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Volume 3 | Issue 4 | 2021
Official Publication

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aeecenter.org Cogeneration & Distributed

Generation Institue
ISSN: 2643-6973 (Print) Editor Jorge B. Wong Kcomt

Association of Energy Engineers | 3168 Mercer University Drive | Atlanta, Georgia 30341 PhD, PE, CEM
ISSN: 2643-6981 (Online)
Journal_Covers_2021.indd 3 2/15/21 9:45 AM

Alternative Energy and
Distributed Generation Journal
Jorge B. Wong Kcomt, PhD, PE, CEM, Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Ing. Jose Ramos Saravia, Associate Editor
Vol. 3, No. 4—2021
Contents
Editor’s Desk; COP 26-Glasgow Climate Summit: The Sticking Points
5
7 CHP-Gas Turbine
12 CHP-Steam Turbine
17 Combined Hydrogen and Electricity Plant from Non-hazardous

Hospital Solid Waste—Part II: Application; José Ramos Saravia,
Alberto Inga Rengifo, Sebastien Quesnel, Helard Álvarez Sán-
chez, Claudia Nuñez Peñalva, Jorge Calderón, Ylen Carhuaricra
Avendaño, Ylen Carhuaricra Avendaño, Gonzalo Fuentes Román
and Carlos Gonzales Montoya
34 Natural Convection Flow and Heat Transfer in Double Pane
Window Using Computational Fluid Dynamics; Manish Bhaskar,
Pradeep Patanwar and S.K.Shukla
63 A Smooth Ride To Renewable Energy: A Policy Brief—November
2021; Philip Turner, Emmanuel Dommergues, Tammy Mayer, Hannah E.
Murdock, and Lea Ranalder
JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ENERGY ENGINEERS®

ISSN: 2643-6973 (print)

ISSN: 2643-6981 (on-line)
2 Alternative Energy and Distributed Generation Journal
Dr. Ing. Jorge B. Wong Kcomt Dr. Ing. José Ramos-Saravia

Editor-in-Chief Associate Editor
WK Engineers, USA Dept. of Energy Engineering UTEC-Peru
jwong@aeecenter.org ramos.jose.cesar@gmail.com
AEE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 2021

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II; Jerry Eaton, Region III; Steven Morgan, Region IV; Cynthia Martin, Region V.
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Volume 3, No. 4 5
Editor’s Desk
COP 26-Glasgow Climate Summit:

The Sticking Points
“If we make all decisions on electricity vs. fossil fuels by (old-zero-sum) economics we
will never solve the climate problem.” —Drew Turner
COP 26: An assessment on what is going on and what is likely to

happen reported by The New York Times is summarized below:
• The climate summit’s own carbon footprint will be substantial, a report
says.
• Vanessa Nakate, speaking for a leery youth movement, offers a
challenge: ‘Prove us wrong.’
• Nations battered by climate change are demanding compensation
from the big polluters, while oil/gas rich countries such as Russia and
Saudi Arabia drag their feet.
• Who bears responsibility for past planet-warming emissions? SEE the
data on next page.
• In many places rising gas prices are a bigger concern than rising
temperatures.
• Chats about gardening and grandchildren paved the way to the
surprise U.S.-China climate deal.
• Here are four of the sticking points in Glasgow reported by Brad
Plummer of the NYT:
EMISSIONS CUTS—Under the landmark Paris climate agreement of

2015, every nation agreed that humanity should be “pursuing efforts” to
hold warming to just 1.5 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels. The
initial pledges in Paris would not get the world there, but over time, the
hope was, nations would ratchet up their efforts. Exactly how to accelerate
action remains a big source of contention.
PAYING THE BILL—Money has long been a sticking point in the fight
against climate change, and it was no different in Glasgow. Developing
countries are being urged to accelerate their shift away from coal and other
fossil fuels, but they say that they lack the financial resources to do so,
and that rich countries have been stingy with aid. The world’s wealthiest
economies have pledged to do more, but are still falling short of their
promises.
REPARATIONS—When climate-fueled storms wreak havoc, it is the

poorer nations that often suffer, even if they have done little to contribute
to the problem. Demands for compensation are continuing to grow.
CARBON OFFSETS—The Paris accord called for regulating the fast-

growing global market for carbon offsets, but that it is an extremely dense
and technical subject. Negotiators are still trying to find a way through the
thicket.
Who Has The Most Historical Responsibility for Climate Change?

Source: https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/11/12/climate/
cop26-emissions-compensation.html?searchResultPosition=1
Volume 3, No. 4 7
CHP Gas Turbines

US Department of Energy
ABSTRACT
A gas turbine or combustion turbine, is a continuous internal combustion

thermal energy engine that uses liquid or gas fuels. The main parts of a
gas turbine are: an upstream rotation air compressor, a combustor or fuel
burner, a downstream turbine. Both the compressor and the turbine have a
common shaft and rotating axis. A gas turbine use fluid fuels: gas or liquids.
Jet engines are essentially gas turbines that combust A1 Jet Fuel, similar to
kerosene or a light fuel oil. The basic operation of the gas turbine is based
on the Brayton cycle: atmospheric air flows through the compressor that
brings it to higher pressure. Energy is injected by spraying fuel into the air
and igniting it so that the combustion generates a high-temperature flow;
this high-temperature pressurized gas enters the turbine, and expands as
it flows through it, producing rotational shaft work or power, After moving
the internal compressor, the unused energy comes out in the exhaust gases
that can be repurposed for external work, such as directly producing thrust
in a turbojet engine, or moves a second, independent turbine (known as
a power turbine) that can be connected to a fan, propeller, gear box or
electrical generator. The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design
so that the most desirable split of energy between the thrust and the shaft
work is achieved. The exhaust gases can be released to the environment but
are often used as source of useful heat in a heat recovery steam generator
(HRSG), to generate steam for additional power or as a source of heat for
process. Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical
generators, pumps, gas compressors, and tanks.
Combined Heat and Power Technology

Fact Sheet Series
Gas Turbines
Gas turbines are available in sizes ranging from approxi-
mately one to more than 300 megawatts (MW) and are used
to meet diverse power needs, including propulsion (e.g.,
aircraft, ships, and trains), direct drive (e.g., pumps and com-
pressors) and stationary electricity generation. For electric-
ity generation, gas turbines are available in a wide range of
capacities and configurations, ranging from relatively small
microturbines (described in a separate fact sheet1) to very
large turbines used for central station power generation.
For CHP applications, gas turbines typically have favorable
economics in sizes greater than five MW. Gas turbines are
well suited for industrial and institutional CHP applications
because the high temperature gas turbine exhaust can either
be used to generate high pressure steam or used directly for
heating or drying. Table 1 provides a summary of gas turbine
Gas turbine CHP installation at a university.
attributes. Photo courtesy of Solar Turbines
Applications Table 1. Summary of Gas Turbine Attributes

Gas turbines are used extensively for Simple cycle turbines are available in sizes from 30 kW (known as
CHP, particularly at industrial and Size range
microturbines) up to 300 MW (there are a few products that exceed 300 MW).
large institutional sites. Gas turbines
account for 52 GW of installed CHP Thermal output Gas turbines produce high temperature exhaust, and thermal energy
capacity in the U.S, representing can be recovered from this exhaust to produce steam, hot water, or
64% of the total installed CHP chilled water (with an absorption chiller). The exhaust can also be
capacity.2 More than 80% of this used directly for industrial process drying or heating.
gas turbine CHP capacity is in large
combined cycle plants3 that export Part-load The electrical generation efficiency of gas turbines declines
power to the electric grid. The re- operation significantly as the load is decreased. Therefore, gas turbines provide
maining gas turbine CHP capacity is the best economic performance in base load applications where the
made up of simple cycle gas turbine system operates at, or near, full load.
CHP systems, typically less than 40
MW. Gas turbines are ideally suited Fuel Gas turbines can be operated with a wide range of gas and liquid
for CHP applications because their fuels. For CHP, natural gas is the most common fuel.
high-temperature exhaust can be
used to generate process steam at Reliability Gas turbines are a mature technology with high reliability.
conditions as high as 1,200 pounds
Other Gas turbines have relatively low emissions and require no cooling. Gas
per square inch gauge (psig) and
turbines are widely used in CHP applications and have relatively low
900 °F or used directly in industrial
installed costs.
processes for heating or drying.
1 U.S. Department of Energy, Combined Heat and Power Technology Fact Sheet Series –
Microturbines, 2016.
2 U.S. DOE Combined Heat and Power Installation Database, data compiled through
December 31, 2015.
3 Combined cycle CHP systems use some of the thermal energy from a gas turbine to
produce additional electricity with a steam turbine.
ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE

Volume 3, No. 4 9
2 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE
Technology Description
Gas turbines are constant pressure
open cycle heat engines that are
characterized by the Brayton thermo-
dynamic cycle. Primary gas turbine
hardware subsystems include a com-
pressor, a combustion chamber, and an
expansion turbine. Figure 1 shows an
industrial gas turbine configured for
CHP. The CHP arrangement includes
a gas turbine that drives an electric
generator with exhaust heat used to
produce steam in a heat recovery
steam generator (HRSG).
Figure 2 highlights the key compo-

nents of a simple cycle gas turbine.
The compressor heats and compresses Figure 1. Gas turbine configuration with heat recovery.
the inlet air which is then further Graphic credit Energy Solutions Center.
heated by the addition of fuel in the
combustion chamber. The hot air and Performance Characteristics
combustion gas mixture drive an expansion turbine, produc-
The efficiency of the Brayton cycle is a function of several
ing enough energy to provide shaft power to the generator or
factors, including pressure ratio, ambient air temperature, turbine
mechanical process and to drive the compressor. The power
inlet air temperature, compressor energy use, turbine blade cool-
produced by an expansion turbine and consumed by a compres-
ing requirements, and specific engineering design requirements
sor is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas passing
(e.g., recuperation, intercooling, inlet air cooling, reheat, steam
through the system. Consequently, it is advantageous to oper-
injection, simple cycle, or combined cycle). Higher temperatures
ate the expansion turbine at the highest practical temperature
and pressure ratios result in higher efficiency, and the general
consistent with economic materials and internal blade cooling
trend in gas turbine advancement, therefore, has been towards a
technology and to operate the compressor with an inlet air flow
combination of higher temperatures and pressures. As indicated
temperature as low as possible. Higher temperature and pressure
in Table 2, overall CHP efficiencies for gas turbines are typically
ratios result in higher efficiency and specific power, or power-to-
in the range of 65% to 70%, although higher efficiencies can be
weight ratio. Thus, the general trend in gas turbine advancement
achieved depending on site specific conditions and engineer-
has been towards a combination of higher temperatures and
ing design configurations. The power to heat ratio generally
pressures. While such advancements increase the manufacturing
increases with gas turbine size (ranges from 0.58 to 1.03 for
cost of the machine, the higher value, in terms of greater power
the representative systems shown in Table 2). A changing ratio
output and higher efficiency, provides net economic benefits.
of power to heat impacts project economics and may affect the
decisions that customers make in terms of CHP acceptance,
sizing, and the desirability of selling power. It is generally
recommended to size a CHP system based on a site’s thermal
load demand; therefore, such power to heat ratios are important
characteristics to consider. When less than full power is required
from a gas turbine, the output is reduced by lowering the turbine
inlet temperature. In addition to reducing power, this change in
operating conditions also reduces efficiency. Typically, emissions
increase as well at part load conditions, especially at half load
and below.
Figure 2. Components in a simple cycle gas turbine. Capital and O&M Costs
Graphic credit ICF International. A gas turbine CHP plant has many interrelated subsystems. The
basic package includes a gas turbine, gearbox, electric generator,
inlet air and exhaust ducting, inlet air filtration, starting system,
and an exhaust silencer. The basic package does not include extra
ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE 3
equipment such as
a natural gas fuel Table 2. Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics
compressor, heat System
recovery system, Description
water treatment 1 2 3 4 5 6
system, or an
emission control Nominal Electric Power (kW) 3,515 4,600 7,965 11,350 21,745 43,069
system (e.g.,
Net Electric Power (kW)4 3,304 4,324 7,487 10,669 20,440 40,485
selective catalytic
reduction and con- Fuel Input (MMBtu/hr, HHV)5 47.5 59.1 87.6 130.0 210.8 389.0
tinuous emission
monitoring). Useful Thermal (MMBtu/hr) 19.6 25.2 36.3 52.2 77.4 133.8
Installed Power to Heat Ratio6 0.58 0.58 0.70 0.70 0.90 1.03
capital costs vary
significantly Electric Efficiency (%, HHV) 23.7% 25.0% 29.2% 28.0% 33.1% 35.5%
depending on
Thermal Efficiency (%, HHV)7 41.1% 42.7% 41.4% 40.2% 36.7% 34.4%
the scope of the
plant equipment, Overall Efficiency (%, HHV) 64.9% 67.6% 70.6% 68.2% 69.8% 69.9%
geographical
area, competitive Note: Performance characteristics are average values and are not intended to represent a specific product.
market conditions,
special site requirements, emissions control requirements, and prevailing labor rates. Table 3 shows estimated capital costs for six
representative gas turbine CHP systems used in typical applications. As indicated, there are economies of scale, with installed costs
declining from $3,320/kW for a 3.3 MW system to $1,276/kW for a 40 MW system. Routine maintenance practices include online
running maintenance, predictive maintenance, plotting trends, performance testing, vibration analysis, and preventive maintenance
procedures. Typically, routine inspections are required every 4,000 hours to ensure that the turbine is free of excessive vibration due
Table 3. Gas Turbine Capital and O&M Costs

System
Description
1 2 3 4 5 6
Net Electric Power (kW) 3,304 4,324 7,487 10,669 20,440 40,485
Combustion Turbine ($/kW) $908 $860 $683 $619 $563 $477
Emissions Control ($/kW) $208 $174 $126 $92 $74 $65
Balance of Plant ($/kW) $899 $712 $455 $389 $276 $231
Construction and Installation ($/kW) $1,305 $1,072 $753 $698 $562 $503
Total Installed Cost ($/kW) $3,320 $2,817 $2,017 $1,798 $1,474 $1,276
Total O&M (¢/kWh) 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 0.9 0.9
Note: Costs are average values and are not intended to represent a specific product.
to worn bearings and rotors or damaged blade tips. A gas turbine

4 Fuel compressor and other ancillary electric loads are estimated at 6% (i.e., net power
overhaul is needed every 25,000 to 50,000 hours, depending on assumed to be 94% of nominal power).
service, and typically includes a complete inspection and rebuild
5 All quantities in this fact sheet are based on the higher heating value (HHV) of the fuel
of components to restore the gas turbine to nearly original or unless noted otherwise. The ratio of HHV to LHV is assumed to be 1.105 for natural
current (upgraded) performance standards. Gas turbine mainte- gas.
nance costs can vary significantly depending on the quality and 6 Power to heat ratio is the electric power output divided by the useful thermal output.
The quantities are expressed in equivalent units, and the ratio is unit-less.
diligence of the preventative maintenance program and operating
7 Thermal energy is based on generating 150 psig saturated steam, with 7% of steam
conditions. production bypassed to deaerator (i.e., 93% of total steam available for process).
Volume 3, No. 4 11
Emissions Table 4. Gas Turbine Emission Characteristics

Table 4 shows typical
emissions for gas turbine System
CHP plants operating on Description
1 2 3 4 5 6
natural gas. Emissions
are shown without after Net Power (kW) 3,304 4,324 7,487 10,669 20,440 40,485
treatment control and
with after treatment Emissions before After Treatment (ppm at 15% oxygen)
control consisting of
a selective catalytic NOx 25 25 15 15 15 15
reduction (SCR) system
CO 50 50 25 25 25 25
to control NOx and an
oxidation catalyst to VOC 5 5 5 5 5 5
control CO and VOCs. A
number of technologies Emissions with SCR and Oxidation Catalyst (ppm at 15% oxygen)
can be used to control
emissions, including NOx 2.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
diluent injection, lean
premixed combustion, CO 5.0 5.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
SCR, CO oxidation
VOC 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3
catalysts, catalytic com-
bustion, and catalytic Emissions with SCR and Oxidation Catalyst (lbs/MWh)8
absorption systems.
NOx9 0.13 0.13 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.05
Table 4 shows CO2
emissions for CHP CO 10 0.16 0.15 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05
systems based on the
power output and on the VOC 11 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.05
complete CHP system.
CO2 Emissions (lbs/MWh)
For the complete CHP
system, CO2 emissions Electricity only 1,682 1,598 1,368 1,424 1,206 1,123
are calculated with a
thermal credit for natu- CHP w/ thermal credit12 817 746 660 709 652 640
ral gas fuel that would
Note: Emissions are average values and are not intended to represent a specific product.
otherwise be used by
an on-site boiler. With continually lowered the acceptable emissions levels for nitrogen
this credit, CO2 emissions range from 640-817 lbs/MWh. For oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and volatile organic
comparison, a typical natural gas combined cycle power plant compounds (VOCs).
will have emissions of 800-900 lbs/MWh, and a coal plant will
have CO2 emissions near 2,000 lbs/MWh. Emissions control
technology for gas turbines has advanced dramatically over
the last 20 years in response to regulatory changes that have 8 NOx, CO, and VOC emissions expressed in units of lbs/MWh are based on electric
output and do not include a thermal credit.
9 NOx conversion: NOx [lbs/MWh] = NOx [ppm @ 15% O2] / 271 / electrical efficiency
[%, HHV] X 3.412.
10 CO conversion: CO [lbs/MWh] = CO [ppm @ 15% O2] / 446 / electrical efficiency [%,
HHV] X 3.412.
11 VOC conversion: VOC [lbs/MWh] = VOC [ppm @ 15% O2] / 779 / electrical effiiency
[%, HHV] X 3.412.
12 The CHP CO2 emissions include a thermal credit for avoided fuel that would otherwise
be used in an onsite boiler. The boiler is assumed to operate on natural gas with an
efficiency of 80%.
For more information, visit the CHP Deployment Program at energy.gov/chp

or email us at CHP@ee.doe.gov
DOE/EE-1330 • July 2016
CHP Steam Turbines

US Department of Energy
ABSTRACT
A steam turbine is turbomachine (several sets or stages of steel fan

blades attached to a rotating steel shaft) which expands higher pressure
steam to a lower pressure steam, thereby converting thermal energy (heat)
into shaft or mechanical energy. The exhaust lower pressure steam can be
used later for process or space heating. Some steam turbines, equipped with
a condenser cooler, will exhaust liquid water condensate. Because a steam
turbine is a highly efficient machine that approximates the thermodynamic
efficiency (close to 85%) of an isentropic expansion (constant entropy
expansion of an ideal thermodynamic cycle), it has been widely used in
utility and industrial power plants to drive electrical generators (turbo
generators), in steam ships to drive propellers, and in industry as a prime
mover of pumps, fans, mills, etc. This article provides an overview of the
application of steam turbines applied to cogeneration or combined heat
and power (CHP) opportunities.
Volume 3, No. 4 13
Combined Heat and Power Technology

Fact Sheet Series
Steam Turbines
Steam turbines are a mature technology and have been
used since the 1880s for electricity production. Most of the
electricity generated in the United States is produced by
steam turbines integrated in central station power plants.
In addition to central station power, steam turbines are also
commonly used for combined heat and power (CHP) instal-
lations (see Table 1 for summary of CHP attributes).
Applications
Based on data from the CHP Installation Database,1 there are
699 sites in the United States that are using steam turbines for
CHP operation. These steam turbine CHP installations have an
average capacity of 37 MW and a combined capacity of 26 GW,
representing 32% of the installed CHP capacity in the United
Steam turbine CHP installation at an industrial facility in New York.
States.2 The majority of these CHP steam turbines are used at Photo courtesy of Recycled Energy Development
industrial plants (e.g., paper, chemicals, and food), commercial
buildings with high thermal loads
(e.g., hospitals), and district
heating sites (e.g., universities).
Steam turbines are well suited to
Table 1. Summary of Steam Turbine Attributes for CHP
medium- and large-scale indus- Size range Steam turbines are available in sizes from under 100 kW to over 250 MW.
trial and institional applications
where inexpensive fuels such as Thermal output CHP configurations use backpressure or extraction steam turbines to
coal, biomass, solid wastes and generate power and thermal energy. Backpressure steam turbines
byproducts (e.g., wood chips), produce low pressure steam while extraction turbines deliver both low
refinery residual oil, and refinery pressure and medium pressure steam.
off gases are available.
Part-load Steam turbines have relatively good part-load performance, but
operation efficiency does decline as power output is reduced.
Technology
Description Fuel Boilers are commonly used to generate steam required for steam
A steam turbine is driven with turbines, and boilers can utilize a wide range of fuels, including natural
high pressure steam produced by gas, oil, coal, and biomass. For CHP applications, steam turbines are
a boiler or heat recovery steam often implemented when there is access to a low cost opportunity fuel
generator (HRSG). Unlike gas that can be combusted in a boiler to generate steam.
turbines or microturbines, steam
turbines do not directly consume Reliability Steam turbines are a mature technology with excellent durability and
fuel. Rather, the fuel driving the reliability.
process is the fired boiler or plant
Other Steam turbines are typically designed to deliver relatively large
equipment that produces heat for
amounts of thermal energy with electricity generated as a byproduct
the HRSG (e.g., a gas turbine).
of heat generation. Overall CHP efficiencies can reach or exceed 80%.
1 U.S. DOE Combined Heat and Power Installation Database, data compiled through
December 31, 2015.
2 These statistics only include steam turbines integrated with boilers. The statistics do
not include steam turbines driven by steam produced from heat recovery steam genera-
tors used in combined cycle CHP systems.
ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE

Steam turbines operate

on the Rankine cycle (see
Figure 1). In this thermo-
dynamic cycle, water is
pumped to high pressure
and then heated to generate
high pressure steam. The
high pressure steam is then
expanded through a steam
turbine where steam energy
is converted to mechanical
power that drives an electri-
cal generator. For CHP
configurations, low pressure
steam that exits the steam
turbine is then available to
satisfy on-site thermal needs.
Condensed liquid is then
Figure 1. Components of a boiler/steam turbine.
returned to the pump, and Figure courtesy of U.S. Department of Energy
the cycle is repeated.
Steam turbines for CHP

applications are classified as either non-condensing or extraction.
A non-condensing turbine, also referred to as a backpressure
turbine (see Figure 2), exhausts steam directly to an industrial
process or to a steam distribution system. In a backpressure
turbine, common pressure levels are 50, 150, and 250 psig, with
lower pressures often used in district heating systems; higher
pressures are more typical for industrial processes.
An extraction turbine has one or more openings in its casing to

extract steam at an intermediate pressure. The extracted steam
is then used in CHP configurations that require steam pressures
higher than pressures available from backpressure steam turbines.
Regardless of steam turbine type – backpressure or extraction –

the primary objective of most steam turbine CHP systems is to
deliver relatively large amounts of thermal energy, with electric-
ity generated as a byproduct of heat generation. Therefore, most
steam turbine CHP systems are characterized by low power to Figure 2. Non-condensing (backpressure) steam turbine.
Figure courtesy of U.S. Department of Energy
heat ratios, often below 0.2.
Performance Characteristics
Table 2 shows performance characteristics for three representative
backpressure steam turbines used in CHP applications with electric
power capacities of 500 kW, 3 MW, and 15 MW. As indicated,
all three systems have overall efficiencies near 80%3 and power
to heat ratios of 0.1 or lower. High overall efficiencies and low
power to heat ratios are common characteristics for steam turbines
configured for CHP applications.
Interior view of steam turbine blades.

3 The overall CHP efficiency for a backpressure boiler/steam turbine system is typically
Photo courtesy of Siemens
slightly lower than the boiler efficiency.
Volume 3, No. 4 15
ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE 3
Capital and O&M Costs Table 2. Steam Turbine Performance Characteristics

Major subsystems required for a complete
When Integrated with a Natural Gas Boiler
steam turbine CHP plant include a boiler
or HRSG, steam loop, and a steam turbine. System
In addition, a control system is needed Description
and emission reduction hardware may be 1 2 3
required depending on local air quality
Net Electric Power (kW) 500 3,000 15,000
requirements. The steam turbine is just
one cost component in a complete CHP Fuel Input (MMBtu/hr, HHV)4 27.2 208.0 700.1
plant. As an example, for a steam turbine
CHP plant burning solid biomass, the Steam Flow (lbs/hr) 20,050 152,600 494,464
installed cost for the complete CHP plant
will be roughly $5,000/kW or higher. Steam Inlet Pressure (psig) 500 600 700
The installed cost for the steam turbine
Steam Inlet Temperature (°F) 550 575 650
and electrical generator will represent
approximately 15% to 25% of this total Steam Outlet Pressure (psig) 50 150 150
installed cost. These cost estimates are
rough guidelines and are only intended to Steam Outlet Temperature (°F) 298 373 380
offer a perspective on the relative cost for
the turbine/generator components that are Useful Thermal (MMBtu/hr) 20.0 155.5 506.8
integrated into a complete steam turbine
Power to Heat Ratio5 0.086 0.066 0.101
CHP installation.
Table 3 shows capital costs and opera- Electric Efficiency (%, HHV) 6.3% 4.9% 7.3%
tion and maintenance (O&M) costs for
Thermal Efficiency (%, HHV) 73.3% 74.8% 72.4%
three representative backpressure steam
turbines. As indicated, installed costs Overall Efficiency (%, HHV) 79.6% 79.7% 79.7%
for the turbine/generator range from
approximately $670/kW to $1,140/kW, Note: Performance characteristics are average values and are not intended to represent
with costs on a per kW basis declining a specific product.
as capacity increases. The
turbine/generator costs in
Table 3 include the steam Table 3. Steam Turbine Capital and O&M Costs
turbine, generator, and System
generator control system. Description
The costs do not include 1 2 3
the boiler, steam loop, and
controls. Net Electric Power (kW) 500 3,000 15,000
Non-fuel O&M costs range Steam Turbine and Generator ($/kW) $668 $401 $392
from 0.6 to 1.0 ¢/kWh for the
Installation and Balance of Plant ($/kW, not $468 $281 $274
three steam turbines shown
including boiler and steam system)6
in Table 3. Similar to capital
costs, there are economies Total Installed Cost ($/kW) $1,136 $682 $666
of scale, and the O&M costs
decline on a per kWh basis O&M (¢/kWh, steam turbine and generator) 1.0 0.9 0.6
as the steam turbine capacity
increases. The O&M costs
shown in Table 3 are for
the steam turbine/generator subsystem and do not include O&M 4 Manufacturers often express fuel input and efficiency values based on the lower heat-
expenses for the boiler and steam loop. ing value (LHV) of the fuel. All quantities in this fact sheet are expressed based on
higher heating value (HHV) unless noted otherwise. For natural gas, the ratio of LHV
to HHV is approximately 0.9.
5 Power to heat ratio is the electric power output divided by the useful thermal output.
The quantities are expressed in equivalent units, and the ratio is unit-less.
6 Installation and BOP costs estimated at 70% of the turbine/generator capital cost.
Emissions Table 4. Boiler/Steam Turbine Emission Characteristics for

Steam turbine emissions
Natural Gas and Coal Combustion7
depend on how the steam
is generated (e.g., boiler or System8
HRSG) and what type of Description
fuel is used to generate the 19 2 3
steam. Table 4 shows NOx,
Power (kW) 500 3,000 15,000
CO, and VOC emissions
based on EPA emission fac- Boiler Fuel Nat Gas Nat Gas Coal Nat Gas Coal
tors for boilers that are fired
with natural gas and coal. A Emissions (ppm @ 3% oxygen)
500 kW steam turbine utiliz-
ing a natural gas fired boiler NOx 26-81 81-226 141-929 81-226 141-929
will have estimated NOx
CO 111 111 23-833 111 23-833
emissions in the range of
26-81 ppm (at 3% oxygen). VOCs 13 13 105-807 13 105-807
A larger 15,000 kW CHP
steam turbine integrated Emissions (lbs/MWh)10
with a natural gas boiler will
have estimated NOx emis- NOx11 1.7-5.3 6.8-19.0 13-88 4.6-12.8 9-59
sions in the range of 81-226
CO12 4.5 5.7 1-48 3.8 1-32
ppm (at 3% oxygen). This
15,000 kW steam turbine, if VOCs13 0.29 0.37 3-27 0.25 2-18
integrated with a coal fired
boiler, will have estimated Carbon Dioxide Emissions (lbs/MWh)
NOx emissions in the range
of 141-929 ppm (at 3% Electricity Only 6,361 8,107 14,604 5,456 9,829
oxygen).
CHP w/Thermal Credit14 530 531 957 519 935
Table 4 shows CO2 emis-
Note: Performance characteristics are average values and are not intended to represent a specific
sions for steam turbine
product.
plants based on the electric
power output and on the
complete CHP system. For the complete CHP system, CO2
emissions are calculated with a thermal credit for fuel that would
otherwise be used by an on-site boiler. With this credit, CO2
emissions range from 519 to 531 lbs/MWh for natural gas boil-
ers, and 935-957 lbs/MWh for coal fired boilers. For compari- 7 NOx, CO, and VOC emission factors are based on EPA AP-42 values.
son, a typical natural gas combined cycle power plant will have 8 Emission factors for System #1 are based on boiler input < 100 MMBtu/hr. Emission
factors for Systems #2 and #3 are based on boiler input > 100 MMBtu/hr.
emissions of 800-900 lbs/MWh, and a coal plant will have CO2
9 System #1 is relatively small and would typically not be integrated with a coal fired
emissions near 2,000 lbs/MWh. boiler. Emissions for System #1 are only shown for natural gas boiler fuel.
10 NOx, CO, and VOC emissions expressed in units of lbs/MWh are based on electric
output and do not include a thermal credit.
11 NOx conversion (natural gas): NOx [lbs/MWh] = NOx [ppm @ 3% O2] / 824 / electri-
cal efficiency [%, HHV] X 3.412. For coal, use factor of 732 instead of 824.
12 CO conversion (natural gas): CO [lbs/MWh] = CO [ppm @ 3% O2] / 1,354 / electrical
efficiency [%, HHV] X 3.412. For coal, use factor of 1,203 instead of 1,354.
13 VOC conversion (natural gas): VOC [lbs/MWh] = VOC [ppm @ 3% O2] / 2,362 /
electrical efficiency [%, HHV] X 3.412. For coal, use factor of 2,099 instead of 2,362.
14 The CHP CO2 emissions include a thermal credit for avoided fuel that would other-
wise be used by an onsite boiler.
For more information, visit the CHP Deployment Program at energy.gov/chp

or email us at CHP@ee.doe.gov
DOE/EE-1334 • July 2016
Volume 3, No. 4 17
Combined Hydrogen and Electricity Plant

From Non-hazardous Hospital Solid
Waste—Part II: Application
José Ramos Saravia, Alberto Inga Rengifo, Sebastien Quesnel,

Helard Álvarez Sánchez, Claudia Nuñez Peñalva, Jorge Calderón,
Ylen Carhuaricra Avendaño, Ylen Carhuaricra Avendaño,
Gonzalo Fuentes Román and Carlos Gonzales Montoya*
ABSTRACT
In Perú, treatment and elimination of Hospital Solid Waste (HSW)

are direct responsibility of the hospitals and Ministry of Health. In year
2013, 12,755 metric tons of bio-contaminated HSW were generated in
Peru [1]. Some hospitals resort to incineration, whose flue-gas and solid
ash emissions pollute the environment, affecting the health and livelihood
of the people working in the hospital and people living or working in the
surrounding areas.
On the one hand, energy is a key input for development. But its
unchecked consumption is a problem for sustainable development,
since energy conversion and utilization from non-renewable sources
create pollution. On the other hand, hydrogen is a clean fuel because
its combustion or utilization doesn’t pollute. The only byproduct is just
water. Producing hydrogen from water, through electrolysis, and by
only using renewable energy sources is totally free of greenhouse gases
and pollutants. But hydrogen production is a problem if the power for
electrolysis comes chiefly from fossil-fuel fired plants. It can be a problem
too, if the feedstuff for hydrogen production (through reforming) is a
hydrocarbon such as methane, unless effective carbon sequestration is
utilized. Thus, in general, hydrogen can be part of the sustainable solution
by supplying cleaner energy to cities, industry and transportation [2].
A combined hydrogen and power plant using HSW as feedstuff
can help supply the electrical demand of city and industries. It also can
provide a safer and healthier way to deal with hospital waste. In this
second part, we evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of a
combined hydrogen and electrical power production plan from HSW in
Peru.
Keywords: Hospital Solid Waste, gasification, fuel cells, hydrogen,

process integration, combined hydrogen and power.
Nomenclature
HSW Hospital Solid Waste
PEM Proton Exchange Membrane (proton exchange membrane)
WPME Weifang Haitai Power Machine Company
INTRODUCTION
Any human activity generates various waste or refuse streams that

always represent a handling, disposal or treatment problem. Hospital
Solid Waste (HSW) is generated by activities and processes carried out in
hospitals, health centers, clinics, labs, and doctors’ offices. HSW is often
contaminated with (potentially) infectious agents such as hypodermic
needles, bandages, cotton, lab cultures, pathologic organs, food waste,
lab materials, human waste, etc. [3]. Thus, HSW represents both a
public health and an environmental concern, particularly in developing
countries with substandard solid waste treatment options [4-5]. In Perú,
the treatment and disposal of HSW are direct responsibility of the
hospitals that generate it and the Ministry of Health [6]. In Lima, health
institutions generate about 2,25 metric tons of HSW/bed-year [7], while
in the rest of the country, in 2013, 12,755 MT of bio-contaminated
refuse were generated [1].
This work presents a sustainable alternative to HSW disposal and
treatment problem in Peru. This report comprehends two parts: Part-I
published in the previous issue of this Journal we reviewed the state of
the art of the technology for combined hydrogen production and power
generation from non-hazardous HSW. In this article, Part II, we evaluate
Volume 3, No. 4 19
the technical and economic feasibility of implementing a combined

hydrogen production and power generation from non-hazardous HSW,
in Peru.
Figure 1: Integrated Production of Hydrogen and Electricity from HSR [14]
CONCEPT DESIGN FOR A COMBINED PLANT FOR

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION AND POWER GENERATION
Figure 1 depicts a diagram for the conceptual design of an energy

system, representing a combined hydrogen production and power
generation plant. Such system is the result of integrating three processes:
(1) HSW treatment and syngas production (HSW gasification process);
(2) hydrogen production (including syngas conditioning/cleaning/
purification) and (3) electrical power generation (using hydrogen fed fuel
cells).
HSW Treatment and Syngas Production

HSW treatment is carried out through mechanical-thermal process
(size reduction, heating through friction, drying and steam sterilization)
[15]. This process occurs before gasification.
Next, the gasification process outputs synthesis gas or syngas. This
process is carried out through fixed bed gasifiers (down-draft). The
underlying technology is mature with proven effectiveness [16-17].
Syngas production can be enriched with hydrogen addition. Tar
formation can be reduced as well, when gasification is carried out with
oxygen (air) or steam [18-19].
Hydrogen Production
Hydrogen can be obtained from syngas, which should be previously
scrubbed to get rid or particles, tars, and organic impurities. The syngas
also needs conditioning through reforming and water-gas shifting
[20-21]. Such processes facilitate the next purification process, which
obtains and separates pure hydrogen through membranes. Membrane
technology allows the same equipment (reactor) to perform both
reaction (extraction) and separation (purification) of hydrogen. There
are several types of membranes used in hydrogen purification: polymeric
membranes, porous membranes, dense metallic membranes and proton
exchange membranes [21-23].
Electricity Generation
The power plant included in the proposed system (combined
production of hydrogen and power) utilizes Proton Exchange Membrane
(PEM) fuel cells [24], which utilize hydrogen from the gasification and
purification process [14]. It has been shown that such a power plant can
be economically operated for capacities 1 MWe and higher [14].
TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF A PLANT

FOR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION AND POWER GENERATION
BACKUP FOR A 500-BED HOSPITAL
This section contains the technical and economic feasibility

evaluation of a power plant fueled with hydrogen obtained from HSW
and equipped with PEM fuel cells, for a 500-bed hospital in Peru.
Volume 3, No. 4 21
The disinfected waste resulting from the treatment of HSW is used

a feedstuff of fluidized bed gasifiers to produce syngas [25-26]. Syngas
mainly contains: N2, H2, CO2 [27]. Refer to Table 1. Contaminants or
impurities in crude syngas (prior to scrubbing) include: particulate matter,
tar, halogenated compounds, nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds,
heavy metals, and alkaline metal salts. [28].
Table 1. Typical Syngas Composition [28].
Pure hydrogen is obtained by treating syngas in the following

processes: (i) conditioning to reduce contaminants to lower levels and to
reduce the CO/H2 ratio to improve gas quality [29]; y (ii) purification
(separation) to eliminate acid gases (H2S y/o CO2) through absorption
[30]. Then, hydrogen is ready to be used in fuel cells.
Design basis: Plant installation and operation

To properly install and operate the plant, the following design
requirements must be fulfilled:
• Installed electrical power capacity: 1 MWe.
• Power plant generators are hydrogen fed PEM fuel cells.
• Plant shall operate during peak hours, every day.
• It shall operate autonomously during 48 consecutive hours without
interruptions
• Hydrogen shall be stored in equal-volume tanks at a pressure 25
MPa.
• At any time, the H2 content of each tank shall be 1/3 of its capacity.
The rest of the tank capacity shall be filled in 48 hours or less.
• Enough raw material (HSW and other refuse) shall be available all
the time to assure syngas production continuously.
Electric Demand
Figure 2 shows the 500-bed hospital demand profile for a year (June
2016-May 2017), with total annual electric consumption of 3,239,496
kWh, from which 531,720 kW/yr are consumed during peak hours. This
electricity is currently supplied by the local utility grid.
Figure 2: Overall and Peak-Hour electric demand for a 500-bed hospital
The corresponding total electricity cost per year is S/968,359

(Peruvian Sol Currency) (US$ 291,323, 1 US$ = S/3.234 [31]). Thus,
the average electric cost for the hospital is S/0.299/kWh or US$ 0.0899/
kWh.
Configuration of Equipment for the

Combined Hydrogen and Power Plant
Figure 3 shows a conceptual design for a combined hydrogen
and power plant for the 500-bed hospital. To meet the technical and
operational requirements listed above, the plant requires the following
commercially available equipment.
• 03 Converter ® (02 x H5000 + 01 x H2000) to process 34,8 MT/day

of waste [15,32].
Volume 3, No. 4 23
• 07 fluidized bed Syngas generators or gasifiers (05 x 600 m3/h + 02

x 100 m3/h) provided by WPME Co. [33]. Syngas yield from these
equipment is 2,297 m3/kg of waste.
• 01 palladium membrane module [34] for hydrogen separation. Such
a unit can process syngas at a rate of 0,0078 (Nm3/h)/cm2, and is
capable of recovering at least 80% of the hydrogen in syngas. The
resulting hydrogen purity is 99.999% [34].
• 04 tanks of 6,350 Nm3 to store pressurized hydrogen at 25 MPa [35].
• 01 hydrogen fed PEM fuel cell with 1 MWe output. [36]. Its service
life is 50.000 h [36].
• Ancillary instrumentation and controls (pressure, flow, temperature
meters, valves, etc.).
• The plant needs covered space to store 50 MT of HSW, about 250 m3.
Technical Evaluation for Production of Syngas,

Hydrogen and Electricity
The following equipment and process capacities are considered for
technical evaluation and to achieve material balance throughout the plant.
A Converter ® can process 1,360 kg/h of HSW. Its output is used as
feedstuff for the gasifiers to generate (i) syngas, 3.124 Nm3/h, and (ii) to
recover hydrogen, 566 Nm3/h (= 3.124 x 0,2263 x 0,80 x 0,9999). The
fuel cell needs 738 Nm3/h of hydrogen (1.768 m3/h a 0,55 bar y 65 °C) to
generate 1.000 kWe. Table 2 list the production yields for the overall plant.
Table 2. Syngas, Hydrogen and Power

Production Yields per kg of HSW.
Economic Evaluation for Production of Syngas,

Hydrogen and Electricity
The economic evaluation for an integrated plant for the production
of hydrogen and electricity was performed using the information given on
Table 3. The results of the economic evaluation are listed don Table 4.
24
Alternative Energy and Distributed Generation Journal
Figure 3: Integrated hydrogen and power system for a 500-bed hospital using HSW.
Volume 3, No. 4 25
Table 3. Assumptions for Economic Evaluation
Table 4. Economic evaluation for three modes of operation (*)

Sensitivity Analysis: Plant Size Influence

Figure 4 summarizes the results of the economic evaluation
considering the possibility of larger plant capacities, operating at full
capacity and selling all excess power to the grid.
Figure 4. Investment and Payback vs. Plant Size
These savings include avoided costs from eliminating the need to pay for transport, treatment
and disposal of HSW (external tipping and bio-hazard treatment fees) that would result from
implementing the evaluated combined hydrogen and power plant.
Analysis of Results
If there were enough HSW (over 15,500 MT/year) and the utility
would buy back excess power, operating the MWe plant with a capacity
factor of 100% (Option C) would improve the project economics: (i)
by reducing Option A payback from ≈ 10 years to 7 years, and (ii) the
profitability would improve from Option A IRR ≈ 3 % to Option C IRR
≈ 10 %. Increased power sales revenues of 5,521 MWh/year amounting
to 425,078 USD/yr would make this possible.
Volume 3, No. 4 27
Load following (Option B) doesn’t seem to be attractive. Since it

results in a lower IRR of 2,7% and a longer payback of 10.2 years.
Such mediocre economic performance results from avoiding both off-
peak (cheaper) and on-peak (more expensive) utility electricity costs.
However, fully loaded operation of the 1 MWe plant (Option
C) is only feasible if the plant is supplied with ≈ 16,000 MT/yr de
HSW. This is not a realistic option. In addition, this option is way
beyond the waste generating capacity of a 500-bed hospital, which
is only 400 MT/year. Thus, implementing this option would require
to supplement HSW with suitable refuse from elsewhere, entailing
higher waste transport and handling costs. Note such an operation
is likely to affect the Installed Cost due to a larger space required
for waste receiving/storage as well as much higher O&M cost due
to a more intense operation. External sources of waste from other
hospital, municipal and industrial waste would be required.
Operating the 1 MWe plant with a capacity factor of 100%
(Option C) would drastically reduce the cost of electricity generation
from 1,770 USD/MWh (Option A cost is too high (It’s prohibitive!) to
135 USD/MWh. However, the internal electricity cost per generated
MWh (Option B) under load following or independent operation
remains high (US$364/MWh), compared with the average utility grid
price (US$299/MWh).
Environmental Considerations
A distributed generation network using fuel cells fed with
hydrogen, resulting from solid waste gasification would contribute to
mitigate the environmental impact of both solid waste disposal and
conventional power generation with fossil fuels. [37-39].
Utilizing solid waste from the city of Lima (9,080 MT/day
[40]), in a combined hydrogen and electricity plant, could generate
1,869 GWh/year (using Table 2 yields). Such production could
serve 10% of electric consumption in the Lima Region [41]. In such
hypothetical case, solid municipal waste represents a significant
potential for power supply and a more rational way to deal with solid
waste disposal.
CONCLUSIONS
• The current methods used to deal with HSW, incineration or landfills,

generate pollution and green house gases such as CO2 and CH4, and
other toxic gases. Such emissions create serious environmental, public
health and urban development problems. A combined hydrogen and
electricity plan can help mitigate the harmful environmental and
health effects of solid waste.
• Small distributed generation (1 MWe or less) with fuel cells fed with
hydrogen obtained from HSW gasification are not economically
viable. In Peru, electric energy prices are low enough that discourage
investing in such systems.
• Mid scale distributed generation (3 to 5 MWe) with fuel cells with
hydrogen obtained from solid waste show more attractive economics.
Such projects could payback in about 5 years (SEE Figure 4).
Acknowledgement
We thank OMPECO, Italy, for their technical data and bibliographic
support during the development of this study.
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Volume 3, No. 4 31
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
José Ramos Saravia, corresponding author, holds a doctorate
in Advanced Thermal Engineering and Energy Optimization from
University of Zaragoza (Spain). He is a Mechanical Engineer graduated
from Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria (UNI), Peru. Dr. Ramos is an
Associate Editor of the Alternative Energy & Distributed Generation
Journal of the Association of Energy Engineers, Atlanta, GA, USA.
His research interest are: Process energy integration, polygeneration
systems (cogeneration and trigeneration), combined cycel plants, refuse
gasification, and Waste-To-Energy plants. Currently, he is a professor in
the Department of Energy Engineering at Universidad de Ingeniería y
Tecnología—UTEC. He was awarded the First Prize of the engineering
contest XVIII CONIMERA (2009). jramos@utec.edu.pe
Alberto Inga Rengifo is candidate to Doctor in Sciences with

emphasis on Energy Systems at Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria (UNI).
He graduated as Mechanical-Electrical Engineer from UNI. He worked
during five years as a Structural Computation Consultant, utilizing the
finite element method, at IVECO FIAT in Torino, Italy. Currently he holds
a position at PRAXAIR PERU and is responsible for the Special Gases
and Cryogenic Preservation lines, serving the industrial and healthcare
sectors. His research interests encompass Polygeneration (Cogeneration,
Trigeneration), Process Energy Integration. He is an associated professor
adjoined to the Application Engineering Department of the Faculty of
mechanical Engineering at UNI. albertoingauni@gmail.com
Sébastien Quesnel is a process and industrial safety engineer.

He earned his bachelor of Engineering degree in process Engineering
from University of Nantes in 2003 and his Master’s degree in industrial
safety and risk control from University of Rouen, both in France. He has
over ten years on experience working in refineries and petrochemical
plants in safety, processes and projects. His interests include research
on process safety, biofuels, petroleum processes and waste-to-energy
projects. Currently Sébastien is a professor at the Energy Engineering
Departament at UTEC, Peru, where he teaches oil refining process
Engineering courses. squesnel@utec.edu.pe
Jorge Calderón Claure is Magister in Political Integration

and International Trade from la Universidad Andina Simón Bolivar
(Comunidad Andina de Naciones). He holds a Production Engineer title
from Universidad Privada Boliviana (UPB) specializing in Corporate
Finance. He is an entrepreneur focused on energy solutions regarding
natural gas, with experience in power generation, vehicle natural
gas, and virtual gas lines. Currently he is a director of the Peruvian
Chamber of Vehicular Natural Gas and a member of the Standards
Committee for Dry Natural Gas, attached to INACAL. jorge.calderon@
gasyelectricidad.com
Helard Alvarez was born in Arequipa, Perú, in 1968. He earned

his e BSc in Mechanical Engineering from Universidad Nacional de
Ingeniería (UNI), Lima, Perú, in 1995 and a MSc in Mechanical design
from Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima, Peru, in 2004. He
has over 20 years experience working as Senior Engineer and Discipline
Leader in various consulting firms. He has worked on the development of
mining facilities, transportation belts, tank and silo design, and pipeline
analysis. Currently he is a professor in the Department of Mechanical
Enginering at UTEC. halvarez@utec.edu.pe
Ylen Carhuaricra Avendaño was born in Lima, Perú, in 1993.

She graduated with a bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering from
Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, 2016. Her interests
are focused on the development of new clean energy technologies. ylen.
carhuaricra@gmail.com
Emilio R. Grandy Gonzales was born in Lima, Peru, in 1993.

He graduated as a mechanical-electrical engineer from Universidad
Nacional de Ingeniería UNI, Lima, in 2016. His research interest is
in the energy sector, specially in gasification and fuel cell applications.
egrandygonzales@gmail.com
Gonzalo M. Fuentes Román was born in Lima, Perú, in 1990.

He graduated with a bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering
from Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, 2017. His
Volume 3, No. 4 33
professional interests are in mining and hydrocarbon processing, in the

areas of quality, safety and environmental engineering. gonzalototo48@
gmail.com
Wilmar R. Huaccachi Herrera was born in Ayacucho, Perú,

in 1994. He is student of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering at
Universidad Nacional De Ingeniería, UNI. His research interest is
focussed on hydrogen production and utilization as a clean alternative to
fossil fuels. wilmar.huaccachi.h@uni.pe
Miguel E. Galindo Rivera was born in Lima, Perú, in 1992.

He is a mechanical engineer graduated from Universidad Nacional de
Ingeniería, UNI. He works in operations and maintenance in industry. His
research interest encompass alternative energy sources and equipment
and process optimization. galindoriveram@gmail.com
Natural Convection Flow And Heat Trans-

fer In Double Pane Window Using Compu-
tational Fluid Dynamics
Manish Bhaskar, Pradeep Patanwar and S.K. Shukla*
Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya Bilaspur Chhattishgarh Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
(Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi-221005, India
ABSTRACT
Natural convection flow and heat transfer in double pane window

is carried out for different aspect ratio varying from 10 to 40. All the
computations are carried out at fixed temperature difference and space
fixed spacing between hot wall and cold wall and other two walls are kept
adiabatic. The air properties are constant and calculated at a mean tem-
perature between hot wall and cold wall (32.5°C). The Rayleigh number
is same for all the cases which is found out to be 1.87 × 104 i.e. Flow is
laminar. First creation of geometry, meshing, identification of bound-
ary condition is done in the GAMBIT software and analysis is done in
ANSYS (fluent) software. In the present work the dimensionless number
i.e. Nusselt number is computed for Aspect ratio (A=28.57) and is vali-
dated with the result of Henderson et al [5].The present result computed
by 2-D CFD shows very good agreement with results of Henderson et al.
The present work is further extended for different aspect ratios varying
from 10 to 40 at an interval of 5. The Nusselt number is computed for
all the cases. Based on results of CFD analysis, heat transfer for Nusselt
number is proposed using Least Square Curve Fitting. The computation-
al result of heat transfer (Nusselt number) is compared with co-relation
given by Emery et al [23]. The details of flow is studied with the help of
velocity vector, streamline plot, temperature contour plot, etc. The result
*Corresponding author; E-mail: shuskla@gmail.com

Volume 3, No. 4 35
of the analysis provides the optimum operating parameters to operate

the hybrid desiccant cooling system.
Keywords: Natural Convection, Cavity, Nusselt Number, Aspect ratio
Nomenclature
A Aspect ratio (H/L)
Cp Specific heat
g Acceleration due to gravity
Gr Grashoff number (Ra = Gr Pr)
Tc Cold wall temperature
h Heat transfer coefficient
H Height of cavity (height of vertical walls)
K Thermal conductivity
L Width of cavity (spacing between vertical walls)
Nu Nusselt number
Ra Rayleigh number
T Temperature
Th Hot wall temperature
Tc Cold wall temperature
x,y Cartesian coordinates
β Compressibility factor
θ Inclination from horizontal direction
μ Viscosity of fluid
ν Kinematic viscosity of fluid
INTRODUCTION
Energy conservation and efficiency is the major concern of the cur-

rent era. The biggest challenge for an engineer is optimization of the
available energy resources and to derive new means to minimize energy
usage. Energy losses add up to the cost of heating and cooling a build-
ing. While spending a few dollars more on a double pane window this
energy lose can be avoided. The double pane window is built by creating
an air cavity between the two pieces of glass, since air acts as an insula-
tor and it is transparent which allows light rays to pass through it and
there by slowing the rate of temperature exchange between the outdoor
and the indoor. By using fiberglass instead of wooden frames the rate of
temperature exchange can be reduced. A wooden frame allows the air
to escape through leakage, thus reducing the temperature difference. By
using both multi-pane windows and fiberglass frames the energy wastage
can be reduced.
Objectives
1. In the present work the Nusselt number is computed for different
aspect ratios varying from 10 to 40 for vertical air cavity.
2. The details of flow features are studied with the help of stream func-
tion. Temperature distribution is studied to understand the heat
transfer trends in vertical air cavity with Side Wall Heating.
3. The Nusselt number is validated with the result of Henderson et al.

[5] for inclination equal to 900.
4. Based on the computational result of heat transfer correlation,

it is proposed a range of Aspect Ratios: (10<A<40), a Rayleigh
number:(104<Ra<107), an Inclination: (θ=900).
5. The proposed correlations of heat transfer is validated (compared

and contrasted) with the results of Emery et al [23 ].
Scope of the Study

The scope of the present work is to employ CFD methodology for
computing laminar natural convection flow and heat transfer in two-
dimensional vertical air cavities. The Nusselt number is a function of
Rayleigh number, aspect ratio and inclination. In the present work, the
Rayleigh number and inclination are constant so the Nusselt number is
the function of the aspect ratio only. All computations are carried out
at a fixed value of Rayleigh number (1.87×104), the inclination is kept
at 900 and the Aspect ratio is varying from 10 to 40. The variation of
the average Nusselt number with respect to the Aspect Ratio is investi-
gated.
Volume 3, No. 4 37
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Figure 1 shows a 3-D representation of a double pane window. Note

the various modes of heat transfer take place in double pane window (i.e.
conduction, convection and radiation).
Figure 1. 3-D representation of double pane window
When two glass frames separated by an air cavity are exposed to the
surrounding, different modes of heat transfer take place, i.e. conduction,
convection, radiation.
In the present work only the 2-D natural convection,, taking place
inside a double pane window, is considered and the effect of conduction
and radiation is neglected. Our problem deals with double pane window
when the cavity is filled with air as a working fluid. In this problem side
walls are maintained at different temperatures (Th > Tc) while the other
walls are insulated from the surroundings as shown in Figure 2.
In Figure 2, H is the height of the double pane window and L is
length of the cavity along which the heat transfer takes place. Th is the
hot-wall temperature and Tc is the cold-wall temperature and the upper
wall and the lower wall are assumed to be adiabatic.

The following assumptions are made in the present
work:
1. Flow is steady laminar natural convection.
2. Flow is 2-dimensional. (The depth of cavity in the

third dimension is sufficiently large).
3. The fluid properties are constant except that the

variation of density with temperature is accounted
for in the formulation of buoyancy term (Boussin-
esq approximation). Figure 2. Repre-
sentation of 2-D
4. The effect of conduction and radiation effects are air cavity
neglected.
Boundary Conditions
Side wall 1: Higher temperature T = Th (308 K)
Side wall 2: lower temperature T = Tc (303K)
Top and bottom walls: Zero heat flux (adiabatic walls) q=0
Range of Key Factors

Rayleigh number Ra = 1.87×104 (Fixed), Inclination θ = 900
Side Wall Heating case
Aspect ratio A = 10, 15, 20, 25.30, 35, 40
SIMULATION SET-UP AND MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
The geometry of the double plane window meshing and boundary

identification is carried out in GAMBIT software for different aspect
ratio varying from 10 to 40. Figure 3 shows geometric modeling in gam-
bit for aspect ratio 10.
Geometric modeling in GAMBIT software is based on hierarchical
order. This means all the vertices of the geometry are generated and then
curves are drawn through vertices and finally face is created bounded by
those surfaces. The face forms the computational domain.
Volume 3, No. 4
39
Figure 3. Geometry of double pane window of A=10

ad page
Volume 3, No. 4 41
Mesh Generation
After creating the geometry, it is required to discretize the flow
domain into smaller non-overlapping cells. This is called meshing of the
flow domain. As geometry is simple structured grid is used and option
as “MAP” and element option as “QUARD.” The next step in mesh-
ing process is identification of different boundaries. The boundary faces
on which the boundary conditions are satisfied are “face zone” and the
domain in which flow take place is “cell zone.”
Table 1. Grid size of double pane window for different aspect ratio
Selection of Physical Parameters

i) Space - 2-Dimensional iv) Viscous - Laminar
ii) Solver - Pressure based v) Energy - ON
iii) Time - Steady vi) Gravity - ON
PROPERTIES OF FLUID AIR
The properties of air are obtained at a mean temperature of hot wall

and cold wall of double pane window maintained at temperature of 308
K and 303 K respectively which is found to be 305.5K. The properties
of air at 305.5K is shown in Table 2.
Boundary Condition
In double pane window side walls are maintained at a different tem-
perature and top wall and bottom wall are adiabatic which is shown in
Table 3.
42
Table 2. Properties of fluid air at 305.5K
Table 3. Boundary condition for double pane window

Alternative Energy and Distributed Generation Journal
Volume 3, No. 4 43
Discretisation Scheme Used

i) Pressure velocity coupling - SIMPLE
ii) Pressure standard momentum - 2nd order UPWIND
iii) Energy - 2nd order UPWIND
Convergence Criteria
The convergence criteria are set 10-3 for continuity, x-momentum,
y-momentum and 10-4 for energy equation. The convergence history of
A=10 is shown in Figure 4, indicates that all residues have decreased in
order of 3 to 4 by magnitude. The result indicates good convergence of
the solution.
Post Processing
After convergence of solution, the flow pattern is visualized with help
of contours of stream function, vectors of velocity, temperature contours
and many other plots. In the present work average Nusselt number is
obtained which is the most important parameter in natural convection
heat transfer.
Figure 4. Grid independence test for different Aspect ratio

Grid Independence Test

In order to establish the size of grid, the grid independence test is
carried out as shown in Figure 4. The computations were carried out in a
double pane window of varying aspect ratio from 10 to 40 at an interval
of 5. The grid size is fixed along height of cavity (H) and varying along
the length (L) of cavity. The computations are carried out for all the
cases and non-dimensionless number i.e. Nusselt number is computed
for three different grid size shown in Appendix (A). Three different grid
sizes is used i.e. 10, 15 and 20 and it is seen that results with different
grids are very close to each other. In the present work the intermediate
grid size 15 is taken along the length of cavity in order to compromise
between accuracy and computational time.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section discusses the results of modeling the “Natural convec-

tion flow and heat transfer in double pane window.” The non-dimen-
sionless parameter, i.e., Nusselt number, is computed for 2-D laminar,
steady flow of air in double pane window and validated with the results
of Henderson’s et al. [5]. The present work is further extended for vari-
ous aspect ratios varying from 10 to 40. All the computations are carried
out for fixed temperature difference and space fixed spacing between hot
wall and cold wall and the other two walls are kept adiabatic. The air
properties are constant and calculated at a mean temperature between
hot wall and cold wall. The Rayleigh number is same for all the cases
which is found out to be 1.87 × 104 i.e., flow is laminar. The present work
is concerned with flow pattern and temperature distribution of air inside
double pane window and studied with the help of stream function and
temperature contour. The variation of heat transfer with aspect ratio is
studied by considering Nusselt number which is one of the major factor
in natural convection.
Validation of Present Results

In this 2-D, laminar, steady flow of air in double pane window is
computed for A=28.57 using Ansys (Fluent) software and validated with
Volume 3, No. 4 45
results of Henderson et al. [5] for vertical air cavity.

The present result of 2-D CFD shows very good agreement with
Henderson et al [5]. Refer to Table 4.
Results of heat transfer for side wall heating (SWH)

The results of heat transfer are computed for varying aspect ratio
from 10 to 40 at an interval of 5 and are presented in Table 5.
It is seen that Nusselt number monotonically decreases with an
increase in aspect ratio. The correlations of Nusselt number given by
Emery et al [23] also indicates decrease in Nusselt number with an
increase in aspect ratio. Thus it can be concluded that Nusselt number
decrease with an increase in aspect ratio.
Comparison of Nusselt Number

The Nusselt number computed from present work is compared with
correlations of Emery et al [23] and shown in Table 6).
Figure 5 shows that Nusselt number monotonically decreases in pres-
ent work computed from CFD analysis and correlations of Emery et al
[23]. The Nusselt number computed from present 2-D CFD work deviates
by approximately 20% with correlations of Emery et al [23]. The devia-
Table 4. Validation of Present Work at A=28.57
Table 5. Computation of Nusselt number for different aspect ratios

Table 6. Comparison of Nusselt number for 10≤A≤40
Figure 5. Validation of Nusselt number for different aspect ratios
tions seems to be quite high but the heat transfer correlations are only best
possible curve-fit to large amount of experimental or numerical data.
Stream Function Plots for Different Aspect Ratios
The flow features of air inside double pane window is visualized
using stream function plot for different aspect ratio varying from 10 to 40
shown in Figures 6 to 9. It is observed that for all aspect ratio circulation
of air takes place from upward to downward. This circulation pattern
exists due to density difference between hot wall and cold wall which is
caused due to temperature differences. It is observed that flow is unicel-
lular for A=10 and multi-cellular for A=15 to 40.
Volume 3, No. 4 47
Figure 6. Stream function

plot for A=10
Figure 7. Stream function plot

for A=15

plot for A=20

plot for A=25
Volume 3, No. 4 49
Figure 10. Stream

function plot for A=30
Figure 11. Stream

function plot for A=35
Figure 12. Stream function plot for A=40

Volume 3, No. 4 51
Temperature contours for different aspect ratio

The temperature distribution of air inside double pane window is
shown is Figures 13 to 19 for different aspect ratios varying from 10 to
40.
Figure 13. Temperature contours plot forA=10

Figure 14. Temperature

contours plot forA=15
Figure 15. Temperature con-

tours plot forA=20
Volume 3, No. 4 53

Figure 17. Tempera-

ture contours plot
forA=30
Figure 18. Temperature con-

tours plot forA=35

Volume 3, No. 4 55
Velocity Profile at Mid-height of Double pane window

Figure 20 shows the velocity profile at mid-height of double pane
window for different aspect ratio i.e. A=10 and A=20 which gives the
flow pattern of air in the cavity. The velocity profile at the mid-height
of cavity is anti-symmetric and magnitude of velocity increases with an
increase in aspect ratio.
Heat Transfer Correlations for Vertical Enclosures

The non-dimensionless number i.e. Nusselt number (Nu) is a func-
tion of Rayleigh number (Ra), aspect ratio (A), inclination (θ), Prandtl
number (Pr). In the present work inclination is fixed and Prandtl number
is taken as constant. Therefore Nusselt number is function of Rayleigh
number and aspect ratio.
i.e., Nu=fRa, A,
Figure 20. Velocity profile at mid-height of double pane window

In the present work, Rayleigh number (Ra) is found to be 1.87x104

i.e., flow is laminar. In laminar natural convection over a vertical plate,
Ra 0.25 is a scaling factor for heat transfer. In the present work, the same
scaling is adopted for laminar natural convection inside double pane
window. Then, the present correlation takes the following form:
Nu=c Ra0.25Aβ1
The constants c and β1 are computed by using result obtained by

CFD analysis with help of least square curve fitting in the range of Ra=
1.87x104, θ = 90° and A=10, 15, 20, 25,30, 35 and 40 shown in Table 7.
Table 7. Nusselt number for different aspect ratios
The calculations of Nusselt number by method of least square curve

fitting is shown below. The Rayleigh number is found to be 1.87x104
is constant for the present work. Therefore the present correlations
reduces to
Nu = C Αβ1 (Eq 1)
Where C= c (Ra)0.25
Now, taking loge on both sides of equation, we get

ln (Nu)= ln C + β1 ln (A) (Eq 2)
Yi= β0+ β1Xi (Eq 3)
Comparing Eq 1 and Eq 3, we get
Yi=ln (Nu)
β0=ln C, Xi=ln (A)
Volume 3, No. 4 57
Using least square curve fitting, we get
Solving the above matrix, we get

β0β1=1.289−0.246
We have β0= ln C
Therefore C=eβ0
=3.629
Also C= c (Ra)0.25
Substituting the values we get,
3.629= c (1.87x 104)0.25
C=0.31
Heat Transfer Correlations Proposed in the Present Work

Based on results of Nusselt Number computed by 2-D CFD, the cor-
relations of heat transfer is proposed using least square curve fitting as
a tool. The present correlation proposed for Nusselt number at large
aspect ratio and lower Rayleigh number
Nu=0.31(Ra)0.25 (A)-0.246
SCOPE OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION

• Aspect Ratio: (10<A<40)
• Rayleigh number (104<Ra<107)
• Inclination: (θ=90°)
Result and Discussion

The present correlation is validated with the data given by Emery
et al [23], in the range of aspect ratio (10<A<40), Rayleigh number
(104<Ra<107) and Inclination (θ=90°). It is observed from Figure 21

that Nusselt number monotonically decreases with an increase in aspect
ratio. The present correlations under predict the correlations given by
Emery et al [23] and deviates by about 18 to 24%. The deviations seems
to be quite high but the heat transfer correlations are only best possible
curve-fit to large amount of experimental or numerical data.
Figure 21. Comparison of present correlation for different aspect ratios
CONCLUSIONS
Important conclusion can be summarized as follows:-

• It is observed that the Nusselt number monotonically decreases with
increase in aspect ratio.
• It is observed from stream function plot that for all aspect ratios, cir-
Volume 3, No. 4 59
culation pattern exist and number of circulation cells increase with

an increase in aspect ratio.
• It is observed that velocity profile is anti-symmetric at mid-height
of double pane window. It is also seen that magnitude of velocity
increases with an increase in aspect ratio.
• The temperature distribution of air inside the double pane window
is obtained with the help of temperature contours.
• The present computational results for Nusselt number is computed
for 2-D, laminar, steady natural convection using CFD code and
compared with the results of Henderson et al [5]. Our results show
very good agreement with results of Henderson et al.
• The present work is further extended for different aspect ratio vary-
ing from 10 to 40 and based on Computational results of heat
transfer, the correlations for Nusselt number is proposed as follows:
Nu=0.31(Ra)0.25 (A)-0.246.
• The present work is further compared with correlations given by
Emery et al [23] using least square curve fitting. It is observed that the
present correlations under-predict the correlations given by Emery et
al [23 ] shown in Appendix (A)
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Appendix A. Calculation of Least Square Curve fitting-

Volume 3, No. 4 63
A Smooth Ride To Renewable Energy:

A Policy Brief—November 2021
Philip Turner, Emmanuel Dommergues (UITP)
Tammy Mayer, Hannah E. Murdock, and Lea Ranalder (REN21)
“Market-ready solutions for a renewable energy transition in public transport”
https://www.ren21.net/smooth-ride-to-renewables/
ABSTRACT
A strategy is defined to achieve a smooth transition towards a trans-

port system that is powered by renewable energy only. This brief pres-
ents an overall strategy and an action roadmap for all collaborating
stakeholders in a city or region to achieve the common goal of devel-
oping—and transitioning to—a transport sector driven by renewable
energy only. Background information is provided prior to introducing
and proposing a five-prong strategy for transport decarbonization and a
seven-step action plan towards full renewable transport operation. Sev-
eral case studies show the viability of the proposed plan.
Keywords: avoid-shift-improve cycle, city transportation, decarboniza-
tion, sustainable biofuel, renewable energy.
INTRODUCTION
This brief was produced collaboratively by REN 21 and UITP,

with the support of the UITP Sustainable Development Committee.
Affordable, accessible and safe public transport is a fundamental solu-
tion to dramatically reduce emissions. However, the crucial link between
renewables and public transport has been largely ignored. By powering
public transport with renewable energy, countries and municipalities can

make serious contributions to address climate change, while improving
local air quality and public health. Many solutions exist to shift public
transport to rely on renewable energy and are in many cases ready to
be implemented. Each city must create a plan that is adapted to the
local resources, governance and market conditions. This brief proposes
actions and solutions that can accelerate the path to achieve net zero and
carbon neutral goals through the connection between renewable energy
and public transport.
REN21 is the only global renewable energy community of actors
from science, governments, NGOs and industry. We provide up-to-date
and peer-reviewed facts, figures and analysis of global developments in
technology, policies and markets. Our goal: enable decision-makers to
make the shift to renewable energy happen—now. www.ren21.net
UITP (Union Internationale des Transports Publics) is the Interna-
tional Association of Public Transport and a passionate champion of
sustainable urban mobility. Established in 1885, it is the only worldwide
network to bring together all public transport stakeholders and all sus-
tainable transport modes. www.uitp.org
BACKGROUND
Economy-wide system changes must address the urgent need to drasti-

cally cut emissions, and the transport sector is key to these changes. The
latest IPPC report issues a stark warning that drastic reductions in emissions
are urgent.1 Transition plans now in place are not sufficient to meet the Paris
Agreement, meaning we will surpass the global warming tipping points and
overshoot the 1.5°C warming target. There is a pressing need to raise the
level of ambition towards climate neutrality.2 Decarbonizing the transport
sector with renewable energy is essential to meeting these goals.3 This entails
not only actions to reduce energy demand, but also further development of
renewables-based public transport. The technology for renewable energy in
public transport is available, so some of the main barriers are more politi-
cal, financial, and institutional. Capacity building and knowledge also play a
critical role in ensuring that the right policy and regulatory frameworks are
in place, alongside the skills and knowhow for operational delivery.
Volume 3, No. 4 65
Transportation is the Source of One-quarter of

Global Energy Related CO2 Emissions
The global transport sector accounted for around one-third of final
energy consumption and one-quarter of energy-related CO2 emissions
(See Figure 1).
Figure 1. Renewable Energy in Total Final Energy Consumption, by Final

Energy Use, 2018 Source: REN21. Based on IEA data. See endnote 4.
Current emissions reduction efforts cannot keep up with ever increas-

ing car usage and ownership and the slow development of alternatives.5
As renewable energy only accounts for 3.4% of the energy used for trans-
port, the sector still relies heavily on fossil fuels. Change has been very
slow: the share of renewable energy in the sector has increased by only
around 1% over the past decade, while transport energy demand has
grown more than 22% (Figure 2).6 At the same time, transport-related
emissions keep increasing.
STRATEGY FOR DECARBONIZING AND

MODERNIZING TRANSPORT
Our strategy for transport decarbonizing holds five key elements:

• Everyone is Engaged—all parties (businesses, government, institu-
tions and users)
• Avoid-Shift-Improve Learning Cycle
• Renewable Fuels for Public Transport—a transition towards full
electrification
• Renewable Electricity for Public Transport (Electric Vehicles)
• Government Commitment
We discuss the interplay of these factors next.
Cities are Key to Decarbonizing Transport

Motivated to improve urban air pollution, protect public health and
well-being, as well as mitigate congestion and noise, public transport
authorities have made strides to reduce energy demand and decarbon-
ize transport fleets and mobility infrastructure. The sheer size and scale
of cities can result in great impacts on CO2 emissions and public health
as they are responsible for 75% of global CO2 emissions, with transport
and buildings being among the largest contributors.
Transport authorities include any public body that can (a) help deliv-
er politically desirable high-level transport and mobility strategies, and
(b) implement integrated urban policies and define service requirements.
Figure 2. Totals may not add up due to rounding. Source: REN21. Based on
IEA data. The renewable share in transport has grown only 1% over the past
decade. See endnote 6.
Avoid-Shift-Improve: Unlocking Emissions

Reductions in Urban Transport
Renewable energy solutions in the transport sector need to be embed-
ded in a wider framework of action on transport, which will bring inte-
grated benefits in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG).8
Volume 3, No. 4 67
Public transport is well-placed to embed renewable energy solutions in

wider action frameworks to support urban decarbonization efforts (See
Figure 3).9 To avoid and reduce the need for motorized transport, city
governments have improved walking and cycling infrastructures along-
side public transport and supported efforts to manage transport demand.
They have also encouraged the shift to more efficient and less carbon-
intense modes of transport, such as public transit, including metros,
buses and trams. Public authorities have also complimented city efforts
to improve transport system efficiency, vehicle technology and fuels by
procuring renewable fuels and renewables-based electric vehicles.
Figure 3. Avoid-Shift-Improve Framework for Transport
Note: Transport demand management refers to encouraging travelers

to avoid trips or shift to more resource-efficient options to limit vehicle
traffic. Mixed-use development refers to having more than one use or
purpose within a building of development area, ranging from housing on
upper floors of a building and office or commercial space on the ground
floor, to comprehensive developments with multiple buildings having
separate but compatible uses. Transit-oriented development refers to
mixed urban development around or near a transit station to reduce the
need for motorized trips. Source: REN21. See endnote 9.
Public Transport That Runs on

Renewables Holds a Huge Potential For Impact
Shifting people to public transport can be one of the strongest assets
for combating climate change in any given city or region and one of the
fastest and most cost-effective ways to reduce daily mobility emissions.10
As almost all public transport vehicles on the roads and rails today are
already able to run on renewable fuels, it is possible to achieve cost-effec-
tive emission reductions. A summary of the case for renewables in rail is
given below. Increasing the share of renewable energy and basing urban
transport networks on public transport would show a significant increase
in climate action compared to current pledges across the world.
Leading the Way: Renewables in Rail

The rail sector is the most highly electrified sector and has the high-
est share of renewable energy among transport modes. Many operators
have directly linked projects to renewable energy sources. For example,
in the Netherlands, 100% of the electric trains have been powered by
wind energy since 2017. Tokyo’s Setagaya light rail line has been using
100% renewable power (from geothermal and hydropower) since early
2019. In 2020, FNM Group, the Italian transport and mobility group,
launched the H2Iseo project that aims to create by 2023 the first Italian
Hydrogen Valley in Lombardy through the purchase of 30 new-hydro-
gen Alstom trains and the construction of green hydrogen production
plants. The German railway company Deutsche Bahn signed the coun-
try’s first offshore wind power purchase agreement to source 100% of
its electricity from clean sources. In 2019, the first 100% solar-powered
railway line opened in Hampshire, UK and a portion of France’s SNCF
train operations will be sustained by utility scale solar PV by 2022-2023.
Chile’s Santiago metro system sources as much as 60% of its energy
requirement from renewable energy sources: around 40% of its energy
needs come from solar power while an additional 20% comes from a
wind energy project.11
Decarbonized Public Transport Is Not New

Electric mobility options in public transport have been around for
over a century, as have biofuels.12 The public transport sector is already
Volume 3, No. 4 69
procuring renewables for their own traction needs in daily mobility oper-
ations, alongside scaling up local renewable power generation for office
buildings, stations and depots. Multiple renewable energy sources can be
used by both road and rail-based public transport and should be chosen
according to the local context, resources and operating conditions. There
are a variety of tools and technologies available, offering complementar-
ity, and each has an important part to play in the transition to truly zero-
emission public transport.13 The four main types of renewable energy
for public transport are: (1) gaseous or liquid biofuels, (2) the direct use
of renewable electricity, (3) renewable electricity-based hydrogen and (4)
renewable electricity-based synthetic fuels.14
Biofuels in Transport
Biofuels currently make the largest renewable contribution to the
transport sector. Renewable fuels such as biogas and biodiesel (provided
they are transformed and processed before use), either in combination
with energy efficient combustion engines or used alongside electricity in
hybrid engines, can help to reduce the total well-to-wheel carbon emis-
sions of a public transport vehicle by up to 90% compared with fossil
fuels.15 As these renewable fuels can be derived from organic material
such as agricultural waste, they can also play a wider role in supporting
circular economy models of energy sourcing across the entire fuel value
chain, from production to tailpipe (See case study in Abidjan in next sec-
tion. It is important that biofuels are produced sustainably. Sustainable
biofuel production is discussed next.
Sustainable Biofuels are Key to Reduce Emissions

As potential demands are sure to far exceed a sustainable supply, left
unchecked, this could heighten the risks of the unsustainable manage-
ment of natural resources.18 Regulatory policies and standards therefore
require various sustainability criteria for biofuels to help mitigate this
risk. It is important that the sector ensures that specified sustainability
criteria is met for their biofuels so that tangible emission reductions are
achieved. See Fig. 4. The following section discusses a case study on how
sustainable biofuels are used in a complete renewable urban transport
solution for Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, Africa.
Figure 4. Rural Biofuel Production
Case Study: Sustainability of biofuels A complete renewable

urban transport solution for Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
Abidjan is one of West Africa’s fastest growing urban centers. To
ensure the city is prepared for the future, it is going through a major
rethink of its public transport system, which will involve the delivery of
renewably powered buses (400 compatible with biodiesel and 50 with
biogas), alongside the development of a multi-modal sustainable trans-
port system. The aim is to have all the buses running on local biodiesel
and biogas when the BRT “Latrille” starts operations. The fuels will be
produced from agricultural waste in partnership with the national rural
agency and a local start-up which will help to create a market for agri-
cultural waste, improving living standards for farmers in the region. The
first biodiesel production will come from rubber seeds while the first bio-
gas production will use sources such as banana and cassava waste as well
as chicken and pork manures.17
Electrical Vehicles in Mass Transport

The use of renewable electricity in transport is increasing as the num-
ber of electric vehicles or EVs increases. However, the overall share of EVs
on the market remains low, and ultimately electricity makes up only 1.1%
of final energy consumption for transport. Only about one-quarter of that
electricity comes from renewable sources, and electric vehicle policies do
Volume 3, No. 4 71
not necessarily result in increased renewable energy use by themselves.

However, EVs offer the potential for greater penetration of renewables
when the source of the electricity is renewable, and they also offer increased
efficiency and lower emissions. When governments talk about ‘emission
free’, ‘zero-/low-emission’ or ‘carbon-neutral’ transport, they typically are
referring to vehicle tailpipe emissions only. However, such transport options
must source their energy from renewables to be truly emission-free and
carbon-neutral, and could go even further by considering ‘Scope 3’ emis-
sions (indirect emissions that occur in a company’s value chain).19 Public
transport has started to couple their transport electrification efforts with
renewables (See case study Fujian Province, China). Hydrogen demand in
the transport sector is still in its infancy, and about 99% of all hydrogen
production globally remains fossil-fuel based; however, some examples of
green (renewables-based) hydrogen in public transport are emerging. The
production of synthetic fuels or e-fuels is also in its infancy and remains
relatively elaborate and costly.21
In a growing number of regions, it has already become cheaper to
build new wind or solar PV plants than to operate existing coal-fired
power plants. Renewables also are outcompeting new natural gas-fired
power plants on cost in many locations and are the cheapest sources of
new electricity generation in countries across all major continents.
Case Study: Electric bus charging with solar

power in Fujian Province, China
The Jinjian Chenye Binjiang Business District bus charging station was
Fujian Province‘s first integrated solar storage-charging station and has
been charging electric buses using solar power since 2019. Approximately
RMB 8 million (USD 1.25 million) was invested to construct the station,
and the investment recovery period is anticipated to be six years. The proj-
ect will save 50,000 to 100,000 kWh of electricity each year by relying on
its on-site solar power generation. Many other charging stations that use
solar PV and energy storage have been developed in China since 2017.20
City Governments Support Transport Decarbonization

City governments often have a high level of control over their abil-
ity to drive the uptake of renewables in their public transport. They
have used different types of targets, policies and actions to show their
renewable energy ambition: more than 1 billion people—around 25%
of the urban population—lived in a city with either a renewable energy
target and/or policy in 2020.25 City governments have made strides to
decarbonize their public transport fleets and mobility infrastructure, in
addition to promoting active modes of transport, and expanding pub-
lic transport fleets and services. To support decarbonization, more than
330 city governments have used their policy-setting abilities, in par-
ticular to advance EVs city-wide. This includes mandates to install EV
charging points in new buildings, as well as fiscal and financial incen-
tives—including grants, tax rebates and tax exemptions. In addition,
cities have undertaken efforts to establish low-emission zones and bans
and/or restrictions on the circulation of certain types of vehicles in their
jurisdictions. Although some cities have continued to support the use
of biofuels in fleets, urban policies and procurement have increasingly
focused on the electrification of transport. However, only a few cities
have taken e-mobility as an opportunity to specifically increase the share
of renewables in the sector. Opportunities to do this include direct invest-
ment in new renewable electricity capacity via power purchase agree-
ments and/or by setting obligations or requirements for procurement.
For example, a few cities require the use of renewables to charge electric
buses: in 2019, São Paulo (Brazil) integrated 15 electric buses into its
fleet that must be charged using solar power, while new electric buses in
Portland (Oregon, US) will be 100% wind-powered as part of the city’s
aim for a non-diesel fleet by 2040.26
SEVEN ACTIONS TO ADVANCE RENEWABLES

IN PUBLIC TRANSPORT
To implement the overall Strategy given above, seven specific actions

are proposed next. The following seven actions by local and national
governments can help to advance and scale up efforts of renewable
energy in public transport. While not all the policy levers are held by
local governments and public transport authorities, especially in smaller
cities, several solutions to decarbonize transport, address emissions and
Volume 3, No. 4 73
improve air pollution exist. There is no single solution that will work in
every locality. Adapting to the physical environment, local policy and
governance capacity, citizen needs, and financing/funding sources are all
fundamental to the success of any public transport plan.
Set Ambitious Targets for Public Transport and

Back Them Up with Support Policies.
Targets provide some certainty for decision makers and the private
sector. At the same time long-term regulatory, governance and finan-
cial frameworks should be put in place for further certainty as well as
practical delivery (See Case Study Madrid). Both net zero emissions and
renewable energy targets should be made, and actions should be taken
to directly support achieving them. Shifting to renewable energy sources
needs to be underpinned by additional emission-reduction strategies and
targets embedded in a wider Avoid-Shift-Improve policy framework.
When deciding on technological options, a wide range of factors should
be taken into consideration—from market availability and infrastructure
needs, to ‘cradle to grave’ and wider sustainability considerations.
Case Study: EMT Madrid’s commitment towards sustain-

able public transport. The multi-modal public transport operator,
EMT in Madrid, is making a major contribution to the city’s 360
Environmental Strategy by integrating renewable energy and zero
emission technologies as part of a growing and enhanced sustainable
transport system needed for a green, smart and carbon neutral city.
By the end of 2021, 15 bus lines are set to be fully electrified and as
of 2023, EMT will no longer provide a service with diesel buses. To
support the ever-growing electric bus fleet, more than 130 charging
points have been installed, alongside solar PV on roofs, which are
providing up to 1 MW of renewable energy. A green hydrogen fuel-
ing station is also being designed which will come into operation in
2023 to serve 10 hydrogen buses, also powered by solar PV. These
actions complement efforts at the national level to increase the share
of renewable energy in the power sector from 40% in 2020 to 100%
by 2050.27
Build the Business Case with Pilot and Demonstration Projects

The business case for renewables has been demonstrated, and an
increasing number of public transport projects that use renewable energy
continue to demonstrate the growing business case of integrating the two.
However, in order to build local capacity and showcase the business case to
investors and decision makers, pilot or demonstration projects have a role
to play. These types of projects help to raise awareness of and confidence
in technologies and solutions. Demonstration projects have been shown
to promote institutional learning at all levels of government—from the
national to local level. This learning can help establish the right regula-
tory and operational environment needed to scale up local solutions and
integrate them with other city transport services, modes or sectors success-
fully, thereby also increasing chances of citizen support for such projects. It
is therefore vital that public transport authorities and operators prioritize
securing funding for pilot projects for vehicles and infrastructure (e.g. elec-
trical charging, renewable electricity production, hydrogen).
Create an Enabling Tax and Regulatory Environment at All Levels

Local and national governments can use policies to support decar-
bonization of transport and encourage a greater uptake of renewables
across all sectors. This includes providing financial support and low
interest loans, mandating the use of renewables or creating tax incen-
tives. Local level actors should also come together to engage national
governments on key regulatory issues—at both the political and techni-
cal levels—so that the right enabling frameworks and incentives can be
further established and so that inconsistent policies (e.g., inefficient fossil
fuel subsidies) are removed. Also important are digital policy frameworks
that clarify issues such as data ownership and data security, as Informa-
tion Communication Technologies (ICT) will play an increasingly impor-
tant role when it comes to the wider integration of transport and energy
solutions. The regulatory framework should also ensure that measures
and commitments entrenched in transport policy (supply side, demand
management, etc.) meet the overarching goal of climate protection.
Leverage Public Transport’s Purchasing Power and Develop New Business Models
While the public transport sector cannot alone influence the national
Volume 3, No. 4 75
energy mix, its large purchasing power does mean that it can leverage
this influence to increase the level of local renewable power generation.
This can help to lock in prices and achieve emissions reductions at lower
costs. Developing smart charging systems could also bring added financial
value to the public transport sector. The sector is also typically a major
land and building owner, so it can use its infrastructure and purchasing
power to drive the demand for renewables in a city (See Case Study Del-
hi). Agreements such as renewable power purchase agreements (PPAs)
have proven to be successful, as well as the leasing of assets (e.g., station
and depot roof space) to companies interested in generating renewable
power for the sector. These arrangements are increasingly common and
can reduce exposure to changes in the wholesale energy market. This
adds cost certainty and long-term cost savings can be achieved, while
also helping meet climate change targets through developing new renew-
able power generation projects.29 New sources of revenue and financing
should be explored to support a broad range of integrated public trans-
port and renewable energy projects. Given the significant size of new
public transport infrastructure projects, they lay the foundation for inte-
grating renewable energy into other modes of transport, such as private
EVs, taxis, car sharing/pooling or electric micro-mobility options. Their
immense scale even offers the opportunity to provide a source of renew-
able power to residential and commercial buildings. This can also create
new sources of revenue streams for the sector, but implementing such
schemes requires the coordination of different sectors and new actors
as well as possibly new sources of finance. National coordination bodies
should therefore be established to make this possible. Finally, new inno-
vative financing mechanisms such as Green Bonds should be explored as
they are a powerful but underutilized tool at the local level.30
Case Study: Using solar power in rail operations in Delhi,

India Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) has become both a
solar power consumer as well as a producer by installing solar roof-
tops on all station buildings and depots. They have been installed
under the RESCO (Renewable Energy Service Company) model,
wherein the capital cost has been invested by the solar developer and
DMRC has signed the PPA for 25 years. DMRC shall only pay ener-
gy charges for the actual energy generated, thereby helping to save

costs as well as emissions. As the return on investment is clear, the
corporation now aims to run all its operations on solar power, and
the government is working on replicating the success of the initiative
in other cities.28
Build Back Better Through a Green COVID-19 Recovery

Recovery from the Covid-19 crisis offers a unique chance to combine
economic development with shifting mobility behavior and scaling up
low-carbon technologies. Governments can reinforce their decarboniza-
tion targets and policies by leveraging Covid-19 recovery funds. How-
ever, in Covid-19 recovery packages as of mid-2021, investment in fossil
fuels was far greater than for renewable energy or for sustainable mobil-
ity. Fossil fuels received at least 42% of recovery funds, compared to 22%
for sustainable mobility and only 7% for renewables. By simply redirect-
ing these investments to renewable energy alongside sustainable public
transport, it will be possible to achieve a steep decline in emissions.31
Integrate Renewables in Urban Carbon

Carbon neutrality and net zero targets in cities are gaining trac-
tion, but the path to achieve this objective may appear unclear.32 Policy
makers should consider these factors when developing their own plans
that are adapted to the local resources and context:
• Clarify who is responsible for emissions, set priorities for reducing
these emissions, and identify the stakeholders responsible for them.
• Outline the role that renewable energy and public transport will play.
• Establish the governance structure or model for holding stakeholders
accountable for reducing emissions and develop a clear accountabil-
ity framework.
• Clarify the monitoring, reporting and verification requirements that
should be in place to track (and possibly offset) emissions and priority
areas.
• Identify how performance and meeting emissions reductions objec-
tives early will be rewarded.
• Clarify how decision makers at all levels will ensure a consistent and
supportive policy framework for delivery.
Volume 3, No. 4 77
• Enable participatory models of governance with commitments and

actions from different sectors of society, including the public trans-
port and renewable energy sector. Only through this multi-level and
co-creative process can net zero cities be achieved.
Build Capacity and Skills for Change

Greater collaboration, experience, exchange and partnerships with
the renewable energy and public transport sector are needed, but also
with a wide group of urban transport stakeholders, including the private
sector and citizens. Renewable energy solutions in public transport may
require a new set of employee skills and technology knowhow. This is
especially true as new solutions enter the market. Organizations such as
REN21 and UITP should be leveraged to help both sectors understand
the impact of new technologies and provide critical platforms to enlarge
opportunities for information and best practice exchange. UITP can also
help to enhance the formal training of public transport employees in
those areas where skills will be increasingly needed.
References
1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change widespread, rapid, and
intensifying (Geneva, Switzerland October 2021) https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/
uploads/2021/08/IPCC_ WGI-AR6-Press-Release_en.pdfernmental Panel on Cli-
mate Change, Climate change widespread, rapid, and intensifying (Geneva, Switzer-
land October 2021) https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2021/08/IPCC_ WGI-
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2021https://sdgs.un.org/goals
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Volume 3, No. 4 79
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29
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zens (Brussels: European Commission: 2020), https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-
detail/-/publication/bc7e46c2-fed6- 11ea-b44f-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-
PDF/source-160480388 E
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COP 26-Glasgow Climate Summit:

COP 26: An assessment on what is going on and what is likely to

EMISSIONS CUTS—Under the landmark Paris climate agreement of

REPARATIONS—When climate-fueled storms wreak havoc, it is the

CARBON OFFSETS—The Paris accord called for regulating the fast-

Who Has The Most Historical Responsibility for Climate Change?

CHP Gas Turbines

A gas turbine or combustion turbine, is a continuous internal combustion

Combined Heat and Power Technology

Applications Table 1. Summary of Gas Turbine Attributes

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE

2 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE

Figure 2 highlights the key compo-

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE 3

Table 3. Gas Turbine Capital and O&M Costs

Combustion Turbine ($/kW) $908 $860 $683 $619 $563 $477

Emissions Control ($/kW) $208 $174 $126 $92 $74 $65

Balance of Plant ($/kW) $899 $712 $455 $389 $276 $231

Total O&M (¢/kWh) 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 0.9 0.9

to worn bearings and rotors or damaged blade tips. A gas turbine

4 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE

Emissions Table 4. Gas Turbine Emission Characteristics

For more information, visit the CHP Deployment Program at energy.gov/chp

CHP Steam Turbines

A steam turbine is turbomachine (several sets or stages of steel fan

Combined Heat and Power Technology

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE

2 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE

Steam turbines operate

Steam turbines for CHP

An extraction turbine has one or more openings in its casing to

Regardless of steam turbine type – backpressure or extraction –

Interior view of steam turbine blades.

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE 3

Capital and O&M Costs Table 2. Steam Turbine Performance Characteristics

4 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE

Emissions Table 4. Boiler/Steam Turbine Emission Characteristics for