Libro Matamáticas

GLOBAL ASSESSMENT CERTIFICATE
STUDENT MANUAL
Level I
Module 4: GAC004 Mathematics
1: Fundamentals
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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... I
MODULE OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... I
LEARNING OUTCOMES ........................................................................................................................... I
BEFORE YOU BEGIN ...............................................................................................................................II
UNIT BREAKDOWN ............................................................................................................................... III
ASSESSMENT EVENTS.......................................................................................................................... III
THE ICONS ............................................................................................................................................... V
UNIT 1: TERMINOLOGY AND ARITHMETIC REVIEW .................................................... 1
PART A UNIT INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1
PART B TERMINOLOGY INTRODUCED .............................................................................................. 2
PART C MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS ............................................................................................ 3
PART D FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND RATIOS ................................................................................. 7
PART E SURDS AND ABSOLUTE VALUE ......................................................................................... 15
UNIT 2: ALGEBRA: INTRODUCTORY ALGEBRA ............................................................ 21
PART A UNIT INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 21
PART B TERMINOLOGY INTRODUCED ............................................................................................ 22
PART C BASIC ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS AND THE INDEX LAWS............................................. 23
PART D EXPANDING, SIMPLIFYING AND FACTORISING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS ............. 32
PART E EVALUATING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND FORMULAE USING NUMERICAL
SUBSTITUTION ....................................................................................................................................... 52
PART F SOLVING EQUATIONS AND INEQUATIONS WITH 1 OR 2 UNKNOWNS ........................ 56
PART G SOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE EQUATIONS AND INEQUATIONS ................................... 67
PART H SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS .................................................................................. 71
UNIT 3: ALGEBRA: GRAPHS OF ALGEBRAIC RELATIONS AND COORDINATE
GEOMETRY............................................................................................................................ 77
PART A UNIT INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 77
PART B TERMINOLOGY INTRODUCED ............................................................................................ 78
PART C THE CARTESIAN NUMBER PLANE & RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS........................... 79
PART D GRAPHS OF ALGEBRAIC RELATIONS ............................................................................... 86
PART E COORDINATE GEOMETRY: STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS ................................................. 112
UNIT 4: GEOMETRY: PLANE, SOLID AND EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY....................... 121
PART A UNIT INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 121
PART B TERMINOLOGY INTRODUCED .......................................................................................... 122
PART C ANGLES, TRIANGLES AND QUADRILATERALS ............................................................. 123
PART D PLANE SHAPES ................................................................................................................... 132
PART E SOLID FIGURES ................................................................................................................... 144
UNIT 5: TRIGONOMETRY ................................................................................................. 149
PART C TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS ................................................................................................. 151
PART D ANGLES OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION ................................................................... 164
PART E SINE AND COSINE RULES ................................................................................................. 167
PART F BEARINGS ............................................................................................................................ 175
PART G EXACT TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS AND ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE ................... 179
PART H RADIAN MEASURE AND APPLICATIONS ........................................................................ 189
GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals
UNIT 6: EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS ........................................ 197

PART C EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS .............................................................................................. 199
PART D LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS .............................................................................................. 206
Student Manual GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals
Introduction
Introduction
Module Overview
Welcome to Mathematics I: Fundamentals.
In this module you will revise and develop your understanding of some key introductory
concepts including arithmetic operations, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. You will also
solve exponential and logarithmic equations. Solving problems on the Cartesian number plane
is also an integral part of this module. A feature of this module is in developing vocabulary in
relation to mathematical terminology.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Solve elementary math problems using basic arithmetic operations

2. Perform basic algebraic operations and solve equations and inequalities using algebraic
methods
3. Analyse simple problems involving planar shapes and solids and solve problems in
Euclidean geometry
4. Calculate solutions to various problems using trigonometric methods
5. Graph algebraic relations and use coordinate geometry to solve problems on the
Cartesian number plane
6. Solve and graph exponential and logarithmic functions and equations.
©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

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GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals Student Manual
Introduction
Before You Begin

Part of the ongoing assessment of this module involves producing and maintaining a
comprehensive list of frequently used terms in mathematics. You need to obtain a suitable
pocket-sized notebook to use as a Mathematical Terminology Logbook. All the words written in
bold print within this book are to be written into your logbook along with your own definition
written in English, as well as an example of how the word or term is used. This logbook will be
checked regularly by your teacher.
You will need to have each of the following items for this module:
 a silent, non-programmable scientific calculator. This calculator needs to have statistical
functions for use in the Level II mathematics module. Please note that electronic
dictionaries with built-in calculator functions are not satisfactory;
 mathematical drawing and measuring tools: including ruler, compass and protractor,
triangle and circle tools;
 an exercise book/A4 folder to write notes and complete exercises in for regular marking;
and
 a pocket-sized notebook for the Mathematical Terminology Logbook
 access to a personal computer with Excel.
During examinations and assessments, electronic dictionaries are NOT permitted.
You will be required to do various sections of the module, including project work, as independent
study or homework, as directed by your teacher.
It is important you keep up to date with homework as the course covers many topics and
introduces a large number of terms in a short time.
If you are having difficulty keeping up with the course work, see your teacher as soon as possible
so help may be organised.
Page II ©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

August 2019 Version 9.0
Introduction
Unit Breakdown
The following is a list of units to be covered in the module; Mathematics I: Fundamentals.
Unit 1 Terminology and Arithmetic Review
Unit 2 Algebra I: Introductory Algebra
Unit 3 Algebra II: Graphs of Algebraic Relations and Coordinate Geometry
Unit 4 Trigonometry
Unit 5 Geometry I: Plane, Solid and Euclidean Geometry
Unit 6
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Assessment Events
No. Assessment Event Weight
1 In-class Test: Units 1, 2, & 3 20 %
2 Project 1–Units 1 & 2 10%

Project 2–Unit 4 10%
3 Examination: Units 1–6 50 %
4 Course Work: Includes Mathematical Terminology 10 %

Logbook and in-class tasks
Your teacher will provide you with all details relating to the assessment of this module.

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Introduction
Suggested Delivery Schedule
Introduction
Week 1 Unit 1: Terminology and Arithmetic Review
Unit 2: Algebra I: Introductory Algebra

Week 2
Unit 2: Algebra I: Introductory Algebra (continued)

Week 3 Assessment Event 2: Project 1
Unit 2: Algebra I: Introductory Algebra (continued)

Week 4 Mathematical Terminology Logbook due
Unit 3: Algebra II: Graphs of Algebraic Relations & Coordinate

Week 5 Geometry
Unit 3: Algebra II: Graphs of Algebraic Relations & Coordinate

Geometry (continued)
Week 6
Assessment Event 1: In-class Test
Unit 4: Trigonometry
Week 7 Assessment Event 2: Project 2
Unit 4: Trigonometry (continued)

Week 8 Mathematical Terminology Logbook due.
Unit 5: Plane, Solid and Euclidean Geometry
Unit 5: Plane, Solid and Euclidean Geometry

Week 9
Unit 6: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Week 10
Unit 6: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions (continued)

Week 11 Mathematical Terminology Logbook due.
Week 12 Assessment Event 3: Examination
Page IV ©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

Introduction
The Icons
The following icons will be used as a visual aid throughout the Student Manual:
Icon Meaning
Information
Task
Demonstration
Review
Independent Study – Including

use of Spreadsheets
Assessment Event
Language Focus

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Unit 1: Terminology and Arithmetic Review
Part A Unit Introduction

Part B Terminology Introduced
Part C Mathematical Operations
Part D Fractions, Decimals and Ratios
Part E Surds and Absolute Values
Overview
In this unit, you will learn some of the basic mathematical
concepts and vocabulary in context.
In this unit, you will learn to:
 solve basic mathematical problems
 use correct mathematical vocabulary for arithmetic operations
 understand what is required for a mathematics question.
This unit includes a series of tasks that you will work through to
practise the course material. You will be expected to complete some
work in your own time. Your teacher will guide you through the unit.
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Summary sum operations halves
of Terms plus calculate thirds
add absolute value quarters
evaluate solve fifths
subtract bracket equivalent
minus grouping fraction
less symbol whole numerator
difference number fraction denominator
multiply improper decimals
product fraction mixed decimal
times numeral places divisor
divide parentheses dividend
quotient braces irrational
power significant recurring decimal
root figures scientific place value
finite notation surd equivalent ratio
approximate exact simplest form
round off value ratio rational
Vocabulary The language of mathematics is often described as being universal,

Development that is, given that you understand the symbols and the thought
processes they represent, you can communicate with other people
who understand and use the same symbols in the same way.
The major challenge you will face throughout this module will be,
‘How to make yourself understood when talking about mathematics,
in English?’ rather than in your native tongue.
Initially you will be developing the technical vocabulary for

communicating about mathematics, in English. Later, in Levels II
and III, you will begin to apply that vocabulary to learning new
mathematics that you may not have previously learnt.
Assessment Mathematical Terminology Logbook

Event 4 Throughout this textbook, you will see mathematical terms in bold
print. These words are to be copied into your Mathematical
Terminology Logbook to be submitted along with your own brief
definition in English and an example of how to use each term.
This logbook forms part of your exam preparation and overall

assessment for this module. Your logbook will be collected in Weeks
4, 8 and 12. If you keep up to date recording the terms as you move
through the course, then the effort required will be small.
This logbook will become an invaluable resource for you to refer to.
Page 2 ©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

Part C Mathematical Operations

Four Basic There are a number of different terms in the English language that
Operations can be used to describe the type of mathematical operation that is
to be performed.
The different ways we can explain this

relation using English are:
three plus four equals seven;
the sum of three and four is
seven; three and four gives seven;
four more than three is seven;
the addition of four to three
gives seven.
9–1=8
The different ways we can explain
this relation using English are:
 nine minus one equals eight;
 one subtracted from nine gives
eight;
 the difference between nine and
one is eight;
 nine take away one gives eight;
 one less than nine equals eight.
5 x 6 = 30
 five multiplied by six equals
thirty;
 the product of five and six is
thirty;
 five times six equals thirty;
 six lots of five are thirty.
18 ÷ 2 = 9
 eighteen divided by two equals
nine;
 the quotient of eighteen and
two is nine;
 eighteen over two equals nine;
 two goes into eighteen nine
times.
In the relation shown, 2 is called the
divisor and 18 is called the dividend.

Powers A power (also called an index or exponent) shows the number of times
and that particular number is to be multiplied by itself.
Roots
The different ways we can explain this relation

using English are:
four squared equals sixteen;
four to the power of two gives sixteen.
The different ways we can explain this relation

using English are:
two cubed equals eight;
two to the power of three gives eight.
The root of a number is the opposite operation to finding the power.
The different ways we can explain this relation using

English are:
the square root of sixteen is four;
sixteen to the power of one half is four (the
second way is explained later in Unit 2).
The different ways we can explain this relation using

English are:
the cube root of eight is two;
eight to the power of one-third is two
(the second way is explained later in Unit 2).

Brackets Brackets is the name given to the symbols [ ]. They can also be
referred to as grouping symbols. Parentheses ( ), braces { }, fraction
lines, square root signs and absolute value signs also act as grouping
symbols. In basic arithmetic they indicate which operation is to be
performed first.
If there are no brackets, the basic order of operations is:
 Calculate any multiplication or division operations first as they

occur from left to right.
 Then similarly, for addition or subtraction.
This is easily remembered using the word BODMAS.
B O D M A S
Brackets Of Division Multiplication Addition Subtraction
Example Write down the relation described by each of the following

statements and solve:
1. The difference between nineteen and the sum of six and three.
19  6  3  19  9
 10
2. Four squared plus the difference between seven and two.

42  7  2  16  5
 21
3. Multiply the quotient of twenty-one and the cube root of twenty-

seven by five.
21 √27 5  21  3 5
3
 7 5
 35
4. Nine to the power of four less than seven, multiplied by two.

974   2  93  2
 729  2
 1458

Task 1.1 1. Write down each of the following mathematical statements

Mathematical using the correct symbols and then solve:
Operations
a) The product of twelve and four, divided by three.
b) The difference between three times seven, and the

product of two and five.
c) The quotient of fifty-six and seven, divided by the sum of

three and one.
d) The sum of nine and five, multiplied by the difference

between six and three.
e) The sum of three to the power of four and eight squared.
f) The cube root of sixty-four multiplied by the quotient of

seventy-two and twelve.
g) Eighty divided by the square root of the difference

between thirty-three and six plus two.
h) Two to the power of nine, minus the square root of one

hundred and forty-four, divided by five squared.
2. Write down each of the following mathematical

statements in word form:
a) 6  14  2  3 b) 16 2 15 3

c) √25 252  6 d) 32 √8 4

3
 
e) √27  9
3 2

f) 17 112  23 √9 

Part D Fractions, Decimals and Ratios
Fractions A fraction is one term used in English to express the parts of

a whole number. There are special terms used to refer to
the parts of a fraction.
numerator
denominator
Fractions are another way of representing the division of two

numbers. The fraction above represents 3  5. Therefore, the
numerator of a fraction can also be referred to as the dividend and
the denominator referred to as the divisor.
The fraction shown above is a proper fraction because the

numerator is smaller than the denominator.
An improper fraction is the name given to a fraction where the

numerator is larger than the denominator.
𝟕
For Example: 𝟒 is an improper fraction
If a term is a combination of a whole number and a fraction, then it

is referred to as a mixed numeral.
𝟓
For Example: 𝟑 𝟖 is a mixed numeral
In some questions, you may be asked to find the fraction of a given

quantity. In these cases, the word ‘of’ means multiply.
4
For Example: find 5 of 40
4
means 5 × 40
Using words, this question is expressed as: find four-fifths of forty.

There are some other particular terms used when expressing fractions
in word form. These words are used if the denominator is 2, 3, 4 or 5.
 If the denominator is 2, then the fraction is named using the word

halves.
3
For Example: is usually referred to as three halves.
2


thirds.
For Example: 5 is usually referred to as five-thirds.
3

quarters.
For Example: 3 is usually referred to as three-quarters.
4

fifths.
For Example: 3 is usually referred to as three-fifths.
5
▪ For all other fractions in worded form, the denominator is

indicated by the number that has ‘ths’ added to the end.
5
For Example: is usually referred to as five sevenths.
7
Different fractions that represent the same amount (i.e. they are equal)
are called equivalent fractions.
2 6 are equivalent fractions.
For Example: and
3 9
Equivalent fractions can be obtained by multiplying or dividing the

numerator and denominator by the same number.
Addition and Change all the fractions to equivalent fractions with the same
Subtraction denominator, then add or subtract the numerators, and simplify if
of Fractions possible. This is usually accomplished by finding the least
common multiple of the denominators. In the example below, the
denominators (3,4, and 6) have the least common multiple of 12.
You could simply multiply 3 by 5 by 6 to find a common
denominator. But that might require reducing the fraction later.
Example Evaluate:
2 3
+4−6
5
3
2 4 3 3 5 2 Converting to
= × + × − × equivalent fractions
3 4 4 3 6 2
with the same
8 9 10 denominator (12)
= + −
12 12 12
8 + 9 − 10
=
12
7
=
12

Decimals Decimal numbers are those that represent fractions whose

denominators are multiples of ten.
Decimal Point
Thousandths
Hundredths
Hundreds
Term
Tenths
Ones
Tens
1 1 1
Multiplier 100 10 1  × × × 
10 100 1000
Example 6 7 4  5 3 1
There are two ways that can be used to describe the number shown in
the example row above:
six hundred and seventy-four point five, three, one

or
six hundred and seventy-four plus five hundred and thirty-one
thousandths.
As with whole numbers, each term in a decimal number has a place
value.
For Example:
1. The place value of 3 in the number 674.531 is:
1
3 (we can also say three-hundredths).
100
The position of the number 3 can also be referred to as the

second decimal place of the number 674.531.
2. The place value of the 7 in the same number is

7 10 (we can say seventy or seven tens).
A number that has a decimal with a repeating pattern is called a

recurring (or repeating) decimal.

For Example: 13.4444444...  13.4
  
6.381381381...  6.381
are both recurring decimals.
Another way to write a repeating decimal is to add a line over

the numbers that are repeating. For example,
13.444444… = 13. 4 ̅
.
Recurring decimals and numbers that have a finite number of
decimal places are called rational numbers. A rational number is
actually defined as any number that can be expressed as a fraction

If the decimal places of a number continue indefinitely without any

pattern, then the number cannot be written as a fraction and is called
an irrational number. Examples of irrational numbers include ,
√2 etc.
Example Changing Recurring Decimals into Fractions
1. Write 0.7 as a fraction

n=
0.77777… (2)
then 10n =
(2) – (1)  9n = 7
7
n=
9
Express 0.219 as a fraction
n = 0.2191919…
10n = 2.191919… (1)
1000n = 219.1919… (2)
(2) – (1)  990n = 217

n = 217
Rounding In mathematics you will often be required to express an

Off answer with only a certain number of decimal places
Decimals (especially in later topics such as trigonometry and
logarithms). This process, called rounding off, is used when
an approximate answer is all that is require or when
measurement techniques do not justify having many
significant digits.
To round off a number to a particular decimal place, the

following rules are applied:
 add one (rounding up) to the number in that place
if the next number to the right is 5 or larger;
 leave the number the same (rounding down) if the
next number to the right is smaller than 5.
Examples 1. Round off the number 53.2678 to two decimal places.
53.2678  The next number to the right of the second

decimal place is 7. This is larger than 5.
53.2678 = 53.27 accurate to two decimal places
2. Evaluate 4.69  2.3 correct to 3 decimal places.

4.69  2.3  2.0391304347...
2.0391304347…. The next number to the right of the
third decimal place is 1. This is less than 5.
4.69  2.3 = 2.039 accurate to 3 decimal places

Significant The concept of significant figures is similar to that of rounding

Figures off. In very large or very small numbers, some of the digits are not
significant because they are not supported by measurements.
For example, have a look at an amount such as $2,345,600.56.

Whether the 56 cents is included or not in the amount is not really
important. You could even say that $45,600.56 is not really
significant when talking about 2.3 million dollars.
Therefore, $2,345,600.56 equals $2,300,000 accurate to 2

significant figures.
To express a number accurate to a certain number of significant

figures, you look from the left and begin counting from the first
non-zero number.
When rounding off a number expressed using significant figures,

you use the same rules as those listed earlier for rounding off
decimals.
Examples 1. Round off 5,678,213 to three significant figures.

5,678,213 = 5,680,000 to 3 significant figures.
 567 are the first non-zero digits when looking from the left.
 The next digit is larger than 5, so the third number is rounded
up.
2. Round off 0.0342 to 2 significant figures.

0.0342 = 0.034 to 2 significant figures.
 34 are the first non-zero digits when looking from the left.
 The next digit is less than 5, so the number is rounded down.
Scientific Very large or very small numbers are expressed using scientific
Notation notation. This form of notation uses the significant figures in a
number. To express a number in scientific notation, the significant
figures are written as an amount between 1 and 10 and multiplied
by a power of 10.

Examples Express each of the following using scientific notation.

1. 34,560,000
For 34,560,000, the highlighted numbers are significant:
express 3456 as 3456 (a number between 1 and 10);
this number must be multiplied by 107 to equal the value in
question;
 34560000  3.456 107 using scientific notation.
2. 0.00000413
For 0.00000413, the highlighted numbers are significant.
express 413 as 4.13;
this number must be multiplied by 106 to equal the value in
question;
 0.00000413  4.13106 using scientific notation.
Task 1.2 Fractions and Decimals
1. Write down the place value of the number 7 in each of the

following numbers.
a) 476 b) 35.897 c) 67004 d) 4.9567
2. Express each of the following recurring decimals as a fraction.

  
a) 0.6 b) 0.37 c) 0.45252... d) 1.3835835...
3. Round off each of the following:

a) 345.6543 (two decimal places)
b) 34549 (3 significant numbers)
c) 0.00675 (2 significant numbers)
d) 3.91358 (3 decimal places)
4. Express each of the following numbers using scientific notation.
a) 35460000
b) 0.00050270
c) 9572677 (2 sig. figures)
d) 0.006825 (3 sig. figures)
5. Express the following in scientific notation correct to 3 sig. figures.

3 72452 ×0.693−2
a) 4.39  0.0013  6.2 108 b) √
0.2+3.62−1.87

Ratios A ratio compares two numbers that have the same units in a definite
order.
A ratio is written in the form:
or
A question may express a ratio of two numbers as ‘a to b’ meaning

a:b.
An equivalent ratio is one where both terms/numbers of the ratio have

been multiplied or divided by the same number.
For Example:
Ratio Operation Equivalent ratio

10:30 5 2:6
12:18 2 6:9
3:9 3 1:3
2:5 4 8:20
1:12 3 3:36
A ratio that cannot have its terms reduced any further is a ratio written
in its simplest form. Both terms must be expressed in the same units;
so if one term is in days and the other is in hours, one must be changed
so that they are in the same units (for example, multiple the days by 24
to get hours). For example, the ratio 1:5 cannot be re-written using
smaller terms, therefore this is the simplest form of this ratio.
The examples below look at how to divide a given quantity up into a

particular ratio.
1. Divide $200 in the ratio 1:4:

Examples total number of parts = 1+4  Add the terms of the ratio
 5 parts = $2.00
 1 part = $2.00  $0.40  Find the value of 1 part
 1$0.40 : 4  $0.40  Multiply each term of the ratio

by the value of 1 part.
 $0.40:$1.60  $2 in the ratio 1:4
The method used here is known as the unitary method.

2. A special concrete mixture is made up of 3 parts cement, 4 parts
sand and 5 parts of blue metal. If there is 80kg of blue metal in the
concrete, what amount of sand and cement is needed?
5 parts of blue metal = 80 kg
1 part = 80kg  16 kg  Find the value of 1 part
 3 parts of cement = 3  16 kg
= 48 kg
 4 parts of sand = 4  16 kg
= 64 kg
 there is 48 kg of cement, 64 kg of sand and 80 kg of blue
metal.

Task 1.3 Ratios
1. Write each of the following ratios in their simplest form.
a) 4:16 b) 12:36 c) 21:63

d) 18:81 e) 6:24:12 f) 32:48:110
2. Write each of the following ratios in their simplest form.
a) 60 cents to 90 cents. b) 20 cents to $1.20

c) 35 minutes to 2 hours d) $1.20 to $2.80
e) 9 days to 3 weeks f) 12 hours to 4 days
3. Divide each of the following quantities into the given ratios:
a) $36 into the ratio 4:5 b) 2 hours into the ratio 1:2
c) 56 cm into the ratio 5:3 d) 240 lollies into the ratio 2:3
4. A school with a total of 1032 students has male and female students in the ratio
of 7:5 respectively. How many female students attend this school?
5. A new environmentally friendly garden fertilizer mixture contains 2 parts of the

special organic X, 2 parts of the special organic Y and 3 parts of the special
organic Z. How many kilograms of the special organic Z are in a bag of
fertilizer which weighs 56 kilograms?
6. Four people (Geoff, Brooke, Jessica and Angela) paid money in the ratio of
6:7:4:3 respectively to buy a special lottery ticket. Lucky for them, they won
the lottery of $250,000. If they split the winnings up into the same ratio, how
much does each person receive?

Part E Surds and Absolute Value

Surds Surds (also known as square roots or radicals) are terms that
contain the square root sign such as those shown below:
√2, √5, √213, etc.
These surds are irrational numbers.
Some surds have a value that is a rational number (e.g.  3). These
particular surds that equal rational numbers are perfect squares.
In mathematics a question can sometimes ask for the exact value of

an answer to be expressed. This generally means that the answer
should be left in surd form, not rounded off to a certain number of
decimal places.
By using the properties listed below, surds can be simplified,

multiplied, divided, added and subtracted.
Surd Properties:
Only surds containing the same number

(called ‘like surds’) may be added or
subtracted.
Examples

Surds ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF SURDS
Does √9  √4  √13 ?
Does √9  √4  √5 ?
The answer to both these questions is NO.
Rule:
When adding or subtracting surds we can only add or subtract LIKE
SURDS. REMEMBER to write each surd in its simplest form before
trying to add or subtract them.
Examples
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF SURDS
Rule:
ANY surds may be multiplied or divided.
Examples e.g. √6 × √2 = √12 √6 ÷ √2 = √3

2√5 × 3√6 = 6√30 15√6 ÷ 5√3 = 3√2
48 4√6 2√6
= = =
12√6 6 3

Examples EXPANDING BINOMIAL PRODUCTS
RATIONALISING SURDS WITH A BINOMIAL

DENOMINATOR
It should be noted that (a+b)(a-b) is equal to a²- b². This is a useful result
when rationalising surds with a binomial denominator. These terms
differ only by the sign between the surds are usually called
conjugates.
Examples

Absolute The absolute value of a number refers to the actual size of that number,
Value or in other words, its distance from zero. Therefore, any negative
numbers within an absolute value sign become positive.
The absolute value of a number is represented by |𝑛| .
Absolute Value Properties:
If a > 0, then
If , then
 If a = 0,



Examples

Task 1.4 Surds and Absolute Value
1. Write each of the following surds in their simplest form:

Independent Throughout this book you will be given additional work to follow
Study up with on your own as Independent Study. This is not to be
confused with homework. Your teacher will review your
Independent Study regularly by providing in-class feedback and
review of your work.
Unit Review Challenge Questions
1. Write down the value of 7823.413 in worded form.
Assessment Assessment Event Reminder: Mathematical Terminology

Event 4 Logbook
Copy each of the terms written in bold print into your

Mathematical Terminology Logbook and use your own words
to write a brief definition for each term.
This logbook is to be submitted in Weeks 4, 8 & 12 and forms part of

your overall assessment.

Unit 2: Algebra – Introductory Algebra
Unit 2: Algebra: Introductory Algebra

Part C Basic Algebraic Operations and the Index Laws
Part D Expanding, Simplifying and Factorising Algebraic Expressions
Part E Evaluating Algebraic Expressions and Formulae Using Numerical
Substitution
Part F Solving Equations and Inequations with 1 or 2 Unknowns
Part G Solving Absolute Value Equations and Inequations
Part H Solving Quadratic Equations

Overview In this unit, you will learn to understand and apply the basic methods
of algebraic manipulation.
 understand and apply the basic principles and methods of

algebraic manipulation
 apply these methods to the solution of various problems
 use terminology for algebra.
This unit includes a series of tasks that you will work through to practise
the course material. You will be expected to complete some work in
your own time. Your teacher will guide you through the unit.

Summary numerals factorise simultaneous equation

of Terms pronumerals substitute quadratic equation
terms variable region
like terms equation lowest common multiple
identical inequation consecutive
lowest terms unknown magnitude
expression linear parabola
simplify non-linear null factor law
index absolute value completing the square
index form subject leading coefficient
index laws formula
power greater than
base less than
basic numeral binomial
inverse trinomial
expand coefficient

Part C Basic Algebraic Operations and the

Index Laws
Exploring This material is designed to help you better understand the ideas
the ‘Rules’ of algebra. Along with the ideas are the words used to describe
of Algebra what is happening. The best way to manage learning of these
ideas is to join discussions with other students and teachers, and
in that way learn to use the correct English words for the
mathematical ideas.
It is important for you to know that being a good mathematics

student is not just a matter of following the right procedures and
using the right rules to solve the tricky problems. Mathematics is
a web of connected ideas. These ideas start with numbers and
arithmetic, move on to algebra and graphs, and are then applied
to many other topics. If you do not understand these ideas and
how they link to each other you will soon become confused and
be unable to make sense of your mathematical studies.
The ‘Rules’ of Algebra
These are the fundamental algebraic tools needed for

mathematical studies. The techniques and ideas of algebra are not
anything special. They are just generalisations of the ways
numbers behave.
The first basic idea is that: An algebraic expression (such as 2x

+ 3) is a generalisation of a number pattern. If we use
different values for the variable, x, then the expression has
different values. The results can appear as a ‘table of
values’. For Example:
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
2x + 3 3 5 7 9 11 13
It is common to use the letter y to represent the expression, and

then the table of values becomes a way of showing the function
– sometimes written as y = f(x). In this case, y = 2x + 3.
The letters that are used are also called pronumerals – to take the
place of a numeral or number. Looking at the table of values
above, you can see that:
as the values of x increase by 1, the values of y increase by 2.
In the formula y = 2x + 3, 2 is known as the coefficient of x.

In other words, the coefficient is a number which is
multiplied by x.
Also in the equation above, you can see that the first value
or starting number of x is 0. There is also a number which is
added and does not change when x changes, which is
known as the constant. In this formula, the constant is 3.

The table of values may be used to draw a graph by plotting the

points (x, y). It is customary to join the dots with a smooth curve, in
this case a straight line. Then (for straight lines) the coefficient of x
gives the gradient (slope) of the line, and (in general) the constant
gives the y-intercept, where the line crosses the y-axis
Using the These ideas may be demonstrated using the spreadsheet Formula
spreadsheets guessing. In the spreadsheet, you can see four activities on
separate worksheets (refer to the tabs at the bottom of the screen),
and a set of instructions.
Looking at the table of values, you need to guess the values that
are missing from the yellow cells. You will see that these use only
positive values of gradient and intercept, or other alternatives,
according to which worksheet you are in. Simply enter the two
numbers for the formula in the yellow cells. The spreadsheet will
tell you when your answer is correct! Then move to another tab.
You should practise these skills at home. The skills of

interpreting graphs and using algebra and spreadsheets are basic
to this course. The mathematical ideas of function and what
expressions mean are also fundamental. Mathematics is not
skills to be memorised, but ideas to be understood. The skills
follow quickly when the ideas behind them are understood.

Table of Index Laws
Index Law Description Examples
When multiplying 1. 32  33  323

terms with
= 35
identical bases,
= 243
x n  x m  x nm the indices are
added together.
2.
The coefficients of
each term are 4m 2  5m3  20m 23
simply multiplied. = 20m5
When dividing
terms with
identical bases, the
power of the
xn divisor is
xn  xm  subtracted from
xm the power of the
= x nm dividend. 2.
The coefficients 91𝑝7
91𝑝7 ÷ 13𝑝3 =
of each term are 13𝑝3
divided as usual.
= 7𝑝7−3
= 7𝑝4
When an
expression written
1. 24  2
3 43
x 
n m
 x mn in brackets is
raised to a power, = 212
the two indices are = 4096
multiplied.
Any coefficients
within the brackets

2. 14w
3 3
  14 3
w33
are also raised to = 2744 w9
the outside power.
When an
 xy   x y expression written
n n n
in brackets is
raised to a power,
all coefficients and
pronumerals in
that bracket are
raised to that
power.

Index Law Description Examples
The value of any 1. 60  1

x01 numeral or
 
pronumeral raised 0
to the power of 0 2. 8t 5 1
is 1.
An expression
written with a
negative power
1 can be rewritten as
x n  the inverse of the
xn expression written
with the same
positive power.
1
x 1 
x
A term with the

power of 1⁄𝑛 is
the same as
finding the nth root
of that term.
1
x2  √𝑥 , for
square root we do
not write the 2 in
front.

Further
Examples


Task 2.1 1. Simplify:

Basic
Operation a) ih  3 j  4ih
s and
Index b) 7  2m  5m  m2
Laws
c) p 2 q  2 pq 2  4 p 2 q  5 pq 2
d) ab  bc  ab  ad  bc
e) w4  4w2 x3  5w3 x 2  w3 x 2  w2 x3  3x 4
f) 4 pq  3q  2 p  6 p  q  4 p
g) a 2  3b  4ab  a 2  5ab
h) 2lm  18l 2 m 2 n  3lmn  2lmn
2. Simplify each of the following, writing the answers in simplest

index form.
a) 30a3  2a 4 b) 4ab2  3a 2bc 2
c) 42y 3  8y 3  d)  p 4   p 5
2 3
e) 3x 2 y 5 12 x3 y f) 125x 4 y 3  5x 2 y 2
3. Use the Index Laws to simplify each of the following:

4. Write each of the following in their simplest form:
5. Express each of the following numbers in index form using the

given base:
a) 8 (base of 2) b) 729 (base of 3) c) 625 (base of 5)
1
d) (base of 2) e) 3 (base of 27) f) 4 (base of 256)
64
6. Simplify each of the following:
a) 82 x  23 x b) 6 x  36 4 x1 c) 812 x3  243 x
3x x
d) 16 2 1282 e) 729 x1  243(3 x3) f) 32 x2  83 x2

7. Simplify the following:
6 5
a) 84 × 22

Part D Expanding, Simplifying and Factorising

Algebraic Expressions
Transforming One of the main tasks performed by people who use mathematics is
Algebraic to transform mathematical expressions from one form to another in
Expressions order to make problems easier to understand or solve.
A fundamental skill of anyone who works with mathematics is to be

able to calculate, expand, simplify and factorise algebraic
expressions quickly and accurately, and then to interpret and
communicate, in a logical manner, the results.
Exploring the To expand a linear expression means to write an equivalent

Expanding of expression without the brackets or grouping symbols and it all
Linear depends on the Distributive Law:
Expressions
a(b + c) = ab + ac.
The spreadsheet Equivalent expressions demonstrates that whatever

numbers you use for a, b and c, the Distributive Law is true.
Note:
Factors of 1 or –1 must be typed into the spreadsheet. The convention
that we may leave out these coefficients (so 1 x n is written as n, and
–1 x n is written as –n) is not recognised by the spreadsheet.
Showing Equivalent Expressions Using the Area of a

Rectangle
It is possible to represent a linear expression with a strip of width 1
for the variable, and small squares of side length 1 as the constants.
The 2x + 6 is the area of the pieces. Hence the expression 2x + 6
looks like this.
This can also be represented in a filled in rectangle. This time the

width and length can be multiplied to give the area. These sides are
2 and (x + 3). So, the area is both: 2x + 6 = 2(x + 3).
The spreadsheet Strips and squares is designed to do this

automatically. By inputting a width and length of the rectangle, the
equation can be solved. This is equivalent to factorising, because the
answer is the product of two factors. However, it is much better if
you have your own cardboard strips and squares.
The spreadsheet Expand has a tab called a(x + b) and this does the
same thing. You click on the sliders to change the values, and the
picture shows the strips and squares as a rectangle. You may also
change the value of x, so the strip does not have to be a constant

length – as it does with cardboard. The pieces that form the rectangle
show the expansion of the expression, without brackets.
The next tab is a(x – b) and this deals with the idea that you can
shorten the strip by reducing the value of x. It is shown by putting the
small squares on top of the end of the strip.
Now the length of the rectangle is (x – 3) and its width is still 2. But
the pieces used are 2x and –6. So, 2(x – 3) = 2x – 6. (Note that it is to
be understood that adding –6 is the same as subtracting 6.)
In summary, the Distributive Law is given by:
 =
Examples
Expand and simplify each of the
following: 1. 4p  3 = 4 p  43
= 4 p  12
 57  2a =  5 7  5 (2a)
A negative number in front of the brackets,

changes the sign of all the terms inside the
brackets.
= 14x  42 18x 12x

2
= 12x  4x  42
2
OR
= 14x  42 12x 18x

2
= 12x  4x  42
2

 
5.  x2  2x  4  2xx  6 =  x  2x  4  2x 12 x
2 2
=  3x 10x  4
2
When you write your final answer, you should write the terms in
order of highest power to lowest power.
Task 2.2 1. Expand and simplify:

Expanding
and a) 7a  9   5a b)  4l 85m3l
Simplifying
c) 4x  3  3x  5
Expressions
d) 3 p 2  7 p8  2 p   12 p
e) 5e  2 f  42e  3 f  f) 36x 18 12  21x

1 3
4
g) 8a9a 10b 10a7a 8b h) xx  y  4   yx  y
i) u4u  7   36u  3 j) jk  l   k j  l   l j  k 
2. Expand and simplify these more challenging questions:

Using the Expanding Binomial Products

spreadsheets
Look again at the spreadsheet Expand and the different worksheets for
each quadratic expression. There are now also large squares, the length
and width of the strip, having area of x2.
Use the worksheet (x + a)(x + b). By changing the values of a and b

in the expression you can see the four parts of the expansion: x2, ax,
bx and ab make perfect squares, where a = b. By changing the value
of x you can see that (x + a)(x + b) will always have the same value as
x2 + ax + bx + ab, no matter what value of x you choose. (This is not
a proof, just a demonstration.)
Use the worksheet (x + a)(x – b). Change the values of a and b in the
expression. Values of a are added to the height, but values of b are
subtracted from the width by being put on top. You can see that the
four parts of the expansion: x2, ax, –bx and –ab make the difference of
two squares, where a = b. By changing the value of x you can see that
(x + a)(x – b) will always have the same value as
x2 + ax – bx – ab, no matter what value of x you choose. (This is not
a proof, just a demonstration.)
Use the worksheet (x – a)(x – b). Change the values of a and b in the
expression. Values of a are subtracted from the height, and values of
b are subtracted from the width. You can see the four parts of the
expansion: x2, –ax, –bx and ab. Because some parts of the area are
subtracted twice in this process, they must also be added back on; this
is the little rectangle in the top left corner. They make perfect squares,
where a = b. By changing the value of x you can see that (x – a)(x –
b) will always have the same value as x2 – ax – bx + ab, no matter
what value of x you choose. (Again, this is not a proof, just a
demonstration.)
This spreadsheet demonstrates the factorised form by drawing the

rectangle. So, when you look at the four parts, combining the two x-
terms, then you have the expanded form of the expression.
Expanding A binomial expression is one that contains two terms separated by a

Algebraic + or  operation sign.
Expressions  a b
 3x  8
When two binomial expressions are multiplied together, this is called
a binomial product.
 a  b3x  8
To expand a binomial product, each term in the first bracket is

multiplied with each term in the second bracket.

An easy way to remember this method for expanding binomial

products is to use the word FOIL:
F – first terms in each bracket are multiplied together;

O – outside terms of the product are multiplied together;
I – inside terms of the product are multiplied together;
L – last terms in each bracket are multiplied together.
The method outlined can be extended to the product of brackets

containing more than two terms.

Examples of
Binomial
Products


Special Results
Examples 1c), 1d) and 3b) are special types of binomial products that
can be expanded and simplified quickly using the following
properties:
Perfect Squares
1c) 4x  32  (4x)2  2  4x  3  32  16x 2  24x  9
Difference of Two Squares
1d) w  4w  4  w2  42  w2 16
Perfect Cubes
3b) 3x  4 y 3  3x3  3  3x2  4 y  3 3x  4 y 2  4 y3

= 27 x3  108 x 2 y  144 xy 2  64 y 3
Note:
The Distributive Law can be extended to situations where the FOIL
rule was used earlier.
Assessment Event Reminder: Mathematical Terminology

Logbook
Copy each of the terms written in bold print into your

Mathematical Terminology Logbook and use your own words
to write a brief definition of each term.
This logbook is to be submitted in Weeks 4, 8 and 12 and forms part

of your overall assessment.

Task 2.3 1. Expand and simplify:

Expanding a) (x  5)(x  3) 
Binomial
Products
b) a  2a  4 
c) y 97 y
d) 2 p  53p 4
e) 5z 142z 5
f) 3a 2b4b a
2. Expand and simplify:

a) m  32m2  4m  5
b) 4a 2  2a  63a 1
c) 3 x 2 x2  4x  7
d) y  6y3  2 y 2  3y  6
3. Expand and simplify these mixed questions:

a) (3x1)(3x1)
b)  2x  32
c) 3a  b 2
d) 2p 6q p  2q3p  q
e) m  nn  mn  m
f) 3x  y 3

Exploring To factorise a linear or quadratic expression you need to do the

Factorising expanding, backwards (using the Expand spreadsheet). It is best
of Algebraic tackled as a puzzle with cardboard strips and squares. If possible, you
Expressions make the rectangle using the pieces, and the ‘length x width’ of the
rectangle gives the factors of the expression.
Although the spreadsheet limits the coefficient of x2 to 1, you are not

limited to that with strips and squares.
Factorising Factorisation is the opposite of expanding and is used for problems

Algebraic involving algebraic fractions and quadratic equations (these will be
Expressions dealt with later on in this unit).
If asked to factorise an algebraic expression, this means to

write an equivalent expression with the brackets or grouping
symbols included.
The basic method of factorisation is performed by finding the highest

common factor and placing it in front of the brackets (applying the
Distributive Law from before in reverse).
the common factor to both

terms is
Examples: Factorise:
Basic 4a  4  a
Factorisation 1. 4a  8b 
8b  2  4  b
The highest common factor to both terms here is 4 so it goes out the
front, the rest of the terms go inside the brackets.
  4a  2b
3𝑥 2 = 3 x  x
2. 3x2  7x5 
7x5  7  x  x  x  x  x
The highest common factor is x2
  x2 3  7x3 
8ab  2  4  a  b
3. 8ab  24abc  16ac  24abc  2  3 4  a  b  c
16ac  2  2  4  a  c
H.C.F. = 8a
= 8ab3bc2c

Task 2.4 1. Factorise the following:

Basic a) y 2  4 y b) 18m 9m
2
Factorisation
c) 6ab  24bc d) at3  6a2 t

e) 4a b  7ab 3ab
2 2
f) 3x  8x  4x
3 2
g) x  5b x  6bx h) 8m n 10mn 6mn

3 2 2 2 2
2. Factorise:
a) 8x3  88x2 y b) 3 j 2  j2k  l
c) 6x 2 y 2 z  7x 2yz d) 3 pq 2  6 p 2 q 2  9 pqr
Factorising Grouping in Pairs

Algebraic
Expressions You can often factorise expressions using the grouping method.
It was briefly shown earlier how the distributive law could be applied
to binomial products. This situation is the reverse process.
When we expand a  bx  y we get ax  ay  bx  by .
a b
Examples: Factorise using the grouping method:

Grouping in 1. pq  3qr  4 p 12r  pq  4 3rq  4
Pairs
  p  3rq 4
2. x 2  2xy  3x  6 y  xx  2 y 3x  2 y
= x 3x  2y
3. al  bl  am  bm  an  bn  la  b   ma  b  na  b
 a  bl  m  n
Factorising Difference of Two Squares
Algebraic If the expression is the difference between two perfect squares, then
Expressions we use the reverse process of expanding as shown earlier:

Examples:
Difference Factorise the following using the difference of two squares
of Two method:
1. a 16  a  4
2 2 2
Squares
 a  4a  4
 3x  6y3x 6y
= 12 p2 112 p2 1
Task 2.5 1. Factorise each of the following using the grouping method and
Grouping check your results by expanding your answers.
in Pairs 2
and the a) x 5x 3x 15 b) 2ab  ac  8b  4c
Difference 2 2
c) p3  4 p  3 p 2  12 d) 4mn  m  4n  mn
of Two
Squares e) 25 k j 2  10k   m j 2  12m f) x 3  5x 2 y  xy 2  5 y 3
2. Use the difference of two squares method to factorise the

following:

Assessment Project 1 should now be commenced. It is due one week

Event 2 from today.
Sum and The factors and graphs of cubic expressions can be explored
Difference using the spreadsheet Cubics. A cubic expression may have no
of Cubes factors, one or three; you will find that if it has two then it must
have a third. With three factors you can see the effect of
changing the factors, and what happens when two or all of them
are the same.
Exploring
Factors and With one factor, the remaining factor must be a quadratic expression.
Graphs of The quadratic factor may or may not have whole number factors.
Cubics However the cubic may still cross the x-axis three times, and have
three factors – they just may not all be whole numbers.
If you can, find examples of these cases:
 Only one factor

 Two different factors
 Three whole number factors
There are two special cases (called sum of cubes and difference
of cubes) that may be explored with the one factor
spreadsheet. For example try a = 2, b = –2, c = 4. The graph
looks like the graph of y = x3, simply shifted up by 8 units. And
so it is, because (x + 2)(x2– 2x + 4) = x3 + 8.
Sum and difference of cubes is also explored in the spreadsheet Sum

(or diff) of cubes. You are invited to add a constant (d) to the graph
of y = x3, and then to explore the values of a, b and c that will change
the red graph into the blue one. For a perfect cube added (or
subtracted) as d, it can only be done if you use the correct values for
a, b and c.
Factorising Sum and Difference of Two Cubes

Algebraic
Expressions If an expression is the sum or difference of two cubes, then we can
use the following identities to assist with factorisation.

Assessment Project 1 should now be commenced. It is due one week from

Event 2 today.
The factors and graphs of cubic expressions can be explored using

Sum and
the spreadsheet Cubics. A cubic expression may have no factors,
Difference one, two, or three; you will find that if it has two then it usually has a
of Cubes third. It may degenerate into two if two of the terms are identical. For
example, 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 7) will only have two roots, as
the same term is used twice. With three factors you can see the effect
of changing the factors, and what happens when two or all of them are
the same.
Exploring With one factor, the remaining factor must be a quadratic expression.
Factors and The quadratic factor may or may not have whole number factors.
Graphs of However, the cubic may still cross the x-axis three times, and have
Cubics three factors – they just may not all be whole numbers.
If you can, find examples of these cases:
 Only one factor

 Two different factors
 Three whole number factors
There are two special cases (called sum of cubes and difference
of cubes) that may be explored with the one factor
spreadsheet. For example, try a = 2, b = –2, c = 4. The graph
looks like the graph of y = x3, simply shifted up by 8 units. And
so it is, because (x + 2)(x2– 2x + 4) = x3 + 8.
Sum and difference of cubes is also explored in the spreadsheet Sum

(or diff) of cubes. You are invited to add a constant (d) to the graph
of y = x3, and then to explore the values of a, b and c that will change
the red graph into the blue one. For a perfect cube added (or
subtracted) as d, it can only be done if you use the correct values for
a, b and c.
Factorising Sum and Difference of Two Cubes

Algebraic
Expressions If an expression is the sum or difference of two cubes, then we
can use the following identities to assist with factorisation.

Examples: Factorise the following:

1. 8a 3  27  2a  33
3
Sum and
Difference of
Two Cubes
2

 2a  3 2a   2a  3  32 
 2a  3 4a 2  6a  9  

2. 7x3  448  7 x3  64 
 7x  4 3
 3
 7x  4x  4x 16

2
3.  x  3  125 y 3   x  3  5y
3 3 3

 x  3  5 y x  3  5 y  x  3   5y
2 2


 x  3  5 y x 2  6x  9  5xy  15 y  25 y 2 
4. j 2 k 3  m 2 l 3  m2 k 3  j l  k  j  m   l  j  m 
2 3 3 2 2 3 2 2
 k l  j m 
3 3 2 2
 k  l  j  m j  m
3 3
 k  l k  kl  l  j  m j  m

2 2
Task 2.6
Sum and
Difference of
Two Cubes

Factorising The graph of a quadratic expression (one with an x2 term) is a

Quadratic parabola. If a quadratic expression has factors, then the graph will
Trinomials cross the x-axis at integer values. These integers will show us the
factors.
If the graph crosses the x-axis at m and n, then the factors are (x –
m)(x – n). This applies whether or not m and n are positive, negative
or a decimal. Similarly, if the graph does not cross the x- axis, then
the expression has no factors. For example, the quadratic y = x2 + 2x
– 8 has a factorised form y = (x – 2)(x + 4). This graph crosses the x-
axis at x = 2 and x = –4. We can use the graph to find the factors, or
the factors to sketch the graph. Either way we can also solve the
equation.
Exploring You can demonstrate these ideas with Quadratic graphs–factored

the Use of form. You use the up/down arrows to change the values of a, b and
Graphs in c. Start with a = 1, b = 0, c = 0. This is y = x2. Now change the values
Factorising of b or c. As you do, look at the x-intercepts (or zeros). You can also
Algebraic see them in the table of values.
Expressions
Quadratic Trinomials
Factorising
Algebraic Earlier you were shown how to expand binomial products. From this
Expressions
you can be seen that for a quadratic trinomial:
For example, to factorise the quadratic trinomial x  5x  6, you

2
need to look for two numbers (a and b) whose product is 6 and whose
sum is 5.
This can be done using the cross-multiplication method:
x 6
6 and 1 are factors of 6
x 1 however the sum of 6 and 1 is 7.
x 2
2 and 3 are factors of 6
x 3 and the sum of 2 and 3 is 5
 a = 2 and b = 3.
We write the top two terms together in one bracket, and the two
bottom terms together in the other
 x 2  5x  6  x  2x  3
If the value of the leading coefficient of the quadratic trinomial is

greater than 1, then the cross-multiplication method may need to be
applied a few times before the right factors are found.

For example, to factorise 4x  4x  15 you first need to

2
2
consider that 4x can be the product of 4x and x or 2x and
2x
 we can have all the following possible combinations:
4x -15 ; 15 ; -5 ; 5 ; -1 ; 1 ; -3 ; 3
x 1 ; -1 ; 3 ; -3 ; 15 ; -15 ; 5 ; -5
or
2x -15 ; 15; -5 ; 5 ; -1 ; 1 ; -3 ; 3
2x 1 ; -1 ; 3 ; -3 ; 15 ; -15 ; 5 ; -5
The only combination that produces a sum of –4x and a product of

–15 is:
2x -5
2x 3
 4x 2  4x 15  2x  52x  3
Task 2.7 Factorise each of the following quadratic trinomials:

Factorising 1. x  4x  3 2. a  2a 15
2 2
Quadratic
3. w  5w  4. m  6m  72
2 2
Trinomials
24
6. x  48  2x
2
5. q 2  19q  42
7. 3r 11r  4 8. 4x 14x 10
2 2
10. 12t 5  28t

2
9. 6 y 2  25 y  21
11. 8x  6x  9 12. 4h 59h 36
2 2
Factorising Simplifying Algebraic Fractions

Algebraic
Expressions Factorising algebraic expressions helps when simplifying algebraic
fractions. In most cases you can cancel out terms in the numerator
and denominator after factorisation.

Examples:
Simplifying Simplify the following algebraic
fractions:
Algebraic 6p  12 6p   numerator
Fractions 1. 
factorised
2 2p2
63=2
2. 
2a  6a 2aa  3
2
a  3a  3 Numerator and

 denominator
 fully factorised
a3

2a  (a+3) cancelled out
4 y 2  8y 12 4y 2  2y  3


3. y3  27 y3  33
4y 3y 1 Numerator and
 
 
y  3 y2  3y  9  denominator
4y 1 fully factorised
  (y-3) cancelled
y 2  3y  9 out

Task 2.8
Simplifying
Algebraic
Fractions
Adding and Subtracting Algebraic Fractions
When finding the sum or difference of algebraic fractions, you use

the same rules as those used for standard fractions. Therefore, you
must first ensure that each fraction in the expression has the same
denominator before adding or subtracting.
In some question, the denominator or numerator of a given fraction

is the expanded form of a binomial or trinomial. When this is the
case, factorising the denominator and numerator first can simplify the
question.

Examples:
Adding and
Subtracting
Algebraic
Fractions

Task 2.9
Adding and
Subtracting
Algebraic
Fractions

Part E Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

and Formulae Using Numerical
Substitution
Evaluating The pronumerals of an algebraic expression can also be called

Algebraic variables (a variable is something that can change). This is because
Expressions any numerical value can be substituted for these variables to obtain
a particular answer.
Examples:
Evaluating
Algebraic
Expressions

Equations: An equation is the name given to an algebraic expression containing

A Brief an equal sign. When asked to solve an equation, this means find the
Introduction value/s of the unknown pronumeral in the expression which makes
the equation true.
There are two types of equations:
Identity equation: This is an equation that is true for any value

substituted in place of the pronumeral.
𝑎2
−4
Conditional equation: This is an equation which is true for

only one value or a finite range of values.
Example:
This equation is a conditional equation as it is only

true if the letter a is replaced with the number 20.
Solving these equations with one or two unknowns is covered in

Part F.
Formulae A formula is an equation that shows the relationship between two or

more pronumerals (or variables).
The subject of a formula is the pronumeral by itself on one side of the

equal sign (usually written on the left hand side).
The subject can be calculated by substituting in the given values of

the other pronumerals.
Example
This formula shows the relationship between the two
variables:
T and R
The subject of this formula is T, as it is by itself on the left
hand side of the equal sign.
If given a value for R, then it would be possible to calculate

the value of T:
If R = 3, then T = 14 + 5×3
T = 14 + 15
T = 29

Changing the Subject of the Formula
In some questions you may be asked to find the value of a pronumeral

which is not the subject of the formula given. For these questions you
must first change the subject of the formula to the pronumeral you need
to find.
Example
This formula is known as one of the Equations of Motion
in physics. It is usually written with v as the subject of the
formula. If the value of a different variable needs to be
found, then the subject of this formula can be changed to u,
a or t.
a the
subject:
t the
subject:
Task 2.10 1. If a = 18.3, b = 9.4 and c = -7.2 evaluate accurate to 2 decimal

Evaluating places:
Algebraic a) ab  c b) a(b + c) c) (a c)(b + c)
Expressions
and
Formulae
Using
Substitution
place when u = 15, t = 7 and a = 38.
5. In the formula v  u  2as, find a given that v = 5, u = 7 and

2 2
s = 4.

6. If V  r h , find r accurate to four significant figures when

2
V = 1490001 and h = 23.
3a-b
7. W √ ; find b when W = 12 and a =12
6

Part F Solving Equations and Inequations

with 1 or 2 Unknowns
Solving You can sometimes use factorisation to solve a simple equation: for
Linear example 2x – 6 = 0 makes the factorised expression 2(x – 3).
Equations So 2(x – 3) is 0. You will see that it happens for x = 3. This is the value that
makes the factor (x – 3) = 0.
Exploring This idea of making a factor zero to solve an equation in a factorised form is
Solving Linear very useful. It leads to the idea that the solution(s) of an equation (the
Equations value(s) that make the expression 0) are found where the graph crosses the
Graphically axis.
Use spreadsheet Solving linear equations graphically to explore this for the
linear case. Make the right side 0; use nothing for the coefficient and 0 for
the constant. On the left side, type the gradient and the y-intercept. If this
expression factorises easily, the factors are shown. The value of x that makes
the bracket zero will be the solution and shows where the graph crosses the
axis.
Since there are a limited number of forms for linear equations, it is possible
to create formulas to solve each one rapidly. Look at the examples in
Equations by program.
Linear A linear equation is one that represents a straight line when graphed on a
Equations Cartesian number plane (you will be looking at this more closely
with One in Unit 3: Algebra II). In mathematical terms, an equation containing a single
Unknown variable is linear if that variable is a pronumeral of the first degree. This
means that the only power/indice the pronumeral can have is 1.
For Example: 4x  3  13
When asked to solve an equation, you need to find the value of the
pronumeral that makes the given statement true.
These equations can be solved quite easily by performing inverse operations

until the value of the pronumeral is found.
Inverse Operations:
 If a number is added, then the inverse operation is subtraction;

 If a number is subtracted, then the inverse operation is addition;
 If the number is multiplied, then the inverse operation is division;
 If the number is divided, then the inverse operation is multiplication.

Examples
+13 +13
-4x -4x
3 3
x=6
2. Solve the equation 32x  3 22x  5  41

32x  3 22x  5  41
2x  19  41  subtract 19 from both sides

-19 -19
2 2


Task 2.11 1. Solve each of the following equations:

Solving
Linear
Equations 3.7 x + 6.3 = 2(2.7x  0.6)
Exploring A typical problem involves two linear equations written in this form:
Simultaneous 2x + 4y = 6
Linear 3x + 4y = 12
Equations
Graphically For the graphical method we need to express both of them in the form
y = f(x). They are:
y = (6 – 2x)/4 = 1.5 –0.5x
y = (12 – 3x)/4 = 3 0.75x
The solution to the pair of equations is the pair of numbers

(x, y) that makes both of them true at the same time. At the
same time is the meaning of the English word simultaneous.
Now use the spreadsheet Solving linear equations graphically

to enter both the expressions. (Note that the coefficients of x are
both negative.)
Adjust the left and right of graph so you can see the intersection. It is
x = 6.
Substitute x = 6 into either equation to find the y-value at the

intersection; it is y = –1.5
Demonstrate the same method for these equations

2x + 4y = 6 y = (6 – 2x)/4 = 1.5 – 0.5x
3x + 6y = 12 y = (12 – 3x)/6 = 2 – 0.5x
These two lines have the same gradient, and are parallel. So, there is
NO intersection point, and they have NO solution.

Simultaneous Two equations (both of which contain two unknown pronumerals)

Equations can be solved simultaneously (at the same time) to find a solution that
satisfies both equations.
There are three methods that can be used to solve equations

simultaneously:
▪ Graphical solution (demonstrated above)
▪ Substitution method,
▪ Elimination method.
Example of Substitution Method

Substitution
Method This method involves changing the subject of one of the given
formulae and then substituting it into the other and solving directly.
Solve simultaneously using the substitution method:

3x  y  8 …………(1)
2x  3y  17 …………(2)
 Change the subject of equation (1)

y  8  3x
 Substitute this into equation (2) for y and solve for x.
2x  3(8  3x)  17
2x  24  9x  17
 7 x  7
x1
 Substitute x=1 into equation (1) or (2) and solve for y.

31  y  8
 y 5
Therefore the solution of the two equations is x = 1, y = 5.

Simultaneous Elimination Method

Equations
This method involves eliminating (removing) one of the pronumerals
by adding or subtracting the two equations and then solving. It is
sometimes necessary to first multiply one of the equations by a
constant so that a pronumeral can be eliminated.
Example of Solve simultaneously using the elimination method:

Elimination 3x  y  8
Method 2x  3y  17
multiply equation (1) by 3

9x  3y  24
eliminate the y pronumeral by subtracting (2) from (3)
substitute x =1 into equation (1), (2) or (3) and solve

for y.
31  y  8
 y 5
Therefore the solution of the two equations is x = 1, y = 5.
Simultaneous Simultaneous equations can be used to solve specific problems.

Equations Equations can be created by replacing the variable objects within the
question with pronumerals. Once the correct equations have been
formed, they can be solved simultaneously as usual.
Example of Five apples and two oranges cost $120. Three apples cost 40 cents
Problem more than two oranges. Find the cost of an orange and an apple.
Solving
Using  Let an apple cost x cents and an orange cost y cents
Simultaneous 5x  2 y  120  5 apples and 2 oranges cost 120 cents…...….(1)
Equations
3x  2 y  40  3 apples minus 2 oranges equals 40 cents .….(2)
 Add equations (1) and (2) to eliminate y

8x  160
 x  20
 Substitute x = 20 into (1) or (2)

520  2y 120
 2y  20
 y  10
An apple costs 20 cents and an orange costs 10 cents.

Task 2.12 1. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations using the
Simultaneous substitution method:
Equations
3. The difference between two numbers is twelve. The larger

number, minus two equals three times the smaller number. Find
the two numbers.
4. The price of admission for a movie is $13 for adults and $8 for
children. If in one day 1,500 people paid to see a movie and
the total receipts were $16,210, how many adults and children
attended?
5. A mother is five times as old as her daughter. If she was nine times
as old as her daughter four years ago, how old is the mother now?
6. Twelve bags of sugar and eight packets of biscuits have a

combined mass of 600g, while fourteen bags of sugar and four
packets of biscuits have a combined mass of 460g. If you
purchased one bag of sugar and two packets of biscuits, what
would their combined mass be?
Further All the simultaneous equations looked at so far have been linear
Simultaneous equations that have had one set of answers. If one of the equations is
Equations non-linear (the names and graphs of these equations will be covered
in Unit 6: Algebra II), then there can be more than one set of
solutions.
To solve these particular simultaneous equations, you need to use the

substitution method.

Examples
1. Solve simultaneously 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑥𝑦 = 2.

𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 …………………..(1)
𝑥𝑦 = 2 …………………..(2)
 Change the subject of equation (1)
𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 …………………..(3)
 Substitute equation (3) into (2) and solve for x.
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) = 2
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑥 = 2
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
⇒ (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) = 0
∴ 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 = −2
 Substitute these values for x into (1) or (2) to
find y
when 𝑥 = 1, 1 × 𝑦 = 2
∴ 𝑦=2
when 𝑥 = −2, −2 × 𝑦 = 2
∴ 𝑦 = −1
∴ The solutions are 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 2, or 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑦 = −1
2. Solve simultaneously 𝑝 2 + 𝑞2 = 16 and 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 4 = 0
𝑝2 + 𝑞2 = 16 ……………………(1)
𝑝+𝑞+4 =0 ……………………(2)
Change the subject of equation (2)
𝑞 = −𝑝 − 4 …………………(3)
 Substitute equation (3) into (1) and
solve for p
𝑝2 + (−𝑝 − 4)2 = 16
⇒ 𝑝2 + 𝑝2 + 8𝑝 + 16 = 16
⇒ 2𝑝2 + 8𝑝 = 0
⇒ 2𝑝(𝑝 + 4) = 0
∴ 𝑝 = 0 or 𝑝 = −4
 Substitute these values for p into (2) to find q
when 𝑝 = 0, 0 + 𝑞 + 4 = 0
∴ 𝑞 = −4
when 𝑝 = −4, −4 + 𝑞 + 4 = 0
∴𝑞=0
∴ The solutions are 𝑝 = 0 and 𝑞 = −4 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = −4 and 𝑞 = 0

Solving Inequations (also called Inequalities) are different to ordinary

Linear equations due to the fact that they contain one of the following signs
Inequations in the place of an equal sign.
(Inequalities)    
less than greater than less than or greater than or
equal to equal to
These symbols are used to indicate a range of values that satisfy the
given relation. This range of values can be displayed algebraically
or using a real number line.
If you multiply or divide both sides of the inequation by

a negative number, then the inequality sign is reversed.
Exploring Inequations / Inequalities have many solutions. They are of two

Inequations kinds: one variable, where the solutions may be plotted on a number
line, and two variables, where the solutions are points in the plane.
One-variable Inequations
Use the Inequalities spreadsheet, and start with Integer lines. This
displays several inequalities at once. Make the screen smaller so you
may only see one at a time.
These plot the integers that make the inequality true, and show where
it continues with an arrow. Type different numbers into the yellow
cells, and see the effect of changing the different numbers.
You can observe the effect of having a negative coefficient of the

variable. In any of the four examples on screen, use a positive
coefficient of n, and solve the inequality for n with either > or <. Then
change the coefficient to a negative number. You will see the sign
change to the opposite.
Fundamentally, solving inequalities comes down to two steps:
1. replace the inequality sign with = and solve the linear

equation, and
2. work out the effect of having the >, <, ≥ or ≤ instead of
the =.
(The sign ≥ means the solution includes the values that make it = as
well as the >.)

1. Solve 4a  5  10
Examples
 algebraic presentation
 using a real number line

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Note: If the inequality sign is  or , then the circle is shaded in.

This is done to indicate the value at that point is included.
-1 -1
(2) (2) inequality is reversed
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Note: If the inequality sign is > or <, then the circle is not shaded
in. This indicates that the value at that point is not included.
 means x is an element of all real

numbers
+5 +5 +5 of both inequalities
2 2 2 inequalities by 2
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Task 2.13 Solve each of the following inequalities and present each solution on
Inequations a separate real number line.
1. 41 y  2y
1
2. 4x  20  3x  8
2
4 2
3. 
2z  1 3
7x 4x
4. 3
3 2
3
5. 22  2(x  )  37
2
2𝑡 + 1 3𝑡 + 4
6. + 3≥
2 5
Write down the inequation for the statements below and solve:
7. A certain number is multiplied by 2 and the result is greater than

4 but less than 8. What range of values can the number be?
8. The sum of three consecutive numbers is at least 60.

What are the possible values of the smallest of these numbers?
9. The difference between a number and 12 is greater than the

product of 4 and 9 but no more than the quotient of 108 and 2.
What range of values satisfies this statement?
10. The result obtained when a particular number added to 6 is

divided by 4 is no more than the result when the difference
between the same number and 12 is divided by 7.
What is the largest value the number can be?

Part G Solving Absolute Value Equations and

Inequations
Absolute Solving equations involving absolute value is easy once you

Value understand what absolute value means. In simple terms it means the
Equations equation always stays positive. It is easily shown with graphs.
Exploring Use the spreadsheet Absolute value graphs. There are two tabs:
Absolute Polynomial functions, which do not include absolute value ideas,
Value and Absolute value functions.
Equations
Type 1 next to x in each of them. Polynomial functions shows y = x.
Absolute value functions shows that the negative values of y do not
exist. They simply become positive. The line simply changes
direction at the x-axis. At this point there is NO gradient. But each
side of that point the gradient is either 1 or –1.
Repeat for other coefficients; you can make linear, quadratic or cubic
graphs, and their absolute value versions.
Note 1:
The spreadsheet plots points at intervals of 0.1 for x. So sometimes
the absolute value curve does not quite reach the x-axis in this
spreadsheet realisation. But the real curve will always touch the x-
axis and bounce up again.
Note 2:
The point where the curve suddenly changes direction is a
‘discontinuity’. There is no gradient at that point.
Absolute The absolute value of a number is the magnitude or size of that

Value number.
Equations |a|  | a|  a
There are two important theorems associated with absolute value

statements:
|ab|  |a|  |b|
|a  b|  |a|  |b|  known as the triangle inequality
All absolute value equations can be solved using the method

outlined below:
If |x  y|  z, then the solution is found by solving
the following two equations:
1. x  y  z 2. x  y  z
The solution to both of these equations should be verified by
substituting them back into the original equation.

Examples

Absolute The absolute value inequations covered in this unit can be

Value solved y first identifying the problem with one of the following
Inequations types:
1. x  y  z ; solve the inequation:  z  x  y  z

x y z; solve the inequation:  z  x  y  z
2. x  y  z ; solve the inequation: x  y  z or x  y  z

x  y  z ; solve the inequation: x  y  z or x  y  z
Examples

Task 2.14
Absolute
Equations
Inequations

Part H Solving Quadratic Equations
Quadratic You have used the spreadsheet Quadratic graphs – Factored

Equations form. Now use the other two forms of the quadratic
expression with Quadratic graphs – Three terms and Vertex
form to see the effect of changing the constants on quadratic
graphs.
For the Vertex form, it is interesting to see the effect of moving the
graph up or down using the value of c. Note that no matter what the
values of a or b, the graph will cross at whole numbers when you use
negatives of perfect squares for c.
Exploring
Quadratic The spreadsheet Completing the square demonstrates yet another
Equations skill related to expanding quadratic expressions. If a = b then the
Graphically missing constant term is a2. This is clearly demonstrated for both the
case when the middle term is even, and for when it is odd as well.
Quadratic A quadratic equation is a non-linear algebraic expression. An

Equations equation containing a single variable is a quadratic if that variable is
a pronumeral of the second degree. This means that the highest
power/index a pronumeral can have in the expression is 2.
Quadratic equations are usually written in the form:
ax2  bx  c  0 , where a  0
The graph of a quadratic equation is called a parabola (this will be

covered further in Unit 6: Algebra II).
Quadratic equations can be solved a number of ways:

 Factorising the expression and applying the Null Factor Law
If ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0 or a = b = 0
 Completing the square first
 Using the quadratic formula:
-b±√b2 -4ac
x=
2a

Examples: Solve each of the following equations after factorising first:

Solving by
Factorisation
1. x  7x  0
2
x2  7x  0
xx  7  0  x is a common factor
 x = 0 or x = 7
2. x  9  0
2
x2  9  0  difference of two squares

 x  3x  3 0
x = 3
3. m  9m 14  0
2
m2  9m 14  0  factorise using cross method

m7m 2 0
 m = 2 or m = 7
Completing Some quadratic trinomials are not as easily factorised as the

the Square previous examples so for these you can use the method of
completing the square. This method involves making a perfect
square on one side (usually the left side) of the equation first and
then solving.
The steps you take to complete the square

2
for the quadratic trinomial ax + bx + c = 0
are:
Rearrange the trinomial so that the constant
c is on the right hand side of the equation;
Divide each term by a to ensure that the
leading
coefficient is 1;
Then if required to solve the equation:

Square root both sides of the equation;
Solve for x (or the pronumeral in the
question).

Examples:
Solving by
Completing the
Square First
Quadratic The quadratic formula can be found by completing the square on

Formula the general quadratic equation ax  bx  c  0
2
For the equation ax  bx  c 

2
0, -b±√b2 -4ac
x=
2a
This formula can be used to obtain the solutions to a given

quadratic equation through direct substitution.

Examples:
Solving by
Equation
Task 2.15 1. Solve each of the following after first factorising:

Quadratic 2 2
a) x  x  6  0 b) x  64  0
Equations
2
c) p 2  9 p  0 d) 3k  2k  5  0
2  21x  20 2
e) x f) 2s  9s 10 = 0
2
g) 2 y  3 y 2 h) 6m 14  85m
2. Solve by completing the square, leaving answers in surd form:
2 2
a) x  2x  8  0 b) w  2w  7  0
2 2
c) x  6x  0 d) 2t  3t 1  0
2
e) 5 y 2  3y  4 f) 2x 14  44x
3. Solve each of the following using the quadratic formula:
2 2
a) v  2v  24  0 b) 4x  7x  3  0
2
c) r  4r  21 d) 2 y 2  11y  5  0
e) 3d  5  − 2 3
f) 4x  7
𝑑 2𝑥

Task 2.16 Solve each of the following equations simultaneously:

Further
Simultaneous
Equations
Use simultaneous equations to solve each of the following:
(Tip: Identify the pronumerals you will use, and then define each
equation using the same pronumerals.)
11. The product of two numbers is 72 and the difference between

them is 14. What are the two numbers?
12. The product of two numbers is 1. The difference between one

number and 3 equals the other number multiplied by 4.
Assessment It is time to submit your Mathematical Terminology Logbook.

Event 4

Student Manual
Unit 3: Algebra– Graphs of Algebraic Relations
GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals and Coordinate Geometry

Student Manual
Unit 3: Algebra – Graphs of Algebraic Relations GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals
and Coordinate Geometry
Unit 3: Algebra: Graphs of Algebraic Relations

and Coordinate Geometry

Part C The Cartesian Number Plane & Relations and Functions
Part D Graphs of Algebraic Relations
Part E Coordinate Geometry: Straight Line Graphs

Overview In this unit, you will learn to identify, draw and manipulate graphs of
algebraic functions.
 perform various straight line measurements on the Cartesian plane

by applying measures of coordinate geometry
 label features of graphs and interpret data clearly
 apply methods and terminology of algebra and measurement to solve
problems and communicate information.
the course material. You will need to use graph paper during this unit.
You will be expected to complete some work in your own time. Your
teacher will guide you through the unit.

Student Manual

gradient intercept Cartesian plane
Summary
of Terms sketch coordinates general form
transposing form slope axes
rise run point
midpoint intersection collinear points
interval functions relations
odd functions even functions dependent variable
independent variable ordered pairs element
real numbers domain range
parabola cubic quartic
hyperbola asymptotes regions
origin plot convention
discriminant axis of symmetry concave up/down
minimum maximum turning point
modelling linear function notation
vertex imaginary roots distinct roots
angle of inclination

Student Manual
Unit 3: Algebra – Graphs of Algebraic Relations
and Coordinate Geometry GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals
Part C The Cartesian Number Plane &

Relations and Functions
Cartesian Cartesian coordinates are defined as a system of

Coordinates coordinates (or ordered pairs) in which the position of a
point in a number plane (called the Cartesian number plane)
is specified by its distances from two lines.
The two single-arrow headed lines are called coordinate axes and
are usually labelled as the x-axis (horizontal) and y-axis (vertical). A
point that is drawn on to a Cartesian number plane is referred to as a
plot. The location of the plot/point is given using coordinates or
ordered pairs written in brackets. The convention (general rule
used) for recording coordinates is:
(x - value, y - value)
For example, the point plotted on the number plane above has the
coordinates (3, 4). The centre of the number plane (0, 0) is called the
origin.
Each axis has a positive (to the right/up) and negative (to the
left/down) direction. By convention, arrows are only drawn at the
positive end of these axes.
When many points have been plotted according to a specific rule with
a smooth line drawn joining them together, we call the line a graph
of the given rule. Graphs are drawn with arrows on the ends of them
to indicate that the graph continues in those directions.

Student Manual
The example of a graph shown above is a straight-line graph. It

crosses the x-axis at the point x = 4. This point of the graph is
referred to as the x intercept of the graph. Similarly, the graph
crosses the y-axis at y = -4. This point is therefore the y intercept
of the graph. Depending on the type of graph drawn, there can be
more than one x or y intercept for a graph.
Relations Relations and functions are similar in that they are both a set
and of ordered pairs (x , y) usually defined by a given rule.
Functions
A function is a mathematical rule that creates a specific (unique)
output value for each input value substituted into it. Therefore, in a set
of ordered pairs for a function, each ordered pair has a unique value
for x. In other words, no two ordered pairs have the same x- value.
For Example:
A set of ordered pairs for a function can be as follows:
(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10)
Here, no two ordered pairs have the same value for x.

In a set of ordered pairs for a relation, two or more ordered
pairs can have the same value for x.
For Example:
A set of ordered pairs for a relation can be as follows:
(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 7), (3, 9), (4, 10)
Here, two of the ordered pairs have an x-value of 3.
Therefore, by definition, all functions are relations while

not all relations are functions.
Both functions and relations can be drawn on the number plane. In

fact, it is by their graphs that the two can be easily distinguished by
using a test called the vertical line test.
Vertical Line Test
A graphed relation is a function if a vertical line drawn

anywhere on the number plane intersects (cuts) the
graph in one place only.
Therefore, if a vertical line cuts the graph in two or more places,

then the graph is a relation.

Student Manual
For Example:
This graph (called a parabola) is a function as any vertical line

drawn on the number plane cuts the graph in one place only.
This graph is a relation as any vertical line drawn on the number

plane cuts the graph in two places in at least one location. For
the graph above, it would intersect twice everywhere except the
origin.
Dependent and Independent Variables
In Algebra I (Part E) you looked at finding the value of one

particular variable by substituting in a value for each of the other
variables in the formula. In a similar way here, the output variable
of a relation is determined by the input variable substituted into the
formula that represents the relation. In other words, the value of the
output variable depends upon the value of the input variable.
Therefore, the variable that represents the input for a given function
is called the independent variable. This is because the value of this
variable is not affected by another. The variable that represents the
output value of a function is called the dependent variable,
because its value will change when the input variable changes.

Student Manual
Domain Any relation or function has both a domain and range.

and
Range The domain is the set of all independent variables (x-values) for
which the given relation/function is defined.
The range is the set of all dependent variables (y-values) that can
be obtained for the given set of domain values.
In some cases (for example, straight line graphs), the domain is

every real value of x and the range every real value of y. For these
cases, the domain and range are said to be the set of all real
numbers. Using mathematical symbols, this is expressed as:
Domain: x  R
This is read as: The domain of this function is such that x is an

element of the set of all real numbers.
Range: y  R
This is read as: The range of this function is such that y is an

element of the set of all real numbers.
If there is a finite domain or range, the set of values can be shown

using the inequation symbols, or brackets.
Square brackets [ ] are used if the end value indicated is included,

curved brackets ( ) used if the value indicated is not included.

Student Manual
Examples
Write down the domain and range for each of the following
relations:
1.
For the graph above: Domain: x  R

Range : y  -4 or [-4 , + )
2.
For the graph above: Domain: x  0 or [0 , +  )

Range : y  R
3.
For the graph above: Domain: -4  x  4 or [-4 , 4]

Range : -1  y  3 or [-1, 3]

Student Manual
Function The following relation shows the variable y as a function of x:

Notation
y = 2x2 - 2x +6
Using function notation this can be expressed as y = f(x)

(read as ‘y is a function of the variable x’) where
f(x) = 2x2 - 2x +6
While f(x) is the most commonly used symbol for function

notation, any letter may be used: g(x) or H(x) etc.
Function notation is useful when different values for x are to be

substituted into the relation. The value that is written within the
brackets is the value substituted into the relation.
Examples

Student Manual
Task 3.1 1. State whether each of the following is a relation or function and
Relations write down the domain and range for each.
and a) b)
Functions
c) d)
f)
2. If g(x) =  x 2  7x 13 , find the value of g(5), g(-1), and g(3)

3.Find f(-4), f(2) and f(0.5) if f(x) = x  2x  x  3
3 2
4. Find v(-3), v(4), and v(618) if v(x) =√100 − 𝑥 2 , (to 2 d.p.).
5. If f(x) = 3x 11 , find x when f(x) = 2575

2
6. Find the values of t for which f(t) = 14 given that f(t) = 2 t  12

7. Given that f(x) = x  5x  36 , find x when f(x) = 0 and f(x) = -22
2
8. Find the value of g(3) - g(2) + 3g(-3) if
𝑔 (𝑥 ) when 𝑥 > 2
𝑥+1 when −2 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
= 2𝑥 2 − 1 when 𝑥 ≤ 2
3

Student Manual
Part D Graphs of Algebraic Relations

Overview We have already met much of this material earlier in the course, in
Unit 2. In particular we met the idea that a factorised expression for
a function f(x) shows us the ‘zeros’ of the graph, and gives the
solutions for the equation f(x) = 0. Therefore much of this material
will be a useful review of earlier material.
Exploring We have already examined the domain and range of straight-line

Straight graphs. For further exploration of straight-line graphs, use the
Line spreadsheet Line Guessing. This is similar to an earlier spreadsheet,
Graphs but this time it also plots the line for which you have provided the
constants. This will serve to revise the ideas of gradient and
intercept.
Fill in the yellow cells with the possible constants and see what
straight line graph you have created, until your graph matches the
graph in the spreadsheet.
For tables that include zeros for y = f(x), notice that the equation
f(x) = 0 has the corresponding x-value as its solution. For example,
f(x) = 2x – 6 crosses the axis at x = 3, so x = 3 is a solution for
2x – 6 = 0. We can see this because we can factorise it:
2x – 6 = 2(x – 3) = 0.
Straight- There are two forms for which a function representing a straight-line
line graph (also called a linear relation) can be presented.
Graphs
 gradient - intercept formula: y  mx  b
m = gradient (slope)
b = y - intercept
 general formula: ax  by  c  0
a, b and c are constants
x y
 intercept formula:   1
a b
a and b are the x and y intercepts respectively
For straight-line graphs that are not parallel to the axes of the number
plane, Domain: x  R and Range : y  R
If two graphs drawn on the same number plane cross each other
at a point, they are said to intersect each other at that point
(point of intersection).

Student Manual
Examples Sketch the graph of y  2x 1 and find the value of the x –

intercept.
This function is in gradient intercept form where:

m = 2  gradient is how far the graph rises over how
far left (- gradient) or right (+ gradient) it
travels.
A gradient of 2 means that for every 2 units that the graph
rises, it also moves 1 unit to the right.
b = -1  the line crosses the y-axis at y = -1
Therefore the graph looks like:
For the value of the x-intercept, solve the relation for y = 0

 2x – 1 = 0
 x intercept is x = 05

Student Manual

Student Manual
Task 3.2 1. On a separate number plane, sketch the graph associated with each
Straight of the following gradients and y-intercepts:
Line a) gradient of 2, y-intercept of -1
Graphs b) gradient of –1, y-intercept of 3
1 1
c) gradient of , y-intercept of
3 2
4 3
d) gradient of − 3, y-intercept of 2
2. On a separate number plane, sketch the graph for each of the

following functions:
a) y = 2x + 4 b) 3y = 3x –5 c) 3y = 2x
d) 2y + x = 4 e) 2x + y –6 = 0 f) 4x + 2y +5 = 0
3. Sketch each of the following pairs of functions on the same

number plane and find their point of intersection:
a) x  y  4 and 3y  2x  3  0
b) 2y  4x 12 and 4x  2 y  10
c) x  2 y  4 and x  3y  3  0
5𝑥 𝑥 𝑦
d) 𝑦 = 4
and 2 + 3 − 1 = 0
Linear In order to solve some practical problems, it is necessary to translate

Modelling the relationships within those problems into mathematical symbols.
This process in mathematics is called modelling. Questions of this
nature were given in Unit 2 for solving simultaneous equations.
Linear (straight line) graphs can often be used to model practical

situations where the relationships stated in the problem are themselves
linear.
For these questions (as with all linear graphs), the dependent variable
is usually put on the vertical axis unless the question specifies
otherwise.

Student Manual
Example The length of a 16 cm spring changes when a mass is

added to the bottom of it. The change in length is twice
the value of the mass in kilograms (kg).
Draw the graph showing this relationship.
From the graph, find the length of the spring when

a mass of 15kg is attached to the bottom of the
spring. What length has the spring actually
continued…extended?
If the spring is 37cm long, what is the size of the
Further Let L represent the length of the spring (the dependent

Examples variable) and M represent the mass (independent variable)
added to the bottom of the spring.
From the question, the relationship between the length and

mass added is given by:
From the graph, when M = 15kg, L = 46cm ( _ _ _ _ )

 the length the spring actually extended = 46cm – 16cm
= 30cm.
c) If L = 37cm, from the graph, M = 105kg (............)
 the mass on the end of the spring is 105kg.

Student Manual
Task 3.3 1. A company that prints business cards charges a set-up fee of 400
Linear cents and then a further 250 cents for every 100 cards printed.
Modelling a) Draw the graph showing the relationship between the cost and
the number of cards produced.
b) From the graph, find the cost of printing 500 cards.
c) From the graph, how many cards could be printed for $900?
d) How much would it cost to have an order of 2500 cards made?
2. A paper aeroplane is thrown from the top of a 76m high building

and its height above the ground (0m) decreases by 8m after every
5 seconds.
a) Draw the graph showing this relationship between the height
of the plane and the time of its flight.
b) From the graph, how long will it take the plane to land on the
ground?
c) From the graph, how long has the plane been flying when it
is 535m above the ground?
Exploring Use the spreadsheet Parabola guessing to explore the behaviour of

Parabolas parabolas.
The six tabs for this spreadsheet give plenty of opportunity to develop
an understanding of the way the constants move the parabola about.
Notice that the zeros for f(x) show where the parabola crosses the x-
axis but these need not be integers and may not show up in the table.
If the graph ‘sits on’ the axis, then it has only one zero, and the
expression is a perfect square.
Parabolas with the coefficient of x2 negative will open downwards. But

their zeros will still indicate values that solve the same equation
f(x) = 0.
The parabola is the name given to the graphs of quadratic functions.

Parabolas
 general form: y  ax 2  bx  c
or
f x  ax2  bx  c
where a, b and c are constants and a 0
 factored form: y  f x  x  mx  n

or
= x xm 
or
=  x  m
2
where m and n are constants

Student Manual
The points (x-values) where the curves of quadratic equations intercept

with the x–axis are called the roots of the quadratic. These are the values
of x for which the quadratic equation equals 0.
All parabolas have an axis of symmetry. This is a line that passes

through the graph of a parabola at its maximum or minimum value
(called the vertex of the parabola). A line drawn perpendicular to the
axis of symmetry will cut the graph in two places at an equal distance
from it. Therefore, along this line, the graph can be folded over itself
exactly.
vertex axis of symmetry
The axis of symmetry is given by x  b

2a

Student Manual
The parabolas covered in this course can have two different forms: they
can have a maximum value (concave down) or a minimum value
(concave up). The word ‘concave’ here refers to the curve of the inside
of a parabola. If the inside curve is pointing up, then the parabola is
said to be concave up. Similarly, if the inside of the curve is facing
down, then the curve is concave down. If a question asks you to
determine the nature of the curve, it is asking whether the curve is
concave down, up or neither (this will be covered in more depth in the
calculus module).
The maximum and minimum values can also be referred to as

the maximum or minimum turning points.
The type of curve can be easily determined from the general form of
the quadratic function itself by looking at the sign of the constant a.
concave up concave down

maximu
m value
valu
a> e a<0
0
An easy way to remember this is that when you are happy, you are
positive about life. Therefore, if a is positive, the graph is a smile and
if a is negative, the graph is a sad face.
Another effect caused by the value of the constant a is the width of the
parabola. As a increases in magnitude, the parabola becomes ‘thinner’:

Student Manual
y  10 x 2
yx2
y  3x 2 y = 1 x2
4
2
Exploring The traditional formula x = [–b ± √b -4ac]/2a is based on completing
the the square. To get some understanding of how it works, and why the
Discriminant
value of (b2 – 4ac) is important in determining the number of solutions,
b2  4ac look at spreadsheet Quadratic graphs – Three terms.
Firstly, let’s separate the two parts of the expression. Each part is
divided by 2a.
2
x = [–b ±√b -4ac]/2a
The x-value for the lowest point, the vertex, is determined by the
values of b and a.
For example if a = 1, b = 6, the vertex is at x = –3, but if a = 2, b = 6.

the vertex is at –3/2. The vertex is at –b/2a. This is the first part of the
formula.
With a = 1 and b = 6, the vertex is at x = –3. But the solutions are equal
distances each side of –3. The constant c may have any value. But we
will try just some of them.
2
If c = 0, what is the value of √b -4ac/2a? It is √36/2 = 6/2 = 3.
Solutions are –3 ± 3 (–6 & 0)
2
If c = 5, what is the value of √b -4ac/2a? It is √16/2 = 4/2 = 2.
Solutions are –3 ± 2 (–5 & –1)
2
If c = 8, what is the value of √b -4ac/2a? It is √4/2 = 2/2 = 1. Solutions
are –3 ± 1 (–4 & –2)
2
If c = 9, what is the value of √b -4ac/2a? It is √0/2 = 0/2 = 0. One
solution: –3 ± 0 (–3 & –3)

Student Manual
When c is greater than 9 the graph rises above the x-axis, so there are
no solutions. So when c is greater than 9, what happens to (b2 –
4ac)?
For example, for c = 10, it is 36 – 4x10 = –4. No square roots are

possible and therefore no solutions!
The discriminant discriminates between the numbers of solutions.

It allows us to work out how many solutions a quadratic equation
will have without having to find them.
The In Unit 2, the quadratic formula was introduced as a method of

Discriminant
finding the values of x for which ax  bx  c  0. Part of the
2
quadratic formula b  4ac is called the discriminant and it is

2
represented by the symbol .
The discriminant can be used to quickly determine what type of roots

a quadratic equation has.
For the discriminant  = b  4ac:

2
 if  > 0, then the roots of the quadratic

are distinct (different) real numbers.
This means the graph cuts the x-axis in
two different places.
 if  = 0, then the roots of the quadratic
are equal real numbers.
This means the graph touches the x-

axis in one place only.
 if  < 0, then the roots of the quadratic
are imaginary.
This means the curve never crosses the x-

axis.

Student Manual
Considering all the factors mentioned so far, it is now possible to

sketch the parabola of a quadratic equation y  ax 2  bx  c.
Steps for graphing y  ax 2  bx  c:
1. Determine the concavity of the parabola

a > 0  concave up
a < 0  concave down
2. Substitute x = 0 into the equation to find the
y - intercept.
3. Calculate the discriminant to determine what
type of roots the quadratic has. If  < 0, skip
step 4.
4. Solve ax  bx  c  0 to find the values of the
2
roots.
5. Find the axis of symmetry of the parabola.
6. Find the coordinates of the maximum or
minimum turning point by substituting the value
for the axis of symmetry into the quadratic
equation:
𝑏 𝑏
i.e. the coordinates are [− 2𝑎 , 𝑓(− 2𝑎)]
7. Sketch the graph showing all important points.

Student Manual
Sketch the parabola y  x 2  3x 

Examples
10 . For y  x 2  3x  10 :
a = 1   a > 0 and the parabola is concave
up.
 the parabola has a minimum turning
point.
b) when x = 0  y  02  3 0  10
 = 32  4 1 10
= 10
c)  =𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 y
  = 49   > 0
 quadratic has real, distinct
roots.
d) when y = 0  x  3x 10  0
2
 x  5x  2  0
 x = 5 or x = 2
e) axis of symmetry
3
f) coordinates of minimum turning point (where x =2):
g)
x-intercepts
y-intercept (-2,0) , (5,0)
(0,-10)
Domain: x  R
Range: y  1225 minimum
point (15,-1225)
Note:
When labelling important points, just write the
coordinates next to them.

Student Manual
Examples
f) coordinates of maximum turning point

5
(where x = − ):
4

Student Manual
Examples Sketch the parabola y  x 2  x  2 .

For y  x 2  x  2 :
a = 1   a > 0 the parabola is concave up.
when x = 0  y = 2
y-intercept is (0 , 2)
  = 7   < 0
 quadratic has imaginary
d) axis of symmetryroots.
f)
Domain: x  R
Range: y  175
(0 , 2)
(-0.5 , 1.75)

Student Manual
Task 3.4 Sketch each of the following parabolas on a separate number plane
Parabolas and state their domain and range.
1. y  x 2  3 2. y  x 2  x 3. y  x 2  1
4. y  x 2  3x  3 5. y  x 2  4x  12 6. y  x  5x  3
7. y  2  xx  2 8. y = 2x  x 10 9. y  2x  5x  2

2
10. y  x 2  9 11. y  x 2  2x  3 12. y  x  3

2
13. y  3x2  7 
14. y  2x 2  20x  25 15. y   x2  4x  5 
Exploring Use the spreadsheet Cubics. Find many ways of making the graph
Cubic & intersect the axis at integer positions on the x-axis. These will
Quartic correspond to expressions that may be factorised.
Graphs
One factor will always produce at least one x-intercept, and the other
factor is a quadratic expression that may or may not factorise. Even if it
does not factorise with integer values, it might still produce a graph with
three intersections with the x-axis, where the factors are decimal values.
Three factors will produce only cases where the graph crosses the axis
in three places. It limits the value of the coefficient of x3 to 1.
Use spreadsheet Quartics – four factors. This will produce only cases
where the graph crosses the axis in four places. It limits the value of the
coefficient of x4 to 1.
Cubic graphs and quartic graphs represent algebraic expressions of

Cubic and degree 3 and 4 respectively.
Quartic
Graphs Cubic graphs
 general form: y  ax3  bx 2  cx  d
where a, b, c and d are constants and a  0.
 factored form: y  x  px  qx  r
where p, q and r are constants.
Quartic graphs
 general form: y  ax 4  bx3  cx 2  dx  e
where a, b, c, d and e are constants and a  0
 factored form: y  x  px  qx  rx  s
where p, q, r and s are constants.
These graphs are more complex than parabolas.

Student Manual
The formal algebra used to find the roots, points of inflection and
turning points of cubic and quartic functions can be very time
consuming and exceeds the scope of this module.
Modern methods used to sketch cubic and quartic graphs more

accurately will be covered in the calculus module in Level 3.
Here, the basic shapes of each curve will be looked at and sketches
drawn using the factored form of the equation.
When asked to sketch the curve of a cubic or quartic graph for this
module, you will be given the factored form of the function and will
need to determine the nature of the constant a by transforming the
factored form into the general form.
When you sketch the graph, you only need to select the correct graph
form, and show on the graph the x-intercepts and y-intercepts. It will
not be necessary to accurately determine the coordinates of turning
points, axes of symmetry, or points of inflection.
Cubic Graphs
The two basic forms of a cubic depend on the sign of the constant a.
a>0 a<0
The two graphs shown above have three distinct roots and show the
basic form of a cubic graph.
If the graph has a repeated (double) root or all of the roots are equal
(triple root), then the shape of the curve at these points changes
slightly.
repeated (double) root

all roots equal (triple root)

Student Manual
Quartic Graphs
The two basic forms of a quartic depend on the sign of the constant a.
a>0 a<0
The two graphs shown above have four distinct roots and show the basic
form of a quartic graph.
If the graph has a double/triple root or all of the roots are equal, then the
shape of the curve at these points changes slightly.
Repeated (double) root Repeated (triple) root
All roots equal (quadruple root)

Student Manual
Examples Sketch the graph of the cubic function, y  x  2x 1x  3
a>0
x-intercepts where y = 0
 x = 3, x = 1 and x = 2
y-intercept equals the product of the constants
y = (2)  (1)  3
=6
Draw a plotting box with a range from -3 to +2
X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Y 0 12 12 6 0 0
Expanding the plotting box and calculating

the corresponding y-values gives the
following.
X -3 -2 -1.5 -1 0 1 1.5 2
Y 0 12 13.1 12 6 0 -1.1 0
On a clean set of axes plot the points and join them

with a smooth line.
Sketch the graph of the quartic function, y  xx  3x 1x  4
a>0
 x = 0, x = 4, x = 1 and x = 3
 y = 0  (3)  (1)  4
=0

Student Manual
Examples
Draw a plotting box with a range from -4 to +3
X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Y 0 -72 -60 -24 0 0 12 0
Examining these values, it can be estimated that turning

points occur somewhere between x = -3 and x = -2; x = 0 and
x = 1; and, x = 1 and x = 3.
Expanding the plotting box and calculating the corresponding y-

values gives the following.
X -4 -3 -2.5 -2 -1 0 0.5 1 2 3
Y 0 -72 -72.2 -60 -24 0 2.8 0 12 0
On a clean set of axes plot the points and join them with a smooth
line.
When sketching a quartic graph, at this stage, be aware of the general

shape taking particular note of the smooth, non-pointed nature of
local maxima and minima.
Sketch the graph of y  1 xx  32

a<0
 x = 1, and x = 3
y- intercept equals the product of the constants
y=133
=9
In this case, there are 2 roots at x = -3, so we can sketch the point as a
x-intercept at x = -3.
Draw a rough plotting box with a range from -4 to +2, as

x = -3 is a local minima, pick a number near it to estimate the
steepness of the left hand side of the curve, i.e. x = -4.
X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Y 5 0 3 8 9 0 -25

Student Manual
By inspection, it can be estimated that the local

maxima occurs between x = -1 and x = 0. Plot all the
points and join them with a smooth curve.
y   
a<0
x = -2, and x = 4
y = [(4)  2  2  2]
= 32
In this case, there are 3 roots at x = -2 so, we can sketch a point
of inflection at x = -2.
Draw a rough plotting box with a range from -3 to +4:
X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Y 7 0 5 32 81 128 125 0

Student Manual
Task 3.5 Sketch each of the following graphs on a separate number line:
Cubic and 1. y  x 1x  4x  5 2. y  x  1x  22
Quartic
3. y  x 2x 4x6x8 4. y  2  x
Graphs 3
5. y  5  x2x  3x  42 6. y  x  32 x  42
7. y  x  43x  4 8. y = x(12 - 4x)(6 - x )

2
Use the spreadsheet Hyperbolas. The standard rectangular hyperbola

1
is f(x) = . You can make it with a = 1 and p and q both 0. Notice that
x
the curve gets closer to the x-axis: from above as x-values increase, and
from below as x-values decrease. The x-axis is called an asymptote.
Theoretically the values never actually touch it.
Similarly, the y-axis is also an asymptote. This is because, no matter

1
how small x becomes x only gets larger and larger. There is no value
for x = 0.
60
Make the value of a larger, so the curve becomes f(x) = x
. Find the

Student Manual
Hyperbolas Hyperbolas are a little different to the graphs seen so far due to the fact
that they are not one, but two, separate continuous curves. These curves
approach (get closer to without actually touching) two
lines which are called asymptotes.
Hyperbola Graphs
1
 xy 1 or y  x
- where x  0
- vertical asymptote  y-axis
- horizontal asymptote  x-axis
1
 y x + a
- where x  a
- vertical asymptote  x = a
- horizontal asymptote  x-axis
1
 y  x a
- vertical asymptote  y-axis
- horizontal asymptote  y = a
1
y 
1 y   +a
x
x+a

Student Manual
Examples
1. Sketch the graph y 
Domain: x  2
Range: y  0
x=2
vertical asymptote
Examples
1
2. Sketch the graph 𝑦 = 3
+3
horizontal asymptote
Domain: x  0
Range: y  3
y=3

Student Manual
Exploring Use the spreadsheet Circles and ellipses.

Circles
The difference between a relation and a function becomes obvious as
soon as you see the graph. For each value of x there are now TWO
values of f(x). A function is ‘single-valued’, a relation can be ‘many-
valued’. So functions, such as parabolas (where they are functions of
x), are examples of relations, but circles are not examples of
functions.
In the top left of the screen you can change the values of a and b. You
can change the values of m and n.
What do m and n do? (They give the coordinates of the centre of the
circle, but one of them does it in a ‘negative’ way!) Work out how to
put the centre at (2, 2).
Work out the effect of a and b. If they are equal, then we draw a circle
and the value of a = b is the radius.
Draw a circle with radius 5, and centre at (0, 0). We will use this to
understand how the relation works. The spreadsheet draws the circle
in two halves – top and bottom – because the computer can only draw
functions.
Choose a point on the circle, such as (3, 4). Imagine a right-angled

triangle with hypotenuse from (0, 0) to (4, 3). The theorem of
Pythagoras comes to mind: 42 + 32 = 52. The Pythagorean
relationship is true for all points on the circle.
So, the formula for a circle with its centre at the origin is:
When the centre of the circle (m, n) is located away from the origin,
the radius is now the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, and the
other sides are the x-difference (x – m) and the y-difference (y – n).
So, the circle formula is modified to:

(x – m)2 + (y – n)2 = r2 or
(𝑥 − 𝑚 )2 (𝑦 − 𝑛)2
+ =1
𝑟2 𝑟2
Check this out in the spreadsheet Circles and ellipses

Student Manual
Circles Circles are the only relations that are not functions covered in this unit.
Semicircles (half a circle) are still functions since they pass the vertical
line test.

Student Manual
Examples
Sketch each of the following graphs on a separate number line,

Task 3.6 stating the domain and range for each.
Hyperbola 1. x 2  y 2  49 2. x  52   y  22  1
and Circle
Graphs
3. x  1   y  2  20  25 4. 
2 2

        𝑦 = √84.64 − 𝑥 2

Student Manual
Part E Coordinate Geometry: Straight-line Graphs

Exploring Coordinate graphs represent functions and relations, but they can
Coordinate also represent shapes, and, in that way, we have coordinate
Geometry geometry.
Distance between Two Points
To find the distance between two points we think of it as the

hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle. Then we use the
Pythagoras Theorem to find the distance.
hypotenuse
y-difference
x-difference
Use the spreadsheet Coordinate geometry – first quadrant. Type

the coordinates of two points. Immediately the right-angled triangle
is drawn – unless the points have the same x or y-values. Type the
difference between the x-values (∆x), and the same for y-values
(∆y). Estimate the length of the hypotenuse.
The spreadsheet will use the formula to calculate it: ∆x2 + ∆y2 = d2,
so d = √(∆x2 + ∆y2)
Try it with the All quadrants tab.
Distance Pythagoras’ Theorem

Between Two
Points This theorem (rule) states that the square of the hypotenuse
of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides.
a2  b2  c2
This theorem is important to measurements in coordinate geometry
involving the distances between two or more points.

Student Manual
The distance of the interval PQ using Pythagoras’ theorem:
PQ 2  x 2  x 1 2   y 2  y 2
1
 PQ 

Therefore, the linear distance between any two points on the
Cartesian number plane can be found using:

Student Manual
Example
Exploring Midpoint of a Line Segment

Midpoint
of a Line The midpoint of a line segment is halfway along it; taking the
average of the x-values and the average of the y-values.
midpoint-x = (x1 + x2)/2, midpoint-y = (y1 + y2)/2
Back to Coordinate geometry – first quadrant. Once you enter

coordinates, your point is plotted. It is easy to see when it is correct.
Once you get it right you get ‘Y’ and ‘Y’ as well.
Try it with the All quadrants tab.
Midpoint The midpoint of a line is the point located half-way between the two
of a Line end points of the line:
The midpoint of a line with endpoints (x1 , y1) and (x2 , y2) has the
coordinates:

Student Manual
Examples
(2 ,8)
Task 3.7 1. Find the exact distance between the following points:
Distance a) (0 , 2) and (3 , 6) b) (2 , 3) and (1 , -4)
and c) (2 , -5) and (-3 , 7) d) (-3 , -8) and (5 , 7)
Midpoint e) ( -1 , 0) and (1 , -2) f) (5 , 9) and (-3 , 11)
2. Find the coordinates of the midpoint between:

a) (-2 , 5) and (6 , -7) b) (-1 , -1) and (-3 , 5)
c) (0 , -3) and (4 , 4) d) (-8 , 1) and (7 , -6)
e) (1 , 3) and (-3 , -1) f) (06 , 34) and (-4.6 , -52)
3. Show that the triangle with vertices P(3 , 4) , Q(-2 , 2) and R(1 , -1)
is an isosceles triangle.
4. Find the distance of the point (5 , -1) from the midpoint of the line
joining (6 , 9) and (2 , 4).
5. The following coordinates A(-2 , 3) , B( 1 , 0) ,C(2 , 4) and D(5 , 1)

are the vertices of a quadrilateral. Find the perimeter of the
quadrilateral (to two decimal places).
6. Find the exact values of m and n if:

a) (1 , -2) is the midpoint of (m , 0) and (-3 , n)
b) (m , 2) is the midpoint of (-5 , 6) and (6 , n)
c) the interval (6 , 5) and (2 , n) is 5 units long.

Student Manual
Gradient The gradient of a line as mentioned earlier is the slope. The direction
of the of the slope is determined by the sign out the front.
Line
Between rise
Gradient (m) =
Two
run
Points
= change in y-values
change in x-values
y2  y1
=
x2  x1
= tan  where  is the angle from
the positive x-axis measured
anti-clockwise to the line.
* The angle  is called the angle of inclination.
 
x x
Negative gradient Positive gradient
Examples 1. Prove that each of the points (0 , -1), (-2 , -5) and (2 , 3) are
collinear*.
*Collinear points are points that lie in a straight line.

Therefore, the gradient between them would be the
same.
Therefore the gradient between (0 , -1) and (-2 , -5) is:

m=
Now the gradient between (-2 , -5) and (2 , 3) is:

m= = 53
 2 2
=2
The gradients of both intervals are the same, therefore the
points are all collinear.
with
the x-axis (accurate to two significant figures)

 m = 19

Student Manual
Equation This section recalls much of what was done early in Unit 2.
of a
Straight Gradient of a Segment
Line The gradient is the ratio of the vertical rise to the horizontal run. (If
the vertical is a fall and not a rise, then it is negative gradient.)
��
The will remind you of the tangent ratio in right-angled triangles.
��
So, the gradient m = �� = tan ø where ø is the angle the line makes with the
��
x-axis
Equation of a Line Given Gradient and Intercept
The standard form for a line, given intercept b and gradient a is

y = mx + b. See diagram 1.
Equation of a Line Given Intercepts
If we know both intercepts, then we can readily work out the gradient
(change in y ÷ change in x) and proceed.
𝑑
If the y-intercept is d, and the x-intercept is e, then gradient is − . So
𝑒
d
y = – e x + d. See diagram 2.
Equation of a Line Given One Point and Gradient

If the line goes through the point (x1, y1), with a gradient of m, then the
y - y1
gradient m, is equal to
. Rearranging this we get
x - x1
y = m(x – x1) + y1. See diagram 3.
Equation of a Line Given Two

Points
Given two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), the gradient is the rise divided by
y2 - y1
the run: .
x2 - x1
Choose the correct one of these to complete the lower section

of spreadsheet Coordinate geometry – first quadrant, and then
also All quadrants. Repeat this for many different points until it
becomes easy.
Student Manual
Equation The equation of a straight line can be determined if given either:

of a
Straight  a value for the gradient and a coordinate that lies on the line.
Line This requires the use of the point-gradient formula.
or
 two coordinates that lie on the line.
This requires the use of the two-point formula.
Point-gradient Formula
 y  y1  mx  x1 
where x1 , y1  is the given point that lies on the line
and m is the gradient.
Two-point Formula
 y  y1 y2  y1

x  x1 x2  x1
where x1 , y1  and x2 , y2 are the given points
that lie on the line.
Examples

Student Manual
Task 3.8 1. Find the gradient of the straight line between:

Gradient and a) (-1 , 2) and (3 , 6) b) (2 , 3) and (1 , -4)
Straight Line c) (5 , 9) and (-3 , 11) d) (-3 , -8) and (5 , 32)
Equations e) ( -1 , 0) and (1 , -2) f) (2 , -5) and (-3 , 7)
2. For each of the lines in question 1, use the gradient to calculate

the size of the angle  that each line makes with the x-axis.
3. Find the equation of the straight line that has:

a) a gradient of 2 and a y-intercept of 3
2
b) a gradient of − 3 and passes through the point (1 , -4)
c) an angle of inclination () of 135 and a y-intercept of 2
d) an angle of inclination of 45 and passes through the point (2 , 5)
4. Find the equation of the lines that have the following points
lying on them:
a) (-2 , 5) and (6 , -7) b) (-3 , -1) and (-3 , 5)
c) (0 , -3) and (4 , 4) d) (-8 , 1) and (7 , -6)
e) (1 , 3) and (-3 , -1) f) (05 , 34) and (-4.5 , -62)
5. Find the equation of the line that passes through the midpoint
2
of (3 , 5) and (-2 , -3), and has a gradient of 5.
Exploring Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line

Perpendicular
Distance The formula for this is complex. The spreadsheet Perpendicular
distance will demonstrate what it measures, and allow you to verify
that the distance formula is correct.
Enter the gradient and intercept to draw a line (it is blue). Use the
x- value of the left and right of the line to draw the part of it you want.
Enter a point (x1, y1) not on the line. (If you use blanks it reads zeros
and gives the distance from the origin.)
The distance from your chosen point to a point on the line is drawn
(in purple) and calculated. The ‘perpendicular distance formula’ value
is calculated.
Now use the F9 key to move the point along the line, from thse
minimum value to the maximum. Somewhere along the line the purple
line will be perpendicular to the blue line – if not, change the minimum
or maximum. When the lines are perpendicular the calculated distance
values should be equal.

Student Manual
Perpendicular The perpendicular distance between a point and a straight

Distance line ax  by  c  0 is found using the following expression:
Example
Task 3.9 1. Find the perpendicular distance of:

Perpendicular a) the point (1 , 3) from the line 4x  3y 10  0
Distance
b) the point (-2 , 6) from the line x  y  0
c) the point (4 , -1) from the line 5x  12 y  4  0
d) the point (10 , 2) from the line joining the points (9 , 4) and (-2 ,6)
2. a) Find the distance between the points (-4 , 1) and (0 , 3).

b) Find the perpendicular distance of the point (4, 2) from the
line joining the points in part a).
c) Calculate the area of the triangle formed by these points.
3. The perpendicular distance between the point (5 , n) and the line

3x  4 y  7  0 is 12 units. Find the value of n.
Assessment In-class Test: Review of Units 1, 2 & 3

Event 1
This test is now due. You will be required to do this test in class
time under test conditions.
Assessment Assessment Event Reminder: Mathematical Terminology

Event 4 Logbook
Copy each of the terms written in bold print into your Mathematical
Terminology Logbook and use your own words to write a brief
definition for each term.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Plane, Solid and Euclidean Geometry GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals
Unit 4: Geometry: Plane, Solid and Euclidean Geometry

Part C Angles, Triangles and Quadrilaterals
Part D Plane Shapes
Part E Solid Figures

Overview In this unit, you will learn to apply methods and terminology used in
geometry to solve problems and communication information.
 identify and investigate types of angles

 identify and investigate planar shapes and their perimeter/area
 identify and investigate solid shapes and their surface area/volume. 

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals Plane, Solid and Euclidean Geometry

angle hectare polygon edge
Summary
of Terms vertex cubic transversal face
acute angle centimetre congruent prism
obtuse angle subtended similar cylinder
reflex angle arc trapezoid cone
revolution base kite sphere
complementary height diagonals hemisphere
supplementary plane circumference hypotenuse
adjacent two- length breadth pyramid
vertically dimensional radius parallelogram
opposite boundary diameter composite
corresponding perimeter oval ellipse
straight angle area solid units
cointerior region three- square
alternate triangle dimensional rectangle
parallel isosceles depth rhombus
exterior angle equilateral volume sector
interior angle scalene surface area segment
right angle circle cross section square metre
perpendicular semicircle perimeter circumference
quadrilateral

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Part C Angles, Triangles and Quadrilaterals

Names of An angle is formed when two rays (lines with an arrow at one end) or
the Basic arms meet at a common point which is called the vertex of the angle.
Parts of an
Angle ray BA
C
ray BC vertex
There are a number of ways that can be used to refer to this particular
angle. In this unit, the method used will be:
ABC or CBA
The letter at the vertex is always written in the middle.
Angle The list below shows the names given to angles of different sizes and
Types angles that have a particular relationship.
and Size
Angle diagram Angle type Angle size or

relationship
Acute angle 0 <  < 90


Right angle equals 90
Obtuse angle 90 <  < 180


Straight angle equals 180

Reflex angle 180 <  < 360

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Angle
Types Angle diagram Angle type Angle size or
and Size relationship
Revolution equals 360
Two angles that add

together to form a
 Complementary right angle (90)
 angles  +  = 90
Two angles that add

together to form a
Supplementary straight angle (180)
  angles  +  = 180
Two angles that

share a common
Adjacent angles vertex and lie on
opposite sides of a
common arm
Angles opposite each
120 other from the point
60 60 Vertically opposite of intersection of two
120 angles straight lines are
equal
Alternate angles
created when
Alternate angles parallel lines are cut
by a transversal are
transversal equal
Cointerior angles of
parallel lines are
  Cointerior angles supplementary
 +  = 180
Corresponding
angles created when
Corresponding parallel lines are cut
angles by a transversal are
equal
These terms are can be used to verify assumptions made when finding
the size of a pronumeral in a given question. In this section you will
not be required to state the geometrical theorem used to obtain your
answers.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Angle A: The sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180o.

Properties
a
ao + bo + co = 180o
bo co
B: The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two

interior opposite angles.
bo
ao
co
ao = bo + co
Special Triangles:
A: An equilateral triangle is one in which all sides and all angles are
equal (i.e. each angle = 60o).
60°
B: An isosceles triangle is one in which two of its sides are equal and
therefore the angles opposite those sides will be equal.
AB  AC
b°  c°
b c
B C
C: A scalene triangle has all unequal sides.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Quadrilaterals
A polygon with four sides is called a quadrilateral.
Special Quadrilaterals and their Properties:
A: Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides

parallel.
Properties of a Parallelogram:
a) The Opposite sides are equal.
b) The Opposite angles are equal.
c) The diagonals bisect each other.
B: Rectangle:
A rectangle is a parallelogram in which all the angles are 90o.
Properties of a Rectangle:
a) A rectangle has all the properties of a parallelogram.
b) All the angles are right angles.
c) The diagonals are equal.
C: Square
A square is a rectangle with all its sides equal.
Properties of a square:
a) A square has all the properties of a rectangle.
b) All the sides are equal.
c) The diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
d) The diagonals bisect the angles through which they pass.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
D: Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram with all its sides equal.
Properties of a Rhombus:
a) It has all the properties of a parallelogram.
b) All the sides are equal.
c) The diagonals bisect at right angles.
d) The diagonals bisect the angles through which they pass.
E: Kite
A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal.
Properties of a Kite:
a) Diagonals meet at right angles.
F: Trapezoid
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides

parallel.
A trapezoid is an isosceles trapezoid if the non-parallel sides are

equal.
In this special case: If AD  BC

then ADC BCD

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Examples
Use the angle properties presented in the table to find the
value of the pronumeral in each of the following:
1.
x
35
x + 35 + 73 = 180 (straight angle)

x = 180 108
x = 72
2.
(6a  15)
( a + 65)
6a  15 = a + 65 (vertically opposite)
 5a = 80
a = 16
3.

z
81
2y = 36 (corresponding angles of parallel

 y = 18 lines)
z = 81 (alternate angles of parallel
lines)sum of a straight line)
x + z + 36 = 180 (angle
 x = 180  117
 x = 63
4.
A B
E
52°
D C
ABCD is a Rhombus; ADE is equilateral.

If ABC  52o
a.) Find CDE giving reasons for your answer.

b.) Find CED giving reasons for your answer.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
SOLUTION:
a) ADC  52 (Opposite angles of a rhombus are equal)
o
ADE  60o (ADE is equilateral)

EDC  112o
b) Join EC;
ED =DC (AD=DC; Rhombus. AD=ED; Equilateral Triangle)
CED  ECD (base angles of isosceles triangles are equal)
BUT EDC 112 (Proven)
o
1
CED  180 112 (Angle of sum of triangle)
o
2
34o
5.
W
U
ABCD is a parallelogram.
BUDW is a parallelogram.
Prove AW = CU giving reasons for your answer.
SOLUTION:
Join BD to Meet AC at E.
Since ABCD is a parallelogram.
 AE  EC (Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other)
Similarly, WE  EU (Diagonals bisect each other)
By subtraction
WE  AE  EU  EC
WA  CU

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
6. B
90
E a°
A C D
In the diagram; BAE  a°

ABC  90° Prove BCD   270 a
Give reasons for your answer.
SOLUTION:
BAC 180 a° (angles in a straight line)
BCD  CBA  BAC
(Exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the
interior opposite angles)
BCD  180° − 𝑎° + 90°

 270° − 𝑎
Task Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following: 

4.1 
Angles 1. 108 2. 62 3. 2b

 n
x y a

 z w 6d 82
38°


4.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry


5. A E
B C D
ABC is an isosceles triangle in which:

AB=AC and BAC  40°
BC is extended to D. EB bisects ABC ; EC bisects ACD
i) Find the size of ABC giving reasons

ii) Find the size of BEC giving reasons
6
.
L M
NP is parallel to LM.
If NP bisects MNQ Prove LMN is isosceles.
7. B
ABCD is a Rhombus.
ADB 36°
Find the size of CAB

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Part D Plane Shapes

Plane Shapes Plane figures are two-dimensional (flat) closed shapes where the
boundaries consist of straight lines, curved lines, or a combination
of the two.
When a plane figure is only bounded by straight lines, it is called a

polygon (this means many-sided). Polygons are classified by special
names, according to the number of straight sides they have:
Name of Polygon Number of sides

Triangle 3
Quadrilateral 4
Pentagon 5
Hexagon 6
Heptagon 7
Octagon 8
Nonagon 9
Decagon 10
A polygon is called a regular polygon if all the sides are equal in

length and the angles are all the same size.
The total of the interior angles for any regular polygon can be
calculated by finding that you can always draw two fewer triangles
inside the polygon than the number of sides when starting at one
vertex. The interior angle is then that total divided by the number of
sides (n).
The sum of
interior angles = (𝑛 − 2) × 180°
for any polygon
The measure of
(𝑛 − 2) × 180°
an interior angle =
for a regular polygon
𝑛
Many plane figures that are only bounded by curved lines are called
circles or ellipses (which are sometimes also called ovals).
Perimeter The perimeter of a plane figure is the total length of the boundary (or
and Area edges) surrounding the closed shape, and the area is the size of the
of Plane region enclosed by the boundary in square units.
Shapes
The word circumference is a special term used instead of perimeter
for questions involving circles. Calculating the circumference and area
of circles involves the use of the irrational number  (called pi). For
these questions, you can either use your calculator or the approximate
value of   3142...

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Perimeter The tables below display the names of special plane shapes along
and Area of with the formulas used to calculate their perimeter and area.
Plane
Shapes
Trapezoid

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Perimeter Quadrilaterals
and Area
of Plane A=½
Shapes Rhombus P = 4a (product of
the
diagonals)
A=½
Kite P = 2a + 2b (product of
the
diagonals)
Circles
Circle
r
Half a circle = 2r
is called a = d
d=
diameter semicircle.
r= radius
P = 2r + l
Sector �
l=
Composite shapes are a combination of basic shapes such as the

ones tabled above. The areas of these more complicated shapes
can be found by splitting them up into their simpler shapes for
which you have the formula. The perimeter is calculated using
the total length of all boundaries enclosing the designated region,
part or shaded area of the composite shape.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Units of When calculating the perimeter, area or volume of a shape or solid,

Measurement a numerical answer without showing the units is not very informative.
All the measurement calculations in this course will be based on the
metric system. Measurement calculations based on the metric system
vary by powers of 10, similar to the decimal system outlined in Unit
1.
The table below shows the units and symbols used for length, area
and volume measurements.
Quantity Unit Name Unit Value

Measured Symbol
Length millimetre mm
centimetre cm 1 cm = 10 mm
metre m 1 m = 100 cm
kilometre km 1 km = 1000 m
Area square centimetre cm2 1 cm2 = 10 mm2

square metre m2 1 m2 = 10000 cm2
hectare ha 1 ha = 10000 m2
Volume millilitre mL
litre L 1 L = 1000 mL
kilolitre kL 1 kL = 1000 L
cubic centimetre cm3 1000 cm3 = 1 L
cubic metre m3 1 cm3= 1 mL

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Example Calculate the perimeter and area of the shaded region

shown in the figure.
63
cm
9 cm
Perimeter: Area:
P = 4  63 + 2    45 A =   (45)2  (63)2
= 53.48 cm = 23.94 cm2
Task 4.2 Calculate the area and perimeter for each of the following shaded
Perimeter regions (all diagrams are not drawn to scale, assume all round shapes
and Area are circles, and measurements are in centimetres):
1. 2.
36
10
78
42
3. 4.
21.65
80
18.7
5. 4 4 6.
8
125
8 10
17
13
15.2
12

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Similarity & Similar Shapes

Congruence
If two plane figures have the same shape but are different in size, then
they are said to be similar shapes. The corresponding angles of
similar shapes are equal, and the corresponding sides are in the same
ratio.
F
B
A E
D C
H G
Angles: ABC = EFG; BCD = FGH; CDA = GHE;

DAB = HEF.
Sides: AB  BC  CD  AD
EF FG GH EH
Symbol: ~
 quadrilateral ABCD ~ quadrilateral EFGH
In other words, the quadrilateral ABCD is similar to

the quadrilateral EFGH.
or
Quadrilaterals ABCD and EFGH are similar.
Areas of Similar Figures

x
If the ratio of corresponding sides is or x : y
y
�
then the ratio of the areas is 2 or x 2 : y 2
�
Similar Triangles 2
Two triangles are similar if they are the same shape, but not
necessarily the same size. There are three tests to determine if
triangles are similar.
a) Two triangles are similar if they are equiangular, i.e., 3
angles of one are equal to the 3 angles of the other.
A D
60° 60°
40° 80°
B C
40° 80°
ABC ~ DEF E F

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
2.
B C
If DE is parallel to BC
i) Prove ADE~ ABC
ii) Find the value of x
SOLUTION:
i) A is common
ADE  ABC (Corresponding angles on parallel lines.)
AED  ACB (Corresponding angles on parallel lines.)
 ADE ~ ACB (AAA)

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
If DE||AB
i) Prove CDEABC
ii.) Find the Value of x
SOLUTION:
ACB  DCE (Vertically Opposite Angles)
BAC  DEC (Alternate angles on parallel lines)
ACBDCE (AAA)
x 6
 5  9
 9x  30
30
x
9
1
3
3
Similarity & Congruent Shapes

Congruence
If two plane figures have the same size and shape, then they are said to
be congruent shapes. For these shapes, the size of the corresponding
angles and sides of both shapes are exactly the same.
Examples A D


B C F E
Angles: ABC = DEF; ACB = DFE; BAC = EDF.
Sides: AB = DE; BC = EF; AC = DF.
Symbol: ≅
 ABC ≅ DEF
In words, triangle ABC is congruent to triangle DEF
Or
triangles ABC and DEF are congruent

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
There are four tests (called assumptions) that can be used to prove
whether two triangles are congruent:
 SAS (side, included angle, side)
 SSS (side, side, side)
 AAS (angle, angle, side)
 RHS (right-angle, hypotenuse, side)
When presenting a proof, you must provide the reasons for

any assumptions made or conclusions drawn.
Example 1. Prove that ABC and DCA in the diagram below are
congruent triangles.
Here you can use any of the tests listed above that are appropriate.
For this example, the proof will be made using two different tests.
Proof: For the triangles ABC and DCA:
S: AC is common to both triangles

S: AD = BC (opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal)
S: AB = DC (opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal)
 ABC  DCA (SSS test)
Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
The proof could also have been done this way:
Proof: For the triangles ABC and DCA:

A: ACD = BAC (alternate angles of parallel lines,
AB||CD) A: DAC = ACB (alternate angles of parallel
lines, AD||BC) S: AB = DC (opposite sides of a
parallelogram are equal)
 ABC  DCA (AAS test)
Similarly, the proof could have been made using the SAS
test.
2. Prove that the two triangles WXZ and XYZ are
congruent. (WY is a straight line).
W Z
Proof: For the triangles WXZ and

XYZ:
R: WZX = YZX = 90 (given)
H: WX = XY = hypotenuse of triangle (given)
S: XZ common to both triangles
WXZ  XYZ (RHS test)
Task 4.3 1.
Similarity a) Prove XYZ ~ PYQ, given PQ∥ 𝑋𝑍 Y
and 3m 6m
Congruence
P Q
5m 7m
X Z
Hence find the value of a.
b) A B
D C
ABCD is a rectangle:
1.) Show DEFBFC
2.) If AD  2 AE Find the ratio of DF to FB

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
2. Prove that the triangles in each figure (a) to (c) are congruent.
a) D b) A c)

A C
C
B 95 95 E
D C E
B
AD and BC are straight

lines through
the centre O.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Part E Solid Figures

Solid Figures Solid figures are shapes that have depth (they are not flat),
and their measurements are given in three dimensions.
A prism is a special kind of solid which has a uniform cross

sectional area. This means that if you cut the solid along its
length into slices, each slice would be the same shape. These
prisms are named by the shape of their cross sectional area.
For Example:
A triangular prism
A pyramid is another special kind of solid. This solid is formed

when lines are drawn from the vertices of a plane shape to a
common point above the shape (called the vertex). These
solids are named by the shape of their base.
For Example:
A square pyramid
Volume The volume of a solid figure is the amount of space taken up by that figure
and in cubic units.
Surface
Areas of The capacity of a container is the volume of liquid that it can contain in
Solid litres. For conversions from cubic units to litres, see the measurement table
Shapes shown earlier in this unit.
The surface area of a figure is the sum of the areas of each face that makes
up the solid shape. This can also be referred to as the area of the net diagram
for the solid.
For Example:
The net diagram of the triangular prism above is:
The surface area of

the triangular prism
is the sum of all of
these areas that
form the net of the
prism.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Volume Diagram Name Surface Area Volume

and Prisms
Surface a
Areas of
Solid h b c SA=
Shapes V = Ah
d triangular eh+dh+fh+2 A
prism Where A is
f Where A is the area of
the area of the triangle
the triangle abc.
abc.
square SA = 6a
2
V=a
3
prism
(cube)
rectangular SA= V = abh

prism 2(ab + ah +
bh)
circular SA:
prism = V = r h
2
(cylinder) 2rh  2r 2
= 2r(h + r)
Pyramids
SA=
area ABC + 1
V= Ah
triangular area ACD + 3
pyramid area ABD + Where A is
area BCD the area of
the triangle
BCD.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Volume
and
Surface
Areas of
Solid
Shapes
Generally, the volume of a pyramid is the area of the base

multiplied by the height of the vertex from that base, and the
result divided by 3.
A sphere is a solid figure whose entire surface is equidistant from the

same fixed point (the centre). Half a sphere is called a hemisphere.
Example Calculate the volume and surface area of the following

figure
Surface
area: SA = 2(126 - 95) + 2(712 + 76 + 57 + 97) cm2
= (54 + 448) cm2
= 502 cm2
Volume:
V = (126 - 95)  7 cm3
= 189 cm3
Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry
Task 4.4 Calculate the surface area and volume for each of the following solid
Surface figures (all diagrams are not drawn to scale, and measurements are in
Area and centimetres):
Volume
1. The sphere below is hollow 2.
4. Convert each of your volume calculations for question 1 – 3 into

units used for capacity.
Assessment Event 4
Assessment Event Reminder: Mathematical Terminology Logbook
Copy each of the terms written in bold print into your Mathematics Terminology
Logbook and use your own words to write a brief definition for each term.
This logbook is to be submitted in Weeks 4, 8 & 12 and forms part of your overall
assessment. It is due next at the end of Unit 6.

Student Manual
Unit 4: Geometry

Student Manual
Unit 5: Trigonometry GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals
Unit 5: Trigonometry
Part C Trigonometric Ratios
Part D Angles of Elevation and Depression
Part E Sine and Cosine Rules
Part F Bearings
Part G Exact Trigonometric Ratios and Angles of Any Magnitude
Part H Radian Measure and Applications
Overview In this unit, you will learn to apply trigonometric methods to solve
problems and communicate information.
• investigate the lengths of sides and the size of angles for various
triangles
• apply trigonometric methods to solve a variety of problems
• understand and use radian measure to circles.

Student Manual
GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals Unit 5: Trigonometry

adjacent side sine reciprocal
Summary
of Terms opposite side cosine secant
hypotenuse tangent cotangent
cosecant angle of depression clockwise
horizontal angle of elevation three figure bearings
vertical quadrant true bearings
reference angle compass bearings arc
inclined included angle radian
line of sight heading unit circle
sector chord minor segment

Student Manual
Part C Trigonometric Ratios
Introduction Trigonometric Ratios and Right-angled Triangles
There are variations among countries about how trigonometry is

introduced. However, the most useful is the ‘unit circle’ approach.
This is the basis of the spreadsheet Trigcircle. There are three tabs.
Start with sin, cos.
Exploring The circle has a radius of 1 unit. The angle (in degrees) is shown near
Trigonometric the origin. The coordinates of the point on the circle intersected by the
Ratios arm of the angle are shown (to two decimal places).
The vertical one is called the sine of the angle (e.g. sin 42° = 0.79)
and the horizontal one is called cosine (e.g. cos 42° = 0.62).
The angle may be changed using the F9 key; hold it down or tap it to
change by one degree at a time.
You will quickly see that it is possible to have trig ratios for angles
larger than 90°. Sometimes cos is negative, and sometimes sin is
negative; also sometimes both are negative. We refer to quadrants:
• first quadrant (0–90°) where both are positive

• second quadrant (90°–180°) where sin is positive and
cos is negative
• third quadrant (180°–270°) where both are negative
• fourth quadrant (270°–360°) where sin is negative
and cos is positive
Now look at the tab for tangent. It is not well-known that this is
called tangent because it is the value on the tangent where the arm of
the angle meets a tangent to the circle. (A tangent is a line that just
touches a curve, and the tangent referred to is the green line at the
right of the circle.)
Look at the tangent for 37°. The value given is 0.75. The other ratios
are sin (0.6) and cos (0.8). The fraction sin/cos = 0.6/0.8 and this is
also 0.75. This is an example of the general relationship:
sin/cos = tan.
The value of tan 45° is exactly 1. As the angle increases, the value
approaches infinity. As this is rather too large to be shown on a small
screen the values are shown but not the actual intersection.
Once the angle is larger than 90° the tangent values are negative. The
arm of the angle is extended backwards to intersect the tangent. You
can see that the tan ratio is negative in the second and fourth
quadrants and positive in the others.
Note that this is consistent with the relationship sin/cos = tan.

Student Manual
• first quadrant (0–90°) where sin and cos are positive,

tan is positive
• second quadrant (90°–180°) where sin is positive and
cos is negative, tan is negative
• third quadrant (180°–270°) where sin and cos are
negative, tan is positive
• fourth quadrant (270°–360°) where sin is negative
and cos is positive, tan is negative.
Right-angled Triangles
Now let’s make sure we see how they work for the special case of
right-angled triangles, and define the three other ratios in relation
to the ‘big three’.
The diagram shows the two basic triangles.
Any right-angled triangle can be seen as an enlargement (or

reduction) of one of these.
• If the problem involves the angle, the side opposite (or

adjacent to) the angle and the hypotenuse, use the triangle
on the left. Then use scale factor h to match the hypotenuse.
To find the sides, opposite = h sin ø, and adjacent = h
cos ø. This may then be used to find any of the three
sides or the angle.
• If the problem involves the angle, the side opposite the angle
and the side adjacent to the angle, use the triangle on the
right. Then use a scale factor b to match the bases.
So, the side opposite = b tan ø. Use this to find base,

hypotenuse or angle.
For problems involving the other three ratios, recall their

definitions:

Student Manual
1 1 1
cosec = , sec  , cot 
sin  cos  tan
Use these definitions to switch to one of the three major ratios, and
proceed.
Sine, For right-angled triangles, the sides are given specific names as
Cosine shown:
and
Tangent
Hypotenuse
Opposite

Adjacent
The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right-angled triangle,

opposite to the right-angle.
The position of the angle of reference (in this case ), determines
which sides are the opposite or adjacent sides of the right-angled
triangle.
Pythagoras found that for all right-angled triangles, the square of the
hypotenuse was equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
From these relationships it followed that there was also a fixed
relationship (ratio) between the internal angles and the lengths of the
sides.
The Sine (sin), Cosine (cos) and Tangent (tan) of a positive acute
angle  can be defined as the ratios of the lengths of the sides of a
right-angled triangle.
These ratios are as follows:
opposite
 sin �=
sin 
hypotenuse
adjacent
 cos
cos � =
hypotenuse
opposite
 tan
tan � =
adjacent
A way often used to remember these ratios is SOH CAH TOA.

Student Manual
The corresponding sides of similar triangles are in the same

ratio/proportion to each other. Therefore, the values of the
trigonometric ratios depend only on the size of the reference angle
, and not the particular right-angled triangle used to calculate the
ratio.
Trigonometric Applying Pythagoras’ Theorem to the internal angles of a right-

Ratios angled triangle, the following relationship was established:
sin2  cos2 1
Often it is convenient to remember the values of the sine of

common angles. The following table lists some common acute
angles and their values in surdic and decimal forms:
Angle Value Approximation
sin(0 ) = 1 0.0000
√0
2
sin(30 ) = 1 0.5000
√1
2
sin(45 ) = 1 0.7071
√2
2
sin(60 ) = 1 0.8660
√3
2
sin(90 ) = 1 1.0000
√4
2

Student Manual
Cosecant, The Cosecant (csc, cosec), Secant (sec) and Cotangent (cot, ctn) of
Secant and a positive acute angle  can be defined as the reciprocal ratios of the
Cotangent common ratios shown above. These ratios are as follows:
An easy way to remember which ratio they are the reciprocal of is

by looking at the third letter in their name:
1
cosecant  = (sin )-1 =
sin
secant  = (cos )-1 = 1
cos
cotangent  = (tan ) -1 1
tan
=
You can also remember that there is one and only one “CO” in a pair.
So Sine pairs with Cosecant and COsine pairs with Secant.
The following examples show how to solve trigonometric equations
and apply trigonometric ratios to find the length of a side (or the size
of an angle) in a right-angled triangle.

Student Manual
Examples Solve each of the following equations:

𝑥
cos30 
 x = 3  cos30
= 260 (to two decimal places)
b) sin 
to find the acute angle, you use

the sin-1 function on your
 acute angle calculator
only
  = sin-1
 = 4859 (decimal answer)

or
= 4835
decimal answer with 60 and rounding the answer off to zero

decimal places.
Minutes are smaller units of degrees, and Seconds are smaller

units of Minutes.
To convert decimal Degrees (a measurement of an angle

incorporating a decimal point) to Degrees-Minutes-Seconds
(which are expressed as integer units) divide the given decimal
degree by 60 to get degrees  then divide the remainder by 60 to
get minutes then divide the remainder by 60 again to get
.
Note: Your calculator should have a button that easily allows you to make
these conversions. You should always provide the answer to a problem in
the same units as the problem was specified, unless requested to do
otherwise.
c) cot 30 �

  now cross multiply

x = 2  tan 30
x = 115 (to two decimal 

Student Manual
Examples
2. Find the value x in each of the following triangles (accurate to
two decimal places):
a) b)
a) the ratio that includes the b) the ratio that includes

opposite side and the opposite and
hypotenuse is the sine ratio adjacent sides
15 is the tangent ratio.
sin 52 = x
x
15 tan 60 =
x= 5
sin 52°
 x = 5  tan 60
or x = 1904cm (to 2 d.p.)
or x = 866cm (to 2 d.p.)
Evaluate the value of  for each of the

following:
b)
a) the ratio that includes the b) the ratio that includes the
opposite side and the adjacent side and the
hypotenuse is the sin ratio hypotenuse is the cos ratio.
43 8
sin  = cos  =
  = sin-1   = cos-1
or  = 2854 or  = 6642
or  = 2832 or  = 6625 

Student Manual
Task 5.1 Trigonometric Ratios
1. Solve each of the following trigonometric equations (accurate to 2

decimal places where appropriate):
2. Find the acute angle solution to each of the following (in degrees
and minutes):
3. Find the length of the side a in each of the following (answers

accurate to two decimal places):
a) b) c)
318
33 mm
a 293 m
5620
128 cm a
4. Find the length of the side x in each of the following using the
inverse trigonometric ratios (answers accurate to two decimal
places) :
a) 156 m b) c) 3591 cm
73
1187 m
x 
x 237
5. Calculate the value of  in degrees and minutes for the following:
a) 3 b) c)
1
26 5 11

34 
6. Calculate the value of  in degrees and minutes for the following

using inverse trigonometric ratios.
a) b) c)
178

 5
132
   3 


Student Manual
Examples
1. Find the length of AD in the following if BCA = 65;
BDA = 33 and BC = 2 cm (accurate to two decimal
places).
33
 
2 cm C
To find the length of AD, you first need to find the length
of AB.
AB
Now, tan 65  AB = 2  tan 65
=
= 4.29 cm (2 d.p.)
AB
 sin 33  AD =
=
= 7.87 cm (2 d.p.)
2. Calculate the size of the angle  in the following

diagram if
EAC = 40; AB = 18 m and AC = 22 m.
First find the length of CE, then use the length of DE to solve
problem: EC  EC = 22  tan 40
tan 40 =
EC = 1846 m
 DE = 1846  18 = 046 m
046
tan  =   = tan-1 0.46
22
. 

Student Manual
Task 5.2 Trigonometric Ratios
Calculate the values of x (to 1 decimal point),  and .

2. a) A window on the side of a building is 243 m above the
ground. What size angle would a 30 m ladder make to the
ground if it was used to enter this window (answer in degrees
and minutes)?
b) If a 42 m ladder was used instead of the ladder in part a), how
much further away from the building will the base of the ladder
be?
3. Find the value of  and  accurate to the nearest whole

degree.
4.
x




a) A mass hangs between two walls on a piece of string as shown
above. Calculate the length of the string holding the mass
(accurate to one decimal place).
b) If the walls are both 82 m high, how far above the ground is
the mass?

Student Manual
Calculate the straight-line distance x accurate to 2

decimal places, and the angle  rounded off to the
nearest minute.

Student Manual
Exploring One relationship that can be explored using the spreadsheet Trigcircle
Complementary is the ratios for complementary angles (= angles that add to 90°).
Angles
• sin ø = cos (90° – ø) and hence cos ø = sin (90° – ø)
sin 37° = 0.6 and cos 37° = 0.8. sin 63° = 0.6 and cos 63° = 0.8.
The sine of any angle is the cosine of the complementary angle. This
applies even for angles larger than 90°.
• tan ø = 1/tan(90° – ø)
Look at the tangent for 37°. The value given is 0.75. The other ratios
are sin (0.6) and cos (0.8). The fraction sin/cos = 0.6/0.8 and this is
also 0.75.
Now look at the tangent for 63°. The value given is 1.33. The other
ratios are sin (0.8) and cos (0.6). The fraction sin/cos = 0.8/0.6 and this
is also 1.33.
tan 63° is the reciprocal of tan 37°. In general, tan Ø = 1/tan(90° – Ø).
Complementary
Angles Looking at the following diagram, a relationship based on
complementary angles can be seen between the trigonometric ratios.
(90 - )
y
sin  = = cos (90  )
cos  = = sin (90  )
tan  = = cot (90  )
sec  = = csc (90  )
csc  = = sec (90  )
cot  = = tan (90  )
The complementary angle relationships shown above can be used to

simplify harder trigonometric problems.

Student Manual
Examples 1. Simplify cos 61 + sin 29

from the relationships above:
sin 29 = cos (90  29) or similarly cos 61 = sin (90  61)
= cos 61 = sin 29
 cos 61 + sin 29 = cos 61 + cos 61 or = sin 29 + sin 29
= 2cos 61 = 2sin 29
2. Find the value of y if cos (2y + 5) = sin (3y  15)

from the relationship above:
2y + 5 = 90 – (3y – 15)
2y + 5 = 90 –3y +15
5y = 100
y = 20
Task 5.3 Complementary Angles
1. Simplify each of the following:

a) tan 50  cot 40 b) sec 75 + csc 15
cos 35 tan 25  cot 65
c) d)
sin 55 tan 25
2. Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following:

a) sin 78 = cos (50  2k)
b) cos (t +29) = sin (3t + 41)
c) csc (34  2r ) = sec (r + 56)
d) tan (15 + m)  cot (2m + 60) = 0
e) sec (67  5x)  csc (23  3x) = 0

Student Manual
Part D Angles of Elevation and Depression
Angles of For problems involving distances that cannot be measured directly

Elevation (for example, the height of a tree, radio tower, cliff, building, etc.),
and reference can often be made to the angles of elevation and
Depression depression to assist with such calculations.
Angle of Elevation
When you look up at an object, the angle between the ground (or
horizontal) and your line of sight is referred to as the angle of
elevation.
Line of
Sight
Horizontal
The angle , is the angle of elevation of B from A
Note:
Some questions may include someone walking up a slope or incline.
In these questions, you will be given the angle the path makes with
the horizontal. This angle is called the incline angle or angle of
inclination, not the angle of elevation.

Student Manual
Angle of Depression
When you look down to an object that is below you, the angle between
the horizontal and your line of sight is referred to as the angle of
depression.
Horizontal A
Line of
Sight
The angle , is the angle of depression of B from A.
Examples The angle of elevation of the top of a building at a point 62 m

from its base is 53°37’. What is the height of the building (to
the nearest whole metre)?
Always draw a basic diagram to illustrate the question.
62 m5337’
Height of building (h) = 62 x tan 53°37'

= 84m (to the nearest whole metre)
From the top of a 105 m cliff overlooking the ocean, the angle
of depression to a boat sailing past is 24°12'. How far is the
boat away from the base of the cliff (to two decimal places)?
Distance of boat from base of cliff (x) = 105 / tan 24°12'

= 233.64 m

Student Manual
Task 5.4 Angles of Elevation and Depression
1. From a point 72 m away from the base of a tree, the angle of

elevation to the top of the tree is 36 degrees. Calculate the height
of the tree (to the nearest whole metre).
2. From the top of a lighthouse 87 m above sea level, the angle of

depression of a ship observed by the lighthouse keeper is 16
degrees. How far is the ship away from the lighthouse (to 2
decimal places)?
3. A road rises uniformly 6 m for every 200 m traveled along the road.
At what angle is this road inclined to the horizontal (to the nearest
whole degree)?
4. A 2 m tall person observes a frog 5 m away. What is the angle of

depression of the frog (to the nearest minute)?
5. The top of a tree casts a shadow 56 m long when the angle of

elevation of the sun is 6530. How high is the tree?
6. From a point 7 m above the ground, the angle of depression of the

base of a building is 18 and the angle of elevation of the top of
the building is 47.
47
7m
a) Calculate the horizontal distance from the point of observation

to the building (to the nearest metre).
b) Calculate the height of the building (to the nearest metre).
7. A person is walking along a flat path towards a 138 m high

television tower. At first, the angle of elevation to the top of the
tower is 28, and after walking a bit further the angle of elevation
to the top of the tower is 49. How far has the person travelled
while walking towards the tower (to two decimal places)?
8. Challenge Question
A person on a boat at sea observes the angle of elevation to the top
of a vertical cliff to be 2515. After driving the boat 800m towards
the cliff, the angle of elevation to the top of the cliff has changed to
be 6318. Calculate the height of the cliff (to the nearest cm).

Student Manual
Part E Sine and Cosine Rules

Exploring Solving a triangle means finding the remaining three side
Non Right lengths and angles given any three of them. This applies to all
Angled triangles, not just those with one right angle. To do this
Triangles
requires use of two formulas that can be proved true for any
triangle.
The descriptions below and in the spreadsheet Sine, cosine and

area rules use the labels as follows: the side lengths are small letters
a, b and c, and these are opposite the angles A, B and C.
Exploring
the Sine Sine Rule
Rule This rule relates the ratio of the sine of each angle to its side length;
this makes sense, as longer sides are always opposite longer angles.
Plus, in a right-angled triangle, the hypotenuse - the longest side - is
opposite the largest angle (90°).
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
Here is how to show that it is true.
We simply express the height of the triangle as c sin A, or a sin C.

These are equal.
So c sin A = a sin C. Divide both sides by sin A sin C to get the first
and last of the ratios above. The others follow by using different
heights.
So if you know one side and two angles each side of it (A, b and C),
you can use this formula to find the second side (a) and the third side

Student Manual
(a). The third angle B is (180 – A – C). See the spreadsheet Sine,
cosine and area rules – ASA.
If you know two sides and the angle between them (c, A, b) you can
use this formula to find the second angle (C) and then the third angle
B (180 – A – C). Then also use the sine rule to find the one missing
side a. See the spreadsheet Sine, cosine and area rules – SAS.
Warning: To find the missing angle C you will need to find the angle
that has a particular sine value. However you have learned that there
are two angles under 180° that have the same sine value.
From the context (or a sketch of the triangle) you will have to decide
whether the answer is obtuse or acute.
In the following two triangles the marked angles have the same sine
value. Only the acute angle is shaded.
Sine The relationship between the sine of each angle and the corresponding
Rule opposite side of a non-right angled triangle is as follows:
In any ABC, the sine rule states that the sides (a,b and c) of
the triangle are proportional the sines of the opposite angles.
� � �
= =
sin � sin � sin �
This form is easier to use when finding the length of a side.
or
sin � sin � sin �
= =
� � �
This form is easier to use when finding the size of an angle.
The sine rule can be applied to solving problems involving non right-
angled triangles when given:
1. the size of two angles and the length of one side;

2. the length of two sides and the size of the angle opposite
one of them.

Student Manual
Exploring Area of any Triangle

the Area of
any The rule for the area of any triangle is easy to produce.
Triangle
It is based on the well-known rule for the area of any triangle:
Area = 0.5 x base x height.
We simply express the height of the triangle as c sin A, or a sin C, as

we did to prove the sine rule.
So
Area = 0.5 bc sin A
or
Area = 0.5 ab sin C.
This also works when the angle is greater than 90°, as the
triangle area depends only on its base and height, not that the
vertex is over the base. (All triangles with the same base and
height have the same area.)
To explore this use the spreadsheet Sine, cosine and area rules
– Triangle area.
The sine ratio can also be extended to finding the area of any triangle.
Area of a
Triangle
In any ABC, the area of the triangle is half the product of two
sides and the sine of the included angle (the angle formed by
those two sides).

Student Manual
Examples: 1. Find the length of the side BC correct to one decimal place
Sine rule
and calculate the area of the triangle to the nearest m2.

c 13.4 m

C a B
= 231 m (to one decimal

place)
 The area of ABC =
= 119 m2 (to the nearest m2)
Find the size of  (XYZ) correct to the nearest minute

and calculate the area of the triangle to the nearest cm2.
14334
7291 cm
cm
Z  Y
sin 
sin � = 72  91
sin12124'
 7291sin 12124'
� 
1
sin   143.
.34 
 = 2573
= 2544
Before the area can be calculated, we need to find the size of
YXZ
180 2544 +

The area of XYX
=
= 2836 cm2 (to the nearest cm2)

Student Manual
Exploring Cosine Rule

the
Cosine One of the most common problems provides information on the three
Rule sides of a triangle and no information about angles. In this situation,
we need the cosine rule.
To explore what the cosine rule represents, look at the spreadsheet

Sine, cosine and area rules – Triangle with squares.
First, set the spreadsheet up with any side length b, 90° for angle A
and any angle C. (Note that the diagram only makes sense if the angle
C stays under 90°.) You will see that the values of a, c and angle B
are already calculated.
This is a right-angled triangle, and the values of b2, c2 and their sum
b2 + c2 are calculated. The value of a2 is also calculated, and the
difference between a2 and (b2 + c2) is 0. Of course, this happens
because of a fact proved by Pythagoras: a2 = b2 + c2. But this is only
true for right-angled triangles.
Change the value for angle C, while keeping angle A = 90°, and see
that it is true. Now change the value of angle A to make it smaller.
The smaller it gets, the smaller side a gets, and a2 gets less than
(b2 + c2). We can prove that the difference is 2bc cos A.
We have to subtract 2bccos A from the value of b2 + c2 to get the

value of a2. So:
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A.
Now change the value of angle A. Make it larger than 90°. The larger
it gets, the larger side a gets, and a2 gets more than (b2 + c2). We can
prove that the difference is 2bc cos A. We have to add something to
the value of b2 + c2 to get the value of a2. But the value of cos A is
now negative because A is obtuse (between 90° and 180°), so it is still
true that
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A.
Look at the spreadsheet Sine, cosine and area rules – SSS. This
presents the problem with three sides and no angles known. To use
the cosine rule to find an angle, we need to rearrange it with cos A as
the subject of the formula.
Use this version of the cos rule to find two angles, and subtract the
total from 180° to find the third angle.
Note: It is possible to try to find the solution given two sides

and an angle NOT between them. In this case there will be two
solutions, or no solutions, or in a special case one solution
when the angle opposite the bases happens to be 90°. To
explore this, use the spreadsheet Sine, cosine and area rules –
ASS.

Student Manual
The relationship between the cosine of an angle and the sides of a

non right-angled triangle is as follows:
Cosine
Rule
The cosine rule can be applied to solving problems involving non

right-angled triangles when given:
1. the length of two sides and the size of the included

angle;
2. the length of three sides.
Examples:
Cosine
Rule
 2  2  2
2 5 64816
cos ACB = 081554091
ACB = cos-1(081554091)
ACB = 35359

Student Manual
Task 5.5 1. Use the appropriate rule to calculate the length of the sides marked
Sine and x in each of the following triangles (to two decimal places).
Cosine a) b)
Rule
A X
75
3  9627 m 3243 Y
0
89x
B  C
x Z
c) d) 6467 m
Y A B

9442
km 5439
 m
X Z
7833 km
C
2. Use the sine rule to calculate the area of each of the triangles in
Question 1 (to two decimal places).
3. Use the appropriate rule to calculate the size of the angle marked 
in each of the following triangles (to the nearest minute).
a) A b) X 1761 cm Y
12011
1046 m
892 m  4018 cm
 B Z
C 710 m
c) X 3525 m Y d) A



4133 m 9916 60
46 m m

 
Z C
8245 m
4. In the triangle ABC, angle A = 2802, angle B = 4210 and

AC = 6m. Calculate the length of AB (to two decimal places).

Student Manual
5. In triangle XYZ, YZ = 13 cm, XZ = 7 cm and XY =10 cm. Calculate:

a) the size of XYZ;
b) the length of the perpendicular line from X to the side YZ;
c) the area of the triangle XYZ.
6. Two points P and Q are on the same bank of a river 82 m apart

from each other. The point R is on the other bank (side) of the
river. If QPR = 7835 and PQR = 7218, calculate the width
of the river assuming all points are on the very edge of the bank
(to one decimal place).
7. From point A, a surveyor records the angle of elevation to the top

of a distant radio tower to be 3447. She then walks up a straight
path inclined at 6 to the horizontal for 22 m to point B. At this
point, the angle of elevation to the top of the tower is 5731.
Calculate the height of the tower above point B (to one decimal
place).
8. The angle of elevation of a plane flying at a constant altitude

(height) of 2000 m from an observer on the ground is 483.
After a few seconds, the same observer notices that the angle of
elevation of the plane has changed to 152. How far has the plane
travelled in this time (to the nearest whole metre).
2000 m
483 152
Observer
Assessment Project 2 should now be commenced. It is due one week

Event 2 from today.

Student Manual
Part F Bearings
Introduction These are used in navigation. Angles are measured clockwise from
North from 0° to 360°, no matter where you are. Use the spreadsheet
Bearings to explore this.
Exploring Each row in the yellow table gives a distance at a certain bearing.
Bearings This is added to the path being drawn. Try to draw a triangle, or a
square, or other polygons. The scale goes ten units up, down left or
right from the origin.
Bearings Bearings are angles of direction in a horizontal plane. They are

used to identify the direction in which an object is located with
respect to another (the point where the bearing is being taken from).
There are two common methods used to give the bearings of one
object from another:
 Three figure bearing (known as True bearings);
 Compass bearing.
Bearings use the compass to indicate the direction of one point from
another:
N (North)
W E
(West) (East)
S (South)
If the location of another point is exactly North, or exactly East, etc.

from the point where the bearing is being taken from, then the
location of that point is said to be due North, or due East, etc.
Three Figure Bearings
As the name suggests, these bearings are written as a three-figure

number that indicates the size of the angle measured clockwise
from True North (hence the reason for their other name of true
bearings). The bearing is followed by the upper-case T to indicate
it is a true bearing.
N
000T
W E
270T 090T
S
180T

Student Manual
Compass Bearings - The direction North or South is written first,

followed by the size of the angle swept East or West.
Examples Write down the bearing of each point A, B, C and D from

O using: a) True bearings
b) Compass bearings
N
A
D
63 56

W o E
24 70

C
a) True bearings b) Compass bearings

Bearing of A from O is: 056T N56E
Bearing of B from O is: 160T S20E
Bearing of C from O is: 246T S66W
Bearing of D from O is: 297T N63W
;
Write down the bearing of O from each of the points A,B,C

and D in question 1.
To do this, you pretend there is a new compass at each
point and then write down the direction of O from that
point.
a) True bearings b) Compass bearings

Bearing of O from A is: 236T S56W
Bearing of O from B is: 340T N20W
Bearing of O from C is: 066T N66E
Bearing of O from D is: 117T S63E
Note: The bearings are quite different depending on

where the bearing is being taken from. Therefore care
must be taken in questions to ensure the bearing you use
is the correct one.
An aeroplane flies on a bearing of 197T from A to B. If B is 70

kilometres further west than A, calculate how far the aeroplane has
flown (to one decimal place).
First step is to draw a diagram of the problem; then use the
appropriate method for measuring triangles to solve it.

Student Manual
Examples
The same method is used for all bearing problems encountered in this
course. Some questions may require you to apply the sine and cosine
rules.
Task 5.6 1. Write down the bearing of each point A,B,C and D from O using:
Bearings a) True bearings
b) Compass bearings
N
 
W O E

40
C S B
2. Write down the bearing of O from each of the points A ,B ,C and

D in question 1.

Student Manual
Task 5.6 3. A woman walks along a straight road on a bearing of S44E from
Bearings her house A to the shop B. If A is 153 m further west than B,
calculate to the nearest m how far she walked to get to the shop.
4. A railroad runs due east from Hillsdale station to Wonderville, a

total distance of 12 km. The centre of the city bears 140T from
Hillsdale and 170T from Wonderville. How far is Wonderville
from the centre of the city?
5. A hiker walking due west turns at point A to a bearing of N72W

to avoid a large swamp. She continues to walk in this direction for
380 m to point B, where she turns and walks on a bearing of S42W
until she reaches point C which is due west of point A.
Calculate the distance AC.
6. A runner (R) heads for a rest point (P) on a bearing of 24041T.

At the same time, he observes a large mountain top (M) in a
direction 305T. From the map he is carrying, he knows that the
distance from the rest point to the base of the mountain is 35 km
on a bearing of 023. How far is the runner from the rest point?
7. A yacht sailing in a direction of N6520E observes two islands in a

line due north. After sailing 52 km, one of the islands bears
N85W and the other N3035 W. Calculate the distance between
the islands.
8. Two passenger jets leave an airport at the same time. Jet A averages
a speed of 460 km/h on a heading (direction/bearing) of 052T. Jet
B averages 520 km/h on a heading of 142T. How far apart from
each other are the two jets after they have been flying for 4 hours?

Student Manual
Part G Exact Trigonometric Ratios and

Angles of Any Magnitude
Exploring It should be evident in this section that there are clear advantages in
Trig Ratios defining trig ratios using the unit circle.
for Angles
of any With the spreadsheet Trigcircle use the tab Symmetry. This displays the
Magnitude four angles that have related sine and cosine (and hence also tangent)
values. To this we can add angles measured clockwise, which we will call
negative angles because they are measured in the opposite direction.
For example, for 37° we can see that
0.60 = sin 37° = sin (180 – 37)° = – sin (180 + 37)° = – sin (360 – 37)° =
sin (–37°)
0.80 = cos 37° = – cos (180 – 37)° = – cos (180 + 37)° = cos (360 – 37)°
= cos (–37°)
0.75 = tan 37° = – tan (180 – 37)° = tan (180 + 37)° = – tan (360 – 37)° =
tan (–37°)
These are particular examples of the general relationships:
sin ø° = sin (180° – ø) = – sin (180° + ø) = – sin (360° – ø) = sin (–ø)

cos ø° = – cos (180° – ø) = – cos (180° + ø) = cos (360° – ø) = cos (–ø)
tan ø° = – tan (180° – ø) = tan (180° + ø) = – tan (360° – ø) = tan (–ø)
Change the angle to see this in action.
Exact Exact Ratios for 45

Trig 
A right angle triangle with one angle equal to 45o is isosceles as shown.
Ratios
If AB=BC=1 Unit
By Pythagoras’ Theorem AC = 2

Student Manual
sin 45o  1 = √2
2 2
cos 45o  1 √2
=
2 2
1
tan 45   1
o
Exact ratios for 30, 60


ABC is equilateral with sides 2 units

A  B  C  60
If AD is perpendicular to BC
 BD  1 and AD 

√3
=
3
Examples Find exact values:
a) 2sin45ocos45o sin230o + cos230o
c) 2cosec60o tan260o-tan230o

Student Manual
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 60°

Student Manual
Angles of We have previously defined our Trig ratios in a right angle triangle;
sin  Hypotenuse etc. However by using our calculators we can see
Any Opposite
Magnitude
1 1
sin 150°= 2 , cos 240°= − 2 ; so that we can find Trig ratios of angles
greater than 90°.
Unit Circle Angles can be measured from the positive direction of the x-axis as
Approach shown. Moving in an anti-clockwise direction provides a positive angle;
Moving in a clockwise direction gives a negative angle. Therefore, the
diagram P has gone through 240o or (-120o).
If we use a circle of radius 1 unit and let P1OM   where P1 is point

(x, y)
If we draw PN  OM
 PN  y
ON  x
y
sin  y
1
x
cos   x
1
y
tan 
x

Student Manual
On the unit circle: sin (angle) = y co-ord

cos (angle) = x co-ord
y co  ord
tan (angle) =
x co  ord

Using the unit circle diagram above:

MOP2  180 

MOP3  180   Measured in a
clockwise direction
MOP4   360  
sin 180    y  sin

cos 180    x   cos
y
tan 180      tan
x
sin 180      y  sin

cos 180     x   cos
y y
tan 180       tan
x x
sin 360     y  sin
cos 360    x  cos
y
tan 360      tan
x
This can be summarised as follows:
sin 180    sin tan 180     tan

sin 180     sin tan 180     tan
sin 360    sin  tan 360     tan
cos 180     cos 

cos 180      cos 
cos 360    cos

Student Manual
The following two diagrams will help you to remember these facts:
Signs of Find exact value for:

Trig a) cos210o b) tan120o c) sin225o d)
Ratios cos870o
– Examples
  cos 30o
  sin 45
1
 
2
 cos150
 cos 18030
  cos 30o

Student Manual
Exploring Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions for up to 360°

Graphs of
Circular We have seen that there is a sine value for any angle. This means that
Functions it is possible to draw a graph of the sine values (on the vertical axis)
against the angle values (on the horizontal axis).
Open the spreadsheet Sine and Cosine graphs. The unit circle is in the
top left corner, and the angle can be increased or decreased using the
slider – click in the area right or left of the blue shape to jump by 10°,
and on the arrows to move by 1°. The horizontal blue line shows the
vertical coordinate (for sine) of the point on the unit circle and as the
angle changes this follows the sine curve – often called a sine wave.
The vertical red line shows the horizontal coordinate of the point on
the unit circle, and as the angle changes this draws the red cosine curve.
To imagine the graph in its normal position, swing it 90° counter-
clockwise so that its axis corresponds to the axis for the sine curve.
This has been done for you in Sine & Cosine (2).
Graph of the Tangent Function
We have seen that there is a tangent function for any angle – the
distance up the tangent that touches the unit circle at 0°. This means it
is possible to draw a graph of the tangent values (on the vertical axis)
against the angle values (on the horizontal axis).
Open spreadsheet Tangent graph. The unit circle is smaller so that

tangent values from 5 to –5 can be shown. Change the angle with the
slider. The tangent value is shown for any angle, and clearly the angle
can go way past 360° (one rotation). The graph shows angles up to
720° (two rotations) but there is always more!
The Identity Sin  / Cos  = Tan 
Earlier we looked at this general identity. Now we can see why it is

always true. Look at spreadsheet Sin÷Cos = Tan.
For any angle you choose the values of sin , cos  and tan  are
calculated and compared to sin ÷ cos 
For angles under 360° they are plotted on the graphs. The triangles on
the right explain why it is so. For simplicity, choose an acute angle, say
60°. There are two triangles: red (for sine and cosine); and blue (for
tangent). The horizontal base of the red triangle is 1 unit. The angles in
these triangles are the same, so the triangles are similar.
So:
height sin  tan 

= =
base cos  1

Student Manual
Exploring After some manipulations, solving trig equations involves finding the
Trig angles that make the trig equation true.
Equations
We have discovered there are many angles with the same sine, cosine
or tangent value. The graphs of these functions can help us understand
what the many solutions are, and the patterns they form.
Sine
Look at the spreadsheet Trig equations – sine. The graph shows the
sine values of angles from 0° to 720° (two rotations). This is enough to
see how the pattern works.
 Put a positive decimal (under 1, say 0.5) into the yellow cell. The
graph shows four solutions. Sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2,
so we get solutions at ø, 180 – , and on the second rotation 360 +
 and 540 – .
 Put a negative decimal (under 1, say –0.5) into the yellow cell. The
graph shows four solutions. Sine is negative in quadrants 3 and 4,
so we get solutions at 180 + , 360 – , and on the second rotation
540 +  and 720 – . (In this case refers to the solution of sin  =
+0.5.)
 To check the quadrants in which sine is positive, refer to
spreadsheet Trigcircle, especially the tab Symmetry.
Cosine
Look at the spreadsheet Trig equations – cosine. The graph shows the
cosine values of angles from 0° to 720° (two rotations). This is enough
to see how the pattern works.
 Put a positive decimal (under 1, say 0.5) into the yellow cell. The
graph shows four solutions. Cosine is positive in quadrants 1 and
4, so we get solutions at , 360 – , and on the second rotation 360
+  and 720 – .
 Put a negative decimal (under 1, say –0.5) into the yellow cell. The
graph shows four solutions. Cosine is negative in quadrants 2 and
3, so we get solutions at 180 – , 180 + , and on the second rotation
540 –  and 540 + . (In this case ø refers to the solution of cos 
= +0.5.)
 To check the quadrants in which cosine is positive, refer to
Trigcircle, especially the tab Symmetry.
Tangent
Look at the spreadsheet Trig equations – tangent. The graph shows
the tangent values of angles from 0° to 720° (two rotations). This is
enough to see how the pattern works.
 Put a positive decimal (say 1.5) into the yellow cell. The graph
shows four solutions. Tangent is positive in quadrants 1 and 3, so
we get solutions at , 180 + , and on the second rotation 360 +
and 540 + .
 Put a negative decimal (say –1.5) into the yellow cell. The graph
shows four solutions. Tangent is negative in quadrants 2 and 4, so
we get solutions at 180 – , 360 – , and on the second rotation

Student Manual
540 –  and 720 – . (In this case ø refers to the solution of

tan  = +1.5.)
 To check the quadrants in which tangent is positive, refer to
Trigcircle, especially the tab Symmetry
Trig In this section we wish to solve equations where the angle may lie in
o o
Equations any of the 4 quadrants i.e. 0    360
Examples
Solve for 0    360
o o
1
2
 30o
but sine is positive in the 1st and 2nd
quadrant.
 also is equal to (180°-30°) = 150o
  30o ,150o
b) cos 
Note: Always find the acute angle first.

acute angle  cos1
 60
Since cosine is negative; the angle is in the 2nd and 3rd
quadrant

Student Manual
2  60o , 300o ; 420o , 660o

  30o , 150o , 210o , 330o
Task 5.7 1) Write exact values for:

a) 2 cos 60 sin 60
b) sec 45° tan45°
c) sin 30° cos 30°
2 2
2) Find exact values for:

a) cos150°
b) tan 240°
c) sin390°
d) sec 240°
3) Solve for 0°    360°

a) 4 cos  2  0
b) 3sin 1  0
c) 4tan  1  0
2
d) 5sin  5  0
e) 4sin 2  2  0

Student Manual
Part H Radian Measure and Applications

Introduction The Egyptians of long ago used primitive instruments to measure
360 days in a year and from that developed a wonderful number
system based on 360 and 60. We still use this system for angles
(degrees, minutes, seconds) and for time (hours, minutes, seconds);
indeed these two are closely related. However, there is a much more
natural way to measure the size of an angle, and that is called
radians. It turns out to be very useful for calculus.
Radians
Exploring
Radians The natural way to measure an angle uses the distance around an
arc (part of the circumference) that is inside the angle – the official
word is subtended. But of course this distance depends on the size
of the circle, so we use the ratio of the arc length to the radius ø rad
= c/r.
To explore this, use the spreadsheet Radians – radians. This shows

the unit circle (radius 1) and the angle in both degrees and radians.
To calculate radians from degrees, simply work out the fraction of
the full circumference (2π) that corresponds to the angle. For
example, 60° = 60 ÷ 360 x 2π = 1.05. If you change the radius, the
angle will not change.
Arc Length
By changing the radius, however, the arc length changes. The arc
length for 360° is the whole circumference (2πr). But the 360° angle
has a measure of 2π (6.28…) in radians. So the arc length is just the
radian measure of the angle multiplied by the radius.
Arc length = rø
Area of a Sector
A sector is a slice, rather like a slice of pizza! The area of a sector
is a fraction of the total circle area. The fraction of the angle is the
same fraction that the angle is of the total angle: ø/2π.
Area of sector = πr2 × ø/2π = 0.5 × ø x r2
Area of a Segment
A segment is a section the shape of a partial moon. A minor
segment is a segment for an angle at the centre of the circle less
than π radians (180°).
The area of a minor segment is the area of the sector less the area
of an isosceles triangle. Note, any triangle drawn from the center
of a circle is automatically isosceles because two of the sides are
radii of the circle and by definition are equal. For the triangle area
= 0.5 ab sin C, where a = b = r, and angle C is ø.
Area of minor segment = 0.5 r2 ø – 0.5 r2 sin ø = 0.5 r2 (ø – sin ø)
You can explore this using the spreadsheet Radians – segment

areas. You can change the radius (with the slider) and the angle.
Student Manual
Note that when the angle is more than π radians (180°) you have to
add the triangle area:
Area of major segment = 0.5 r2 ø + 0.5 r2 sin ø = 0.5 r2 (ø + sin ø)
Radians The radian is defined as the angle at the centre of a unit circle
(circle of radius 1) subtended by a unit arc (a smaller portion of
the circumference of a circle which is 1 unit long).
1
unit unit arc length
1
radian
The significance of the radian measure is that the length of

any arc measured by a real number may be interpreted as
the size of the angle at the centre of the circle standing on
that arc.
Therefore, since a circle of radius 1 unit has a circumference of 2,

there are 2 radians in an angle of one complete revolution; 
radians in an angle of one-half revolution (semicircle) and /2
radians in a one quarter revolution of a circle.
The table below shows the relationship between the degree measure
and radian measure of some important positive angles.
Degrees 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180 270 360
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋
Radians 𝜋 2𝜋
6 4 3 2 3 4 6 2
From the fact that an angle of  radians corresponds to an angle of

180, the following formulas are used when converting a
measurement from degrees to radians, and conversely.
There are no units for angles written in radians, thus the

general practice is that an angle written without units is in
radians.

Student Manual
However, an angle in radians can have the word rad written after it.
This will be done throughout this text, and it is expected that you
will do the same throughout this course, to ensure that there is no
confusion between angles written in degrees and radians.
Example
Radian The Length of an Arc

Applications
l= r
where  is in radians
Using words, the length of an arc AB that subtends an angle,

 (measured in radians), at the centre of a circle of radius, r,
is given by l = r .

Student Manual
Examples
Examples

Student Manual
Radian Area of a Sector

Applications
𝐴=
where  is in
radians
Using words, the area, A, of a sector containing an angle of 
1 2
radians at the centre of a circle of radius, r, is given by A  r 
2
square units.
In Unit 4, a formula was given to find the area of a sector if

given the angle in degrees.
Examples

Student Manual
Radian Area of a Minor Segment

Applications
B
1
A r 2   sin 
2
where  is in radians
The shaded area in the circle above is known as a minor segment as

less than half of the circle is shaded.
A major segment is one where more than half of the circle is
shaded. The line AB is called a chord of the circle.
Before calculating the area of a segment using this formula, your

calculator must be set to radian mode to ensure you get the correct
value for the sine of .
Example Calculate the area of the minor segment formed when an angle
3
of 4 is subtended at the centre of a circle of radius 46 cm.
= 1745 cm2 (to two decimal places)

Student Manual
Task 5.8 1. Convert each of the following into degrees and minutes.
Radians and
their
Applications
2. Covert each of the following into radians (in terms of ). 

a) 30 b) 135 c) 150 d) 75 e) 15

3. Change each of the following into radians accurate to 3 decimal
places.
a) 46 b) 78 c) 213 d) 193 e) 99

4. Calculate the arc length correct to two decimal places for each of
the following:
π
a) angle subtended = 3 , radius = 23 cm
b) angle subtended = 053, radius = 413 cm

3π
c) angle subtended = , radius = 19 m
7
d) angle subtended = 2452, radius = 179 cm
e) angle subtended = 8235, radius = 58 m
5. The circumference of a circle is 2262 cm. Calculate the length of

1 3π 3π
the arc that subtends an angle of A= 2 (4.6)2 ( 4 - sin 4 )
6. A circle with an area of 72 mm2 has an arc of length 435 mm.
Calculate the size of the angle subtended at the centre of the circle
by that arc in degrees and minutes.
4π
7. A circle has a chord of 36 cm with an angle of 5 subtended at the
centre of the circle. Calculate the length of the arc that subtends the
angle accurate to two decimal places.
8. A chord AB, 26 cm long, is 12 cm from the centre of the circle.

Calculate the length of the arc AB.

Student Manual
Task 5.8 3π
Radians 9. An arc PQ subtends an angle of 2
at the centre of a circle of
and their
radius 9.8 cm. Calculate the difference between the lengths of the arc
Applications
PQ and the chord PQ.
10. Calculate the area of each sector described in Question 4

accurate to two decimal places.
11. The minute hand of a clock is 47 cm long. Calculate the area of
the sector swept by the minute hand after 25 minutes.
12. A round cake of radius 10 cm has a large slice cut out of it. If the
angle subtended by the two cuts at the centre is 0.8724 and the
cake is 8 cm high, calculate the volume of the slice taken.
13. Calculate the area of each minor segment described in Question

4 accurate to one decimal place.
14. The area of a minor segment is 612 cm2. If the angle subtended at the
3π
centre is 5 , find the radius of the circle accurate to two
decimal places.
4𝜋 𝜋
15. An arc of m subtends an angle of at the centre of the circle.
3 6
Calculate the area of the minor segment formed correct to one
decimal place.

Student Manual
Unit 6: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals
Unit 6: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Part C Exponential Functions
Part D Logarithmic Functions

Overview In this unit, you will learn to apply an understanding of exponential and
logarithmic functions to solve problems and communicate information.
 understand and apply basic Log laws

 solve exponential equations
 draw and manipulate the graphs of exponential and logarithmic
functions.
the course material. You will be expected to complete some work in your
own time. Your teacher will guide you through the unit.

Student Manual
GAC004: Mathematics I – Fundamentals Unit 6: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
exponent exponential logarithm

Summary
of Terms change of base law general term natural logarithm
common logarithm reflected inverse function

Student Manual
Part C Exponential Functions

Review - You may wish to review the spreadsheet Exponent laws. In particular,
1
Exploring you are reminded of the basic law that 𝑏 −𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥.
Simple
Exponential It might also be useful to review the spreadsheet Fractional exponents,
Equations as this will help to remind you that square roots may be rewritten as
0.5 exponents, and so on.
Exponential An exponential equation is one where the unknown pronumeral is
Equations located in the power/index (which can also be referred to as the
exponent).
For Example:
2x  32 , 74 x5  343 , 2x3  42 x
There are a few steps that need to be taken in order to solve these
equations for the given pronumeral.
Steps to solve exponential equations:
1. Express each term in the equation with the

same base.
2. Form an equation with the new exponents.
3. Solve the equation for the given
pronumeral.
Examples

Student Manual
Task 6.1 Exponential Equations

Solve each of the following exponential equations for the given
pronumeral:
Exploring The graphs of exponential functions, using a variety of bases, was

Graphs of introduced earlier, as a way of understanding the exponent laws.
Exponential
Functions It is now time to introduce the special base, e (~2.718…) and to explore
not only the basic exponential function but also transformations of it –
up, down, left, right, and reflections.
It is not possible at this stage to give a satisfactory explanation for the

importance of e. That will have to be left until the study of Calculus.
So for this section we will just use the spreadsheet Graphs

of e^x – exponential to show this curve and its many transformations.
Demonstrate the effects of each of the four constants by changing

them. Include negative values. Note the position of the horizontal
asymptote.
a – increases the y-values by the scale factor a. If a = 0 then y = q, the

horizontal asymptote. If a is negative the curve is reflected in the x-
axis.
b – increases the values of y. If b = 0, then y = aep + q. If b is negative
the curve shows exponential decay. (This also goes upwards for
increasingly negative x-values.)
p – moves the curve left or right. Larger values of p shift the curve left,
and smaller values shift it right.
q – moves the curve up or down. This moves the horizontal asymptote
y = q up or down. To see the asymptote, make a = 0.
Graphing the Exponential Function

An exponential function is one where the base is a positive real number
other than 1.
f(x) = ax
where:
 a is any positive constant
a1
f(x) = ex
where:
 the base is an irrational number
denoted by e
e = 27183 (to 4 decimal places)

Student Manual
Note:
The number e was discovered by the Swiss
mathematician Leonard Euler who showed that y = e
is a horizontal
asymptote of the graph y =
In this part we will simply be looking at drawing and manipulating the

basic graph of an exponential function.
For graphs of the function:

x
f(x) = e or ax
 the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote

 (0, 1) are the coordinates for the y – intercept
y=
6x


x
y= 6 as a increases, the curve
becomes steeper

Student Manual

f(x) = me  c
nx
 if m is negative, the graph is reflected about the

horizontal asymptote y = c.
x x
y= 6 y = -6
(m > 0) (m < 0)
For these graphs, m = 1 and c = 0 (horizontal asymptote is y = 0)
These two graphs are reflected about the horizontal asymptote.
 if n is negative, the graph is reflected about the

y-axis.
 as the value of n increases, the graph becomes
steeper (in a similar way to that shown earlier
for the graph y = ax ).
x x
y= 6 y=e
(n > 0) (n < 0)
These two graphs are reflected about the y-axis.

Student Manual

f(x) = me  c
nx
 the y-intercept is (0, m) if c = 0.
x
y = 6e
x y = 2e
1 x
y=2e
 c determines how far up/down the y- intercept and

horizontal asymptote is shifted.
For graphs where m is positive:

- if c > 0 graph is shifted up.
y-intercept is (0, m + c); horizontal asymptote is y = c
- if c < 0 graph is shifted down.
f(x) = e  2 f(x) = e  2
x x
y-intercept = (0, 1+2) = (0, 3) y-intercept = (0, 1–2) = (0, –1)

horizontal asymptote y = 2 horizontal asymptote y = –2

Student Manual

f(x) = me  c
nx
For graphs where m is negative:

 if c > 0 graph is shifted up.
 if c < 0 graph is shifted down
f(x) =  e  2 f(x) =  e  2
x x
y-intercept = (0, –1+2) = (0, 1) y-intercept = (0, –1–2) = (0, –3)

horizontal asymptote y = 2 horizontal asymptote y = –2
Examples
Draw the graph for each of the following exponential functions.
1. y  2ex  1
n < 0; y-intercept = (0, m + c); horizontal asymptote  y = 1
= (0, 3)

Student Manual
1
2. y  − e2 x  3
2
n > 0; y-intercept = (0, m + c); horizontal asymptote  y = 3

= (0, 25)
Task 6.2 Graphing Exponential Functions
Draw the graph for each of the following exponential functions on a

separate number plane:
1. y  ex  1 2. y  e x  4 3. y  e x  5
4. y  e x  2 5. y  e 3x  3 6. y  3e x  3
7. y  2e 2x  5 8. 2 y  5e x  4 9. 2 y 1    1 e - x
2
Write down the equation for both of the following exponential

functions
10. 11.

Student Manual
Part D Logarithmic Functions

General So far you have seen that if the pronumeral is the index of a term, then
Definition of it can be referred to as the exponent. Here you will see that it can also
Logarithm be referred to as the logarithm of the function.
The logarithm (log) of a number (y) to a given base (a) is the power
(x) to which that base must be raised to obtain that number.
All logarithms:
loga
e.g. 8 = 2 ,  3  log2 8
3
Note: Logarithms that are base 10 are also

called
common logarithms.
loge
or
x  ln y
Note: ln is the special symbol used to

indicate that the base of the logarithm is e.
Therefore as shown in the relationships above, a logarithm is an index

or exponent.
Examples
1. Write log 6 216  3 using index notation.
From the definition for a logarithm:
loga y  x  x  loga y
 log6 216  3  216  6
3
2. Find the value of the pronumeral using the general definition

of logarithms if loga 32  5
loga 32  5  32  a
5
 2 a
5 5
 a=2

Student Manual
Exploring Many students struggle to understand the equivalence of exponent

Logarithm and log laws.
Laws
The important idea is that ‘logarithm’ is another word for exponent
(or index).
So each of the exponent laws has an equivalent law when expressed

in terms of logarithms.
You may wish to review the spreadsheet Exponent laws and think
about how these are equivalent. Then work with the spreadsheet
Logarithm laws which shows this equivalence as clearly as possible.
Basic There are a number of rules for logarithms that correspond to the index
Logarithm laws. They are as follows:
Laws
1. log a xy  log a x  log a y
this log law corresponds to the index law a  a  a

m n mn
𝑥
2. loga (𝑦)  log a x  log a y
this log law corresponds to the index law a  a  a

m n mn
3. log𝑎 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛 log𝑎 𝑥
this log law corresponds to the index law a
m
  an mn
4. log a 1  0
this log law corresponds to the index law a  1
0
5. loga a  1
this log law corresponds to the index law a  a
1
These laws enable the simplification of logarithmic expressions as

shown in the following examples.

Student Manual
Example Given that log e 4  1 386 , log e 6  1 792 and log e 3  1 099,
calculate each of the following without using a calculator
(accurate to 3 decimal places).
1. log e 12 2. log e 1 5
4. log e 16 5. log e 48
 2. log e 1 5 = loge 6  4

= log e 6  log e 4
 1099 + 1386  1792  1386
 2476  0406
4. log e 16 = log e
3. ln 8 = ln 6  3 4
= ln 6  ln 3 ln 4  2  1386
 (1792  1099) + 1386  2772
 2079
 
log e log e = ln 3  2 ln 4 2 ln 6
 2  1386 + 1099  [1099 – 2(1386)] + 2(1792)
 3871 1911
Change As the name suggests, this law provides a way of changing a logarithm
of Base from base ‘a’ to base ‘b’. This is a useful rule used to help calculate the
Law value of logarithms by changing them to common (base 10) or natural
(base e) logarithms first. The calculator can then be used to perform the
final calculation.

Student Manual
Examples 1. Calculate log3 157 accurate to 3 decimal places.

 log3 157 = ln 157
ln 3
5  056245805
=
1 098612289
= 4602
2. Find log7 300 correct to 5 significant figures.

 log7 300 = log10 300
log10 7
2  477121255
=
0  84509804
= 29312
Task 6.3 Logarithms
1. Use the general definition of logarithms to find the value of the

pronumeral in each of the following:
2. Given that ln 11 = 2.398 , ln 8 = 2 . 079 and ln 5 = 1.609 ,

calculate each of the following without using a calculator
(accurate to 3 decimal places).
a) ln 1331 b) ln 88 c) ln 0 125
d) loge 605 e) loge 0  625 f) ln 6  875
3. Evaluate each of the following accurate to two decimal places.

a) log 5 11 25 b) log3 241 c) log 8 3√5
Challenge Questions
4. Solve the following equations for the given pronumeral by applying
the log laws.

Student Manual
5. Simplify the following:
Exploring Graphs of Logarithmic Functions (as Inverses of Exponential

Graphing of Functions)
Logarithmic i.e. Loge
Functions
The spreadsheet Graphs of ex – logarithmic shows that these two
functions are inverses.
The constants control the position of the curve. The basic log curve has
a vertical asymptote at x = 0, the y-axis.
a – increases the y-values by the scale factor a. If a = 0 then y = q. If a

is negative the curve is reflected in the x-axis.
b – increases the values of y. Note how the vertical asymptote changes.

When b is negative the curve is reflected in the y-axis.
p – moves the curve left or right. Larger values of p shift the curve left,
and smaller values shift it right.
q – moves the curve up or down. There is no horizontal asymptote.
Graphing The graphs of logarithmic functions are very similar to those of

Logarithmic exponential functions. These graphs are actually the inverse function
Functions (opposite) of the exponential functions and are reflections about the line
y = x.
Logarithmic graphs are manipulated in a similar way to the graphs of

exponential functions.
Therefore, for the graph of the function:

f(x) = loge x
 the y-axis is a vertical asymptote.

 (1, 0) are the coordinates for the x – intercept.

Student Manual
y = log x is a reflection of y = �� about the line y =

x
Graphing For the graph of the function:
Logarithmic f(x) = m log e nx  c
Functions
If m is negative, the graph is reflected about the
x – axis.
It can also be said to be a reflection of y =  e
x
about the line y = -x.
m>0 m<0

Student Manual
 If n is negative, the graph is reflected

about the y – axis.
n>0 n<0
Graphing For the graph of the function:

Logarithmic f(x) = m log e nx  c
Functions
y  log e 0  25x y  log e 2x

here n = 025, here n = 2, 
4,0 05,0
is the x-intercept is the x-intercept
 As m gets larger, the curve of the graph is less

exaggerated.
y  ln x
y  4ln x

Student Manual
 c simply determines how far up or

down the graph is shifted.
c = 2, everything c = –1, everything

moved up 2 units. is moved down 1
unit.

Student Manual
Examples
Draw the graph for each of the following logarithmic
functions
The graph is shifted up 3 units,  passes through

(3,3) since (3, 0) is the x-intercept if c = 0 for this
function.
Task 6.4 Graphing Logarithmic Functions

Sketch each of the following on a separate number plane:
1. y   log e  x 2. y   loge  2x 3. y   log e  x   1
4. y  loge 1.5x 5. y  2 log e  x 6. y  log e 0.5x  6
Assessment Examination: This is due now. Event 3
Assessment It is time to submit your Mathematical

Terminology Logbook. Event 4

Use this page to record any additional notes.
Use this page to record any additional notes.

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Any student who shares these materials in any way will be

Date of Issue: August 2019

UNIT 6: EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS ........................................ 197

1. Solve elementary math problems using basic arithmetic operations

©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

Before You Begin

During examinations and assessments, electronic dictionaries are NOT permitted.

Page II ©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

Unit 1 Terminology and Arithmetic Review

Unit 2 Algebra I: Introductory Algebra

Unit 3 Algebra II: Graphs of Algebraic Relations and Coordinate Geometry

Unit 5 Geometry I: Plane, Solid and Euclidean Geometry

No. Assessment Event Weight

1 In-class Test: Units 1, 2, & 3 20 %

2 Project 1–Units 1 & 2 10%

3 Examination: Units 1–6 50 %

4 Course Work: Includes Mathematical Terminology 10 %

©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

Suggested Delivery Schedule

Unit 2: Algebra I: Introductory Algebra

Unit 2: Algebra I: Introductory Algebra (continued)

Unit 2: Algebra I: Introductory Algebra (continued)

Unit 3: Algebra II: Graphs of Algebraic Relations & Coordinate

Unit 3: Algebra II: Graphs of Algebraic Relations & Coordinate

Unit 4: Trigonometry (continued)

Unit 5: Plane, Solid and Euclidean Geometry

Unit 6: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Unit 6: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions (continued)

Week 12 Assessment Event 3: Examination

Page IV ©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

Independent Study – Including

©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

Unit 1: Terminology and Arithmetic Review

Part A Unit Introduction

Part A Unit Introduction

©ACT Education Solutions, Limited Page 1

Part B Terminology Introduced

Vocabulary The language of mathematics is often described as being universal,

Initially you will be developing the technical vocabulary for

Assessment Mathematical Terminology Logbook

This logbook forms part of your exam preparation and overall

Page 2 ©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

Part C Mathematical Operations

The different ways we can explain this

©ACT Education Solutions, Limited Page 3

The different ways we can explain this relation

The different ways we can explain this relation

The root of a number is the opposite operation to finding the power.

The different ways we can explain this relation using

The different ways we can explain this relation using

Page 4 ©ACT Education Solutions, Limited

If there are no brackets, the basic order of operations is:

 Calculate any multiplication or division operations first as they

This is easily remembered using the word BODMAS.

Example Write down the relation described by each of the following

2. Four squared plus the difference between seven and two.

3. Multiply the quotient of twenty-one and the cube root of twenty-

4. Nine to the power of four less than seven, multiplied by two.