SCIENCE

Layers of Earth
Earth is divided into four major layers ---
the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The
crust and uppermost part of the mantle comprise
the lithosphere, a rigid layer that can break under
stress. The lithosphere is composed of major and
minor blocks, called tectonic plates that interact
and create the tectonic activities on Earth.

Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, it can deform and reshape driven by heat
energy, which circulates as convention currents, travelling upward from the hot lower
mantle to the cooler upper mantle. The outermost layer of the earth where life exists is
called the continental crust. It is made up of light granitic rocks made up of mostly
aluminum silicates. The crust that underlies the ocean floor is called the oceanic crust.
Below the crust is a semisolid, rocky, and very hot layer called the mantle.

The core has two distinct layers : the liquid outer core and solid inner core. The outer
core is the only layer of the earth that is liquid, which is made up of molten nickel and
iron. The inner core has a diameter of about 1220 km and is composed mostly of solid
iron, it is also extremely hot.

Interfaces that marks the boundaries between the layers of Earth:

Mohorovicicdiscontinuity is the interface between the crust and upper mantle.
Gutenbergdiscontinuity marks the boundary between the lower mantle and the
outer core.
Lehmanndiscontinuity is located between the liquid core and the solid inner
core.
Mapping the Inner Earth
Scientists interfered the different layers of
Earth by analyzing seismic waves created
by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
other tectonic processes. Seismic waves are
detected by highly sensitive instruments
called seismometers and recorded by
seismograph.

The two types of seismic waves are body

waves and surface waves. Body waves travel through the inner layers of the
planet, while surface waves do so only on the surface. During an earthquake, two
types of body waves radiate in all directions : the primary waves and the
secondary waves. The primary waves or P waves are the first to be felt on Earth's
surface, it is a compressional wave. The secondary waves or S waves are
transverse waves, which are felt in an up-and-down motion perpendicular to the
direction of the wave.

Plate tectonics
Earth began as a solid landmass or
supercontinent called Pangaea. It came form
the Greek word pan, which means "all", and
Gaea, which means "Earth". It translates to
"all of Earth" or "all lands". It was surrounded
by a vast sea or superocean called
Panthalassa, which means "all seas".

One of the earliest theories on the changing

geography and surface topography of Earth
was the Contraction Theory, this theory
suggested that as Earth cooled after its
formation, its surface contracted and
wrinkled, with these wrinkles being the
mountain ranges on Earth's surface.
The contraction theory was superseded by the theory of Continental Drift proposed
by Alfred Wegener in 1912. It asserted that there once existed a single large landmass
or supercontinent he called Pangaea. Wegener's theory was based upon his
observations, which included the following :
The apparent fit of the eastern coastline of South America and western coastline of
Africa.
Similarities of plant and animal fossils in South America and some parts of the
Africa continent, which were separated by a vast ocean.
Similarities in the sequences of rock layers of opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean.

Pangaea would later break into two smaller super continents, Gondwana and Laurasia.
These two supercontinents further split into smaller landmasses, which are the
continents today. Gondwana is composed of Africa, Antarctica, South America,
Australia, and the subcontinent of India.It was first hypothesized by Austrian
geologist Eduard Seuss in the mid-1800s. Laurasia was the precursor to Asia, North
America, and Europe. It was coined by South African geologist Alexander du Toit in
1937. The theory of Continental Drift was rejected because Wegener failed to provide
compelling evidence for the mechanism that drives the movement of plates.

In the 1960s, American geologist Harry Hess proporsed the seafloor spreading theory,
which states that the seafloor or ocean floors -- not the continents -- move and carry
the continents along.

The theory of plate tectonics incorporates the continental drift theory and the
seafloor spreading theory. Plate tectonics explains that the Earth's lithosphere is
composed of many independent massive slabs of solid rocks called plates, which
floats on an inner pliable mantle.

A mid-ocean ridge is a massive undersea mountain range that runs along the bottom
of the ocean. At present, 15 major tectonic plates consist of seven primary plates and
eight secondary smaller plates. The primary plates are the Eurasian Plate, Australian
Plate, Pacific Plate, North America Plate, South America Plate, African Plate, and
Antarctic Plate. The secondary plates are Juan De Fuca Plate, Nazca Plate, Cocos
Plate, Caribbean Plate, Philippine Sea Plate, Arabian Plate, Indian Plate, and Scotia
Plate. Christopher Scotese, a professor and geologist from the University of Texas at
Arlington, predicts that the continents will reform into a supercontinent.
He called this supercontinent Pangaea ultima (meaning "the last Pangaea") but later
decided to change it to Pangaea Proxima ("the next Pangaea").

Mechanism of plate movements

Two types of forces influence the movement of plates : driving forces and resisting
forces.
Driving forces either push tectonic plates toward one another or pull them apart.

The rising of heat causes Mantle convection from the core toward the mantle.
Convection current drive the plates away from one another.
Slab pull takes place when a subducting slap sinks into the hot mantle because of a
difference in temperature.
Slab suction occurs between two colliding plates, one subducting underneath the
other, whereby convection currents in the upper mantle suck both plates down.
Ridge push occurs when the lithosphere is pushed up by the asthenosphere because
of convection currents from the mantle.

Resisting forces act against driving forces of plate tectonics.

Slab resistance is the force that resists all the forces associated with plate
movement in subduction zones.
Collisional resistance occurs when a heavy plate is pulled into the mantle
but resists subduction because of friction.
Transform fault resistance is the frictional force due to the opposing
movement of plates moving past one another between two spreading
centers.
Drag force resist movement of lithospheric plate.

tracing the ring of fire

The pacific ring of fire is frequented by geological activities and other associated
phenomena such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, faulting, and tsunamis, among
others. It is where more than half of the world's volcanoes are found. Mount
Paricutin in Michoacán, Mexico, a cinder cone volcano, is the only volcano that
was studied from its birth in 1943 to its extinction in 1952. Chile is a country that
lies along the boundary between the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate, is
an earthquake-prone country.
 continental drift theory
Alfred Wegener proposed this theory in the early 20th century. According to the
theory, continents were a single landmass called "Pangaea" that broke and drifted to
their current locations. Pangaea is an ancient, huge landmass composed of earlier
noms of today's continents; an ancient supercontinent.

The theory of plate tectonics

The theory of plate tectonics states that Earth's lithosphere is broken into large,
rigid pieces called plates that are moving in different directions and at different
speeds in relation to one another. Three different driving forces cause the
movements. The slab pill is the driving force caused by the sinking of the denser
oceanic crust. The ridge push is the driving force caused by the magma that seeped
out from the divergent boundary.The Earth's crust is divided into 12 major plates,
which are moved in various direction. This plate motion causes them to collide, pull
apart, or scrape against each other. The word 'tectonic' refers to the deformation of
the crust because of the plate interaction.
Plates are made up of rigid lithosphere. The lithosphere is made up of the crust and
the upper mantle. The pieces of the Earth that make up the crust meets at the plate
boundaries. Tectonic plates move on top of the atmosphere at a rate between 1 to 10
cm per year. Plates may move toward each other (converge), move apart (diverge),
pr move past one another. The regions between plates are aptly called plate
boundaries. As the plates move, fractures called faults develop on Earth's crust.

divergent plate boundary

This is the boundary between plates that
separate from one another. As the plates
separate along the boundary, the block
between the faults cracks and drops down
into the asthenosphere. Volcanic activities
can also occur at this type of boundary. When
two plates move away from each other, a gap
or rift between them is created. If the gap
eventually widens, it then envolves into a rift
valley.
 Divergent boundaries between oceamuc plates produce mid-ocean ridges, the
mountain ranges formed underwater. The Great East African Rift Valley is an
example of this phenomenon.

convergent plate boundary

Convergent boundaries occur when two plates
slide past each other and form either a
subduction zone (if one plate moves
underneath the other) or an organic belt (if the
two simply collide and compress. An organic
belt is a region of deformed rocks. There are
three types/styles of convergence: oceanic-
oceanic, oceanic-continental, and continental-
continental convergence. When two oceanic
plates collide, a subduction zone is formed.

The interaction of the Pacific Plate and the Philippine Plate is an example of an
oceanic-oceanic convergence. A long, narrow depression in the ocean floor called
oceanic trench is also created at the subduction zone. The Mariana Trench in the
western Pacific Ocean originated from this type of convergence.

In oceanic-continental subduction, the oceanic plate goes down. The edges of the
Pacific Plate are subduction zones; hence, chains of volcanoes are found above it. The
collision of an oceanic plate with a continental plate also forms trenches. Volcanic
mountains also develop on land. The Andes Mountains in South America and the
Cascade Range in North America are formed through this type of convergence.

When two continental plates collide, no subduction happens. Instead, the continents
suture themselves. The continental crust buckles and rocks pile up, creating mountain
ranges. The Alps in Europe is formed from the convergence of the African Plate and
Eurasian Plate and the Himalayas in Asia is the result of collision between the Indian
Plate and Eurasian Plate.
transform plate boundary
In transform plate boundary, the plates
slide in one another in opposite directions.
Earthquakes forms in this type of plate
boundary as a result from the movement
of plates and the release of massive
amounts of energy. An earthquake refers
to the shaking of Earth because of the.
breaking or shifting of the rocks of the
tectonic plates, which releases seismic energy. Faults are cracks on Earth's crust,
of which there are three types -- normal fault, reverse fault, and strike-slip fault.
The surface where the blocks slip past each other is called the fault plane.

Dip-slip refers to the movement of faults along the angle of the fault plane. The
angle of movement is called the dip, while the movement is the slip. Dip-slips are
classified as normal fault or reverse fault. A normal fault is a dip-slip fault where
a block that sits on a fault plane, called the hanging wall, slips downward with
respect to the footwall along the dip angle. Reverse fault is another type of dip-
slip fault where the block of Earth's crust pushes upward and along the dip angle.
Thrust fault is a type of reverse fault where the angle of the dip is 45° or less.

In a strike-slip fault, nearly vertical fault planes or surfaces slide in parallel but
opposite directions. The San Andreas Fault in California, USA is an example.
Oblique-slip fault is a combination of a strike-slip fault and a dip-slip.

Hotspot volcanoes are hot mantle plumes breaching the surface in the middle of a
tectonic plate. As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not randomly distributed over
the globe, at the boundaries between plates, friction causes them to stick together.
Volcanoes are formed by subduction, rifting, and hotspots.

earthquakes
An earthquake is a sudden, rapid shaking of the Earth caused by the breaking and
shifting of rock beneath the Earth's surface. They strike suddenly, without
warning, and they can occur at any time of the year, day or night. During an
earthquake, energy travels through Earth in the form of seismic waves.
The point within Earth where the rocks break and where seismic energy is first
released is the focus or hypocenter, it is found within the fault plane. The point on
the crust of Earth directly above the focus is the epicenter. Underwater
earthquakes associated with oceanic-continental subduction cause a vertical
movement of the sea floor. Those greater than magnitude 7 and whose focus is
less than 30 km produce a significant movement that generates large ocean waves
called tsunami.

Seismic waves are significant in studying earthquakes. Primary and secondary

waves help scientists locate the epicenter of an earthquake. During an earthquake,
the seismic waves reach Earth's surface at different times because P waves travel
faster than S waves.

Mountains and mountain ranges

Mountains are large landforms that rise well above the ground and have steep
slopes and a peak generally higher than a hill. Orogenesis', refers to the process
of forming mountains and mountain ranges.

fold mountains
Fold mountains are formed through plate convergence. The Himalayas in Asia was
formed after the Indian Plate and the Tibetan Plate collided. Mountain ranges can
also form when an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate. The Andes
Mountains Range in South America formed through this process. Other examples
fold mountain ranges are Pyrenees in Spain and the Rocky Mountains and
Appalachians in North America.

volcanic mountain ranges

Volcanic mountain ranges usually have isolated peaks that formed for over
thousands or millions of years. These structures are constructed from accumulated
lava flows, pyro clasts, and other igneous rocks that pilled up over time.
erosion-formed mountain ranges
Erosion-formed mountain ranges do not form because of Earth's internal activity
but because of rock erosion or weathering. The Appalachian Plateau in the
eastern United States, for example, is made up of sedimentary rocks and formed
as a result of erosion and the movement of thrust faults.

dome mountain ranges

Domes result from the up warping of tectonics plates and are not accompanied
by the collision of plate boundaries. The Black Hills in Western South Dakota is
an example.

fault-block mountain ranges

The movement of normal faults causes tensional forces and can uplift large
blocks of crust to form fault-block mountains. As the crust form cracks, the block
that slides down because of gravity is called graben, which usually becomes a
valley. The horst refers to crustal blocks that do not slide down.The Sierra
Nevada in California and the Teton Range of Wyoming in USA, and the
Marinduque mountains in the Philippines are some examples.

Getting ready for earthquakes

It is always important to be calm and alert during an earthquake. One should
know the safest spot to stay in and the easiest escape route to follow in order to
minimize or avoid accidents. To help prepare for an earthquake, check these
infographics from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS) on what to do before, during, and after an earthquake.

BEFORE
The key to effective disaster prevention is planning.
✓ Know the earthquake hazards in your area.
✓ Follow structural design and engineering practices when constructing a
house or building.
✓ Evaluate the structural soundness of the buildings and houses;
strengthen or retrofit necessary.
Prepare your homes, workplace, or schools.
✓ Strap or bolt heavy furniture and cabinet to the walls.
✓ Check the stability of hanging objects such as ceiling fans and
chandeliers.
✓ Breakable items, harmful chemicals, and flammable materials
should be stored properly in the lowermost secured shelves.
Familiar yourself with the fire exits. Know where fire extinguishers,
first aid kits, alarms, and communication facilities are located. Learn
how to use them beforehand. Conduct and participate in regular
earthquake drills.

DURING
Stay calm. When you are inside a structurally sound building or
home...stay there!
✓ If possible, quickly open the door for exit.
✓ Duck under a sturdy desk or table and hold on to it, or protect your
head with your arms.
✓ Stay away from glass windows, shelves, cabinets, and other heavy
objects.
✓ Beware of falling objects. Be alert and keep your eyes open.
If you are outside...move to an open area!
✓ Stay away from trees, power lines, posts, and concrete structures.
✓ Move away from the steep slopes, which may be affected by
landslides.
✓ If you are near the shore and you feel an earthquake, especially if
it's too strong, move away quickly to higher grounds. Tsunamis
might follow.
If you are in a moving vehicle, stop and get out! Do not attempt to
cross bridges, overpasses, or flyovers, which may have been
damaged.

AFTER
Be prepared for aftershocks. Once the shaking stops, take the fastest
and safest way out of the building.
Don't...
...use elevators.
...enter damaged buildings.
...use telephones unless necessary.
...panic.
Check...
... yourself and others for injuries.
... water and electrical lines for damages.
... for spills of chemicals and toxic and flammable materials.
... and control fires which may spread.
If you need to evacuate from your residence, leave a message
stating where you are going and bring your emergency supply kit.
Keep updated on disaster prevention instructions from battery-
operated radios.