LESSON 3: The Self as Cognitive Construct responsibilities, as well as affiliations that

defines who one is (Oyserman, Elmore, and

- Every field of the study, at least in the social Smith 2012).
sciences, have their own research, definition, - Self-concept Is what basically comes to your
and conceptualization of self and identity. mind when you are asked about who you are
PSYCHOLOGY - May focus on the individual (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith 2012).
and the cognitive functions, but it does not - Self, Identity, and self-concept are not fixed in
discount the context and other possible factors one frame. They are not also fixed for life nor
that affect individual. are they ever-changing at every moment.
-“I am who I am” “if you are who you are, then - Carl Rogers captured this idea in his
who are you that makes you who you are?” concepts of self schema or our organized
- “self” is “the sense of personal identity and of system or collection of knowledge about who
who we are as individuals (Jhangiani and we are (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011;
Tarry 2014 ).” Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).
William James (1890) - Self (Hobbies, Religion, Nationality, and
- Was one of the earliest psychologists to study Family).
the self and conceptualized the self as having - The schema is not limited to the example
two aspects. above. It may also include your interests, work,
- The “I” and the “me” course, age, name, and physical
- The “I” is the thinking, acting, and feeling characteristics among others.
self(Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011; - Theories generally see the self and identity
Hogg and Vaughan 2010). as mental constructs, created and recreated in
- The “me” is the physical characteristics as memory.
well as psychological capabilities that makes - Several psychologists, especially during the
you who you are (Gleitman, Gross, and field’s earlier development, followed this trend
Reisberg 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010). of thought, looking deeper into the mind of the
Carl Rogers’s (1959) person to theorize about the self, identity, self-
- Theory pf personality also used the same concept, and in turn, one’s personality. The
terms. most influential to them is Sigmund Freud.
- The “I” as the one who acts and decides - Freud saw the self, its mental processes, and
while the “me” is what you think or feel about one’s behavior as the result of the interaction
yourself as an object (Gleitman, Gross, and between the ID, the EGO, and the
Reisberg 2011). SUPEREGO.
Identity and Self-concept -ID (Hidden memories)
- Other concepts similar to self. - EGO (Moral conscious)
- Identity is composed of personal - SUPEREGO (Middle-between ID and EGO)
characteristics, social roles, and
- One cannot fully discount the effects of - The “actual” self is who you are at the
society and culture on the formation of the self, moment.
identity and the self-concept. - The “ideal” self is who you like to be.
- Social interaction always has a part to play in - The “ought” self is who you think you should
who we think we are. be(Higgins 1997 in Hogg and Vaughan 2010).
- This is not nature vs. Nurture but instead a - Self-awareness may be positive or negative
nature-and-nurture perspective. depending on the circumstances and our next
- Under the theory of symbolic interactionism, course of action.
G.H. Mead (1934) argued that the self is - Self-esteem is defined as our own positive or
created and developed through human negative perception or evaluation of ourselves.
interaction. - One of the ways in which our social
- There are three reasons why self and identity relationship affects our self-esteem is through
are social products. social comparison.
-(1) We do not create ourselves out of nothing . - The downward social comparison is the
(2) Whether we like to admit it or not, we more common type of comparing ourselves
actually need others to affirm and reinforce with others.
who we think we are. (3)What we think is - The upward social comparison which is
important to us may also have been influenced comparing ourselves with those who are better
by what is important in our social or historical off than us.
context. - Social comparison also entails what is
-Social interaction and group affiliation are called self-evaluation maintenance theory,
vital factors in creating our self-concept which states that we can feel threatened when
especially in the aspect of providing us with our someone out-performs us, especially when
social identity or our perception of who we are that person is close to us.
based on our membership to certain groups. - We usually react in three ways.
- When we are aware of our self-concepts; this -(1) We distance ourselves from that person or
is also called self-awareness. redefine our relationship with them.
-CARVER AND SCHEIER (1981) identified -(2) We may also reconsider the importance of
two types of the self that we can be aware of. the aspect or skill in which you were
- The private self or your internal standards outperformed.
and private thoughts and feelings. -(3) We may also strengthen our resolve to
- The public self or your public image improve that certain aspect of ourselves.
commonly geared towards having a good - Narcissism is a “trait characterized by overly
presentation of yourself to others. high self-esteem, self-admiration, and self-
- Self-awareness also presents us with at least centeredness”.
three other self-schema: the actual, ideal, and - There is a thin line between high self-esteem
ought self. and narcissism.
- People with high self-esteem are commonly - Confucianism is a philosophy and belief
described as outgoing, adventurous, and system from Ancient China, which laid the
adaptable in a lot of situations. foundation for much of Chinese culture.
LESSON 4: The Self in Western and Eastern - Confucius was a philosopher and teacher
Thoughts who lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E.
- Eastern-vs-Western dichotomy. - Confucianism believes in ancestor worship
- Eastern represents Asia. and human-centered virtues for living a
- Western represents Europe and Northern peaceful life (honesty, courage, compassion,
America. generosity, and fairness).
- In the Philippines alone, each region may - The golden rule of Confucianism is “Do not
have similar or varying perception regarding do unto others what you would not want others
the “self.” do unto you.”
- Three Philosophy - Confucianism also began as a revival of an
- Confucianism can be seen as a code of earlier religious tradition.
ethical conduct, of how one should properly act - There are no Confucian gods, No Confucius
according to their relationship with other himself is worshiped as a
people. spirit rather than a god.
- It is also focused on having a harmonious life. - The second philosophy is Taoism.
- The identity and self-concept of the individual - Taoism is living in the way of the Tao or the
are interwoven with the identity and status of universe.
his/her community or culture, sharing its pride - Taoism rejects having one definition of what
as well as its failure. the Tao is, and one can only state clues of
- Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate what it is as they adopt a free-flowing, relative,
purpose of life but the characteristics of a unitary, as well as paradoxical view of almost
chun-tzu, a man of virtue or noble everything.
character, is still embedded in his social - Taoism rejects the hierarchy and strictness
relationship. brought by Confucianism and would prefer a
- The cultivated self in Confucianism is what simple lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to
some scholars call a “subdued self” wherein describe how to attain that life.
personal needs are repressed (subdued) for - Taoism (also spelled as Daoism) is a religion
the good of many, making Confucian society and a philosophy from Ancient China that has
also hierarchal for the purpose of maintaining influenced folk and national belief.
order and balance in society. - Taoism has been connected to the
- Confucianism started in Ancient China. philosopher Lao Tzu, who around 600 B.C.E.
- Whether it is only or a philosophy or also a wrote the main book of Taoism, the Tao Te
religion is debated. Ching.
- Lao Tzu is the founder of Taoism.
- Taoism holds that humans and animals - The birthplace of Buddhism is India.
should live in balance with the Tao, or the - Buddhism itself started sometime in the fifth
universe. century BCE.
- Taoism believes in spiritual immortality where - Buddha founded the religion died sometime
the spirit of the body joins the universe after toward the year 400 BCE.
death. - Siddhartha Gautama (better known as the
- The self is not just an extension of the family Buddha, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE) was, according
or the community; it is part of the universe, one to legend, a Hindi prince who renounced his
of the forms and manifestations of the Tao. position and wealth to seek enlightenment as a
- The ideal self is selflessness but this is not spiritual ascetic, attained his goal and, in
forgetting about the self, it is living a balanced- preaching his path to others, founded
life with society and nature, being open and Buddhism in India in the 5th - 6th.
accepting to change, forgetting about - Buddhist teaching views life and death as a
prejudices and egocentric ideas and thinking continuum, believing that consciousness(the
about equality as well as complementarity spirit) continues after death and maybe
among humans as well as other beings. In this reborn.
way, you will be able to act spontaneously - Death can be an opportunity for liberation
because you will not be restricted by some from the cycle of life, death and rebirth.
legalistic standards but because you are in - In many Buddhism traditions 49 days is the
harmony with everything. total mourning period, with prayers conducted
- The third belief is Buddhism. every 7 days, across 7 weeks.
- There are various groups who have adopted - Karma, Merit, Enlightenment, Dharma,
Buddhism; thus, you may find differences in Nirvana, and Rebirth.
their teachings with our discussion but more - Confucianism and Taoism still situate the self
likely, their core concepts remained the same. within a bigger context.
- The self is seen as an illusion, born out of - As for Buddhism, the self, with all its
ignorance, of trying to hold and control things, connections and selfish ideas, is taken not just
or human-centered needs; thus, the self is also out of the center of the picture, but from the
the source of all these suffering. whole picture entirely.
- Our quest to forget about the self, forget the - Western perspective does not discount the
cravings of the self, break the attachments you role of environment and society in the
have with the world, and renounce the self formation of the self but the focus is always
which is the cause of all suffering and in doing looking toward the self.
so, attain the state of Nirvana. - One can also describe that the Western
- The self or the individual is not the focus of thought looks at the world in dualities wherein
the above mentioned Asian or Eastern you are distinct from the other person, the
philosophies or beliefs. creator is separate from the object he created,
in which the self is distinguished and head-on when conflicts or problems about him
acknowledged. arises.
- Eastern perspective sees the other person as - (Easterners) Asians, have respectful terms
part of yourself as well as the things you may for our seniors and a lot of workers would not
create, a drama in which everyone is dare go against the high-ranking officials.
interconnected with their specific roles. - In the case of Philippines, we can also
- Western culture is what we would call an consider the colonization experience for
individualistic culture since their focus is on the differences and similarities with our Asian
person. neighbors. We might also find variation among
- Eastern culture is called a collectivistic culture provinces and regions due to geographical
as the group and social relations that is given conditions.
more importance than individual needs and - With the social media, migration, and
wants. intermarriages, variety between the Western
- By valuing the individual, Westerners may and and Asia perceptions may either be
seem to have loose associations or even blurred or highlighted. Whereas conflict is
loyalty to their groups. Competition is the name inevitable in diversity, peace is also possible
of the game and they are more likely through the understanding of where each of us
straightforward and forceful in their is coming from.
communication as well as decision-making. CHAPTER II: UNPACKING THE SELF
- Eastern or oriental persons look after the - It has been believed that the sex
welfare of their groups and values cooperation. chromosomes of humans define the sex
They would also be more compromising and (female or male) and their secondary sexual
they tend to go around the bush in explaining characteristics.
things, hoping that the other person would - There are individuals who do not accept their
“feel” what they really want to say. innate sexual characteristics and they tend to
- Westerners also emphasize more on the change their sexual organs through
value of equality even if they see that the medications and surgery.
individual can rise above everything else. - Aside from our genes, our society or the
“FAIR” external environment helps shapes our selves.
- (Easterners) Asians, with their collectivistic - Marieb, E.N. (2001) explains that the gonads
culture, put more emphasis on hierarchy as the (reproductive glands that produce the
culture wants to keep things in harmony and gametes; testis or ovary) begin to form until
order. about the eighth week of embryonic
- Westerners would most likely call their development.
bosses, parents, or other seniors by their first - The embryonic reproductive structures of
name. The boss can also be approached males and females are alike and are said to be
in the indifferent stage.
- The formation of male or female structures the male reproductive structure and misplaced
depends on the presence of testosterone. urethral openings.
- Any intervention with the normal pattern of - Puberty id the period of life, generally
sex hormone production in the embryo results between the ages of 10 and 15 years old.
in strange abnormalities. - When the reproductive organs grow to their
- Pseudohermaphrodites are formed who are adult size and become functional under the
individuals having accessory reproductive influence of rising levels of gonadal hormones
structures that do not “match” their gonads. (testosterone in males and estrogen in
- True hermaphrodites are individuals who females).
possess both ovarian and testicular tissues but - Reproductive capability continues until old
this condition is rare in nature. age in males and menopause in females.
- Many pseudohermaphrodites undergo sex - In males, as they reach the age of 23,
change operations to have their outer puberty is characterized by the increase in the
selves(external genitalia) fit with their inner size of the reproductive organs continue to
selves(gonads). grow for two years until sexual maturation
- If this normal event fails, it may lead to marked by the presence of mature semen in
cryptorchidism. This condition usually occurs in the testes.
young males and causes sterility (which is also - In females, budding of their breasts usually
a risk factor for cancer of the testes) that is occurring at the age of 11 signals their puberty
why surgery is usually performed during stage. Menarche is the first menstrual period of
childhood to solve this problem. females which happens two years after the
- Abnormal separation of chromosomes during start of puberty. Hormones play an important
meiosis can lead to congenital defects of the role in the regulation of ovulation and fertility of
reproductive system. females.
- Males who possess extra female sex Disease Associated with the Reproductive
chromosome have the normal male accessory System
structures, but atrophy (to shrink) of their - Infections are most common problems
testes causes them to be sterile. associated with the reproductive system in
- Other abnormalities result when a child has adults.
only one sex chromosome. - Vaginal infections are more common in
- An XO female appears normal but lacks young and elderly women and in those whose
ovaries. resistance to disease is low.
- YO males die during development. - The usual infections include those caused by
- Other much less serious conditions also Escherichia coli which spread through the
affects males primarily such as phimosis, digestive tract; the sexually transmitted
which is due to a narrowing of the foreskin of microorganisms such as syphilis, gonorrhea,
and herpes virus; and yeast (a type of fungus).
- Vaginal infections that are left untreated may - There are two major factors that determine
spread throughout the female reproductive human sexual behavior:
tract and may cause pelvic inflammatory - (1)The inherited sexual responses patterns
disease and sterility. that have evolved as a means of ensuring
- Problems that involve painful or abdominal reproduction and that become part of each
menses may also be due to infection or individual’s genetic inheritance.
hormones imbalance. - (2)The degree of restraint or other types of
- In males, the most common inflammatory influence exerted on the individual by society in
conditions are prostatitis, urenthritis, and the expression of his sexuality.
epididymitis, all of which may follow sexual - Types of behavior.
contacts in which sexually transmitted disease - Solidarity behavior involving only one
(STD) microorganisms are transmitted. individual, and there is Sociosexual behavior
- Orchiditis, or inflammation of the testes, is involving more than one person.
rather uncommon but is serious because it can - Sociosexual behavior is generally divided into
cause sterility. heterosexual behavior (male with female) and
- Orchiditis most commonly follows mumps in homosexual behavior (male with male or
an adult male. female with female).
- Neoplasms are a major threat to reproductive - If three or more individuals involved, it is,
organs. possible to have heterosexual and homosexual
- Tumors of the breast and cervix are most activity simultaneously.
common reproductive cancers in adult - Physiology of Human Sexual Response
females, and prostate cancer (a common - (1)Excitement phase is caused by increase in
sequel to prostatic hypertrophy) is a pulse and blood pressure.
widespread problem in adult males. - (2)Plateau phase is generally of brief
- There is no counterpart for menopause in duration. If stimulation is continued, orgasm
males. usually occurs.
- Healthy men are still able to be father - (3)Sexual climax is marked by a feeling of
offspring well into their 80s and beyond. abrupt, intense pleasure, a rapid increase in
- Erogenous Zones refers to the part of the pulse rate and blood pressure…
body that are primarily receptive and increase - (4)Resolution phase is the last stage that
sexual arousal when touched in a sexual refers to the return to a normal or subnormal
manner. (mouth, breasts, genitals, and anus). physiological state.
- Aroused easily may include the neck, thighs, - Nervous System Factors
abdomen, and feet. - The entire nervous system plays a significant
- Human Sexual Behavior is defined as any role during sexual responses.
activity-solidarity, between two persons, or - The automatic system is involved in
group-that induces sexual arousal. controlling the involuntary responses.
- In the presence of a stimulus capable enough - Erectile impotence is almost always of
of initiating a sexual responses, the efferent psychological origin in males under 40; in older
cerebrospinal nerves transmit the sensory males, physical causes are more often
messages to the brain. involved.
- The brain will interpret the sensory message - Ejaculatory impotence, which results from the
and dictate what will be the immediate and inability to ejaculate in coitus, is uncommon
appropriate response of the body. and is usually of psychogenic origin.
- After interpretation and integration of sensory - Vaginismus is a strong spasm of the pelvic
input, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves receive musculature constricting the female
commands from the brain and send them to reproductive organ so that penetration is
the muscles; and the spinal cord serves as a painful or impossible.
great transmission cable. - Sexually Transmitted Diseases are infections
- The muscles contract in response to the transmitted from an infected person to an
signal coming from the motor nerve fibers uninfected person through sexual contact. It
while glands secrete their respective products. can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or
- Sexual response is dependent on the activity parasites.
of the nervous system. - Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
- The hypothalamus and the limbic system are - Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
the parts of the brain believed to be (AIDS)
responsible for regulating the sexual response, - Chlamydia and syphilis.
but there is no specialized “sex center” that - The virus usually targets the T-cells (CD4
has been located in the human brain. cells) of the immune system, which serve as
- Brain two sexual response patterns, one for the regulators of the immune system.
mounting (masculine) behavior and one for -Chlamydia Trachomatis infection were
mounted (feminine) behavior. reported t the Centers for Disease Control and
- Sex hormones can intensify the mounting Prevention (CDC), making it the most common
behavior of individuals. notifiable condition in the United States.
- Sexual problems may be classified as - Gonorrhea (Antimicrobial resistance remains
physiological, psychological, and social in an important consideration in the treatment of
origin. Any given problem may involve all three gonorrhea.)
categories. - Syphilis
- Physiological problems are the least among - Chancroid is caused by infection with the
the three categories. bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi.
- Psychological problem comprise by far the - Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is the most
largest category. common sexually transmitted infection in the
- Premature emission of semen is a common United States.
problem, specially for young males.
- Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) is among the
prevalent of sexually transmitted infections.
- Trichomonas Vaginalis is a common sexually
transmitted protozoal infection associated with
adverse health outcomes such as preterm birth
and symptomatic vaginitis.
- Natural and Artificial Methods of
Contraception
- Natural method (Abstinence, Calendar
Method, Basal Body Temperature, Cervical
Mucus Method, Symptothermal Method,
Ovulation Detection, and Coitus Interruptus).
- Artificial Methods (Oral Contraceptives,
Transdermal Patch, Vaginal Ring, Subdermal
Implants, Hormonal Injections, Intrauterine
Device, Chemical Barriers, Diaphragm,
Cervical Cap, Male Condoms, Female
Condoms, Surgical Methods.