar.

If λ is one wave length, then the number of wave lengths N that are present in a two-way

communication path between the Radar and target will be equal to 2R/λ .

We know that one wave length λ corresponds to an angular excursion of 2π radians. So,

the total angle of excursion made by the electromagnetic wave during the two-way

communication path between the Radar and target will be equal to 4πR/λ radians.

Following is the mathematical formula for angular frequency, ω −

ω = 2πf Equation 1
Following equation shows the mathematical relationship between the angular frequency ω

and phase angle ϕ −

dϕ
ω = Equation 2
dt

Equate the right hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 since the left hand side terms of
those two equations are same.

dϕ
2πf =
dt

1 dϕ
⇒ f = Equation 3
2π dt

Substitute, f = fd and ϕ = 4πR/λ in Equation 3.

1 d 4πR
fd = ( )
2π dt λ

1 4π dR
⇒ fd =
2π λ dt

2Vr
⇒ fd = Equation 4
λ

Where,

fd is the Doppler frequency

 Vr is the relative velocity

We can find the value of Doppler frequency fd by substituting the values of Vr and λ in

Equation 4.

Substitute, λ = C /f in Equation 4.

2Vr
fd =
C /f

2Vr f
⇒ fd = Equation 5
C

Where,

f is the frequency of transmitted signal

C is the speed of light and it is equal to 8

3 × 10 m/sec

We can find the value of Doppler frequency, fd by substituting the values of Vr , f and

C in Equation 5.

Note − Both Equation 4 and Equation 5 show the formulae of Doppler frequency, fd . We can

use either Equation 4 or Equation 5 for finding Doppler frequency, fd based on the given

data.

Example Problem
If the Radar operates at a frequency of 5GH Z , then find the Doppler frequency of an aircraft

moving with a speed of 100KMph.

Solution
Given,

The frequency of transmitted signal, f = 5GH Z

Speed of aircraft (target), Vr = 100K M ph

3
100 × 10
⇒ Vr = m/sec
3600

⇒ Vr = 27.78m/sec

We have converted the given speed of aircraft (target), which is present in KMph into its
equivalent m/sec.

We know that, the speed of the light, C = 3 × 10 m/sec

8

Now, following is the formula for Doppler frequency −

2V rf
fd =
C

Substitute the values of 𝑉𝑟, Vr , f and C in the above equation.

9
2 (27.78) (5 × 10 )
⇒ fd =
8
3 × 10

⇒ fd = 926H Z

Therefore, the value of Doppler frequency, fd is 926H Z for the given specifications.
 CHAPTER-VI

TRACKING RADAR

6.1. Tracking Radar

A tracking-radar system measures the coordinates of a target and provides data which may
be used to determine the target path and to predict its future position. All or only part of
the available radar data-range, elevation angle, azimuth angle, and Doppler frequency shift
may be used in predicting future position; that is, a radar might track in range, in angle. In
doppler, or with any combination. Almost any radar can be considered a tracking radar
provided its output information is processed properly. But, in general, it is the method by
which angle tracking is accomplished that distinguishes what is normally considered a
tracking radar from any other radar.

6.2. Target acquisition

The tracking radar must first find its target before it can track. Some radars operate in a
search, or acquisition, mode in order to find the target before switching to a tracking mode.
Although it is possible to use a single radar for both the search and the tracking functions,
such a procedure usually results in certain operational limitations. Obviously, when the
radar is used in its tracking mode, it has no knowledge of other potential targets. Also, if the
antenna pattern is a narrow pencil beam and if the search volume is large, a relatively long
time might be required to find the target. Therefore many radar tracking systems employ
separate search radar to provide the information necessary to position the tracker on the
target. A search radar when used for this purpose is called an acquisition radar. The
acquisition radar designates the targets to the tracking radar by providing the coordinates
where the targets are to be found. The tracking radar acquires a target by performing a
limited search in the area of the designated target coordinates.

6.2.1. Acquisition methods

A tracking radar must first find and acquire its target before it can operate as a tracker.
Therefore it is necessary for the radar to scan an angular sector in which the presence of
the target is suspected. Most tracking radars employ a narrow pencil-beam antenna.
Searching a volume in space for an aircraft target with a narrow pencil beam would be
somewhat analogous to searching for a fly in a darkened auditorium with a flashlight. It
must be done with some care if the entire volume is to be covered uniformly and efficiently.
Examples of the common types of scantling patterns employed with pencil-beam antennas
are illustrated in the figure 6.1. below.
 Figure 6.1. :Examples of acquisition search patterns.
(a) Trace of helical scanning beam; (b) Palmer scan;
(c) spiral scan; (d) raster, or TV, scan; (e) nodding scan.

1. In the helical scan, the antenna is continuously rotated in azimuth while it is

simultaneously raised or lowered in elevation. It traces a helix in space.

2. The Palmer scan derives its name from the familiar penmanship exercises of
grammar school days. It consists of a rapid circular scan (conical scan) about
the axis of the antenna, combined with a linear movement of the axis of
rotation. When the axis of rotation is held stationary the Palmer scan reduces to
the conical scan. Because of this property, the Palmer scan is sometimes used
with conical-scan tracking radars which must operate with a search as well as a
track mode since the same mechanisms used to produce conical scanning can
also be used for Palmer scanning. Some conical-scan tracking radars increase
the squint angle during search in order to reduce the time required to scan a
given volume.
(c) The spiral scan covers an angular search volume with circular symmetry. Both
the spiral scan and the Palmer scan suffer from the disadvantage that all parts
of the scan volume do not receive the same energy unless the scanning speed is
varied during the scan cycle. As a consequence, the number of hits returned
from a target when searching with a constant scanning rate depends upon the
position of the target within the search area.
(d) The raster, or TV, scan, unlike the Palmer or the spiral scan, paints the search
area in a uniform manner. The raster scan is a simple and convenient means for
searching a limited sector, rectangular in shape.
(e) The raster scan is the nodding scan produced by oscillating the antenna beam
rapidly in elevation and slowly in azimuth. Although it may be employed to
cover a limited sector-as does the raster scan-nodding scan may also be used to
 obtain hemispherical coverage, that is, elevation angle extending to 900 and the
azimuth scan angle to 3600.

6.3. Angle tracking Methods

The antenna beam in the continuous tracking radar is positioned in angle by a

servomechanism actuated by an error signal. The various methods for generating the error
signal may be classified as
1. Sequential lobing,
2. Conical scan, and
3. Monopulse.

The range and doppler frequency shift can also be continuously tracked, if desired, by a
servo-control loop actuated by an error signal generated in the radar receiver. The
information available from a tracking radar may be presented on a cathode-ray-tube (CRT)
display for action by an operator, or may be supplied to an automatic computer which
determines the target path and calculates its probable future course.

6.3.1. Sequential lobing ( also called as Lobe switching or sequential switching)

The antenna pattern commonly employed with tracking radars is the symmetrical pencil
beam in which the, elevation and azimuth beam-widths are approximately equal. However,
a simple pencil-beam antenna is not suitable for tracking radars unless means are provided
for determining the magnitude and direction of the target's angular position with respect
to some reference direction, usually the axis of the antenna. The difference between the
target position arid the reference direction is the angular error. The tracking radar
attempts to position the antenna to make the angular error zero. When the angular error is
zero, the target is located along the reference direction.

One method of obtaining the direction and the magnitude of the angular error in one
coordinate is by alternately switching the antenna beam between two positions (Fig. 6.2. ).
This is called lobe switching, sequential switching, or sequential lobing. Figure 5.l a is a
polar representation of the antenna beam (minus the sidelobes) in the two switched
positions. A plot in rectangular coordinates is shown in Fig. 6.2. b, and the error signal
obtained from a target not on the switching axis (reference direction) is shown in Fig.
6.2.cT.h e difference in amplitude between the voltages obtained in the two switched
positions is a measure of the angular displacement of the target from the switching axis.
The sign of the difference determines the direction the antenna must be moved in order to
align the switching axis with the direction of the target. When the voltages in the tow
switched positions are equal , the target is on axis and its position may be determined from
the axis direction.
 Figure 6.2 Lobe-switching antenna patterns and error signal (one dimension).
(a) Polar representation of switched antenna patterns; (b) rectangular
representation; (c)error signal.

Two additional switching positions are needed to obtain the angular error in the
orthogonal coordinate. Thus a two-dimensional sequentially lobing radar might consist of a
cluster of four feed horns illuminating a single antenna, arranged so that the right-left, up-
down sectors are covered by successive antenna positions. Both transmission and
reception are accomplished at each position. A cluster of five feeds might also be employed,
with the central feed used for transmission while the outer four feeds are used for
receiving. High-power RF switches are not needed since only the receiving beams, and not
the transmitting beam, are stepped in this five-feed arrangement.

One of the limitations of a simple unswitched non-scanning pencil-beam antenna is that

the angle accuracy can be no better than the size of the antenna beamwidth. An important
feature of sequential lobing (as well as the other tracking techniques to be discussed) is
that the target-position accuracy can be far better than that given by the antenna
beamwidth. The accuracy depends on how well equality of the signals in the switched
positions can be determined. The fundamental limitation to accuracy is system noise
caused either by mechanical or electrical fluctuations. Sequential lobing, or lobe
switching, was one of the first tracking-radar techniques to be employed.

6.3.2. Conical Scan

Some older tracking radar uses the conical scanning principle. You can generate a conical
scan pattern, as shown in figure 6.3., by using a rotating feed driven by a motor in the
housing at the rear of the dish. The axis of the radar lobe is made to sweep out a cone in
space; the apex of this cone is, of course, at the radar transmitter antenna or reflector.

Figure 6.3 a; At conical scan the antenna traces a cone pattern around its central axis.
Used in tracking radars conical scan with target azimuth and elevation being taken
from the mechanical position of the antenna.

Figure 6.3 b Conical-scan tracking: Squint Angle

At any given distance from the antenna, the path of the lobe axis is a circle. Within the
useful range of the beam, the inner edge of the lobe always overlaps the axis of scan. Now
assume that we use a conically scanned beam for target tracking. If the target is on the scan
axis, the strength of the reflected signals remains constant (or changes gradually as the
range changes). But if the target is slightly off the axis, the amplitude of the reflected signals
will change at the scan rate. For example, if the target is to the left of the scan axis, as
shown in the Figure 6.4 the reflected signals will be of maximum strength as the lobe
sweeps through the left part of its cone; the signals will quickly decrease to a minimum as
the lobe sweeps through the right part. Information on the instantaneous position of the
beam, relative to the scan axis, and on the strength of the reflected signals is fed to a
computer. Such a computer in the radar system is referred to as the angle-tracking or
angle-servo circuit (also angle-error detector). If the target moves

Figure 6.4 : Principle of conical scan: if the target isn’t in the boresight direction,
then a maximum of backscattered power will be received in direction of the
eccentric moving. The antenna must follow in this direction now.

off the scan axis, the computer instantly determines the direction and amount of antenna
movement required to continue tracking. The computer output is used to control
servomechanisms that move the antenna. In this way, the target is tracked accurately and
automatically. Commonly used conical scan pattern include Conical Scan on Receive Only
(abbreviated to COSRO) in which a conical scan pattern is used while the radar is in receive
mode only.

One of the simplest conical-scan antennas is a parabola with an offset rear feed rotated
about the axis of the reflector. If the feed maintains the plane of polarization fixed as it
rotates, it is called a nutating feed. A rotating feed causes the polarization to rotate. The
latter type of feed requires a rotary joint. The nutating feed requires a flexible joint. If the
antenna is small, it may be easier to rotate the dish, which is offset, rather than the feed,
thus avoiding the problem of a rotary or flexible RF joint in the feed. A typical conical-scan
rotation speed might be 30 r/s. The same motor that provides the conical-scan rotation of
the antenna beam also drives a 2-phase reference generator with two outputs 90" apart in
phase. These two outputs serve as a reference to extract the elevation and azimuth errors.
The received echo signal is fed to the receiver from the antenna via two rotary joints (not
shown in the block diagram). One rotary joint permits motion in azimuth; the other, in
elevation.
 Fig 6.5: Block diagram of a conical scan tracking radar

The receiver is a conventional super heterodyne except for features peculiar to the conical
scan tracking radar. One feature not found in other radar receivers is a means of extracting
the conical-scan modulation, or error signal. This is accomplished after the second detector
in the video portion of the receiver. The error signal is compared with the elevation and
azimuth reference signals in the angle-error detectors, which are phase-sensitive detectors.
A phase sensitive detector is a nonlinear device in which the input signal (in this case the
angle-error signal) is mixed with the reference signal. The input and reference signals are
of the same frequency. The output d-c voltage reverses polarity as the phase of the input
signal changes through 1800. The magnitude of the d-c output from the angle-error
detector is proportional to the error, and the sign (polarity) is an indication of the direction
of the error. The angle-error detector outputs are amplified and drive the antenna
elevation and azimuth servo motors. The angular position of the target may be determined
from the elevation and azimuth of the antenna axis. The position can be read out by means
of standard angle transducers such as synchros, potentiometers, or analog-to-digital-data
converters.
 Fig 6.6: Angle Error Signal

6.3.2.1. Automatic gain control. The echo-signal amplitude at the tracking-radar receiver
will
not be constant but will vary with time. The three major causes of variation in amplitude
are
(1) the inverse-fourth-power relationship between the echo signal and range,
(2) the conical scan modulation (angle-error signal), and
(3) amplitude fluctuations in the target cross section.

The function of the automatic gain control (AGC) is to maintain the d-c level of the receiver
output constant and to smooth or eliminate as much of the noise like amplitude
fluctuations as possible without disturbing the extraction of the desired error signal at the
conical-scan frequency. One of the purposes of AGC in any receiver is to prevent
saturation by large signals. The scanning modulation and the error signal would be lost if
the receiver were to saturate. In the conical scan tracking radar an AGC that maintains the
dc level constant results in an error signal that is a true indication of the angular pointing
error. The d-c level of the receiver must be maintained constant if the angular error is to be
linearly related to the angle-error signal voltage.

Ari example of the AGC portion of a tracking-radar receiver is shown in Fig. 6.7. A portion
of the video-amplifier output is passed through a low-pass or smoothing filter and fed back
to control the gain of the IF amplifier. The larger the video output, the larger will be the
feedback signal and the greater will be the gain reduction. The filter in the AGC loop should
pass all frequencies from direct current to just below the conical-scan-modulation
frequency. The loop gain of the AGC filter measured at the conical-scan frequency should be
low so that the error signal will not be affected by AGC action. (If the AGC responds to the
conical-scan frequency, the error signal might be lost.)

Figure 6.7: Block diagram of The AGC portion of a tracking-radar receiver.

The phase shift of this filter must be small if its phase characteristic is not to influence the
error signal. A phase change of the error signal is equivalent to a rotation of the reference
axes and introduces cross coupling, or "cross talk," between the elevation and azimuth
angle-tracking loops. Cross talk affects the stability of the tracking and might result in an
unwanted nutating motion of the antenna. In conventional tracking radar applications the
phase change introduced by the feedback-loop filter should be less than 100, and in some
applications it should be as little as 2°. For this reason, a tilter with a sharp attenuation
characteristic in the vicinity of the conical-scan frequency might not be desirable because
of the relatively large amount of phase shift which it would introduce.
The output of the feedback loop will be zero unless the feedback voltage exceeds a pre-
specified minimum value Vc. In the block diagram the feedback voltage and the voltage Vc
are compared in the d-c amplifier. If the feedback voltage exceeds Vc the AGC is operative,
while if it is less, there is no AGC action. The voltage Vc is called the delay voltage. The
terminology may be a bit misleading since the delay is not in time but in amplitude. The
purpose of the delay voltage is to provide a reference for the constant output signal and
permit receiver gain for weak signals. If the delay voltage were zero, any output which
might appear from the receiver would be due to the failure of the AGC circuit to regulate
completely.

The required dynamic range of the AGC will depend upon the variation in range over which
targets are tracked and the variations expected in the target cross section. If the range
variation were 10 to 1, the contribution to the dynamic range would be 40 dB. The target
cross section might also contribute another 40 dB variation. Another 10 dB ought to be
allowed to account for variations in the other parameters of the radar equation. Hence the
dynamic range of operation required of the receiver AGC might be of the order of 90 dB, or
perhaps more.

6.3.2.2.Squint angle

The angle-error-signal voltage is shown in Fig. 6.6 as a function of θT, the angle between the
axis of rotation and the direction to the target.'' The squint angle θq, is the angle between
the antenna-beam axis and the axis of rotation; and θB is the half-power beamwidth. The
antenna beam shape is approximated by a gaussian function in the calculations leading to
Fig. 6.8.
Fig 6.8 Plot of the relative angle-error signal from the conical-scan radar as a function
of target angle (θT / θB) and squint angle (θq / θB ). θB = half-power beamwidth.

The greater the slope of the error signal, the more accurate will be the tracking of the
target. The maximum slope occurs for a value θq/θB slightly greater than 0.4. This
corresponds to a point on the antenna pattern (the antenna crossover) about 2 dB down
from the peak. It is the optimum crossover for maximizing the accuracy of angle tracking.
The accuracy of range tracking, however, is affected by the loss in signal but not by the
slope at the crossover point. Therefore, as a compromise between the requirements for
accurate range and angle tracking, a crossover nearer the peak of the beam is usually
selected rather than that indicated from Fig. 6.8. It has been suggested that the compromise
value of θq/θB be about 0.28, corresponding to a point on the antenna pattern about 1.0 dB
below the peak.

6.3.3. Monopulse Tracking Radar

The conical-scan and sequential-lobing tracking radars require a minimum number of

pulses in order to extract the angle-error signal. In the time interval during which a
measurement is made with either sequential lobing or conical scan, the train of echo pulses
must contain no amplitude-modulation components other than the modulation produced
by scanning. If the echo pulse-train did contain additional modulation components, caused,
for example, by a fluctuating target cross section, the tracking accuracy might he degraded,
especially if the frequency components of the fluctuations were at or near the conical-scan
frequency or the sequential-lobing rate. The effect of the fluctuating echo can be sufficiently
serious in some applications to severely limit the accuracy of those tracking radars which
require many pulses to be processed in extracting the error signal.

Pulse-to-pulse amplitude fluctuations of the echo signal have no effect on tracking accuracy
if the angular measurement is made on the basis of one pulse rather than many. There are
several methods by which angle-error information might be obtained with only a single
pulse. More than one antenna beam is used simultaneously in these methods, in contrast to
the conical-scan or lobe-switching tracker, which utilizes one antenna beam on a time-
shared basis. The angle of arrival of the echo signal may be determined in a single-pulse
system by measuring the relative phase or the relative amplitude of the echo pulse received
in each beam. The names simultaneous lobing and monopulse are used to describe those
tracking techniques which derive angle-error information on the basis of a single pulse.
The widely used monopulse techniques are

1. Amplitude-comparison monopulse.
2. Phase-comparison monopulse.

6.3.3.1. Amplitude-comparison monopulse.

The amplitude-comparison monopulse employs two overlapping antenna patterns (Fig.

6.9a) to obtain the angular error in one coordinate. The two overlapping antenna beams
may be generated with a single reflector or with a lens antenna illuminated by two adjacent
feeds. (A cluster of four feeds may be used if both elevation- and azimuth-error signals are
wanted.) The sum of the two antenna patterns of Fig. 6.9(a) is shown in Fig. 6.9(b), and the
difference in Fig. 6.9(c).
The sum patterns is used for transmission, while both the sum pattern and the difference
pattern are used on reception. The signal received with the difference pattern provides the
magnitude of the angle error. The sum signal provides the range measurement and is also
used as a reference to extract the sign of the error signal. Signals received from the sum and
the difference patterns are amplified separately and combined in a phase-sensitive
detector to produce the error-signal characteristic shown in Fig. 6.9(d).

Figure 6.9: Monopulse antenna patterns and error signal. Left-hand diagrams in (a-c)
are in polar coordinates; right-hand diagrams are in rectangular coordinates. (a)
Overlapping antenna patterns; (b) sum pattern; (c) difference pattern; (d) product
(error) signal.

A block diagram of the amplitude-comparison-monopulse tracking radar for a single

angular coordinate is shown in Fig. 6.10. The two adjacent antenna feeds are connected to
the two arms of a hybrid junction such as a "magic-T," a " rat race," or a short-slot coupler.
The sum and difference signals appear at the two other arms of the hybrid. On reception,
the outputs of the sum arm and the difference arm are each heterodyned to an
intermediate frequency and amplified as, in any super-heterodyne receiver. The
transmitter is connected to the sum arm. Range information is also extracted from the sum
channel. A duplexer is included in the sum arm for the protection of the receiver. The
output of the phase-sensitive detector is an error signal whose magnitude is proportional
to the angular error and whose sign is proportional to the direction.
 Figure 6.10: Block diagram of amplitude-comparison monopulse radar
(one angular coordinate).

The output of the monopulse radar is used to perform automatic tracking. The angular
error signal actuates a servo-control system to position the antenna, and the range output
from the sum channel feeds into an automatic-range-tracking unit. The sign of the
difference signal (and the direction of the angular error) is determined by comparing the
phase of the difference signal with the phase of the sum signal. If the sum signal in the IF
portion of the receiver were As cos ωIF t , the difference signal would be either Ad cos ωIF t
or - Ad cos ωIF t (As> 0, Ad > O), depending on which side of center is the target. Since - Ad
cos ωIF t = Ad cos ωIF (t + π), the sign of the difference signal may be measured by
determining whether the difference signal is in phase with the sum or 1800 out of phase.

6.3.3.2. Mono Pulse Phase Comparison Method

The tracking techniques discussed thus far in this chapter were based on a comparison of
the amplitudes of echo signals received from two or more antenna positions. .The
sequential-lobing and conical-scan techniques used a single, time-shared antenna beam,
while the mono pulse technique used two or more simultaneous beams The difference in
amplitudes in the several antenna positions was proportional to the angular error. The
angle of arrival (in one coordinate) may also be determined by comparing the phase
difference between the signals from two separate antennas. Unlike the antennas of
amplitude- comparison trackers. those used in phase-comparison systems are not offset
from the axis. The individual boresight axes of the antennas are parallel, causing the (far-
field) radiation to illuminate the same volume in space. The amplitudes of the target echo
signals are essentially the same from each antenna beam, but the phases are different. A
tracking radar which operates with phase information is similar to an active interferometer
and might be called an interferometer radar. It has also been called simultaneous phase
comparison radar, or phase-comparison monopulse. The latter term is the one which will
be used here.
θ In Fig. 6.11 two antennas are shown separated by a distance d. The distance to the target
is R and is assumed large compared with the antenna separation d. The line of sight to the
target makes an angle θ to the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two antennas.
The distance from antenna 1 to the target is target makes an angle θ to the perpendicular
bisector of the line joining the two antennas. The distance from antenna 1 to the target is

Figure 6.11 Wavefront phase relationships in phase-comparison monopulse radar.

d
R1 = R + 2 sin θ

and the distance from antenna 2 to the target is

d
R2 = R − sin θ
2

The phase difference between the echo signals in the two antennas is approximately

2πd
∆∅ = λ sin θ
For small angles where sin θ = θ, the phase difference is a linear function of the angular
error and may be used to position the antenna via a servo-control loop.

Although tracking radars based upon the phase-comparison monopulse principle have
been built and operated, this technique has not been as widely used as some of the other
angle-tracking methods. The sum signal has higher sidelobes because the separation
between the phase centers of the separate antennas is large. (These high sidelobes are the
result of grating lobes similar to those produced in phased arrays.) The problem of high
sidelobes can be reduced by overlapping the antenna apertures. With reflector antennas,
this results in a loss of angular sensitivity and antenna gain.

6.4. Target Reflecting properties and angular accuracy

The angular accuracy of tracking radar will be influenced by such factors as

1. Mechanical properties of the radar antenna and pedestal,

 2. Method by which the angular position of the antenna is measured,
3. Quality of the servo-system,
4. Stability of the electronic circuits,
5. Noise level of the receiver,
6. Antenna beam width,
7. Atmospheric fluctuations,
8. Reflection characteristics of the target.

These factors can degrade the tracking accuracy by causing the antenna beam to fluctuate
in a random manner about the true target path. These noise like fluctuations are sometimes
called tracking noise, or jitter.

6.4.1. Amplitude fluctuations.

A complex target such as an aircraft or a ship may be considered as a number of

independent scattering elements. The echo signal can be represented as the vector addition
of the contributions from the individual scatterers. If the target aspect changes with respect
to the radar-as might occur because of motion of the target, or turbulence in the case of
aircraft targets-the relative phase and amplitude relationships of the contributions from
the individual scatterers also change. Consequently, the vector sum, and therefore the
amplitude, change with changing target aspect.

Amplitude fluctuations of the echo signal are important in the design of the lobe- switching
radar and the conical-scan radar but are of little consequence to the monopulse
tracker. Both the conical-scan tracker and the lobe-switching tracker require a finite time
to obtain a measurement of the angle error. This time corresponds in the conical-scan
tracker to at least one revolution of the antenna beam. With lobe switching, the minimum
time is that necessary to obtain echoes at the four successive angular positions. In either
case four pulse-repetition periods are required to make a measurement; in practice, many
more than four are often used. If the target cross section were to vary during this
observation time, the change might he erroneously interpreted as an angular-error signal.
The monopulse radar, on the other hand. determines the-angular error on-the-basis of a
single pulse. Its accuracy will therefore not be affected by changes in amplitude with time.

To reduce the effect of amplitude noise on tracking, the conical-scan frequency should be
chosen to correspond to a low value of amplitude noise. If considerable amplitude
fluctuation noise were to appear at the conical-scan or lobe-switching frequencies, it could
not be readily eliminated with filters or AGC. A typical scan frequency might be of the order
of 30 Hz. The percentage modulation of the echo signal due to cross-section amplitude
fluctuation is independent of range if AGC is used. Consequently, the angular error as a
result of amplitude fluctuations will also be independent of range.

6.4.2. Angle fluctuations

Changes in the target aspect with respect to the radar can cause the apparent center of
radar reflections to wander from one point to another. (The apparent center of radar
reflection is the direction of the antenna when the error signal is zero.) In general, the
apparent center of reflection might not correspond to the target center. In fact, it need not
be confined to the physical extent of the target and may be off the target a significant
fraction of the time. The random wandering of the apparent radar reflecting center gives
rise to noisy or jittered angle tracking. This form of tracking noise is called angle noise,
angle scintillations, angle fluctuations, or target glint. The angular fluctuations
produced by small targets at long range may be of little consequence in most instances.
However, at short range or with relatively large targets (as might be seen by a radar seeker
on a homing missile), angular fluctuations may be the chief factor limiting tracking
accuracy. Angle fluctuations affect all tracking radars whether conical-scan, sequential-
lobing, or monopulse.

Angle fluctuations in a tracking radar are reduced by increasing the time constant of the
AGC system (reducing the band width). However, this reduction in angle fluctuation is
accompanied by a new component of noise caused by the amplitude fluctuations associated
with the echo signal; that is, narrowing the AGC bandwidth generates additional noise in
the vicinity of zero frequency, and poorer tracking results. Amplitude noise modulates the
tracking-error signals and produces a new noise component, proportional to true tracking
errors, that is enhanced with a slow AGC. Under practical tracking conditions it seems that
a wide-bandwidth (short-time constant) AGC should be used to minimize the overall
tracking noise. However, the servo bandwidth should be kept to a minimum consistent
with tactical requirements in order to minimize the noise.

6.4.3. Receiver and servo noise.

Another limitation on tracking accuracy is the receiver noise power. The accuracy of the
angle measurement is inversely proportional to the square root of the signal-to-noise
power ratio. Since the signal-to-noise ratio is proportional to 1/R4 (from the radar
equation), the angular error due to receiver noise is proportional to the square of the target
distance. Servo noise is the hunting action of the tracking servomechanism which results
from backlash and compliance in the gears, shafts, and structures of the mount. The
magnitude of servo noise is essentially independent of the target echo and will therefore
be independent of range.

Summary of errors.

The contributions of the various factors affecting the tracking error are summarized in Fig.
6.12. Angle-fluctuation noise varies inversely with range; receiver noise varies as the
square of the range; and amplitude fluctuations and servo noise are independent of range.
This is a qualitative plot showing the gross effects of each of the factors. Two different
resultant curves are shown. Curve A is the sum of all effects and is representative of
conical-scan and sequential-lobing tracking radars. Curve B does not include the amplitude
fluctuations and is therefore representative of monopulse radars. In the previous
paragraphs amplitude fluctuations are assumed to be larger than servo noise. If not, the
improvement of monopulse tracking over conical scan will be negligible. In general, the
tracking accuracy deteriorates at both short and long target ranges, with the best tracking
occurring at some intermediate range.
 Figure 6.12 Relative contributions to angle tracking error due to amplitude
fluctuations, angle fluctuations, receiver noise, and servo noise as a function of range.
(A) Composite error for a conical-scan or sequential-lobing radar;
(B) composite error for monopulse.

6.4.4. Frequency agility and glint reduction

The angular error due to glint, which affects all tracking radars, results from the radar
receiving the vector sum of the echoes contributed by the individual scattering centers of a
complex target, and processing it as if it were the return from a single scattering center. If
the frequency is changed, the relative phases of the individual scatterers will change and a
new resultant is obtained as well as a new angular measurement. Measurements are
independent if the frequency is changed by an amount
c
∆𝑓𝑐 = 2D
where
c = velocity of propagation
D = target depth.

The glint error can be reduced by averaging the independent measurements obtained with
frequency agility. (The depth D as seen by the radar might be less than the geometrical
measurement of target depth if the extremities of the target result in small
backscatter.)

The improvement ‘I’ in the tracking accuracy when the frequency is changed pulse-to-pulse
is approximately

where
Bfa = the frequency agility bandwidth, D = target depth, c = velocity of propagation,
Bg, = glint bandwidth, and fp = pulse repetition frequency.

6.5. Tracking in Range

In most tracking-radar applications the target is continuously tracked in range as well as in

angle. The technique for automatically tracking in range is based on the split range gate.
Two range gates are generated as shown in Fig. 6.13. One is the early gate, and the other is
the late gate. The echo pulse is shown in Fig. 6.13a, the relative position of the gates at a
particular instant in Fig. 6.13b, and the error signal in Fig. 6.13c. The portion of the signal
energy contained in the early gate is less than that in the late gate. If the outputs of the two
gates are subtracted, an error signal (Fig. 6.13c) will result which may be used to reposition
the center of the gates. The magnitude of the error signal is a measure of the difference
between the center of the pulse and the center of the gates. The sign of the error signal
determines the direction in which the gates must be repositioned by a feedback-control
system. When the error signal is zero. the range gates are centered on the pulse

Figure 6.13 Split-range-gate tracking. (I) Echo pulse; (h) early-late range
gates; (c) difference signal between early and late range gates.

The range gating necessary to perform automatic tracking offers several advantages as by-
products. It isolates one target, excluding targets at other ranges. This permits the boxcar
generator to be employed. Also, range gating improves the signal-to-noise ratio since it
eliminates the noise from the other range intervals. Hence the width of the gate should be
sufficiently narrow to minimize extraneous noise. On the other hand, it must not be so
narrow that an appreciable fraction of the signal energy is excluded. A reasonable
compromise is to make the gate width of the order of the pulse width.
A target of finite length can cause noise in range-tracking circuits in an analogous manner
to angle-fluctuation noise (glint) in the angle-tracking circuits. Range-tracking noise
depends on the length of the target and its shape

Solved Problems: No solved problems in this unit

Essay type questions

1. With a suitable block diagram explain the working of a conical scan tracking radar.
Explain the various factors that need to be considered in determining the optimum
squint angle. [JNTU May 2013]
 Tracking in range
• In the early days o radar, tracking of target in range was usually done manually by
an operator who watched an A-scope or similar presentation and positioned a
handwheel to maintain a marker on the display over desired target pip.
• The setting of the handwheel was a measure of the target range and was converted
to an electrical signal and supplied to a data processor.
• Manually tracking has many limitations and it cannot be used in systems such as
missiles where there is no operator present.
• It was soon replaced by closed loop automatic tracking, such as split gate tracker.
• Split gate tracker uses two split range gates called early gate and late gate.
• The echo pulse is shown in Fig.a, the relative position of the gates at a particular
instant shown in Fig.b, and the error signal shown in Fig c.
• The portion of the signal energy contained in the early gate is less than that in the
late gate.
• If the outputs of the two gates are subtracted, an error signal shown in fig c will
result which is used to reposition the center of the gates.

Figure : Split-range-gate tracking.(a)Echo pulse (b)early-late range gates(c) difference signal

between early and late range gates
 • The magnitude of the error signal is a measure of the difference between the center
of the pulse and the center of the gates.
• The sign of the error signal determines the direction in which the gates must be
repositioned by a feedback-control system.
• When the error signal is zero the range gates are centered on the pulse.
• The range gating necessary to perform automatic tracking in Range offers several
advantages as by products.
• It isolates one target, excluding targets at other ranges. This permits the boxcar
generator to be employed.
• Also, range gating improves the signal-to-noise ratio since it eliminates the noise
from the other range intervals. Hence the width of the gate should be sufficiently
narrow to minimize extraneous noise.
• A reasonable compromise is to make the gate width two to five times of the pulse
width.

Acquisition and Scanning Patterns

• A tracking radar must first find and acquire its target before it can operate as a
tracker.

• Most tracking radars employ a narrow pencil beam for accurate tracking in angle;
but it can be difficult to search a large volume targets when using a narrow antenna
beamwidth.

• Search must be done with care to cover the entire volume uniformly and efficiently.

• Some other radar, therefore must first find the target to be tracked and then
designated the target’s coordinates to the tracker. These radars have been called
acquisition radars or designation radars that search a large volume.

Types of Scanning Patterns

The purpose of using scanning antenna is to find the direction of the target
with respect to the transmitter. The direction of the antenna at the instance when
echo is received, gives the direction of location of the target.
Examples of acquisition search patterns: (a) Trace of helical scanning beam (b) Palmer scan
(c) spiral scan( d) raster, or TV, scan (e) nodding scan. The raster scan is sometimes called an
n-bar scan, where n is the number of horizontal rows.

a) Helical Scanning
• Helical scanning covers a hemisphere.

• In the helical scan, the antenna is continuously rotated in azimuth while it is

simultaneously raised or lowered in elevation.

• It’s typical speed of rotation is 6rpm along with a rise of 20% and was utilized in
world war II for anti-aircraft gun batteries as fire controlled radar.

b) Palmer Scan
• The Palmer scan consists of a rapid circular scan (conical scan) about the axis of
the antenna, combined with a linear movement of the axis of rotation.

• When the axis of rotation is held stationary the Palmer scan reduces to the conical
scan.

• Because of this feature the palmer scan is used with conical scan tracking radars
which must operate in both search and track mode.
c) Spiral Scan
• The spiral scan covers an angular search volume with circular symmetry.
• Both the spiral scan and the Palmer scan suffer from the disadvantage that all parts
of the scan volume do not receive the same energy unless the scanning speed is
varied during the scan cycle.
• As a consequence, the number of hits returned from a target when searching with a
constant scanning rate depends upon the position of the target within the search
area.
d) Raster Scan
• The raster or TV, scan, unlike the Palmer or the spiral scan, scans the search area in
a uniform manner.
• The raster scan is a simple and convenient means for searching a limited sector,
rectangular in shape.
e) Nodding Scan
• The antenna is moved rapidly in elevation while it rotates slowly in azimuth thus
scanning in both planes.
• The pattern covers the complete hemisphere i.e. elevation angle extending to
900and the azimuth scan angle to 3600
• Used in height finding radars

Comparison of Trackers
• Of the four continuous-tracking-radar techniques that have been discussed
(sequential lobing, conical scan, amplitude-comparison monopulse, and phase-
comparison monopulse), conical scan and amplitude-comparison monopulse have
seen more application than the other two.
• In phase comparison four antennas are placed in awkward direction and its side
lobe levels are higher than desired.
• Sequential lobing suffers more losses with complex antenna and feed system
• Amplitude comparison has high SNR
• It has higher precision in target tracking due to the absence of target amplitude
fluctuations
• Angle error in two coordinates can be obtained by a single pulse
• Conical scan integrates no of pulses and then extracts angle measurement but vice
versa in monopulse.
SNR
• The SNR from a monopulse radar is greater than that from a conical scan since it
views target at the peak of sum pattern.
• SNR is 2 to 4 db greater.
Accuracy
• Due to high SNR, the range accuracy is also high in monopulse.
• The accuracy is not affected by fluctuations in the amplitude of the echo signal.
• Both systems are degraded by the wandering of the apparent position of the a target
caused by glint.
Complexity
• Monopulse is more complex of the two.
• Conical scan has to rotate or nutate the beam at high speed.
• The cassegrain is a popular choice for monopulse
• A space fed phased array can implement monopulse by using a multiple feed
similar to cassegrain.

Min No. of Pulses

• A monopulse can perform on the basis of a single pulse. For a phased array one
pulse is sufficient
• The conical scan tracker requires a minimum no. of four pulses per revolution of
beam to extract an angle measurement in two coordinates.
• The monopulse first makes its angle measurement and then integrates a no. of
measurements to obtain the required SNR.
• The conical scan integrates a no. of pulses first and then extracts the angle
measurement.
Susceptibility to ECM
• Conical scan tracker is more vulnerable to spoofing that takes advantage of its
conical scan frequency
• It can also suffer from deliberate amplitude fluctuations.
• A well designed monopulse is hard to deceive.
Application
• Monopulse trackers should be used when good angle accuracy is needed.
• When high performance tracking is not necessary, the conical scan tracker might be
used for its low cost.
 Comparison of Monopulse Tracking and Conical Scan Tracking

Monopulse Tracking Conical Scan Tracking

Multiple beams are used to determine the A single antenna beam on a time shared
angle of arrival of the echo signal basis is used
Signle pulse is required to derive angle Multiple pulses are required
error information
High SNR Low SNR

More acuurate tracking Less accurate tracking

Complex Design Simple Design

Cassegrain antenna is used Horn antenna is used

High cost Low cost

The Search radar is usually less precise and only distinguishes between
targets that are hundreds of yards or even miles apart. Radar resolution is usually
divided into two categories viz. range resolution and angular resolution (i.e. bearing
resolution).
• Distance coverage: Long, medium, short ranges (20 km to 2000 km)
• High power density on the target: high peak power, long pulses, long pulse trains,
high antenna gain
• Low PRFs
Search options: rapid search rate with narrow beams or slower search rate with
wide beams
Tracking Radar
The Tracking radar continuously emits the EM waves in the air and detects the
targetted object when it comes in the path of the waves.
• Accurate angle and range measurement required

Minimize time on target for rapid processing

Special tracking techniques: monopulse, conical scan, beam switching