SMA 305 Complex Analysis (KU) PDF

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING
SMA 305
COMPLEX ANALYSIS I
BY
DR. D. SENGOTTAIYAN
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
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PREFACE
This module is designed primarily to provide the readers with the best
preparation possible for the Complex Analysis I (SMA 305 Complex
Analysis I). In its present form this module has developed from the courses
given by the author over the last thirty two years in various universities to
the audience of Mathematicians, Physicists and Engineers in the university
of Madras, Kenyatta University, University of Nairobi and Jomo Kenyatta
University of Agriculture and Technology.
This module, Complex Analysis I is compiled from the Author’s First course
in Complex Variables, Oxford Publications, London and Nairobi. Most of
the theory and problems are freely taken from the Author’s Book for which
the author has sole Copyright.
It is hoped that it will be of great interest to students of pure and Applied

Mathematicians and Engineers following Complex Analysis I.
Each Lesson begins with a brief statement of definitions principles and

important Theorems followed by a set of solved problems.
The author is pleased to acknowledge Dr. L. O. Odongo B.Ed (Hons) M.Sc

(UON) and M.Sc (Canada), Ph.D (Canada), the Chairman of Department of
Mathematics Kenyatta University who encouraged me to write this module.
SENGOTTAIYAN
Kenyatta University
ii
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CONTENTS
LESSON 1 Complex Numbers and their Representation on the Complex Plane
1.1 Introduction 6
1.2 Objectives of the Lesson
1.3 Definition of a Complex Number
1.4 Arithmetic Operations of Complex Numbers
1.5 Conjugate of a Complex Number
1.6 Division of Complex Numbers
1.7 Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers
1.8 Polar form of Complex Numbers
1.9 Euler’s Representation of (cos + i sin )
1.10 Vector Representation of Complex Numbers
Exercise
Summary
Further Reading
LESSON 2: Demoivre’s Theorem and its Application to roots of real or complex

numbers
2.1 Introduction 16
2.3 Euler’s Representation of e
2.4 Demoivre’s Theorem
2.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra for real or complex numbers
2.6 The zeros of a polynomial with real coefficients always occur in
conjugate pairs.
Exercise
Summary
Further Reading
LESSON 3: Limits and Continuity of Functions of Complex Variables

3.1 Introduction 23
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3.3 Single valued and many valued functions of z
3.4 Limit of a function f(z)
3.5 Continuity of a function f(z)
3.6 Three conditions for continuity of a function
3.7 Second definition of continuity of a function using and
3.8 Continuity of a function in a region or domain
3.9 Properties of continuous functions
Exercise
Summary
Further Reading
LESSON 4: Differentiability of Complex Functions and Analytic Functions and

their properties
4.1 Introduction 28
4.3 Derivative of a function of Complex Variables
4.4 Analytic Function.
4.5 Analytic Function in a region R.
4.6 Entire Functions
4.7 Differentiation of Functions of Complex Variables
4.8 Cauchy - Reimann Equations of an Analytic function
4.9 Finding the Analytic function f(z) = u + iv when u or v is given.
Exercise
Summary
Further Reading
LESSON 5: Elementary Functions of Complex Variables
5.1 Introduction 37
5.3 Definition of the Exponential Function
5.4 Definition of Trigonometric Functions in terms of ez
5.5 Trigonometric Identities in real variable x and Complex Variable z
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5.6 Trigonometric Functions of complex variables in terms of hyperbolic

functions
5.7 Proof of sin z = sin x cosh y i cos x sinh y
5.8 Proof of sin iy i sinh y
Exercise
Summary
Further Reading
LESSON 6: Mapping by Elementary Functions
6.1 Introduction 44
6.3 Meaning of Mapping (or Transformation)
6.4 The Linear Transformation
6.5 The Bilinear (or Fractional) Transformation
6.6 Cross Ratio of Four points z1, z2, z3 and z4
6.7 An important property of a bilinear transformation
6.8 The transformation w = ln z
6.9 Fixed points of a Bilinear Transformation
6.10 The transformation z = c sin w
Exercise
Summary
Further Reading
LESSON 7: Complex Integration and Cauchy’s Theorem
7.1 Introduction 58
b
7.3
Meaning of the Complex Integration ∫ f ( z )dz
a
7.4
Conditions for ∫ f ( z )dz
a
exist
7.5 All formula for integration of functions of Real Variables hold good
for integration of Complex Variables.
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7.6 Cauchy’s Fundamental Theorem

7.7 Converse of Cauchy’s Theorem or Morera’s Theorem
7.8 Indefinite Integrals or anti derivative of f(z)
7.9 Condition for Independence of the path of integration
7.10 Cauchy’s Integral formula
Exercise
Summary
Further Reading
LESSON 8: Laurent Series and Singularities of Functions
8.1 Introduction 68
8.3 Laurent series
8.4 Taylor’s series from Laurent’s series
8.5 Singular points or Singularities
Exercise
Summary
Further Reading
LESSON 9: Poles and Residues of a Function
9.1 Introduction 77
9.3 Definition of poles of a function
9.4 Determination of poles of a function
9.5 Residues of f(z) at its poles
9.6 Determination of Residues of f(z) at its poles
Exercise
Summary
Further Reading
LESSON 10: Residue Theorem and its Applications to Integration
10.1 Introduction 83
10.3 Residue Theorem
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10.4 Application of Residue Theorem for Various Types of Integration

∞
10.5
Improper Integrals of the type ∫ f ( x)dx
−∞
10.6 Some Important Theorems

10.7 Definite Integrals of the Trigonometric Functions of the type
∫ f (sin θ , cosθ )φθ
10.8 Integrals round a Branch point

Exercise
Summary
Further Reading
ANSWERS 101
INDEX 106
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LESSON 1
Complex Numbers and their Representation on
the Complex Plane
1.1 Introduction
We all know that 9 is either +3 or –3. Then what is the value of − 9 ?
Mathematicians could not answer this question for a long time. The square root of –1, or
in general the square root of negative numbers were considered to be meaningless and the
term imaginary was applied to them. Now they are called complex numbers richly
meaningful within the frame work of operations newly defined.
Complex numbers were used by Euler (1707 – 1788) to whom the symbol i for − 1 is
due. The name complex numbers is due to Gauss who introduced the letter z to represent
a complex number. Argand (1806) used the complex plane for the representation of
complex numbers and hence the graph representing the complex numbers is called the
Argand Diagram. It is Cauchy, the ‘Intellectual Giant’ who developed the new branch of
mathematics called Complex Analysis.

By the end of this Lesson you will be able to:
i) define a complex number
ii) workout arithmetic operations of complex numbers.
iii) define a complex plane (Argand Diagram) and to represent a complex
numbers on the complex plane.
iv) understand the polar form (r, θ form) of complex numbers.
z = x + iy = r (cosθ + i sin θ ) = re iθ
1.3 Definition of a Complex Number

A complex number can be defined as a number of the form z = x + iy where x and y are
real numbers and i is such that i2 = -1 or i = − 1
1.4 Arithmetic operations of complex numbers.

In performing operations with complex numbers we can proceed as in the algebra of real
numbers keeping in mind that i2 = -1.
Examples
i Addition of complex numbers
We define (3 + 4i) + (6 + 2i) = 3 + 6 + 4i + 2i = 9 + 6i
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i.
ii) Subtraction of complex numbers.
We define (8 + 5i) (3 - 2i) = 8 + 5i 3 + 2i = 5 + 7i
(a + bi) (c + di) = (a c) + (b d)i
iii) Multiplication of a complex number by a scalar
we define 5(4 + 3i) = 20 + 15i
In general p(a + ib) = pa + ipb when p,a,b are real numbers.
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iv) Multiplication of two complex numbers.

(5 + 3i)(4 + 6i) = 5(4) + 5(6i) + 4(3i) + (3i)(6i)
= 20 + 30i + 12i + 18i2
= 20 + 42i + 18(-1)
= 20 + 42i 18
= 2 + 42i
or (a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2
= (ac bd) + i(ad + bc)
1.5 Conjugate of a complex number
If z = x + iy we define that the conjugate of the complex number z is z = x − iy .
The conjugate of z is written as z .
To get the conjugate of any complex number we just change i into –i. The product of a
complex number and its conjugate is a real number.
For example if z = 4 + 3i, z = 4 3i
z z = (4 + 3i)(4 3i) = 16 12i + 12i + 9
= 16 + 9 = 25.
In general, if z = a + ib and z = a – ib
z z = (a + ib)(a ib) = a2 + b2
Example 1
Factorise: 16x2 + 25y2
16x2 + 25y2 = (4x + 5iy)(4x 5iy)
since a + b2 = (a + ib)(a ib)
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Example 2
Write down the conjugate of the following complex numbers:
2 + 3i, 2 3i, 4 + 3i, i, 6 - 5i.
Solution. The conjugates of 2 + 3i, 2 3i, 4 + 3i, i, and 6 5i are 2 3i, 2 + 3i,
4 3i, -i and 6 + 5i respectively
1.6 Division of one complex number by another.

We cannot divide one complex number by another complex number, however we define
the division of a complex number as the elimination of the imaginary number i from the
denominator using the conjugate of the denominator.
Examples 3
5 + 3i
Simplify:
−i
To eliminate i in the denominator we multiply both numerator and the denominator by i
to get
5 + 3i (5 + 3i ) i 5i + 3i 2
= =
−i − i (i ) − i2
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5i − 3
= = 5i − 3
+1
Example 4
3 + 4i
Simplify:
5 + 2i
The conjugate of 5 + 2i is 5 – 2i, multiply the numerator and the denominator by the
conjugate of the denominator to get
3 + 4i (3 + 4i )(5 − 2i )
= =
5 + 2i (5 + 2i )(5 − 2i )
15 − 6i + 20i + 8
=
25 + 4
23 + 14i
=
29
1.7 Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers

Since a complex number z = x +iy can be considered as an ordered pair z = (x,y) of real
numbers. We can represent such numbers by points on a graph or on the x y plane. The
graph on which complex numbers are plotted is called the complex plane or z plane or
an Argand Diagram. The x axis is called the Real axis and the y axis is called the
imaginary axis of the complex plane.
To each complex number there corresponds only one point and conversely to each point
in the plane there corresponds one and only one complex number
Representation of a complex number on the complex plane is illustrated in the following

examples:
Example 5
Plot the complex numbers
z1 = 4 + 3i, z2 = 5 – 2i, z3y= -4 + z4 = -4 – 3i
5
Solution
4
2
R . z3 = (-4,3) P . z1, = (4,3)
1
-x x
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
S . z4 = (-4,-3)
Q. z2 = (5,-2)
-y
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The point z1 = 4 + 3i = (4,3); P, represents z1

The point z2 = 5-2i = (5,-2); Q, represents z2
The point z3 = -4 + 3i = (-4,3); R represents z3
The point z4 = -4 – 3i = (-4, -3); S represents z4
Example 6
Plot the triangle on the complex plane given that the vertices of the triangle are
z1 = 3 + 2i, z2 = -2 + 4i and z3 = -1 -3i
y
Z2 = -2 + 4i
Z1 = 3 + 2i
-x 0
x
Z3 = -1 - 3i -y
The triangle is shown on the complex plane.

1.8. Polar form of complex numbers.
y
P z = 4+3i
r=5
3
θ
-x x
0
4
-y
Consider the complex number z= 4 + 3i
Let r and θ be the polar coordinates of the Point p (4,3). Then
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OP = r and angle Pox = θ

Now r2 = 42 + 32 = 25 and r = 5
3 3
Now tan θ = or θ = tan-1 = 36.90
4 4
x y
Cos θ = and sin θ =
r r
r is called the modulus of the complex number θ is called the argument of z
The formula connecting the polar form and Cartesian form of a complex number
y
P (x,y)
r
y
θ
-x x
0
x
-y
x y
In the figure cos θ = and sin θ = or x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
r r
Hence the complex number Z is represented in polar form as,
z = x + iy = r cos θ + i r sin θ
or z = r (cos θ + i sin θ )
y
where r = x 2 + y 2 and tan θ =
x
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) is called the Polar Form of the complex
number z.
It is represented by z = (r, θ )
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Example 7
Express z = 4 + 3i in polar form
y 3
In polar form r = x 2 + y 2 = 4 2 + 32 = 5 and θ is given by tan θ = = and the
x 4
principal value of θ = 36.90 approximately.
Hence Z = 4 + 3i
= r(cos θ + i sin θ )
= 5 (cos 36.90 + i sin 36.90)
Hence 4 + 3i = (5, 36.90)
1.9. Euler’s representation of (cos θ + i sin θ )

Complex numbers were used by Euler to whom the symbol i for − 1 is due. He
iθ − iθ
represented cosθ + i sin θ = e and cos θ − i sin θ = e
For example
Cos 10 θ + i sin 10 θ = ei10
Cos 10 θ - i sin 10 θ = e-i10
 π π  π π
 cos + i sin  cos + i sin 
 3 3  2 2
π π
i i
= e 3
.e 2
π π 
i + 
= e 2 3 
i 5π
= e
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1.10. Vector representation of a complex number.

Consider a complex number 4 + 3i = (4, 3)
By taking 4 units on the x axis and 3 units on the y axis we can represent z = 4 + 3i as a
vector shown in the diagram below.
y
z = 4 + 3i
3
1
x
-x
0
1 2 3 4
-y
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In general Z = a + ib can be considered as a vector whose x coordinate is a and the y

coordinate is b.
1.11. The radius vector corresponding to the addition of two vectors Z1 and Z2
P2
Z2
z1 + z 2 z2
z1 P1
The radius vector corresponding to z1 + z2 is the diagonal of the parallelogram defined by

the vectors OP1, and OP2.
In the same way we can represent z1 – z2 and z1z2.
Example 8
Simplify (cos 4 θ + i sin 4 θ )(cos 2 θ + i sin 2 θ )
Solution
(cos 4θ + i sin 4θ )(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ )
= e i 4θ .ei 2θ
= e i (6θ )
= (cos 6θ + i sin 6θ )
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Example 9
Simplify: = (cos 4θ + i sin 4θ )(cos 3φ + i sin 3φ ) ,
(cos θ − i sin θ )(cos 2φ − i sin 2φ )
Solution
= (cos 4θ + i sin 4θ )(cos 3φ + i sin 3φ )
(cos θ − i sin θ )(cos 2φ − i sin 2φ )
i 4 θ 3φ
= e
e − iθ
.e i
e −i 2 φ
=ei4θ.eiθ.ei3φ.ei2φ
= e i 4θ .e iθ .e i 3φ .e i 2φ
= e i (5θ + 5φ ) = cos (5θ + 5φ ) + i sin (5θ + 5φ )
Exercise I
Simplify (1 to 10)
1) i3 , i4 , i5 , i6 , i25
2) (3 + i) + (1 + 2i) 4) (1 + i) (1 i)
3) (5 3i) +(4 + 3i) 5) (x + 2iy)(x - 2iy)
1− i 1 3i − 2
6) 7) 8)
1+ i 2 − 3i 1 + 2i
9) (2 + 3i )2 10)
(3 − 4i )
5 + 12i
Write down the moduli of (11 and 12)

1 1
11) 3 + 4i 12) − 3i i
2 2
Find the Principal Value of the arguments of
1 1 2π 2π
13) 1–i +
14) 3i 15 cos − i sin
2 2 3 3
16) Show that the equation |z| = 2 represents a circle with center the origin and radius
4 units.
If z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = 5 + 8i determine the following

17) z1 + z2 18) 2z1 + 3z2 19) 5z1 – 3z2
z1
20) z1z2 21) 3z1z2 22)
z2
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23) Show that ( ) ( )

2 − i − i 1 − 2i = −2i
1 i 
24) Show that (3 + i )(3 − i ) +  = 2 + i
 5 10 
25) Solve the equation z2 + z + 1 = 0 giving your answer in i.
26) Prove that z1z2 = z1z (Hint: take z1 = x + iy and z2 = a + ib).
27) Prove the associative law: ( z1 + z 2 ) + z3 = z1 + ( z 2 + z 3 ) write down the following
complex numbers in polar form
28) (i) -4 + 3i (ii) 12 – 5i (iii) -4 – 3i
(iv) 12 + 5i
29) Show that z + 3i = z − 3i
−2
30) Find one value of arg z when z =
1+ i 3
31) Simplify:
(cos 60 − i sin 60)(cos120 + i sin 120)
(cos 50 + i sin 50)(cos 40 + i sin 40)
32) Simplify:
[cos(− 40) + +i sin (− 40)][cos 50 + i sin 50]
(cos 60 − i sin 60)
Summary of the Lesson
You have learnt the following from this Lesson:
i) Definition of a complex number: z= x + iy where x and y are real numbers
and i = −1 or i 2 = −1
z1
ii) To simplify z1 + z 2 , z1 − z 2 , z1 z2 and
z2
iii) To represent complex numbers x + iy or (x, y) on a complex plane
iv) Polar form of a complex number: x + iy = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) where r = x 2 + y 2
y
and tan θ =
x
iθ
v) Eulers representation: cos θ + i sin θ = e
Further Reading.
1) Pure mathematics, A second course
By J.K Backhouse and others
Longman Group ltd
Longman’s House, Harlow, Esssex. UK.
2) Theory and Problem of complex variables
By Murray R. Spiegel, Ph.D,
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Sehaum’ out line series

Mc Graw – Hill Book Company Singapore
3) Text Book of Complex Analysis
By Dr. D. Sengottaiyan, Ph.D.,
Oxford Publications
London Nairobi.
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Lesson 2
Demoivre’s Theorem and its Application to Roots of
Real and Complex Numbers
2.1 Introduction
In the previous Lesson you have studied that a complex number z can be represented in
polar form as z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) where r is the modulus of the Complex number and
θ is the argument of the number z. In this Lesson we shall see Euler’s representation of
(cos θ + i sin θ) and Demoivre’s theorem which is very useful to find roots of real and
complex numbers.

i).define Euler’s representation of (cos θ + i sin θ)
ii).establish de Moivre’s theorem
iii).and determine the roots of Real and Complex numbers using de Moivre’s Theorem.
2.3 Euler’s Representation of (cos θ + i sin θ)

In Lesson 1 you have seen that a complex number z is represented by
z = x + iy =r (cos θ + i sinθ)
where r is the modulus and θ is the argument of the complex number z. The famous
Mathematician Euler represented,
cos θ + i sin θ = eiθ and cos θ - i sin θ = e-iθ and ei (θ1 +θ 2 ) = cos(θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ 2 )
Then the complex number
z = x + iy = reiθ
(cos θ + i sin θ) is also represented as cis θ, for convenience
Example 1
Let z1 = r1e iθ1
z 2 = r2e iθ 2
show that
i). z1 z2 = r1r2 [cos(θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ 2 )]
where r1r2 is the modulus of z1 z 2 and (θ1 + θ 2 ) is the argument of z1 z 2
= [cos(θ1 − θ 2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ 2 )]
z1 r1
ii).
z2 r2
Solution
i). Let z1 = r1e iθ1 and z 2 = r2e iθ 2
Then z1 z 2 = r1eiθ1 .r2e iθ 2
= r1r2 ei (θ1 +θ 2 )
= R e i (θ1 +θ 2 )
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= R [cos(θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ 2 )]
where R = r1r2 is the modules of z1 z 2 and θ1 + θ 2 is the argument of z1 z 2 .
ii).
z1 r1eiθ1 r1 i (θ1 −θ 2 )
= = e
z 2 r2e iθ 2 r2
= 1 [cos(θ1 − θ 2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ 2 )]
r
r2
2.4 De Moivre’s Theorem

Let z1 = r1 (cosθ1 + i sin θ 2 ) = r1eiθ1
z 2 = r2 (cosθ 2 + i sin θ 2 ) = r2 eiθ 2
……………………………………
z n = rn (cosθ n + i sin θ n ) = rn e iθ n
Then z1 z 2 ...z n = r1r2 ...rn ei (θ1 +θ 2 +...θ n ) (2)

If z1 = z 2 = ... = z n each equal to z = re iθ in (2) we have ( z ) n = r n e i (θ +θ +...) = r n e inθ
or r n (cosθ + i sin θ ) n = r n [cos nθ + i sin nθ ]
or (cos θ + i sin θ ) = (cos nθ + i sin nθ )
n
(3)
Equation (3) is called de Moivre’s Theorem. This theorem is true for all values of n.
when n = 0, ± 1, ± 2 … and also when n = positive or negative fractions.
de Moivre’s theorem is very useful in computing roots of all the nonzero real and
complex numbers.
Example 2
(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ )(cos 5θ − i sin 5θ )
Simplify
(cos 2θ − i sin 2θ )(cos 7θ + i sin 7θ )
Solution
(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ )(cos 5θ − i sin 5θ ) e i 3θ .e − i 5θ
=
(cos 2θ − i sin 2θ )(cos 7θ + i sin 7θ ) e −i 2θ .e i 7θ
= e i 3θ .e − i 5θ .e i 2θ .e −i 7θ
= e i ( 3θ −5θ + 2θ −7θ )
= e − i 7θ
= cos 7θ − i sin 7θ
2.5 The fundamental Theorem of Algebra

According to the fundamental Theorem of Algebra “an nth degree equation will have n
roots and only n roots”. This theorem is applicable for complex variable z. Thus an nth
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degree equation in z will have n roots and only n roots. For example z3 + 1 = 0, will have
three roots one being real and two are complex roots.
In the following sections we shall find the roots of nonzero real and complex numbers
using the fact
Cos 2 kπ + i sin 2 kπ = 1 for k = 0, 1, 2, 3…
Cos (2k + 1) π + i sin (2k + 1) π = -1 for k = 0, 1, 2, 3…
Example 3
1
Find the cube roots of –1 or Solve z 3 = - 1 or solve the equation z 3 = −13 = −1 giving
three values of the roots.
Solution
Let z 3 = −1
or z 3 = cos(2k + 1)π + i sin( 2k + 1)π
Taking cube roots on both sides
(z ) = [cos(2k + 1)π + i sin( 2k + 1)π ]
1 1
3 3
3
(2k + 1)π (2k + 1)π

or z = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2…
3 3
using de Moivre’s Theorem..
π π 1 3
when k = 0, z = cos + i sin = (cos 60 + i sin 60) = + i
3 3 2 2
3π 2π
when k = 1, z = cos + i sin = cos180 + i sin 180 = −1
3 3
5π 5π 1 i 3
when k = 2, z = cos + i sin = cos 300 + i sin 300 = −
3 3 2 2
When you put k = 3, 4, 5… we will get the same values repeated. Hence
1+ i 3 1− i 3
z= , -1 and are the three values that satisfy the equation z3 = - 1. or the
2 2
roots of – 1 .
3
1+ i 3 
You can verify that   = −1

 2 
Example 4
Solve the equation z4 16 = 0
(or find the fourth root of 16)
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Solution
1
Let 16 4 = z where the value of z is to be found.
or z 4 = 16 (1)
z = 16[cos 2kπ + i sin (2kπ )π ]
4
using de Moivere’s Theoem we have

1
z = 16 4 [cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ ]4
1
 2kπ 2kπ 
z = 2cos + i sin (1)
 4 4 
From (1),
If k = 0, z = 2(cosθ + i sin θ ) = 2
π π
If k = 1, z = 2(cos + i sin ) = 2(0 + 1) = 2i
2 2
If k = 2, z = 2(cos π + i sin π ) = 2(−1 + 0) = −2
If k = 3, z = 2(cos 270 + i sin 270) = 0 − 2i = −2i
If you put k = 4, 5, 6… we will get the same values repeated.
1
Hence 16 4 = 2 , 2i, -2 and 2i
Example 5
Find the square roots of –15 – 8i
Solution
Writing –15 – 8i in polar form, we have r = (−15) 2 + (−8) 2 = 225 + 64 = 17
r cos θ = −15 and r sin θ = −8
− 15 −8 8
cos θ = , sin θ = or tan θ =
17 17 15
Since cos θ and sin θ both negative θ is in the third quadrant from 1800 to 2700
Hence θ = 208.0720
Let − 15 − 8i = 17[cos(2kπ + θ ) + i sin( 2kπ + θ )] where k = 0, 1 and θ = 205.20
1
(− 15 − 8i )2 = 17 2 [cos(2kπ + θ ) + i sin (2kπ + θ )]2
1 1
Then

1
2kπ + θ 2kπ + θ 
= 17 cos
2
+ i sin
 2 2 
when k = 0, −15 − 8i = 17(cos104.036 + i sin104.036)
when k = 1, −15 − 8i = 17(cos 284.036 + i sin 284.036)
Example 6
Find all the 6th roots of unity (or solve the equation z6 – 1 = 0)
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Solution
Let the 6th root of 1 be z
1
Then 1 = z or 1 = z6
6
Hence z 6 = 1 = (cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ ) k = 0, 1, 2…
or z 6 = e 2kπi
( )
1
2 kπi
or z = e 6
kπi
or z = e
3
(2)
From (2)
If k = 0, z = e0 = 1
πi
 π π 1 3
If k = 1, z = e =  cos + i sin  = + i
3
 3 3 2 2
2πi
= (cos 120 + i sin 120) = − + i
1 3
If k = 2, z = e 3
2 2
πi
If k = 3, z = e = cos 180 + i sin 180 = −1
4 πi
1 3
If k = 4, z = e 3
= cos 240 + i sin 240 = − − i
2 2
5πi
1 3
If k = 5, z = e = cos 300 + i sin 300 = −i
3
2 2
2πi
[If k = 6, z = e = cos 360 + i sin 360 = 1 It is the same as in the case of k = 0]
2.6 The zeros of a polynomial with real coefficients always occur in conjugate
pairs.
If a + ib is a root of a polynomial,
a0 z n + a1 z n −1 + ... + an = 0 a0, a1…an are real number.
show that its conjugate a – ib is also a root of the same equation or the zeros of a
polynomial with real coefficients always occur in conjugate pairs.
Solution
Let f ( z ) = a0 z n + a1 z n −1 + ... + an = 0 (1)
Let a + ib = re iθ . Then
( ) n−1
f re iθ = a0 r n einθ + a1r e i ( n−1)θ + ...an = 0 (2)
or a0 r (cos nθ + i sin nθ ) + a1r
n n −1
[cos(n − 1)θ + i sin( n − 1)θ ... + an ] = 0
[ ]
or a0 r n (cos nθ ) + a1r n −1 cos(n − 1)θ + ...an = 0 + i (a0 r n sin nθ ) + a1 sin (n − 1)θ + ... = 0
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Hence a0 r n cos nθ + a1r n −1 cos(n − 1)θ + ...an = 0 (3)

and a0 r sin nθ + a1 sin( n − 1)θ + ... = 0
n
(4)
(The real and imaginary part each must be zero)
or a0 r n (cos nθ − sin nθ ) + a1r n −1 [cos(n − 1)θ − sin( n − 1)θ ] + ...an = 0 from (3) and (4)
(
From (4) a0 re −iθ )
n
(
+ a1 re −iθ )
n −1
+ ...an = 0
− iθ
Thus re satisfies the polynomial
a0 z n + a1 z n −1 + ...an = 0
where z = a − ib = re − iθ
Thus a ib is also a root of the same polynomial (1)
Exercise 2
1. Evaluate the following.
a) 5(cos 20 + i sin 20)(cos 40 + i sin 40)
(8cis 40) 3
b) note that cisθ = cosθ + i sin θ
(2cis 60) 4
4
 3 − 1   1 + i 5
c)   
  1 − i 
 3 + 1 
d) (2 cis 50)6
2. Prove that the solution of z 4 − 3 z 2 + 1 = 0 are given by z = 2 cos 360, 2 cos 720,
2 cos 2160 and 2 cos 2520
3. Prove de Moivre’s Theorem for (a) negative integers and (b) rational numbers.
4. Find the roots of the following and locate them on a graph (Argand diagrams)
1 1
a). (−4 + i) 5
c). 64 6
3
b). 4cis 2600
5. Solve the equation z 4 + 81 = 0

6. Solve z + 1 = 3i
6
7. Find the square root 5 – 12i

8. Find the square root of 5 – 12i
9. Find the cube roots of –11 – 2i
10. Solve the following equations:
a). 5 z 2 + 2 z + 10 = 0
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b). z 5 + 2 z 4 + z 3 + 6 z − 4 = 0
11. Find all the roots of z + z + 1 = 0

4 2
12. Find the two complex numbers whose sum is 4 and whose product is 8.

You have learnt the following from this Lesson
iθ
1. (cos θ + i sin θ) is represented as e and
(cos θ - i sin θ) is represented as e-iθ
2. de Moivre’s Theorem
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
3. We use cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ = 1 and cos(2k + 1)π + i sin( 2k + 1)π = −1 to determine the
roots of functions.
Further Reading
1) Complex Variables and Applications

By R.V Churchill and others
Mc Graw-Hill, KOGAKUSHA Ltd
Tokyo Singapore
Oxford Publications
London Nairobi.
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Lesson 3
Limits and Continuity of Functions of Complex variables.
3.1 Introduction
You have learnt the limits and continuity of functions of real variables. The definitions
of limits and continuity of a function of complex variables is quite similar to those of
functions of real variables.

By the end of this Lesson you will be able to define
i). single valued and many valued functions f(z).
ii). the limit of single valued functions f(z)
iii). the continuity of a function f(z) at a point and the three conditions necessary
for f(z) to be continuous.
iv). The continuity of a function in a region.
v). The uniform continuity of a function f(z)
3.3 Single valued and many valued functions of z

w = f(z) is said to be a single valued or many valued function of z according as for a
given value of z in a domain D there corresponds only one, or more than one values of w.
1
For example w = f(z) = z is a single valued function but w = f ( z ) = z 2 is a many valued
function.
3.4 Limit of a function f(z)

Let f(z) be any single valued function defined in the deleted neighbourhood of z = a.
We say that f(z) tends to the limit l as z tends to a along any path in a defined region, if
to each positive number∈, however small there corresponds a positive number δ
depending on ∈ such that f ( z ) − l <∈ for all points of the region for which
0< z−a <δ
In other words it means that there exists a deleted neighbourhood of the point z = a in
which f ( z ) − l can be made as small as we please
Symbolically we write z→a

lim f ( z) = l
Example 1
z
lim
Prove that z → 0 does not exist
z
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Solution
z
Suppose the z →0lim exists
z
The limit must be independent of the manner in which z approaches the point 0
y
z = x + iy = iy
x
0 z = x + iy = x
Let z → 0 along the x axis. Then y = 0 and hence z = x + iy becomes z = x and

z = x − iy = x .
z x
Then the required limit is lim = lim = 1 .
z →0 z z →0 x
Let z → 0 along the y axis as shown in the figure. Then x = 0, z = x + iy = iy and
z = x − iy = −iy .
z − iy
Then the required limit is lim = lim = −1
z →0 z y →0 iy
The limit of a function should be unique irrespective of the path. Here the limit shows +1
and –1 in two different paths.
z
lim
Hence z → 0 does not exist.
z
3.5 Continuity of a function f(z).

Let f(z) be defined and single valued in a neighbourhood of z0 and also at z0
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. z0
.z
Then f(z) is said to be continuous at z = z0 if lim f ( z ) = f ( z0 )

z → z0
3.6 Three conditions for continuity of a function f(z) at z0

The above definition implies three conditions which must be satisfied in order that f(z) be
continuous at z = z0.
1. lim f ( z ) = l
z → z0
2. f ( z0 ) must exist and finite

3. f ( z0 ) = l
3.7 Second definition of continuity of a function using ∈ and δ

The function f(z) is said to be continuous at the point z = z0 if for any given ∈ > 0 we can
find δ > 0 such that f ( z ) − f ( z0 ) <∈ whenever z − z0 < δ
3.8 Continuity of f(z) in a region or domain

A function f(z) is said to be continuous in a region R if it is continuous at all points of the
region R.
Example: All polynomials, ez, sin z and cos z are continuous on the whole of the
complex plane.
3.9 Properties of continuous functions

1. If f(z) and g(z) are continuous in a region then
a). f(z) + g(z) b). f(z) - g(z)
c). f(z) . g(z) are all continuous
f ( z)
d). is also continuous if g ( z) ≠ 0
g ( z)
2. If f(z) is continuous in a closed region it is bounded in the region; i.e there exists a
constant M such that f ( z ) < M for all points z of the region.
3. If f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), and if f(z) is continuous in a region then the functions
u(x, y) and v(x, y) are also continuous in the region
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4. A continuous function of a continuous function is continuous. For example ez is a

continuous function. Hence φ (e z ) is also continuous.
Example 2
Prove that f(z) = 2z2 is continuous at z = z0
Solution
If f(x) = 2z2 is continuous it must satisfy three conditions namely
i). lim f ( z ) = l
z → z0
ii). f ( z0 ) must exist

iii). f ( z0 ) = l
First we must show that lim f ( z ) = l i.e. we must show that given any ∈ > 0 we can
z → z0
find δ > 0 (depending on ∈) such that f ( z ) − f ( z0 ) = z 2 − z02 <∈ when

z − z0 < δ
If δ ≤ 1 then 0 < z − z 0 < δ implies that
z 2 − z 02 = z − z 0 z − z 0 < δ z − z 0 + 2 z 0 < δ [ z − z 0 + 2 z 0 ] < δ [1 + 2 z 0 ]
∈
Taking δ as 1 or
1 + 2 z0
whichever is smaller we have z 2 − z02 <∈ where z − z0 < δ .
Example 3
3z 4 − 2 z3 + 8z 2 − 2 z + 5
Show that f ( z ) = is not continuous at z = i
z −i
If f(z) is continuous then the three fundamental conditions must be satisfied. They are:
i). lim f (z) = l must exist

z →i
ii). f ( z0 ) or f(i) must exist
iii). f ( z 0 ) or f(i) = l
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3i 4 − 2i 3 + 8i 2 − 2i + 5
Here f (i ) =
i −i
3 − 2i − 8 − 2i + 5
=
0
0
=
0
Thus f(i) does not exists even though the limit exists as shown below: -
3z 4 − 2 z 3 + 8 z 2 − 2 z + 5 12 z 3 − 6 z 2 + 16 z − 2
lim = = lim
z →i z −i z →i 1
= 12i3 – 6i2 + 16i – 2
= -12i + 6 + 16i – 2
= 4i + 4
Hence f(z) is not continuous
Example 4
For what values of z
3z 2 + 1
f (z) = 2 is continuous.
z +1
Solution
3z 2 + 1 3z 2
f (z) = 2 =
z + 1 ( z + i)( z − i )
When z = i and z = -i f(z) does not exist and it is not continuous. Thus f(z) is continuous
at all points on the z plane except z = ± i .
3.10 Uniform continuity of a function f(z)

Let f(z) be continuous in a region R. Then at each point z0 of the region R and for any
∈> 0 we can find δ > 0 where δ depend on both ∈ and the particular point z0 such that
f ( x ) − f ( z 0 ) <∈ whenever z-z < δ suppose we can find δ depending on ∈ only but
not on the particular point z0 we say that f(z) is uniformly continuous in the region.
Note that of f(z) is continuous in a closed region R, it is uniformly continuous in R
Exercise
1. If f(z) = z2 + 2z prove that lim f ( x) = 2i − 1
z →i
z2 − z +1+ i 1
2. Prove that lim 2 = 1+ i
z →1+ i z − 2 z + 2 2
3. Evaluate lim (iz 4 + 3 z 2 − 10i ) using the theorem on limits.
z →2i
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z2
4. Evaluate lim
πi
z→ z4 + z +1
e4
f ( z ) − f ( z0 )
5. Prove that if f(z) = 3z2+ 2z then lim = 6 z02 + 2
z → z0 z − z0
2z + 1
6. Explain exactly what is meant by the statement lim =2
z →∞ z4 +1
7. Find all points of discontinuity for the functions
12 z + 1
i) f ( z) 2 ii) f(z)= cot z
z + 2z + 2
z2 +1
iii)
z 4 − 16
8. Prove that f(z) = z2 2z + 3 is continuous every where in the finite plane.
z2 +1
9. Show that f ( z ) = 2 is continuous for all z outside |z| = 2.
z − 3z + 2
10. Prove that if f(z) is continuous in a closed region, it is bounded in the region (hint: if
f(z) is continuous then it tends to a limit l which is finite)
11. Prove that f(z) = 3z 2 is uniformly continuous in the region |z| ≤ 10. Prove that
1
f ( z ) = 2 is not uniformly continuous in the region |z| ≤ 1 0
z
(Hint: since there is one point z = 0 where f(z) does not exist)
1 1
12. Prove that f ( z ) = 2 is uniformly continuous in the region ≤ z ≤ 1
z 2
13. Prove that f(z) = 3z-2 is uniformly continuous in the region |z| ≤ 10.

You have learnt the following from this Lesson:
i). Definition of single valued and many valued function f(z)
ii). Definition of limits of a function f(z).
iii). Definition of continuity of a function f(z)
iv). Three conditions necessary and sufficient for a function to be continuous.
v). Definition of continuity of a function in a region.
vi). Four important properties of a continuous function f(z)
vii). Definition of uniform continuity of a function f(z)
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Further Reading

Tokyo Singapore
Oxford Publications
London Nairobi.
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Lesson 4
Differentiability of Complex Functions, Analytic Functions and
their Properties.
4.1 Introduction
You have studied the differentiability of real functions in Elementary Calculus.
Differentiability of complex functions is nearly the same as that of real functions except
that ∆ z may tend to zero in any manner. In this Lesson we shall study the definition
of derivative of complex functions and that of analytic functions and their properties.

By the end of this Lesson you will be able to
i) define the derivative f’(z) of a function of complex variables and the
differentiability of functions.
ii) define analytic function or holomorphic function at a point and in a region.
iii) define an entire function.
iv) state Cauchy –Reimann Equations for an analytic function.
v) define harmonic functions
vi) determine the analytic function f(z) = u + iv when u or v is given.
4.3 Derivative of a function of complex variables

If f(z) is a single valued function in some region R of the z plane, the derivative of f(z) is
defined as
f (z + ∆z ) − f (z )
f ' (z ) lim
∆z → 0 ∆z
provided the limit exists independent of the manner in which ∆z → 0
If the derivative of f(z) exists at z0 we say that f(z) is differentiable at z0 and f’(z) is
called the differential coefficient of f(z) at z0
4.4 Analytic function

A function f(z) is said to be analytic at a point z0 if its derivative exists not only at z0 but
also at each point z in some neighborhood of z0.
4.5 Analytic function in a Region R

If(z) is said to be analytic in a region R if f(z)is analytic at each and every point of R.
Analytic functions are usually defined on a certain domain.
Analytic functions at a point are also called holomorphic functions or regular functions
at the point.
4.6 Entire function

An entire function is a function that is analytic at each point in the entire complex plane.
For example ez, sin z, cos z are analytic at all points of the complex plane. Hence they
are entire functions.
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4.7 Differentiation of functions of complex variables

The formulae for differentiation of functions of complex variables are identical with
those of functions of real variables in elementary calculus. Thus
d n d 1
1. z = nz n −1 If n ≠ −1 2. ln z =
dz dz z
d z d z
3. e = ez 4. a = a z ln a
dz dz
d d
5. sin z = cos z 6. cos z = − sin z
dz dz
d d
7. tan z = sec 2 z 8. cot z = − cos ec 2 z
dz dz
d d
9. sec z = sec z tan z 10. cos ecz = − cos ecz cot z
dz dz
d d
11. sinh z = cosh z 12. cosh z = sinh z
dz dz
d d
13. tanh z = sec h 2 z 14. coth z = − cos ech 2 z
dz dz
d d
15. sec hz = − sec hz tanh z 16. cos echz = − cos echz coth z
dz dz
d 1 d 1
17. sinh −1 z = 18. cosh −1 z =
dz 1+ z2 dz z2 −1
d 1 d 1
19. tanh −1 z = 20. coth −1 z =
dz 1 − z2 dz 1− z2
d −1 d −1
21. sec h −1 z = 22. cos ech −1 z =
dz z 1− z2 dz z z2 +1
If f(z) and g(z) are analytic then
d
[ f (z ) ± g (z )] = d f (z ) ± d g (z )
23. dz dz dz
d
( fg ) = fg ' + gf ' d  f  gf ' − fg '
24. 25.  =
dz dz  g  g2
g ≠0
4.8 Cauchy – Reimann Equations of an Analytic Function

If a function f(z) = u(x,y)+ iv(x,y) is differentiable at a point z = x + iy then the partial
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u ∂v
derivatives , , , should exist and satisfy the equations = and
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
= − (or ux = vy and uy = -vx)
∂y ∂x
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∂u
Before we prove the above results let us define the meaning of the partial derivative ,
∂x
∂u u ( x + ∆x, y ) − u ( x, y ) ∂v v( x, y + ∆y ) − v ( x, y )
= lim and = lim
∂x ∆x→0 ∆x ∂y ∆y →0 ∆y
Proof of Cauchy – Reimann Equations

Since f(z) is analytic at z it is differentiable at z and f1(z) exists.
f ( z + ∆z ) − f ( z )
Now, f ( z ) = lim
'
(1)
∆z → 0 ∆z
where ∆z → 0 in any manner near z.
since ∆z = ∆x + i∆y (1) becomes
u (x + ∆x, y + ∆y ) + iv (x + ∆x, y + ∆y ) [u( x, y ) + iv(x, y )]
f ' ( z ) = lim - (2)
∇x→ 0
∇ y →0
∆x + i∆y ∆x + i∆y
must exist independent of the manner in which z (or x and y) approaches zero.
Let us consider z = x + i y along real axis so that y = 0.
Grouping the result (2) in a different way we have (using y = 0) and z = x
u ( x + ∆x, y ) − u ( x, y ) i[v( x + ∆x, y )] − v( x, y ) ∂u ∂v
f ' (z ) = lim + = +i (3)
< x →0 ∆x ∆x ∂x ∂x
Let z = x + i y tends to zero along the imaginary axis so that x = 0. Then
u ( x, y + ∆y ) − u ( x, y ) i[v ( x, y + ∆y ) − v( x, y )] ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
f ' ( z ) = lim + = + = −i + (4)
< y →0 i∆ y i∆y i∆y ∂y ∂y ∂y
But f’(z) should be identical irrespective of the manner in which z → 0 . Hence
equating (3) and (4) we have
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
+i = −i +
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Equating real and imaginary parts we have
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
4.9 Finding the analytic function f(z) = u + iv when u is given

Theorem
If the real part of an analytic function f(z) = u + iv is given, then
z z 
f ( z ) = 2u  ,  − u (0,0 )
 2 2i 
Proof
Let f ( z ) = f ( x + iy ) = u ( x, y ) + iv( x, y ) (1)
Then f ( z ) = f ( x + iy ) = u ( x, y ) − iv( x, y ) (2)
Adding f ( x + iy ) + f ( x + iy ) = 2u ( x, y ) using f ( x + iy ) = f ( x − iy ) we have
2u ( x, y ) = f ( x + iy ) + f ( x − iy ) (3)
(3) is an identity for all x and y and we can substitute any value (including complex) for x
and y.
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z z z z  z z z z
substituting x = and y = in (3) we have 2u ,  = f  + i  + f  − i 
2 2i  2 2i  2 2i  2 2i 
= f ( z ) + f (0)
z z 
Hence f ( z ) = 2u  ,  − f (0 )
 2 2i 
Example 1
Let f(z) = u +iv be an analytic function.
If u = u3 – 3x2y find f(z).
Solution
If u = u(x,y) then
z z 
f ( z ) = 2u  ,  − f (0 ) (by theorem)
 2 2i 
since u = x3 – 3x2y we have
z z 
f ( z ) = 2u  ,  − f (0 )
 2 2i 
 z  3  z   z 
2
= 2    − 3     − f (0 )
  2   2   2 i  
 z 3 3 z 2  z 
= 2 −    − u ( 0,0 )
8 4  2i  
 z 3 3z 3 
= 2  − −0

 8 8 i 
 z 3 3iz 3 
f ( z ) = 2 +  + ci

 8 8 
(by adding any imaginary constant at the end.)
Real and Imaginary parts of an analytic function satisfy Laplace Equation.
Let f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) . We must prove that
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2v ∂ 2v
+ = 0 and + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2
Let f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) be analytic
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
By Cauchy Reimann equations we have = and =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∂ 2u ∂ 2v ∂ 2u ∂ 2v
Then = and = −
∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2 ∂x∂y
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2 v ∂ 2v
Adding + = − =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x∂y ∂x∂y
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∂ 2v ∂ 2v
Similarly + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Thus Laplace differential equation is satisfied
Harmonic function
A function φ (x,y)which has continuous partial derivatives of the first and second orders
and satisfies Laplace equation is called a harmonic function.
Hence u(x,y) and v(x,y) are harmonic functions.
Example 2
Show that the function f ( z ) = xy is not analytic at the origin, although the Cauchy –
Reimann equations are satisfied at the origin.
Solution
Let f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) = xy so that u = xy and v = 0.
∂u u ( x,0 ) − u (0,0 ) 0−0
= lim = lim =0
∂x x →0 x x →0 x
∂u u (0, y ) − u (0,0) 0 − 0
= lim = =0
∂y y →0 y y
∂v v( xo ) − v(0,0 ) 0 − 0
= lim = =0
∂x x →0 x x
∂v v(0 y ) − v (0,0 ) 0 − 0
= lim = =0
∂y y → 0 y y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
=0= and =0=−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Hence Cauchy – Reimann equations are satisfied at the origin.
f ( z ) − f (0 ) xy − 0
Now f ' (0 ) = lim = lim
z →0 z z → 0 x + iy
If f ( z ) = u + iv is analytic then u and v are harmonic functions.

Now suppose z → 0 along the line y = mx
mx 2 m m
f (0 ) = lim
'
= since
will have different values for different m,
x(1 + im ) (1 + im )
z →0 (1 + im )
f’(0) is not unique at z =0 and f(z) is not analytic at the origin although Cauchy –
Reimann equations are satisfied.
Exercise 4
1) Distinguish between an analytic function and an entire function. Give an example
for an entire function .
2) Define a singular point using differentiability of a function.
3) Define f’(z) using limit.
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4) Prove that f(z) = 3x + y + i(3y-x) is an entire function.

−y
Prove that f ( z ) = e .e is an entire function.
ix
5)
6) If u(x,y) = 2x(1-y) is harmonic find a harmonic conjugate v.
7) Let u(x,y) = sin x sin y find the function v(x,y) so that f(z) = u+iv is an analytic
function.
8 a) State the condition for the two curves u(x,y) and v(x,y) cut orthogonally.
b) If f(z)=u(x,y) + iv(x,y) is an analytic function, show that the curves u(x,y) and
v(x,y) cut orthogonally.
9 a) Prove that the function u = x 3 − 3 xy 2 + 3 x 2 − 3 y 2 + 1 satisfies Laplace equation.
b) Determine the analytic function f ( z ) = u + iv where u is given above.
−y
10) If u = x 2 − y 2 and v = 2 prove both u and v satisfy Laplace equation but
x + y2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2v ∂ 2v
u + iv is not an analytic function [Hint: + = 0 and + = 0 but
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂u ∂v
≠ ].
∂x ∂y
11 a) If u = sin x cosh y + 2 cos x sinh y + x 2 − y 2 + 4 xy show that u satisfies Laplace
equation.
b) Determine the function f(z) whose real part is u.

You have learnt the following from this Lesson.
f ( z + ∆z ) − f ( z )
1) Derivative of a function f(z) is defined as f ' ( z ) = lim when the
∇z →0 ∆z
limit exists and z → 0 in any manner.
2) Definition of Analytic functions at a point. A function f(z) is said to be analytic at
z0 if its derivative exists not only at z0 but also at each point in some
neighborhood of z0.
3) Definition of entire function.
4) Cauchy – Reimann equations for an analytic function.
u x = v y and u y = − v x
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
or = , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
5) Definition of harmonic functions: if + = 0 then u is called a harmonic
∂x 2 ∂y 2
function.
6) Determination of the Analytic function f ( z ) = u + iv when u or v is given.
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Lesson 5
Elementary Functions of Complex Variables
5.1 Introduction
You are already familiar with various elementary functions in the Calculus of Real
Variables. In this Lesson we consider the elementary functions of a complex variable.
We shall consider mainly the exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions of
complex variables in this Lesson.

i) define ez. sin z.cos z, other trigonometric functions of z and ln z.
ii) state the properties of exponential trigonometric and logarithmic functions.
iii) define hyperbolic functions in real and complex variables.
5.3 Definition of the Exponential Function

i) Exponential Functions are defined by
f ( z ) = e z = e x +iy = e x .e iy
e z = e x (cos y + i sin y ) (1) and
e− z = e− x −iy = e− x .e−iy = e− x ( cos y − i sin y ) (2)
Here e = 2.71825 … is an irrational number.
ii) If a is real and positive we define a z = e z ln a = e x (cos y + i sin y ) ln a (3)

Hence ln a = lne a
If a =e then ln e =1 and (1) is a particular case of (3).
Complex exponential function have properties similar to those of real
x
exponential functions e
For example e .e z 2 = e z1 + z 2
z1
e z1 z1 − z 2
= e
e z2
(e )
z1 m
= e mz 1
Example 1
Prove that e z1 .e z 2 = e z1 + z 2 using the definition of ez
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Solution
By definition e z = e x (cos y + i sin y )
Then e 1 .e 2 = e
z z x1
(cos y1 + i sin y1 )e x (cos y 2 + i sin y 2 )
2
where z1 = x1 + iy1
and z2 = x2 + iy 2
or e z1 z 2 = e x1 .e x 2 (cos y 1 + i sin y 1 )(cos y 2 + i sin y 2 )
e x + x [cos( y1 + y2 ) + i sin ( y1 + y2 )] from Euler’s theorem.
1 2
e z1 + z2 by definition of ez
Example 2
Show that f ( z ) = e z is a periodic function with period 2k π i.
Solution
Let f ( z ) = e z = e x (cos iy + i sin iy )
Then f(z + 2k π i.) = e z + 2 kπi
e x + iy + 2 kπ
= e x [cos ( y + 2 k π ) + i sin ( y + 2 k π )]
= e x [cos y + i sin y ] since
= f (z ) cos( y + 2kπ ) = cos y
sin ( y + kπ ) = sin y
Since f (z + 2kπi ) = f ( z ), for k =0,1,2,…..it is a periodic function with period 2kπi
Example 3
Find all values of z such that ez = 2
Solution
Let the value of f ( z ) = e z = Reiθ = 2
Re iθ = 2 (1)
= 2[cos(2kπ ) + i sin (2kπ )]
Hence R =2 and θ = 2kπ
Then e z = Reiθ = 2e 2 kπi
Taking logarithm on both sides of e z = 2e 2 kπi we have z = ln 2 + 2kπi
Example 4
Find all values of z such that e z = 1 + i 3
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Solution
First let 1 + i 3 = r (cosθ + i sin θ ) .
Then r = 12 + 3 = 4 = 2
π
tan θ =
3
then θ = 600 or θ = 2 nπ + then ez = 1+ i 3 becomes
1 3
 π
i  2 nπ + 
e = 2e
z  3
 π
Taking logarithm to base e we have, z ln e = ln 2 + i 2nπ +  ln e or
 3
 1
z = ln 2 + i 2n + π
 3
5.4 Definition of Trigonometric functions of Complex variable z in terms of ez

From Euler’s Formula we have, e ix = cos x + i sin x and e −ix = cos x − i sin x .
eix + e −ix e ix − e −ix
It follows that cos x = and sin x = for every real number x.
2 2i
This is exactly applicable to the Complex variable z and we define
e iz + e − iz
cos z = and
2
e iz − e −iz
sin z =
2i
using the definition of cos z and sin z we have the other trigonometric functions. Thus
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sin z  e iz − e − iz 
tan z = = − i  iz 
− iz 
cos z  e + e 
cos z  e iz + e − iz 
cot z = = i  iz − iz 

sin z  e − e 
1 2
sec z = = iz
cos z e + e − iz
1 2i
cos ecz = = iz
sin z e − e − iz
5.5 Trigonometric identities in real variable x and complex variable z.
The following ten identities are still valid for complex variables.
Trigonometric identities for real variable x Trigonometric identities for complex

variables z
1 sin 2 x + cos2 x = 1 sin 2 z + cos2 z = 1
2 1 + tan 2 x = sec 2 x 1 + tan 2 z = sec 2 z
3 1 + cot 2 x = cos ec 2 x 1 + cot 2 z = cos ec 2 z
4 sin ( x1 ± x 2 ) = sin x1 cos x 2 ± cos x 2 sin x1 sin ( z1 ± z 2 ) = sin z1 cos z 2 ± cos z 2 sin z1
5 cos( x1 + x2 ) = cos x1 cos x2 − sin x1 sin x2 sin ( z1 + z2 ) = cos z1 cos z2 − sin z1 sin z2
6 sin( − x) = − sin x sin( − z ) = − sin z
cos(− x ) = cos x cos(− z) = cos z
7 sin( 90 − x ) = cos x sin( 90 − z ) = cos z
8 sin 2 x = 2 sin x cos x sin 2 z = 2 sin z cos z
9 cos 2 x = cos2 x − sin 2 x cos 2 z = cos2 z − sin 2 z
10 sin x = 0 if and only if x = nπ sin z = 0 if and only if z = nπ
 1  1
11 cos x = 0 if and only if x =  n + π cos z = 0 if and only if z =  n + π
 2  2
5.6 Trigonometric functions of complex variables in terms of hyperbolic

functions
You might have known the definition of hyperbolic functions:
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e y + e− y e y − e− y
cosh y = sinh y =
2 2
Using these definitions we can express Trigonometric functions of z in terms of

hyperbolic functions.
The following are important identities
a) sin z = sin (x+iy) = sin x cos hy + i cos x sin hy
b) cos z = cos( x+iy) = cos x cos hy i sin x sin hy
c) sin (iy) = i sin hy
d) cos (iy) = cos hy
5.7 Prove that sin z = sin x cos hy + i cos x sin hy

By definition we have
eiz − e −iz ei ( x +iy ) − e −i ( x +iy )
sin z = =
2i 2i
ix − y − ix y
e .e e .e
= −
2i 2i
e − y (cos x − i sin x)e y
= (cos x + i sin x). −
2i 2i
−y −y y
e e cos xe sin xe y
= cos x + sin x − +
2i 2 2i 2
−y −y
(e + e )
y
(e − e )
y
= sin x + i cos x
2 2
= sin x cos hy + i cos x sin hy (1)
Thus if f ( z ) = sin z = u + iv (u and v are real).

We have u = sin x cosh y and v = cos x sin hy . In the same way you can prove that
cos z = cos x cos hy − i sin x sin hy (2)
5.8 To show that sin (iy) = i sin hy

From (1) we have sin z = sin x cos hy + i cos x sin hy
sin( x + iy ) = sin x cos hy + i cos x sin hy
Let x =0, then sin (iy) = 0 + i (1) sin hy
= i sin hy
In the same way from (2) you can show that cos (iy) = cos hy
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Exercise
1. Define an exponential function ez
2. Using the definition of exponential function prove that
e z1
a). z 2 = e
z1 − z2
b). e iz = e − y
e
3. Prove that 2π is a period of eiz

2kπi
4. Prove that if e
3z
= 1 then z =
3
5. Find all the values of z for e4 z =i.
6. Show that e 2±3πi = e − 2
7. Find all values of z such that e z = −2
2 z −1
8. Find all values of z such that e =1
9. a). Define cos z and sin z using eiz and e−iz
b). Hence express tan z, cot z, sec z and cosec z
10. a). Show that cos z = cos x cos hy – i sin x sin hy
b). Deduce that cos iy = cos hy
11. What are the real and imaginary parts of cos z
12. Establish the formula 1 + tan2 z = sec2 z using the definition of sin z and cos z
13. Find all the roots of cos z = 2
14. Show that sin z and cos z are not analytic function of z any where on the complex
plane.
15. Show that cos(iz ) = cos(iz ) for all z and sin(iz ) = sin iz if and only if
z = nπi (n = 0, ± 1, ± 2...........)

z z
i). Definition of e and a
e z = e x (cos y + i sin y )
a z = e x (cos y + i sin y )ln a
ii). Definition of Trogonometric functions:
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e iz + e − iz e iz − e − iz
cos z = , sin z =
2 2i
From these definitions you can express the other trigonometric functions of z.
iii). Definition of logarithmetic function:
ln z = lnr + iθ …….principal value of lnz
ln z = lnr + I(2nπ + θ) n = 0, ± 1, ± 2........... general value of ln z
iv). Hyperbolic functions in real variable:
e x + e− x e x + e− x
cos hx = ; sin hx =
2 2
v). Definition of hyperbolic functions: in complex variable

e z + e− z e z − e− z
cos hz = ; sin hz =
2 2i
Further Reading
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Lesson 6
Mapping by Elementary Functions
6.1 Introduction
Suppose w = f(z) = u (x,y) + iv(x,y) = u + iv
be a function of a complex variable z with
z = x + iy
To each pair of values (x, y) there correspond one value for u and another value for v, in
w = u + iv.
We utilize two separate complex planes for the representation of
z = (x, y) and w = (u, v).
The two planes are called the z plane and the w plane respectively.
The relationship, w = f(z) then establishes a connection between the points of a given
region R in the z plane and the corresponding points of another region R ′ determined by
w = f(z) in the w plane
In this Lesson we shall study how various curves and regions in the z plane (with the x
and the y axes) are mapped by elementary analytic functions on to the w plane (with the u
and the v axes).

i) define the mapping or transformation of points, curves and regions from z
plane to w plane under a transformation function f(z).
ii) discuss the mapping by elementary functions such as polynomials,
exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions.
6.3 Meaning of Mapping (or Transformation)

Consider
w = f(z) = 2z2 + 3 (1)
where
w = u + iv and z = x + iy
Then
u + iv = 2( x + iy ) 2 + 3
= 2( x 2 − y 2 + 2 xiy ) + 3
= 2 x 2 − 2 y 2 + 3 + 2 xiy (2)
Equating the real and the imaginary parts in (2) we have
u = 2 x 2 − 2 y 2 + 3 and v = 2xy
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Consider any point say

z = 3 + 2i or z = (3,2).
Then
u = 2 x 2 − 2 y 2 + 3 = 2(3)2 – 2(2)2 + 3 = 13
and
v = 2xy = 2(3)(2) = 12
Under the transformation,

w = 2z2 + 3
where z = (x, y) = (3, 2) and w = (u, v) = (13, 12)
We say that the point (3, 2) on the xy plane or z plane is mapped on to the point (13, 12)
on the uv plane or w plane
The point (3, 2) is called the object on the z plane and the corresponding point P (13, 12)
is called the image of P on the w plane.
w = f(z) is called the transformation function or mapping function.
Example 1
Find the image of the point (4, 3) on z plane under the transformation w = 2z2 + 3.
Solution
Since u + iv = 2(x + iy)2 + 3
u = 2x2 – 2y2 + 3 = 2(16) – 2(9) + 3 = 17 and
v = 2xy = 2(4)(3) = 24.
Hence the image of (4, 3) on z plane is (17, 24) on the w plane. We shall discuss some of
the transformations in the following examples:
Example 2
Let w = 3z + 4 – 5i = f(z)
Find the values of w which corresponds to z = -3 + i on the z plane.
Solution
Let w = u + iv = 3z + 4 – 5i then,
Then
u + iv = 3(x + iy) + 4 – 5i
or
u + iv + (3x + 4) + i(3y – 5)
Then u = 3x + 4 and v = 3y – 5
When x = -3 and y = 1, u = 3(-3) + 4 = -5 and v = 3(1) – 5 = -2
thus the point z = -3 + i is transformed (mapped) on to the point (-5, -2) on the w plane or
w = -5 –2i.
They are shown on the z plane and the w plane
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Example 3
Explain the nature of the transformation w = z2 considering the semi-circle with centre
the origin and the radius r on the z –plane.
Solution
Let z = re iθ and w = Re iφ
Then w = z2 becomes
( )
Re iφ = re iθ
2
Re iφ = r 2 e i 2θ
then R = r2 and φ = 2θ
The range of variations of θ from 0 < θ < π makes φ from 0 < φ < 2π
Let |z| = r be the circle with radius r.
Points on the upper half of the circle on z plane map into the entire circle |w| = r2
r p =r2
Thus the semi-circle of radius r in the z plane is mapped into the full circle of radius
R = r2 in the w plane.
6.4 The linear Transformation

The transformation
w = az + b
where a and b are real or complex constants is called a linear Transformation
6.5 The Bilinear (or Fractional) Transformation

The transformation
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az + b
w= , where ad − bc ≠ 0
cz + d
is called a bilinear Transformation. It is also known as a Fractional transformation
or Mobius transformation. Here, a, b, c, d are real or complex constants.
6.6 Cross Ratio of Four points z1, z2, z3 and z4

If z1, z2, z3, z4 are distinct then the ratio
(z1 − z 2 )( z3 − z 4 )
(z 2 − z 3 )(z 4 − z1 )
is called the cross ratio of z1, z2, z3, z4.
The cross ratios of z1, z2, z3, z4 can be written in six different ways
For example 4
(z − z1 )(z 2 − z 3 ) is another way of writing the cross ratio of z , z , z , z It
(z 2 − z1 )(z 4 − z 3 ) 1 2 3 4.
is written as (z1, z2, z3, z4)
6.7 An important property of a Bilinear Transformation

If z1, z2, z3, z4 are four distinct points on the z plane and w1, w2, w3, w4are the images of
z1, z2, z3, z4 respectively under a bilinear transformation
az + b
w=
cz + d
then the cross ratio of z1, z2, z3, z4 is equal to that of w1, w2, w3, w4
or
(z 4 − z1 )(z 2 − z3 ) = (w4 − w1 )(w2 − w3 )
(z 2 − z1 )(z 4 − z3 ) (w2 − w1 )(w4 − w3 )
Proof
This property can be proved by direct substitution for w1, w2, w3, w4.
az + b az 3 + b
Consider w2 − w3 = 2 −
cz 2 + d cz 3 + d
=
(ad − bc )(z 2 − z 3 ) (1)
(cz 2 + d )(cz 3 + d )
Similarly w4 − w1 =
(ad − bc )(z 4 − z1 ) (2)
(cz 4 + d )(cz1 + d )
w2 − w1 =
(ad − bc )(z 2 − z1 ) (3)
(cz 2 + d )(cz1 + d )
w4 − w3 =
(ad − bc )(z4 − z3 ) (4)
(cz4 + d )(cz3 + d )
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Substituting (1), (2), (3), (4), in

(w4 − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) we have
(w2 − w1 )(w4 − w3 )
(w4 − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) = (z4 − z1 )(z2 − z3 )
(w2 − w1 )(w4 − w3 ) (z2 − z1 )(z4 − z3 )
Hence the cross ratio of w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 = cross ratio of z1 , z 2 , z 3 , z 4 .
This is written as ( w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 ) = ( z1 , z 2 , z3 , z 4 )
Example 4
Find a bilinear transformation which maps the point z = 0, -i, -1 on the z plane into
w = i, 1, 0 respectively on the w plane.
Solution
Let the points 0, -i, -1, z on the z plane be transformed into the points i, 1, 0, w
respectively on the w plane.
The cross ratio of w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 is the same as the cross ratio of z1 , z 2 , z 3 , z 4
Then
(w4 − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) = (z4 − z1 )(z2 − z3 ) (1)
(w2 − w1 )(w4 − w3 ) (z2 − z1 )(z4 − z3 )
Substituting the values of z1, z2 , z3 and w1 , w2 , w3 in the equation (1) and letting w4 = w
and z4 = z we will get the solution (Try this yourself!)
Example 5
Find a bilinear transformation which maps the points z1 = 2, z 2 = i, z3 = −2 into the points
w1 = 1, w2 = i, w3 = −1 respectively.
Solution
Let a general point z be transformed into w under the same transformation.
Since the cross ratios of four points are preserved under a bilinear transformation
( w, w1, w2 , w3 ) = ( z , z1 , z2 , z3 )
Then
(w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) = (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 )
(w1 − w2 )(w3 − w) (z1 − z2 )(z3 − z )
w − 1 ( z − 2)(3 + 4i ) ( z − 2 )(3i − 4 )
= =
w +1 5( z + 2 )i (z + 2)(− 5)
Substituting the given points we have,
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(w − 1)(i + 1) = (z − 2 )(i + 2 )
(1 − i )(− 1 − w ) ( z − i )(− 2 − z )
(w − 1)(1 + i )2 = ( z − 2 )(2 + i )2
(1 − i )(1 + i )(− 1 − w ) (z − i )(z + i )(− 2 − z )
(w − 1)(2 i ) = (z − 2 )(3 + 4 i )
w +1 (z + 2 )(5 )
w − 1 ( z − 2 )(3 + −4i ) ( z − 2)(3i − 4 )
or = =
w +1 5( z + 2 )i (z + 2)(− 5)
w − 1 3iz − 4 z − 6i + 8
or = using componendo and dividendo
w +1 − 5 z − 10
 a c a+b c+d 
 if = then = 
 b d b−a d −c
we have,
(w − 1) + (w + 1) = (3iz − 4 z − 6i + δ ) + (− 5z − 10)
(w + 1) − (w − 1) (− 5 z − 10) − (3iz − 4 z − 6i + δ )
(w − 1) + (w + 1) = (3iz − 4 z − 6i + δ ) + (− 5z − 10)
(w + 1) − (w − 1) (− 5 z − 10) − (3iz − 4 z − 6i + δ )
2w − 9 z + 3iz − 6i − 2
or =
2 − z − 3iz + 6i − 18
3z (i − 3) + 2i(− 3 + i )
or w =
iz (i − 3) + 6(i − 3)
3 z + 2i
or w = (2)
(iz + 6)
az + b
This is of the form w = . Hence the required transformation is given in 2
cz + d
6.8 The transformation w = lnz

Let w = lnz
Then u + iv = ln(x + iy).
Raising both sides to the powers e we have e w = z
e u +iv = x + iy
e u e iv = x + iy
e u (cos v + i sin v ) = x + iy
Then e u cos v = x , eu sin v = y (1)
Thus (x,y) becomes (eu cos v, eu sin v)
writing w = lnz in another way we have
( )
u + iv = ln re iθ since z = re iθ , we have u +iv=lnr+i θ
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Hence u = lnr and v = θ (2)

Consider the lines θ = α1 and θ = α 2 on the z plane
= 2 v= 2
2 = 1
v= 1
We see that the area between = 1 and = 2 on the z plane is mapped on to the finite
strip between v = 1 and v = 2 on the w plane.
The infinite strip 0 ≤ v ≤ 2π
v = 2π
v=0
Let v = 0 on the w plane. Then = 0 on the z plane. If v = 2π on the w plane then

θ = 2π on the z plane.
θ = π θ = 0
and θ = 2π
Hence the infinite strip v = 0 to v = 2π is transformed into the whole of the z plane from
θ = 0 to θ = 2π
The image of the circle with radius r = r1

All the circles defined by r = r1 in the z plane are mapped on to the straight lines u = ln r1
6.9 The transformation of w = ez u = ln r1
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6.9 The transformation w = e z

dw
w = ez is conformal since for every value of = e z is analytic and not equal to zero
dz
anywhere on the w plane.
Consider y = c on the z plane. Then φ = c is a line making an angle φ on the w plane.
i) The infinite strip between y =c and y = d, (d > c) becomes

φ = c and φ = d
φ = d
φ =c
ii) The infinite strip between y = 0 and y = π on the z plane becomes

φ = 0 and φ = π or the upper half of the w plane
φ = 0
or
iii) When x varies from − ∞ to 0 , R varies from 0 to 1. Thus the strip 0 ≤ y ≤ π ,

− ∞ ≤ x ≤ 0 is transformed into the unit semicircle R = 1, 0 ≤ φ ≤ π .
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The rectangle bounded by x = a, x = b, y = c, y = d is transformed into the region

ea ≤ R ≤ eb , c ≤ φ ≤ d
R=a
R=b
i) Thus the rectangle bounded by y = c, y = d and x = a, and x = b is mapped on

to the region e a ≤ R ≤ e b , c ≤ φ ≤ d . The mapping is shown in the following
diagram.
φ =c
φ = d
ii) In particular the transformation w = ez when c = 0 and d = π then 0 ≤ y ≤ π , the

corresponding rectangle is mapped onto half of a circular ring as shown below:
D/ E/ A/ B/
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iii) What will happen if w =0?

Since ez is never zero w = 0 has no image on the z plane.
iv) What will be the image of w = ez if 0 < y < π .

The strip 0 < y < π on the z plane
is a strip in the above figure then, taking logarithm on both sides of ez = w we have
z = ln w + 2nπi . Thus the infinite strip is mapped on the upper half R > 0:
y =π
Example 6
a) Find a bilinear transformation, which transforms the unit circle |z| = 1 into the real
axis of the w plane in such a way that the points z1 = 1, z2 = i, z3 = -1 are mapped
onto w1 = 0, w2 = 1, w3 = ∞ .
b) In what regions the interior and exterior of the circle are mapped.
Solution
Let a general point z be mapped onto w. Since bilinear transformations preserve cross
ratio of four points we have
(w, w1, w2, w3) = (z, z1, z2, z3)
then
(w, 0, 1, ∞ ) = (z, 1, i, -1)
(w − 0)(1 − ∞ ) = (z − 1)(i + 1)
(0 − 1)(∞ − w) (1 − i )(− 1 − z )
(w)(1 − x )
=
(z − 1) (i + 1) 2 , where x → ∞
(− 1)( x − w) − 1 − z (1 − i )(1 + i )
1 
w − 1
 x  = ( z − 1) (di )
 x w 1+ z 2
 − 
x x
w(−1) − i (1 − z) 1 w
= , when x → ∞, = =0
(1 − 0) 1+ z x x
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i(1 − z )
or w=
1+ z
is the required transformation.
6.9 Fixed points of a bilinear transformation

If a point z1 = x1 + iy, on the z plane may have the image w = u + iv. The points which
coincide with their images under a bilinear transformation are called Fixed points of the
transformation.
az + b
If P is a fixed point of the bilinear transformation w = where ad − bc ≠ 0 then w
cz + d
and z will be equal.
az + b
Hence z = .
cz + d
or cz2 + dz = az + b
or cz2 + (d – a)z – b = 0
(a − d ) ± (a − d )2 − 4(c)(−b)
then z =
2c
or
(a − d ) ± (a − d )2 + 4(bc)
z=
2c
The two values of z are the fixed points of the bilinear transformation.
The nature of fixed points

2 bc bc
i) If a = d, then the fixed points are ± =±
2c c
ii) If c = 0 and a ≠ d we have one fixed point is finite and other is infinite.
iii) If c ≠ 0 and (a-d)2 + 4bc is positive then there will be two finite fixed points.
Example 7
3z − 4
Find the fixed points of the bilinear transformation w =
3 −1
Solution
At the fixed points z = w.
3z − 4
Hence z =
3 −1
or
z2 – 4z + 4 = 0
or
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(z - 2)2 = 0
then z = 2 is the only fixed point or we say that fixed points 2, 2 coincide.
Example 8
z −1
Find the fixed points of the bilinear transformation w =
z +1
Solution
If the fixed points z = w
Hence
z −1
z=
z +1
or
z2 + 1 = 0 or z2 = i2
Hence z = ±i are the two distinct fixed points.
6.10 The transformation z = c sin w, c being real:

π
The image of the rectangle u=± and v = ±α in w plane.
2
Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv
z = c sin w becomes,
x + iy = c sin(u + iv)
=c(sin u cos hv + i cos u sin v)
Hence x = c sin u cos hv (1) y
and y = c cos u sin hv (2)
v
π
P ,−α
- π ,−α Q 2
x
2 o
u
0
π
−
π
,−α
S , −α
2 R 2
Now when v is constant the corresponding curves in z plane are obtained by

eliminating u from (1) and (2). Then
x2 y2
2 2
+ 2 2
= sin 2 u + cos 2 u
c cosh v c sinh v
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x2 y2
or + =1 (3)
c 2 cosh 2 v c 2 sinh 2 v
If v = ±α a constant, then
x2 y2
+ = 1 which represent an ellipse.
c 2 cosh 2 α c 2 sinh 2 α
π
Also for − π < u < we have cos u is positive. For the line PQ, v = α and u varies
2 2
π
from − π to , x varies from c cos h α , to + c cos h α
2 2
Thus we conclude that the side PQ of the rectangle corresponds to upper half of the
ellipse in z plane.
The line RS
In the same way we conclude that the side RS of the rectangle corresponds to the lower
half of the ellipse (or y negative)
The line PS
π π
u= and v varies from - α to α so that from (2), v = 0 (cos = 0) and x varies from c
2 2
cos h α to c and then from c to c cos h λ according as v varies from - α to 0 and then
π
from 0 to α Hence the rectangle enclosed by u = ± , v = ± α in the w plane
2
corresponds to the ellipse in the w plane corresponds to the ellipse in z plane with two
slits.
Exercise 6
1. Define a mapping from z plane to w plane.
2. If the function is f(z) = z +I find the image of the point p, 4 + 5i on the w plane.
3. A point 3 + bi on the z plane is mapped on to the point (11, c) on the w plane by the
mapping function f(z) = 2z2 + 1. find the values of band c.
4. Define a bilinear Transformation.
5. Find a bilinear Transformation which maps z = 1, i, -1 respectively onto w = i, 0, -1.
6. Find a bilinear transformation which maps points z = 0, -i, -1 onto w = i, 1, 0
respectively
2z − 5
7. Find the invariant points of the transformation w = (Hint: the fixed points are
z+4
2z − 5
attained putting z = and solving).
z+4
8. Define cross ratio of any four points z1 , z2 , z3 , z 4 .
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9. Consider the rectangle R formed by x = 0, y = 0, x = 2, y = 1 on the z lane.

Determine the region R’ of the w plane into which R is mapped under the
transformation w = z + (1 2i).
10. Determine the region of the w plane into which the first quadrant of the z plane is
mapped by the transformation w = z 2 .
11. Show that the Transformation w = 2 z − 3i z + 5 − 4i is equivalent to u = 2x + 3y + 5,

v = 2y 3x 4.
12. Find a bilinear transformation which maps the vertices 1 + i, -i, 2 i of a triangle of
the plane into the points 0, 1, i of the w plane.
13. Find a bilinear transformation which maps the points i, -i, 1 on the z plane into 0, 1,
∞ of the w plane respectively.
1
14. Show that the transformation w = maps the inside of the unit circle on the z plane
z
into the outside of the circle w = 1 on the w plane.
Summary
i) The meaning of mapping or transformation of pints, curves and regions from z plane
to w plane under a function f(z).
1
ii) The mapping of elementary functions such as e z , ln z , sin az , polynomials, and
z
az + b
iii) Bilinear transformation w = and their properties.
cz + d
iv) Definition of a Cross Ration of four points on the z plane.
v) If z1 , z2 , z3 , z 4 are four points on the z plane and w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 are their images
az + b
respectively under a bilinear transformation w = then the cross ratio of
cz + d
z1 , z2 , z3 , z 4 = the cross Ratio of w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 .
vi) Determination of a bilinear transformation when three points on z plane and their
images on w plane are given.
Further Reading
Tokyo Singapore
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Lesson 7
Complex Integration and Cauchy’s Theorem
7.1 Introduction
You have already studied the differentiation of the functions of a complex variables and
analytic function at a point on the z plane. In this Lesson you will study the integration of
functions of complex variables and Cauchy’s fundamental Theorem in integration of f(z)
over a simple closed curve when f(z) is analytic inside and on the closed curve.

i) state the meaning of complex integration along a curve or line.
ii) apply the meaning of complex integration along a line or curve.
iii) State Cauchy’s fundamental theorem in complex analysis.
iv) Apply Cauchy’s Theorem to evaluate integrals of functions of z.
∫ f (z )dz
b
7.3 Meaning of the complex integration,
a
zk
mk
zk - 1
a
let c be a curve of finite length and f(z) be continuous at all points on the curve c. let the
curve be subdivided into n parts by means of points z1 z2 zn-1 chosen arbitrarily .
Let us call the starting point a and the ending point b as z0 and zn respectively. Now the
curve c is subdivided into n arcs from z0 to zn. Consider any one arc joining zk-1 to zk. let
mk be a point on the arc zk-1 zk where k varies from 1 to n. let
Let s n = f (m1 )( z1 − a ) + f (m2 )( z 2 − z1 ) + ..... f (mn )(b − z n−1 )
n
= ∑ f (mk )( z k − z k −1 )
k −1
n
= ∑ f (mk )∆z k where ∆z k = z k − z k −1
k =1
Let the number of subdivision, n increases and let the largest of the chord length ∆z k
tends to zero. Let the sum sn approaches a limit l. We denote this limit l by
b
I = ∫ f ( z )dz
a
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I is called the line integral of f(z) along curve c or the definite integral of f(z) from a to b
along the curve c.
R
7.4 Conditions for the limit I exists or ∫ f ( z )dz exists
c
b
If f(z) is analytic at all points of a Region R and if the
curve c is lying in R then the limit I exists and f(z) is said to
be integrable along c. The famous French Mathematician,
Cauchy has discovered that I = 0 if the curve c is closed or a
c
a and b coincide.
7.5 All the formulae for integration of functions of real variables hold good for
integration of functions of complex variables.
For example
z n+1 dz
∫ z dz = n + 1 + c, ∫ z = ln z + c where n ≠ −1
n
∫ cos zdz = sin z + c and ∫ sin zdz = − cos z + c

Similarly all the other formulae for exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions
hold good for the functions of complex variables.
7.6 Cauchy’s Fundamental Theorem

If a function f(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve c
then ∫ f ( z )dz = 0 c
c
Cauchy’s theorem is also called Cauchy – Goursat theorem or Cauchy’s Integral

Theorem.
7.7 Converse of Cauchy’s Theorem or Morera’s Theorem.

Let f(z) be continuous in a simply connected region R and suppose that
∫ f ( z)dz = 0
c
around every simple closed curve c in R. Then f(z) is analytic in R.
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7.8 Indefinite Integrals or antiderivative of f(z)

If f(z) and F(z) are analytic in a region R and F ' ( z ) = f ( z ) then F(z) is called an
indefinite integral or F(z) is called the anti-derivative of f(z) denoted by
F ( z ) = ∫ f ( z )dz or sometimes we write F ( z ) = ∫ f ( z )dz + c
Example 1
Since we have
d
dx
( ) ( )
5 x 2 + e 2 x = 10 x + 2e 2 x we write ∫ 10 x + 2e 2 x dx = 5 x + e 2 x + c
Here 5 x 2 + e 2 x + c is called the anti derivative of 10 x + 2e 2 x .

Theorem
7.9 If f(z) is analytic inside and on a the boundary c of a simply connected region
b
R, then ∫ f ( z )dz
a
is independent of the path in R joining the points a and b in
R.
p
C1
a b
Q C2
C
Proof
Let C be any simple closed curve enclosing the region R. Let a and b be two points in
R. Let apb and aQb be two paths connecting a and b.
By Cauchy’s Theorem
∫ f ( z )dz = 0 since f(z) is analytic inside and on apbQa

apbQa
or ∫
apb
f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz = 0
bQa
or ∫
apb
f ( z )dz = −
bQa
∫ f ( z )dz
or
apb
∫ f ( z )dz = −
aQb
∫ f ( z )dz
Hence the value of the integrals in the two paths apb and aQb are the same.
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7.10 If f(z) is analytic in a region R bounced by two simple closed curves c1 and c2
and also on c1 and c2 then
C1 T
∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ f ( z )dz
c1 c2
C2
C2
V
P
Q M
S
where c1 and c2 are both

N
traversed in the anticlockwise direction relative to their interiors.
Proof
Construct a cross – cut PQ. Consider the curve PQV SQPNMTP f(z) is analytic inside
the region R and on the curve PQVS QPNMTP.
By Cauchy’s Theorem we have
PQVSQPNMTP
∫ f ( z )dz = 0 ∫ f ( z )dz
c2
or ∫
PQ
f ( z )dz + ∫
QVSQ
f ( z )dz + ∫
QP
f ( z )dz + ∫
PNMTP
f ( z )dz = 0
or
QVSQ
∫ + ∫
PNMTP
=0
since the integrals along PQ and QP cancel.

Then ∫ f ( z )dz = − ∫ f ( z)dz
QVSQ PNMTP
or −
QSVQ
∫ f ( z )dz = − ∫
PNMTP
f ( z )dz
or
QVSQ
∫ f ( z )dz = ∫
PNMTP
or ∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ f ( z)dz
c1 c2
7.11 The above result can be extended when there are more than one region
bounded by c1, c2, cn
C
R
C1 C2
C3
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If f(z) is analytic inside and on the curve c enclosing the region R and and c1, c2 .cn are
closed curves in R. Then ∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ + ∫ +...... ∫
C C1 C2 Cn
Theorem
7.12 Cauchy’s Integral Formula.

If f(z) is analytic inside and on the boundary c of a simply connected region R and a is
any point inside the curve c then,
1 f ( z)
2πi ∫c z − a
f ( a) = dz
c
Proof
R a.
R . r
Let c be any simple curve enclosing the Region R and a be any point inside c. Draw a
circle r of center a and radius c.
f ( z) f ( z)
Now ∫ dz = ∫ dz by Theorem.
c
z−a r
.z − a
Any point z on r is given by z = a + ∈ eiθ where varies from 0 to 2π and
dz =∈ e iθ idθ
f ( z)
2π f ( a + ∈ eiθ ) ε eiθ idθ
Hence ∫r z − a dz = ∫
0 ∈ eiθ
2π
(
= i ∫ f a + ∈ e i θ dθ )
0
f (z )
2π
or ∫ dz = i ∫ f (a + ∈ eiθ )dθ (2)
c
z−a 0
Taking the limit ∈→ 0 , on both sides we have
f (z )
2π
∫c z − a dz = lim i f (a + ∈ e iθ )dθ
∈→ 0 ∫
0
2π
= i ∫ f (a )dθ
0
2π
= if (a ) ∫ dθ
0
= 2πif (a)
1 f (z )
Hence f (a) = ∫
2πi c z − a
dz
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f (z )
The above theorem can be extended by considering ∫ (z − a )
c
2
within the curve c
1 f (z )
Thus f ' (a ) = ∫
2πi c ( z − a )2
dz
n! f (z )
Also f (n ) (a) = ∫ dz
2πi ( z − a )n +1
The theorems are also applicable for multiply connected Regions. We can prove this by
making a cut.
Example 2
dz
a) Evaluate ∫ z−a
c
where c is any simple closed curve c and a is inside c,
b) What is the value of the integral if a is outside the closed curve?

. a
Solution
Let c be any simple
c
closed curve c and a a. C1
be a point inside c
Let c1 be a circle with center a and radius ∈
dz dz
Now ∫ z−a = ∫ z−a
c c1
By Cauchy’s Theorem for multiply – connected region.
On c1, z − a =∈ or z − a =∈ e iθ
Hence z = a + ∈ e iθ where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π and dz = i ∈ eiθ dθ
2π
dz i ∈ e iθ dθ
Then ∫ = ∫
c1
z − a θ =0 ∈ e iθ
2π
= i ∫ dθ = 2πi
a
dz
Hence ∫ z − a = 2πi
c
if c is any simple closed curve and a is inside c.
. a
1
b) If a is outside the curve then f ( z) =
is analytic inside and on the closed
z−a
dz
curve c and hence by Cauchy’s fundamental Theorem ∫ =0
c
z−a
(see this problem after the Residue Theorem)
Example 3
Evaluate ∫ zdz from z = 0 to z = 4 + 2i along the line joining z = 0 to z = 2i and the line
joining z = 2i to z = 4 + 2i.
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2i p
A 4 + 2i
0 4
Solution
∫ zdz = ∫ (x − iy )d (x + iy ) = ∫ (xdx + xidy − iydx + ydy )
c c c
= ∫ ( xdx + ydy ) + i ∫ ( xdy − ydx )

c
The line from z = 0 to z = 2i is OA. On OA x = 0, y is varying from 0 to 2.
Hence ∫ zdz = ∫ (0d (0 ) + ydy ) + i ∫ 0dy − yd (0 )
2
= ∫ ydy + i ∫ 0
0
2 2
y2
= ∫ ydy =
0
2 0
= 2.
The line from z = 2i to z = 4 + 2i is the line AP on which y = 2 constant and x varies
from 0 to 4
Hence ∫ zdz = ∫ ( x − iy )d ( x + iy ) becomes ∫ ( x − iy )(dx + idy )
AP AP
∫ (xdx + ixdy − iydx + ydy )

AP
on AP x is varying from 0 to 4 and y = 2 and dy = 0.
= ∫ ( xdx + 0 − iydx + 0 )
4 4
= ∫ xdx − i ∫ 2dx
0 0
2 4
x 4
= − i 2x 0
2 0
= 8 − i8
∫ zdz = ∫ zdz + ∫ zdz
c OA AP
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= 2 + 8 − 8i
= 10 − 8i
Example 4
a) Integrate z2 along the straight line OM (direct) and also along the path OLM
consisting of two straight line segments OL and LM. O is the origin and M is the
point z = 3 + i.
b) Show that the integral of z2 along the two different paths are equal.
c) Is the result true for any function other than z2 for the two paths?
3+ i
 z3 
Let I1 = ∫ z dz =  
2
OM  3 0
M
=
(3 + i )3 − 0 3+i
3
18 + 26i
=
3
0 L (3,0)
Let I 2 = ∫ z dz + ∫ z dz
2 2
OL LM
= ∫ x dx + ∫ (3 + iy ) idy
2 2
Note that z = x and y = 0 on LM and x = 3 and y = 3 + i
OL LM
and dx = 0 on LM
1
 x3 
3
 ( 3 + iy )3 
hence I 2 =   + i  
 3  x = 0  3  y = 0
=9+
1
(26i − 9)
3
18 + 26i
=
3
Thus I1 = I 2
d) The result will be true for any function f(z) other than z2 provided f(z) is analytic
in the region inside OLM and on OLMO.
Exercise
1) State Cauchy’s Integral Theorem.
2) State the converse of Cauchy’s Theorem.
3) Give an example of f(z) and the anti derivative of f(z).
4) If f(z) is analytic inside and on a closed contour c of a simply connected region R,
b
prove that ∫ f ( z )dz
a
is independent of the path in R joining the points a and b in R.
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5) If f(z) is analytic inside and on a closed curve C (as in the figure) show that
∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ f ( z )dz .
c c1
C
C1
M (1+i)
6) Find the value of the integral I1 = ∫ (z + 4iz )dz

2
and
OM
∫ (z ) ∫ (z )2
I2 = 2
+ 4iz dz + 2
+ 4iz dz L (1,0)
OL LM
show that I1 = I 2 0 1
∫e
−2 z
7) Show that dz is independent of the path C joining the points 1 − πi and 2 + 3πi
c
and determine its value.
8) Prove Cauchy – Goursat – Theorem for the multiply connected region R shown in the
figure shaded giving all the conditions. C
C1
C2 C3
4 − 3i
∫ (6 z )
+ 8iz dz has the same value along the following paths C joining the
2
9) Show that
3+ 4 i
points 3 + 4i and 4 – 3i along a straight line and also along the straight line 3 + 4i to
4 + 4i and then from 4 + 4i to 4 – 3i.
2πi
∫e
3z
10) Evaluate dz
πi
π π
2 2
π
∫ sin zdz = ∫ cos 2 zdz =
2
11) Show that
0 0
4
1  z−a
12) Show that ∫ 2
dz
z −a 2
= ln 
1
 + c1 ln z + 3 z + 2 + c
2a  z + a  3
3
( )
z +1
2
13) Evaluate ∫ 3 dz .
z + 3z + 2

i) the meaning of complex Integration or the line integral of f(z).
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ii) Cauchy’s fundamental Theorem: If f(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed
curve C then ∫ f ( z )dz = 0 .
c
iii) Converse of Cauchy’s Theorem (Morera’s Theorem).
iv) Three important Theorems derived from Cauchy’s Theorem.
v) Cauchy’s Integral Formula.
If f(z)is analytic inside and on the boundary of a simply connected region and a is any
1 f ( z)
2πi ∫c z − a
point inside c then f (a) = dz and its extensions.
Further reading
1. Complex variables and Applications
Mc Graw – Hill, Kogakusha Ltd
Tokyo Singapore.
2. Complex variables
By Murray R. Spiegel, Ph.D
Schaum outline series.
Mc Graw – Hill Book Company
Singapore.
3. Text Book of Complex Analysis

By Dr. D. Sengottaiyan Ph. D
Oxford Publications
London Nairobi.
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Lesson 8
Laurent series and Singularities of Functions
8.1 Introduction
You have studied analytic functions in the previous Lessons. In this Lesson you will
study the series representation of analytic functions. You shall study mainly Laurent
series expansion in a ring shaped region between two concentric circles.
8.2 Objectives of the Lesson.

By the end of this Lesson you should be able to
i) state Laurent’s series
ii) deduce Taylor’s series from Laurent Series.
iii) define Singularities of functions
iv) classify the singularities of functions.
v) expand a function f(z) at its singularities.
8.3 Laurent series

y
r1
a
.
Z0 C1
r2
C2
x
0
Let c1 and c2 be two concentric circles of radii r1 and r2 respectively and cetre at a.
suppose that a function f(z) is single valued and analytic on c1 and c2 and in the ring
shaped region between c1 and c2 shown in the figure. If z0 is any point in R, then we have
∞ ∞
bn
f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − z0 ) + ∑
n
(1)
( z − z0 )
n
n =0 n =1
1 f ( z)
2π i c∫1 ( z − z0 ) n +1
where an = n = 0, 1, 2 ….
1 f ( z)
bn =
2π ∫ (z − z )
c2
− n +1
n=1, 2 …..
0
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The path of integration is taken counter clockwise.
The series (1) is called Laurent Series.
∞ n
The part of Laurent Series ∑ an(z − z )

n =0
0 is called the analytic part of Laurent Series and
∞
bn
∑ (z − z )
n =1
n
is called the principal part of Laurent Series.
0
8.4 Taylor’s Series from Laurent Series

f ( z)
If f(z) is analytic at all points inside and on c1 the function is analytic inside
(z − z0 )−n+1
and on c2 since − n + 1 ≤ 0 . Hence by Cauchy’s fundamental Theorem bn becomes
zero. In this case Laurent Series reduces to Taylors series. Then
∞
f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − z 0 )
n
n =0
1 f ( z)
where an = ∫
2πi c1 ( z − z0 )n+1
n=0, 1, 2, …..
8.5 Singular points or Singularities.

A point on the z plane at which f(z) fails to be analytic is called a singular point or
singularity of f(z). There are various types of singularities:
i) Isolated Singular points

A point z = z0 is called an isolated singular point of f(z) if we can find δ > 0 such that
the circle z − z 0 = δ encloses no singular point other than z0.
In other words there exists a deleted neighborhood of z0 containing no singularity. If

no such δ can be found we call z0 a non – isolated singularity.
ii) Poles
Consider a point z0 on the z plane at which f(z) becomes infinite. If we can find a
positive integer n such that lim ( z − z 0 ) f ( z ) = c ≠ 0 . Then the point z0 is called a pole
n
z → z0
of order n
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Example 1
2z 2z
f ( z) = has a pole of order 1. Here becomes ∞ at z = 3, but
z −3 z −3
lim ( z − 3)
2z
= 6 which is not zero
z →3 z −3
2z
Hence f ( z ) = has a pole of order one.
z −3
Example 2
2z + 4
has
(z − 2) (z − 1)4 (z + 4)
3 a pole of order 3 at z = 2
a pole of order 4 at z = 1 and
a pole of order one at z = -4.
A pole of order one is called a simple pole.
Branch points
For a multiple valued function all the Branch points are called singular points.
1
Examples: f ( z ) = z 2 has a branch point at z = 0
f ( z ) = ( z − 5)2 has a branch point at z = 5
1
f ( z ) = ln (z 2 + 3z − 10 ) or ln(z 2) (z+5) has branch points at z = 2 and z = - 5
iii) Removable singularities

If z0 is a singular point of f(z) but lim f ( z ) exists, then the singular point z0 is called a
z→ z 0
removable singularity of f(z).
Examples
Consider
sin z 0
f ( z) = . z = 0 is not an ordinary point of f(z) since it takes the form . But
z 0
sin z
lim = 1 by L Hospital Rule.
z →0 z
sin z
Hence z = 0 is a removable singularity for f ( z ) =
z
iv) Essential Singularity

A function f(z) may have a singular point z = z0, but if this singular point is neither an
isolated singularity, nor a pole or branch point or removable singularity then the
singularity z0 is called an essential singularity of f(z).
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Example 4
1
f ( z ) = 3− z has an essential singularity at z = 3.
e
Suppose f(z) becomes infinity but we cannot find any positive integral n such that
lim ( z − z 0 ) f ( z ) = R ≠ 0 then z = z0 is an essential singularity.
n
z → z0
v) Singularities at Infinity
1
A function f(z) may not have any pole at z = z0, but f ( ) may have poles. Such poles
z
are called singularities at infinity.
vi) Branch point
Example 5
1
1
Consider f ( z ) = z . f(z) has actually no poles but f ( ) = z 4 has a pole at z = 0. Hence
4
z
f(z) has a pole of order 4 at z = ∞
8.6 Laurent series about the singularities.

If z0 is any kind of a singularity for f(z), we can expand the function f(z) in an infinite
series about the Singularity such series are called Laurent Series.
We shall consider some functions having singularities at z = z0 and expand the functions
at z0 in the following examples.
Example 6
e3 z
Consider the function f ( z ) =
(z − 2)3
a) state the singularity of f(z).
b) what is the kind of the singularity of f(z).
c) expand f(z) in a Laurent series.
d) state the region of convergence of the series.
Solution
a) when z=2. f(z) becomes infinite and it is not analytic Hence z = 2 is a

singularity of f(z.
b) lim
( z − 2) e 3z
3
= e 6 z which is not equal to zero Then z = 2 is a pole of order
z →2 (z − 3)3
3.
e3 z
Let f ( z ) = and let z 2 = u so that z = u + 2.
(z − 2 )3
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e3 z e 3(u + 2 )
Then =
(z − 2)3 u 3
e 6+ 3u
= 3
u
e 6 .e 3u
=
u3
e 6  3u (3u ) (3u )3 + (3u )4 + ....
2
= 3 1 + + + 
u  1! 2! 3! 4! 
e 6 3e 6 9e 6 27e 6 81u
= + + + + + ....
u 3 u 2 u.2! 3! 4!
e6 3e 6 9e 6 27e 6 81u
= + + + + + ......
(z − 2 )3 (z − 2 )2 2!(z − 2 ) 3! 4!
The series converges at all points except at z = 2.
Example 7
z − sin z
Consider the function f ( z ) =
z3
a) state the singularity of f(z).
b) what is the kind of singularity of f(z).
c) find the Laurent series of f(z).
d) what is the region of convergence of f(z)?.
Solution
z − sin z
Let f ( z ) =
z3
a) z = 0 is a singularity since at z = 0 the function is not defined and hence not
analytic.
z − sin z 1 − cos z 1 + sin z 1
b) lim 2
= lim = lim = (By L’ Hospital Rule the limit
z →0 z z → 0 2z z → 0 2 2
exists). Hence z = 0 is a removable singularity.
c) Let z = 0
z − sin z 1   z 3 z5 z 7 
2
= 2 
z − 
 z − + − + .....
z z   3! 5! 7! 
1  z3 z5 z7 
= 2 − + − .....
z  3! 5! 7! 
z z3 z5
= − + + ........
3! 5! 7!
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d) The series converges for all values of z i.e. the series converges on the whole
of z plane.
Example 8
Consider the function f ( z ) = ( z − 4 ) sin
1
z+2
a) state the singularity of f(z)
b) what is the kind of singularity of f(z).
c) expand f(z) in a Laurent series.
d) state the region of convergence of the series.
Solution
a) Let f ( z ) = ( z − 4 ) sin
1
when z = - 2 f(z) is not defined and hence it is not
z+2
analytic. Hence z = -2 is a singularity of f(z).
b) z = -2 is neither a pole nor Branch point. It is an essential singularity.
c) Let z + 2 = u so that z = u 2
Then ( z − 4 ) sin = (u − 6) sin
1 1
z+2 u
1 
= (u − 6) −
1 1
+ + ......
 u 3!u 
3 5
5!u
1 1 6 6 6
= 1− 2
+ 4
+ ..... − + 3
− + .....
3!u 5!u u 3!u 5!u 5
6 1 6 1 6
= 1− − 2
+ 3
+ 4
− + ....
u 3!u 3!u 5!u 5!u 5
6 1 6 1 6
= 1− − + + −
z + 2 3!( z + 2) 3!( z + 2) 5!( z + 2 ) 5!( z + 2)
2 3 4 5
The series converges at all points except at z = -2.
Example 9
3
Expand f ( z ) = in a Laurent Series at z = 3.
z ( z − 3)
2 2
Solution
We can expand f(z) using Binomial theorem.
3
f ( z) = 2
z ( z − 3)
2
z = 0 and z = 3 are poles of f(z).

Let z 3 = u or z = u + 3.
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3 3
f ( z) = =
z 2 ( z − 3)
2
( )
(u + 3)2 u 2
3
= 2
  u  2
31 + 3  u
  
−2
 u
31 + 
= 
3
9u 2
1  u (− 2 )(− 3)  u  (− 2)(− 3)(− 4)  u  
2 3
= 2 1 + (− 2 ) +   +   + .....
3u  3 2! 3 3!  3 
1 2 1 4
= 2 − + − u + ....
3u 9u 9 81
+ − ( z − 3) − .....
1 2 1 4
f ( z) = −
3( z − 3)
2
9( z − 3) 9 81
This series converges for all values of z such that 0 < z − 3 < 3.
Example 10
1
Expand f ( z ) = is a Laurent series valid for 0 < z + 1 < 2.
(z + 3)(z + 1)
Solution
1
Let f ( z ) = (1)
(z + 3)(z + 1)
Let (z + 1) = u then
1 1
f ( z) = =
u (u + 2 )  u
2u 1 + 
 2
1  u u 2 u3 
= 1 − + − + .... (2)
2u  2 4 8 
− + ( z + 1) − ( z + 1) + ...
1 1 1 1
=
2
2( z + 1) 4 8 16
u z +1
The expansion of Binomial theorem is valid when < 1 or < 1 or z + 1 < 2 or
2 2
z + 1 < 2.
Example 11
1
Expand f ( z ) =
(z + 1)(z + 3)
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Solution
1
Let f ( z ) =
(z + 1)(z + 3)
1 1  1 1
=
 − Resolving into partial fraction
2  z + 1  2 ( z + 3)
1 1  1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 − + 2 − 3  = − 2 + 3 − 4 + .... (2)
2( z + 1) 2 z  z z z  2z 2z 2z 2z
1 1 z z2 z3 
= 1 − + − + .... (3)
2( z + 3) 6  3 9 27 
1 z
The two expansions are valid if < 1 and 1 + < 1 or if z > 1 and z < 3 or
z 3
1 < z < 3. The required Laurent series is the sum of the series in (2) and (3). Hence
1 1 1 1 1 1 z z2 z3
f ( z) = = .... − 4 + 3 − 2 + − + − + ........
(z + 1)(z + 3) 2z 2z 2z 2 z 6 18 54 162
Exercise 8
1) State Laurent Series for a function f(z).
2) Derive Taylor’s series from Laurent series.
3) Define singularity of a function f(z).
4) Give one example for each of the following
i) Isolated singularity
ii) Poles
iii) Branch point
iv) Removable singularity
v) Essential singularity
vi) Singularity at infinity.
1
5) Expand f ( z ) = in a Laurent series valid for i) z < 3 and ii) z > 3.
z −3
1
6) Expand f ( z ) = in a Laurent series valid for a) 0 < z < 2 b) z > 2.
z (z − 2)
z
7) Find the singularities of the functions z and classify the singularity.
e −1
z
8) a) Expand f ( z ) = z − 2 in a Laurent series about z = 2 and determine the region
e
of convergence of this series .
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b) Classify the singularities of f(z).

i) Laurent series expansion of an analytic function in a ring shaped region.
ii) Taylor’s series derived from Laurent’s series.
iii) Singularities of f(z) and their classification.
iv) Expansion of functions at the singularities.
Further Reading
1. Complex Variables and Applications
Mc Graw – Hill, KOGAKUSHA Ltd
Tokyo Singapore.
2. Complex Variables
By Murray R. Spiegel, Ph.D
Schaum outline series.
Mc Graw – Hill Book Company
Singapore.
3. Text Book Complex Analysis

By Dr. D. Sengottaiyan Ph. D
Oxford Publications
London Nairobi.
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Lesson 9
Poles and Residues of a Function
9.1 Introduction
You have studied Cauchy’s fundamental theorem which states that if a function is
analytic every where inside and on a simple closed contour (curve) c, then the integral of
a function around that contour is zero. If however the functions fails to be analytic at a
finite number of points inside C those points may be called poles of the function. Each
of these points contributes to the value of the integral. These contributions are called the
Residues of the function. You will learn, in this Lesson to determine the poles and the
residues at the poles of a function of complex variables.

By the end of this Lesson you will be able to: -
i).define the pole of a function f(z)
ii).determine the pole of f(z)
iii).define the Residues of a function at its poles.
iv).determine the residue of a function f(z) at its poles of order 1, 2…n.
9.3 Definition of poles of a function f(z)

Let f(x) be any function of z. Generally lim( z − a ) f ( z ) = 0
z →a
Suppose lim( z − a ) f ( z ) = A which is not zero. Then z = a is called a pole of order one
z →a
of f(z).
Similarly if lim( z − a ) f ( z ) = A, ≠ 0 then z = a is called a pole of order m of f(z).
m
z →a
9.4 Determination of the Poles of f(z) at its poles.

At the pole the function f(z) becomes infinite. Hence to find the poles of f(z) we put
φ ( z)
f(z) = and find z which are poles. If f(z) = we solve g(z) = 0 and the roots are
g ( z)
poles of f(z).
Example 1
z3
Find the poles of and state the order of each pole.
( z − 1)( z + 3) 2 ( z − 8)5
Solution
At the pole f(z) becomes infinite. If ( z − 1)( z + 3) 2 ( z − 8)5 = 0 , f(z) becomes infinite.
Hence z = 1 is pole of order 1
z = -3 is pole of order 2
z = 8 is pole of order 5
Generally to find the pole of f(z) put the denominator of f(z) to zero and solve for z.
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Example 2
e iz
Determine the poles of 2 2
z ( z + 2 z + 2)
Solution
eiz
Let f ( z ) 2 2
z ( z + 2 z + 2)
The poles of f(z) are obtained by solving z 2 ( z 2 + 2 z + 2) = 0

One pole is z = 0 of order 2.
−2+ 4−8
Solving z 2 + 2 z + 2 = 0 we get z = or z = -1 + i and – 1 – i both of them
2
are simple poles.
Thus z = 0, 0, -1 + i, -1 – i are the four poles.
Example 3
2z 2 + 5
Find the poles of 4
z + 16
Solution
The poles of f(z) are obtained by solving the equation z4 + 16 = 0
or z4 = -16
or z4 = 16 (-1)
Hence z = 2(−1) 4
= 2[cos( 2n + 1)π + i sin( 2n + 1)π ]4

1
 (2n + 1)π ( 2n + 1)π 

= 2cos + i sin 
 4 4
n = 0, 1, 2, 3 (by Demoivre’s Theorem).
 π π  1 i 
If n = 0, z = 2 cos + i sin  = 2 + 
 4 4  2 2
 3π 3π   1 i 
If n = 1, z = 2 + i sin  = 2 − + 
 4 4   2 2
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 5π 5π   1 i 
If n = 2, z = 2 + i sin  = 2 − − 
 4 4   2 2
 7π 7π   1 i 
If n = 3, z = 2 + i sin  = 2 − 
 4 4   2 2
2z 2 + 5
Thus the poles of 4 are given by z = 2 ± i , 2 ±i
z + 16
9.5 Residue of f(z) at its pole
Let f(z) be single valued and analytic inside and on a circle c whose center is a f(z) is not
analytic at the point z = a (center of the circle)
Z=a
Then f(z) has a Laurent series about z = a given by: -

∞
f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − a ) n (1)
−∞
1 f ( z)
where an = ∫
2πi ( z − a ) n +1
dz n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ……….. (2)
suppose n = -1 we have from (2) ∫ f ( z)dz = 2πi a−1 (3)

(3) involves only the coefficient a-1 in (1). We call a-1 the residue of f(z) at z = a. It is
denoted by R.
Useful formula for the residue of f(z) at the pole z = a
9.6 Determination of Residues of f(z) at its poles

i). If z =a is a simple pole for f(z) then the residue of f(z) at a is given by
R = lim ( z − a ) f ( z )
z →a
ii). If z =a is a pole of order two then
R = lim
1 d
z → a 1! dz
[
( z − a) 2 f ( z ) ]
iii). If z = a is a pole of order n then
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R = lim
1 d n −1
z →a ( n − 1)! dz n −1
[
( z − a) n f ( z) ]
The following examples illustrate the method of finding the Residues of f(z) at its poles.
Example 4
z 3 + 5z + 1
Let f ( x) =
z−2
a) Determine the pole of f(z)
b) Calculate the residue of f(z) at its pole.
Solution
a) The pole f(z) is obtained by solving the denominator z – 2 = 0
Hence z = 2 is a simple pole of f(z)
b) The Residue of f(z) at z =a is given by

R = lim ( z − 2) f ( z )
z →2
( z 3 + 5 z + 1)
= lim( z − 2)
z →2 z−2
= lim ( z 3 + 5 z + 1)
z →2
= 8 + 10 + 1
= 19
Then the Residue of f(x) at z = 2 is 19
Example 5
z 2 − 7 z + 10
Let f ( z ) =
( z − 3) 2
Determine the pole of f(z). Calculate the residue of f(z) at its poles.
Solution
a) The pole of f(z) is obtained by equating f(z) = or by solving the denominator
(z – 3)2 = 0
(z – 3)2 = 0 gives z = 3, 3 Hence z = 3 is a pole of order 2.
If z = a is a pole of order n, then R = lim

1 d n −1
z →a ( n − 1)! dz n −1
[
( z − a) n f ( z) ]
Hence if z = 3 is a pole of order 2, we have
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1 d  2 ( z − 7 z + 10) 
2
R = lim ( z − 3) 
z →3 ( 2 − 1)! dz ( z − 3) 2 

d 2
= lim ( z − 7 z + 10)
z →3 dz
= lim(2 z − 7)
z →3
R =-1
Exercise 9
1. Define the pole of a function f(z)
φ ( z)
2. State the formula for finding the pole of f(z) =
g ( z)
3. Let z = a be a simple pole for f(z) state the formula for finding the Residue of f(z) at
the pole z = a.
4. Let z =a be a pole of order 4 for the function f(z). Write down the formula for finding
the Residue of f(z) at z = a.
For each of the following functions determine the pole and the Residues at the poles
(5 to 10).
2z +1 ( z + 1) 2
5. 6.
z −z−2
2
( z − 1) 2
7.
1 3z 3 + 2
8.
z +1
4
( z − 1)( z 2 + 9)
1 1
9. 10.
z ( z + 4)
2
z + 81
4
1
11. a). Find the 6 poles of the function
z +1
6
b). Determine the residues at each pole of f(z)
1
12. a). Find the three poles of f ( z ) =
z −1
3
b). Determine the residues of f(z) at its 3 poles.

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1. Definition of the poles of a function f(z):

If lim( z − a ) f ( z ) = A which is not zero, then z = a is called a pole of f(z).
z →a
φ ( z)
2. Method of finding the poles of f(z) = : i.e. we put g(z) = 0 and solve; the values
g ( z)
of z are poles of the function.
3. Definition of Residue of f(z) at its poles: if z = a is a simple pole of f(z) then

lim( z − a) f ( z ) = Residue of f(z) at z =a.
z →a
1 d n −1
If z = a is a pole of order n then lim  ( z − a ) n f ( z )  = Residue of f(z) at
n −1 
z →a (n − 1)! dz
z =a.
Further Reading
Tokyo Singapore


Oxford Publications
London Nairobi.
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LESSON 10
Residue Theorem and its Applications to Integration
10.1 Introduction
You have already studied Cauchy’s fundamental Theorem when a function is analytic
inside and on a simple closed contour C then the integral of the function along the curve
is zero. What will be the value of the integral if the function has some finite number of
poles inside the closed curve? In this Lesson we shall find the answer which is called the
Residue Theorem.

By the end of this Lesson you will be able to: -
i). state Residue Theorem
ii). apply Residue Theorem for the evaluation of three types of integrals:
∞
a) improper integrals of the type ∫ f ( x)dx

−∞
b) definite integrals of the Trigonometric type ∫ f (sin θ , cosθ )dθ and
c) integration round a Branch point
iii). state some theorems useful for integration.
10.3 Residue Theorem

C
zi Ci . z1 .z 2
.z n
If f(z) is analytic inside and on a closed curve C except at a finite number of poles a1, a2
……an inside C at which the residues are R1, R2…Rn respectively, then
∫ f ( z )dz = 2πi( R
c
1 + R2 + ...Rn )
= 2πi ∑ Residues
Proof
Let zi be one pole inside C. Draw a small circle Ci such that C1 is inside C and no other
poles inside the circle Ci.
According to extension of Cauchy’s fundamental theorem for the multiply connected

region
∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ f ( z)dz
c ci
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∫ f ( z)dz = ∫ f ( z)dz = 2πiR

c ci
1
In the same way taking i = 1, 2,…n we have

∫ f ( z )dz = 2πi( R1 + R2 + ...Rn )
c
= 2πi (sum of Residues)
Example 1
2z + 3
Evaluate ∫
c
z −1
dz around the circle |z| = 3
Solution
2z + 3
The integrand has a pole at z = 1. (put the denominator = 0 and solve for z).
z −1
y
0 1 2 3 x
|z| = 3
This pole z = 1 + 0i is inside the circle with center origin and radius 3 units. The Residue
at z = 1 is given by
( z − 1)(2 z + 3)
lim( z − 1) f ( z ) = lim
z →1 z →1 z −1
= lim ( 2 z + 3) = 5
z →1
There is only one pole and one Residue = 5. Hence by Residue Theorem,
(2 z + 3)
∫c z − 1 dz = 2πi (sum of residues) where C is | z | = 3
= 2πi (5)
= 10πi
Example 2
ez
Evaluate ∫ dz
c
( z − 2)( z − 4)
when
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i). c is the circle |z| = 5

ii). c is the circle |z| = 3
iii). c is the circle |z| = 1
Solution
ez
i). The integrand has two simple poles at z = 2 and z = 4 inside |z| = 5
( z − 2)( z − 4)
(since the denominator (z – 2) (z – 4) = 0 gives z = 2 and z = 4).
0 5
2 4
Residue at z = 2 is
( z − 2)e z ez
lim = lim
z → 2 ( z − 2)( z − 4) z → 2 ( z − 4)
e2 e2
= =
2−4 −2
Residue at z = 4 is
( z − 4)e z ez e4
lim = lim =
z → 4 ( z − 2)( z − 4) z→4 z − 2 2
e2 e4 e 4 − e 2
Sum of Residues = + =
2 2 2
ez
Hence ∫ dz = 2 i (sum of residues)
c
( z − 2)( z − 4)
(e 4 − e 2 )
= 2πi
2
(if c is |z| = 5) = i (e4 – e2)
ii). If |z| = 3, i.e. c is the circle with center origin and radius 3 units
0 2 3 4
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there is only one pole z = 2 inside |z| = 3 and the corresponding Residue at z = 2 is
e2
.
−2
e z dz 2πie 2
Hence ∫ = = −πie 2 if c is |z| = 3
c
( z − 2)( z − 4) −2
iii). If |z| = 1 or c is the circle with center origin and radius 1 unit,
0
1 2 4
there is no pole inside the circle |z| = 1. Since both the poles z =2 and z =4 are
outside the circle.
Hence by Cauchy’s fundamental Theorem

e z dz
∫c ( z − 2)( z − 4) =0 ; (since no pole no Residue)
10.4 Application of Residue theorem for various Types of Integrals

Using Cauchy’s Residue Theorem we can evaluate the following types of Integrals.
∞
i). Improper Real integrals of the type ∫ f ( x)dx ,
−∞
provided the integral is
convergent.
ii). Definite integrals of the Trigonometric functions of the type ∫ f (sin θ , cosθ )dθ
iii). Integration round a branch point.
We shall consider some examples in each of the three types of Integrals.
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10.5 Improper integrals of the type

∞
∞
∫ f ( x)dx
−∞ and ∫ g ( x)dx
0
Some of the integrals of the above type can be evaluated without the help of complex
integration, but the harder type of such integrals can be evaluated using Cauchy’s
Residue Theorem. We consider the curve C, in this case, as a semi-circle with center
origin and radius R units and finally we take the limit R
-R 0 R
10.6 Some important Theorems
Theorem 1
If f(z) is analytic then it is bounded. Hence | f(z) | M where M is an upper bound of
| f(z) |
Theorem 2
If f(z) is analytic A
∫ f ( z )dz ≤ ML
B
then
c
where M is the upper bound of f(z) on the curve c and L is the length of the curve c from
A to B.
y
Theorem 3
M
If f ( z )dz ≤ then
Rk
-R 0 R
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lim ∫ f ( z ) = 0 if k > 1
R →∞
Γ
where is a semi circular arc whose center is origin and radius R units.
Proof
From Theorem (2) ∫ f ( z )dz ≤ ML

c
For a semicircle
2πR
The length of the arc = = πR
2
M
Hence ∫ f ( z)dz ≤ R
Γ
k
.πR
Mπ
≤
R k −1
if k – 1 > 0 or k > 1 then M is finite and R k −1 → ∞
Mπ
→0
Hence
R k −1 and it cannot be negative.
Then ∫ f ( z)dz = 0
Γ
The following examples illustrate the evaluation of the improper integrals of real
variables.
Example 3
∞
dx
Evaluate ∫x
−∞
2
+1
Solution
i). We consider the integral
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dz
∫c z 2 + 1 and
ii). The curve c is a semicircle with center at origin and Radius R (where R )
c
-R 0 R
-i
1
iii). The poles of f ( z ) = are obtained by solving z2 + 1 = 0 or z2 = -1. Hence
z +1 2
z = − 1 = ±i are the two simple poles inside the circle |z| = R within the semicircle
there is only one pole at z = i, the other being outside the semi-circle.
1 ( z − i) ( z − i) 1
The residue at z =i for f ( z ) = is given by lim 2 = lim =
z +12 z →i z + 1 z →i ( z + i )( z − i ) 2i
Now ∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ f ( z)dz + ∫ f ( z )dz = 2πiR
c AB Γ
1 where AB is on the x axis and is
the semicircular arc.
On the line AB, z = x+ iy becomes z = x since y = 0 on the x axis.

On the semicircle z = R eiθ , dz = R eiθ idθ
R
1
Hence ∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ f ( x)dx + ∫ z
c −R c
2
+1
dz
π
R e iθ idθ
R
1
= ∫ 2 dx + ∫
−R
x +1 θ =0 R e
iθ 2
+1 ( )
∞
1
= ∫ x 2 + 1dx + 0 when R
−∞
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R eiθ idθ e iθ idθ

Since ∫ 2 2iθ
R e + 1 ∫ R e 2 iθ + 0
= when R
= 0 when R .
∞
1
∫ f ( z)dz = ∫ x
C −∞
2
+1
dx = 2πi (sum of Residues)
∞
dx 1
or ∫−∞ x + 1 = 2πi
2  =π
 2i 
1
Since the integrand is even function
x +12
∞
dx
2∫ =π
0
x +1
2
∞
dx π
or ∫x 0
2
= .
+1 2
Example 4
∞
dx π
Prove that ∫x
0
4
=
+1 2 2
Solution
dz
Consider ∫c z 4 + 1 where c is the closed contour, consisting
-R 0 R
of the x axis from – R to R and the semi circle traversed in the
anticlockwise direction.
The poles of the integrand is obtained by solving

z4 + 1 = 0 or z4 = -1
or z4 = cos (2r + 1) + i sin (2r + 1) r = 0, 1, 2, 3
4 ( 2 r +1) πi
or z = e
( 2 r +1)πi
Hence z = e 4
r = 0, 1, 2, 3
πi 3πi
5πi 7πi πi 3πi
or z = e ,
4
e , 4 e 4
, e 4
only the poles e 4 and e 4
, lie within c, other two are
below the x axis.
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 πi

  − 4 
πi  z e 
Residue at z = e = limπi
4   
 z 4
+ 1 
z →e 4
 
 
 1 
= limπi  3  using L’ Hospital Rule
z →e 4 
4z 
−3πi
1
= e 4
4
3πi  3πi

 z − e 4

Residue at z = e 4
= lim3πi
 z +1 
4
z →e 4
 
 1 
= lim3πi  3  using L’ Hospital Rule
z →e 4 
4z 
−9πi
1
= e 4
4
dz  1 −34πi 1 −94πi 
Thus ∫ 4 = 2πi  e + e 
c
z +1 4 4 
πi  3π 3π 9π 9π 
=  cos − i sin + cos + i sin
2 4 4 4 4 
πi
= [cos135 − i sin 135 + cos 405 + i sin 405]
2
πi  1 1 1 i 
= − −i + −
2 2 2 2 2 
πi  − 2i 
=  
2 2
π
=
2
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10.7 Definite Integrals of the Trigonometric functions of the type

∫ f (sin θ , cosθ )dθ
2π
Consider a real integral ∫ f (sin θ , cosθ )dθ
0
(1)
The evaluation of such integrals as (1) can be reduced to the calculation of a rational
function of z along the Unit Circle |z| = 1.
Since rational functions have no singularities other than poles, the Residue theorem
provides a simple means for evaluating integrals of the form (1).
We set z = e iθ so that dz = e iθ idθ

If z = e iθ = cosθ + i sin θ
1
then = e −iθ = cos θ − i sin θ
z
1
Hence z + = 2 cos θ
z
1
and z − = 2i sin θ
z
Thus we substitute
1 1
cosθ =  z + 
2 z
1 1
sin θ =  z −  and
2i  z
iθ
dz = e idθ .
Thus we have
1
z +
cos θ = z
2
1
z −
sin θ = z
2 i
dz
d θ =
iz
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in (1) we have
2π
∫ f (sin θ , cosθ )dθ = ∫ φ ( z )dz = 2πi∑ R

0 c
where c is the unit circle.
The method of evaluating the integrals of the type (1) is illustrate in the following
examples.
Example 5
Use residue theorem to how that
dθ 2π
∫ 5 + 4 sin θ = 3
Solution
We put
z = cos θ + i sin θ = eiθ
z −1 = cosθ − i sin θ = e −iθ and take the contour |z| = 1
dz
dz = ie iθ dθ or dθ =
iz
2π
dθ dz
∫ 5 + 4 sin θ = ∫  1
0 c iz 5 + 4( z − z −1 ). 
 2i 
2idz
=∫
c
iz (10i + 4 z − 4 z −1 )
2dz
=∫
c
4 z 2 + 10iz − 4
where c is a circle with center origin and radius 1 unit.
2
The poles of = ∫ 4z
c
2
+ 10iz − 4
are obtained by solving 4 z + 10iz − 4 = 0 and are
2
given by
− 10i ± − 100 + 64
z=
8
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− 10i ± − 36
=
8
− 10i ± 6i − 5i ± 3i
= =
8 4
i
= − and - 2i
2
i
only − lies inside the unit circle |z| = 1
2
y
i
2
0 x
i
−
2
 i
 z + .2
is lim 2
i 2
Residue at z = −
z → 4 z + 10iz − 4
2 − i
2
2
= lim Using L’ Hospital Rule
z →−
i (8 z + 10i )
2
2 2 1
= = =
 i − 4i + 10i 3i
8 −  + 10i
 2
2π
dθ 2dz
Thus ∫ 5 + 4 sin θ = ∫ 4 z = 2πi ∑ R
0 c
2
+ 10iz − 4
1
= 2πi 
 3i 
2π
=
3
10.8 Integration round a Branch point
We have already studied the definition of the branch points and we now consider an
example involving Branch points and Branch cuts. We shall evaluate the improper real
integral,
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∞
x p −1
∫0 1 + x dx (1)
where p is a positive proper fraction or 0 < p < 1.
z p−1
To evaluate the integral (1) we consider ∫ 1 + z dz since z = 0 is a branch point, we can
choose c as the contour where the positive x axis is the branch line PQ and RS coincident
with x axis but shown separated
V P
Q
N R
S
z p −1 πi
The integrand dz has a simple pole at z = −1 = cos πi + i sin πi = e
1+ z
Residue R at z = -1 is given by
( z + 1) z p −1
R = limπi
z →e z +1
( )
= eπi
p −1
z p −1
Then ∫ = 2πi (sum of Residues)
c
1 + z
( )
= 2πi eπi
p −1
z p −1
or ∫ dz = ∫ + ∫ + ∫ + ∫ (3)
c
1 + z PQ QMNTR RS SVP
Any point z, on PQ is given by z = x + iy = x
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Any point z, on the circle QMNTR is given by z = R eiθ where R is the radius of the
outer circle.
Any point on RS is given by z = x + iy = x and the points on the circle SVP is given by
z =∈ e iθ where ∈ is the radius of the inner circle.
Hence (3) becomes
z p −1 x p −1
R 2π
(R e )iθ p −1
R e iθ idθ
∈
(
xe 2πi)p −1 0
(
∈ e iθ)p −1
∈ eiθ idθ
∫c 1 + z dz =∫∈ 1 + x dx + ∫
0
1 + R e iθ
+∫
R
1 + xe 2πi
dx + ∫
2π
1+ ∈ e iθ
dθ
Taking the limit ∈→ 0 and R → ∞ we have the second and the fourth integral tend to
zero.
Hence using Residue Theorem;
∞ p −1)
z p −1 x p −1 e 2πi (
0
∫c 1 + zdz =∫0 1 + xdx + ∫∞ 1 + x dx = 2πe

( p −1)πi
∞ ∞ p −1)
x p −1 e 2πi ( x p −1
or ∫ dx − ∫ dx = 2πe( p −1)πi
0 1+ x 0 1+ x
∞ ∞
x p −1 2 πi ( p −1) x p −1
or ∫ dx − e ∫ dx = 2πe ( p −1)πi
0
1+ x 0
1+ x
∞
x p −1
∫0 1 + x dx 1 − e  = 2π e( p −1)π i
2π i ( p −1)
or
∞
x p −1 2πi e ( p −1)πi
or ∫0 1 + xdx = 1 - e 2πi( p−1)
Dividing the Numerator and denominator of the Right Hand side by e ( p −1)πi we have
∞ p −1
x dx 2π i
∫0 1 + x = e− ( p −1)π i − e( p −1)π i
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2πi
=
e .e − e pπi .e −πi
− pπi πi
2πi
=
e (−1) − e pπi (−1)
− pπi
2πi
=
e − e − pπi
pπi
2πi
=
2i sin pπ
π
=
sin pπ
Summary
You have learnt the following from this Lesson: -

i) Statement of Cauchy’c Residue Theorem namely:
If f(z) is analytic inside and on a closed curve C except at a finite number of poles at
a1, a2, … an inside C at which the Residues are R1, R2,… Rn respectively, then,
∫ f ( z )dz = 2πi( R1 + R2 + ...Rn )
C
ii) To apply Residue Theorem for the evaluation of
a). Improper integrals of the type
∞
∫ f ( x)dx
−∞
b). Definite integrals of the Trigonometric type ∫ f (sin θ , cosθ )dθ

∞
x p −1
c). Integration round a branch point of the type ∫0 1 + x dx when 0 < p <1
Exercise 10
1. State the Residue Theorem
z+2
2. a). Find the poles of f ( z ) =
( z − 1)( z − 3)
b). Determine the Residues of f(z) at its poles.
c). What is the sum of the Residues of f(z)?
z+2
d). Evaluate ∫ dz where c is the circle |z| = 4
c
( z − 1)( z − 3)
3. a). Find the poles of the function

2z + 3
f ( z) = 2
z + 25
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b). Determine the Residues of f(z) at its poles

c). State the sum of the residues at its poles
2z + 3
d). Evaluate ∫ 2 dz where c is the circle |z| = 6
c
z + 25
1
4. a). Find the poles f ( z ) = 4
z + 16
b). Determine the poles of f(z)
c). Calculate the residues of f(z) at its poles.
∞
dx
d). Evaluate ∫ 4
−∞
x + 16
z
5. a). Find the poles and the residues at the poles for the function f ( z ) =
( z + 1)( z + 2)2
z
b). Evaluate ∫ ( z + 1)( z + 2)
c
2
dz when c is the circle |z| = 2.
∞
dx
6. Evaluate ∫ (x
0
2
+ 1)( x 2 + 4) 2
∞
dx
7. Evaluate ∫x
0
6
+1
∞
x 2 dx 7π
8. Show that ∫−∞ ( x 2 + 1) 2 ( x 2 + 2 x + 2) = 50
(Hint: The two poles are z = i of orders 2 and z = -1 + i of order I. The respective
9i − 12 3 − 4i
residues are and ).
100 25
dx π
9. Show that ∫ (1 + x 2 2
)
=
4
dx 3π
10. Show that ∫ (1 + x 2 3
)
=
8
∞
x6 3 2
11. Show that ∫ 4 = π
0
(x + 1) 2
16
∞
dx π
12. Show that ∫x
0
3
=
+1 3
2π
dθ 2 dz
13. a). Show that Ι = ∫ 13 + 5 cosθ
0
is reduced to Ι = ∫
i c 5 z + 26 z + 5
2
(where c is the
unit circle |z| = 1). Using the substitution z = e iθ .
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2π
dθ
b). Hence evaluate ∫ 13 + 5 cosθ
0
2π
dθ
14. Evaluate ∫ 13 + 12 cosθ
0
2 dz
(Hint: Put z = e iθ , the integral becomes Ι = ∫
i 12 z + 26 z + 12
2
)
2π
dθ π
15. Show that ∫ 5 + 3 sin θ
0
=
2
2π
dθ
16. Evaluate ∫ 13 + 5 sin θ
0
dθ 2π
17. Prove that ∫ a + b cosθ =
a2 − b2
dθ 2π
18. Prove that ∫ a + b sin θ =
a2 − b2
, a >b.
x p−1 π
19. Show that ∫ dx = , 0 < p < 1.
1+ x sin pπ
∞
ln( x 2 + 1)
20. Show that ∫0 x 2 + 1 π ln 2
(Hint: Take the contour as the semi circle with center origin and radius R → ∞ . The
πi
ln 2i πi
pole is z = i and the residue is = ln 2 + ln i = ln 2 + ln e 2 = ln 2 + ).
(2i ) 2
2π
cos 3θ π
21. Prove that ∫ 5 − 4 cosθ dθ = 2
0
e i 3θ + e −i 3θ z 3 + z −3
(Hint: Put z = e iθ , cos 3θ = = and I z d ).
2 2
E
∞
sin x π R
22. Show that
0
x ∫dx =
2
B
(Hint: Consider the contour FABCDEF
A C
-R D R
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−∈ ix R
e e iz e ix e iz
∫x
−R
dx + ∫ z
ABC
dz + ∫x
∈
dx + ∫ z dz = 0
DEF
∞
1
23. Show that
0
∫x (1 + x)
dx = π
1
(Hint: Take p = in 10.8)
2
−3
∞ 4
x
24. Show that ∫ (1 + x) dx =
0
2π
Further Reading
Tokyo Singapore

3) Text Bokk of Complex Analysis

Oxford Publications
London Nairobi.
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COMPLEX ANALYSIS ANSWERS
Exercise one
1. -i, , i, -1, i 2. 4 + 3i 3. 9 4. 12 – i2 = 2
5. x2 + 4y2 6. -i 2 + 3i 4 + 7i
7. 13 8. 5
9. - 5 +12i 10. -33 – 56i 11. 5 12. 1
13. 3150 14. 600 15. 3000 16. 8 + 10i
17. 21 + 28i 18. -14i 19. -1 + 34i 20. -3 + 102i
−1± i 3 22. 23. 24.

z=
21. 2
25. 26. 27.
28. 5 cis 143. 10 13 cis 5 cis 216.90 13 (cos + i sin)
1200 (
i 1+ 3 ) Cos 70 + i sin 70
2
Exercise 2
5(cos 60 + i sin 60) =

5
(
1+ i 3 ) (
32(cos120 − i sin 120) = 16 − 6 3i )
2
− 3 i 1 
− 26 (cos 300 + i sin 300) = 32 − i 3 
2 2 2 
2 cis 27, 2 cis 99, 2 cis 171, 2 cis 143
cis 60, cis 180, cis 300,
2 cis 0, 2 cis 315, 2 cis 60, 2 cis 120, 2 cis 180, 2 cis 240, 2 cis 300
3 cis 45, 3 cis 135, 3 cis 225, 3 cis 315
6 6 6 6 6 6
2 cis 40, 2 cis 100, 2 cis 160, 2 cis 220, 2 cis 280, 2 cis 340
3 2i, -3 + 2i
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1  3 1 1 
1 + 2i , − 3 + 1 + i ,
 - − 3+ 3 − 1 i
2  2  2 2 
− 1 ± 7i
5
1, 1, 2, −1 ± i
−1 ± i 3 −1 ± 3
,
2 2
2 + 2i, 2 – 2i
Exercise 3
-12 + 6i
2
(1 + i )
2
−1 ± i k , k = 0, 1, 2 …
± 2, ± 2i
Exercise 4
v( x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 + 2 y
v = e x ( x sin y + y cos y ) + c
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
=− z3 + 3z2 + c
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
(1 − 2i )(sin z + z 2 ) + c
−x
v = tan −1   + c
 y 
Exercise 5
e z = e x (cos y + i sin y )
1 1
πi + kπi where k = 0, ± 1, ± 2 …………
8 2
ln 2 + (2n + 1) i, n = 0, , ± 1, ± 2
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2kπi eiz + e − iz
z= cos z =
3 2
e iz − e −iz sin z
si z = ; tan z = etc
2i cos z
real part: cos x cos hy, Imaginary part: - sin x sin hy
7 and 26
Exercise 6
1. See the book 2. Image is (8,8)
3. b= 2, c = 24 4. See the book
i (1 − z ) i ( z + 1)
5. w = 6. w =
1+ z z −1
7. z = −1± 2i 8. See the book
9. u = 1, 3, v = -1 - 2 10. θ becomes 2 θ , the upper half of w
plane
2 z − 2 − 2i (1 − i)( z − i )
11. w = 12. w =
(i − 1) z − 3 − 5i 2( z − 1)
Exercise 7
See the text
f ( z ) = z 2 , antiderivative = ∫ z 2 dz = 2 z
see the text
I, I 2 = −
1
(5 + 4i )
3
4
(
1 2
e +1 ) 1
4
(
ln z 3 + 3 z 2 + 2 )
Exercise 8
1 – 4 see text
1 1 x2 7 15
− − z − − x 3 − x 4 + ...
3 9 27 8 16
and z −1 + 3z −2 + 9 z −3 + 27 z −4 + ...
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z = 2nπi, n = ±1, ± 2 … Simple poles

z= z=∞ essential singularity
 2 2 ( z − 2 ) −2 2 3 ( z − 2 ) −3 
e 1 + 2( z − 2 ) +
−1
+ ...
 2! 3! 
z −2 > 0, z = 2 essential singularity.
Exercise 9
See the text 2). Put g(z) = 0 and solve for z
3). R = lim ( z − a) f ( z )
z →a
4). R = lim
1 d3
z → a 3! dz 3
[
( z − a) 4 f ( z ) ] 5). z = - 1, z = 2,
1
R1 = ,
3
R2 =
5
3
6). Pole is z = 1, Residues is 4
7). Z4 = -1, Solving
− 14 7±i
9). Poles are – 1 and ± 2 . Residues are ,
25 25
1 1
10). Poles are: z = 1, z = -1 Residues and − respectively.
4 4
πi 3πi 5πi 7 πi 9 πi 11πi
11). (a). e 6 , e6, e6, e 6
, e 6
, e 6
1 −56πi 1 −52πi 1 −256 πi

(b). e , e , e ,...
6 6 6
πi 3πi 5πi
12). z = e , 2
e 2
, e 2
Exercise 10
1. See the book
2. a)Poles are z = 1 and z = 3.
3
b). Residue at z = 1 is
−2
5
c). Residue at z = 3 is
2
d). Sum of Residues = 1
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The value of the integral is 1
3. a). Poles are z = 5i and z = -5i

10 − 3i 3i − 10
b). Residue are and respectively.
10 10
c). Sum of residues = 4 i

d). − 8π 2 .
4. a). Pole are given by

π 3πi
i
z1 = 2e , 4
z 2 = 2e 4
5πi 7πi
z3 = 2e 4
, z4 = 2e 4
b). z1 and z2 lie in the semicircle
1  π
Sum of Residues at z1 and z 2 =  2i sin 
32  4
∞
1  − 2i  2π
∫z 4
+ 16
dz = 2πi =

−∞  32  16
5. a). z= 1 and z = - 1 are the poles

1
Residue at z = 1 is
4
1
Residue at z = - 1 is −
4
b). The value of the integration 2πi (0) = 0
5π π
6. 7.
288 3
π 2π π
13 b). 14. 16.
6 5 6
105

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INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

It is hoped that it will be of great interest to students of pure and Applied

Each Lesson begins with a brief statement of definitions principles and

The author is pleased to acknowledge Dr. L. O. Odongo B.Ed (Hons) M.Sc

LESSON 1 Complex Numbers and their Representation on the Complex Plane

LESSON 2: Demoivre’s Theorem and its Application to roots of real or complex

LESSON 3: Limits and Continuity of Functions of Complex Variables

3.2 Objectives of the Lesson

LESSON 4: Differentiability of Complex Functions and Analytic Functions and

LESSON 5: Elementary Functions of Complex Variables

5.6 Trigonometric Functions of complex variables in terms of hyperbolic

LESSON 6: Mapping by Elementary Functions

LESSON 7: Complex Integration and Cauchy’s Theorem

7.6 Cauchy’s Fundamental Theorem

LESSON 8: Laurent Series and Singularities of Functions

LESSON 9: Poles and Residues of a Function

LESSON 10: Residue Theorem and its Applications to Integration

10.4 Application of Residue Theorem for Various Types of Integration

10.6 Some Important Theorems

∫ f (sin θ , cosθ )φθ

10.8 Integrals round a Branch point

1.2 Objectives of the Lesson

1.3 Definition of a Complex Number

1.4 Arithmetic operations of complex numbers.

iv) Multiplication of two complex numbers.

1.6 Division of one complex number by another.

1.7 Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers

Representation of a complex number on the complex plane is illustrated in the following

The point z1 = 4 + 3i = (4,3); P, represents z1

The triangle is shown on the complex plane.

OP = r and angle Pox = θ

1.9. Euler’s representation of (cos θ + i sin θ )

1.10. Vector representation of a complex number.

In general Z = a + ib can be considered as a vector whose x coordinate is a and the y

The radius vector corresponding to z1 + z2 is the diagonal of the parallelogram defined by

Write down the moduli of (11 and 12)

Find the Principal Value of the arguments of

If z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = 5 + 8i determine the following

23) Show that ( ) ( )

29) Show that z + 3i = z − 3i

Sehaum’ out line series

2.2 Objectives of the Lesson

2.3 Euler’s Representation of (cos θ + i sin θ)

2.4 De Moivre’s Theorem

Then z1 z 2 ...z n = r1r2 ...rn ei (θ1 +θ 2 +...θ n ) (2)

2.5 The fundamental Theorem of Algebra

(2k + 1)π (2k + 1)π

using de Moivere’s Theoem we have

Hence z 6 = 1 = (cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ ) k = 0, 1, 2…

Hence a0 r n cos nθ + a1r n −1 cos(n − 1)θ + ...an = 0 (3)

5. Solve the equation z 4 + 81 = 0

7. Find the square root 5 – 12i

11. Find all the roots of z + z + 1 = 0

Summary of the Lesson

1) Complex Variables and Applications

3.2 Objectives of the Lesson

3.3 Single valued and many valued functions of z

3.4 Limit of a function f(z)