The Topographic Model

The Topographic Model
In his 1900 book, The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud introduced his topographic

model of the mind, which contended that the mind could be divided into three
regions: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. The conscious part of the mind
holds information that you’re focusing on at this moment—what you’re thinking
and feeling right now. The preconscious contains material that is capable of
becoming conscious but is not conscious at the moment because your attention is
not being directed toward it. You can move material from the preconscious into
consciousness simply by focusing your attention on it. Consider, for example, what
you had for dinner last night. A moment ago that information was preconscious;
now it’s conscious, because you “pulled it up” into consciousness. (Not to worry,
in a few moments it will be preconscious again, and you can move on to more
important things.)
The unconscious—the most controversial part of the topographic model—contains

anxiety-producing material (for example, sexual impulses, aggressive urges) that
are deliberately repressed (held outside of conscious awareness as a form of self-
protection because they make you uncomfortable). The
terms conscious, preconscious, and unconscious continue to be used today in
psychology, and research has provided considerable support for Freud’s thinking
regarding conscious and preconscious processing (Erdelyi, 1985, 2004).
The Psychosexual Stage Model
Freud remained devoted to the topographic model, but by 1905 he had outlined the
key elements of his psychosexual stage model, which argued that early in life we
progress through a sequence of developmental stages, each with its own unique
challenge and its own mode of sexual gratification. Freud’s psychosexual stages—
oral, anal, Phallic, latency, and genital—are well-known even to non-analytic
psychologists. Frustration or over gratification during a particular stage was
hypothesized to result in “fixation” at that stage, and to the development of an oral,
anal, or Oedipal personality style (Bornstein, 2005, 2006).
The Structural Model
Ultimately, Freud recognized that the topographic model was helpful in

understanding how people process and store information, but not all that useful in
explaining other important psychological phenomena (for example, why certain
people develop psychological disorders and others do not). To extend his theory,
Freud developed a complementary framework—the structural model—which
posits the existence of three interacting mental structures called the id, ego, and
superego. The id is the seat of drives and instincts, whereas the ego represents the
logical, reality-oriented part of the mind, and the superego is basically your
conscience—the moral guidelines, rules, and prohibitions that guide your behavior.
(You acquire these through your family and through the culture in which you were
raised.)
According to the structural model, our personality reflects the interplay of these
three psychic structures, which differ across individuals in relative power and
influence. When the id predominates and instincts rule, the result is an impulsive
personality style. When the superego is strongest, moral prohibitions reign
supreme, and a restrained, over controlled personality ensues. When the ego is
dominant, a more balanced set of personality traits develop (Eagle,
2011; McWilliams, 2009).
CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY
Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural

factors influence human behavior. While many aspects of human thought and
behavior are universal, cultural differences can lead to often surprising differences
in how people think, feel, and act.
Some cultures, for example, might stress individualism and the importance of

personal autonomy. Other cultures, however, may place a higher value
on collectivism and cooperation among members of the group. Such differences
can play a powerful role in many aspects of life.
Cross-cultural psychology is also emerging as an increasingly important topic as

researchers strive to understand both the differences and similarities among people
of various cultures throughout the world. The International Association of Cross-
Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972, and this branch of
psychology has continued to grow and develop since that time. Today, increasing
numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs among various cultures
throughout the world.
Why Cross-Cultural Psychology Is Important
Since psychology emerged largely in Europe and North America, researchers

began to question whether many of the observations and ideas that were once
believed to be universal might apply to cultures outside of these areas. Could our
findings and assumptions about human psychology be biased based on the sample
from which our observations are drawn?
Cross-cultural psychologists work to rectify many of the biases that may exist in
the research and determine if the things that apply in European and North
American cultures also apply in other parts of the world.
The goal of cross-cultural psychologists is to look at both universal behaviors and

unique behaviors to identify the ways in which culture impacts our behavior,
family life, education, social experiences, and other areas.
Many cross-cultural psychologists choose to focus on one of two approaches:
 The etic approach focuses on studying how different cultures are similar.

 The emic approach focuses on studying the differences between cultures.
Cross-cultural psychologists also study something known as ethnocentrism.
Ethnocentrism refers to a tendency to use your own culture as the standard by

which to judge and evaluate other cultures. In other words, taking an ethnocentric
point of view means using your understanding of your own culture to gauge what
is "normal." This can lead to biases and a tendency to view cultural differences as
abnormal or in a negative light. It can also make it difficult to see how your own
cultural background influences your behaviors.
Cross-cultural psychologists often look at how ethnocentrism influences our

behaviors and thoughts, including how we interact with individuals from other
cultures. Psychologists are also concerned with how ethnocentrism can influence
the research process. For example, a study might be criticized for having an
ethnocentric bias.
Major Topics in Cross-Cultural Psychology
 Emotions
 Language acquisition
 Child development
 Personality
 Social behavior
 Family and social relationships
How Cross-Cultural Psychology Differs From Other Branches of Psychology
 Many other branches of psychology focus on how parents, friends, and other
people impact human behavior, but most do not take into account the
powerful impact that culture may have on individual human actions.
 Cross-cultural psychology, on the other hand, is focused on studying human
behavior in a way that takes the effects of culture into account.
 According to Walter J. Lonner, writing for Eye on Psi Chi, cross-cultural
psychology can be thought of as a type research methodology, rather than an
entirely separate field within psychology (2000).
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY:
Humanistic psychologists reject with equal vigor (1) the behaviorist view that

behavior is determined by factors in the environment and (2) the view of the
psychoanalytic approach stating that human behavior is determined primarily by
unconscious forces. Humanistic psychology focuses on the uniqueness of human
beings and their capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health.
Abraham Maslow and other early humanists, such as Carl Rogers (1902–1987),
pointed out that Freud based his theory primarily on data from his disturbed
patients. By contrast, the humanists emphasize a much more positive view of
human nature. They maintain that people are innately good and that they possess
free will. The humanists believe that people are capable of making conscious,
rational choices, which can lead to personal growth and psychological health.
Maslow proposed a theory of motivation that consists of a hierarchy of needs.
He considered the need for self-actualization (developing to one’s fullest potential)
to be the highest need on the hierarchy.
Rogers developed what he called client-centered therapy, an approach in which the

client, or patient, directs a discussion focused on his or her own view of a problem
rather than on the therapist’s analysis. Rogers and other humanists also popularized
group therapy. The humanistic perspective continues to be important in research
examining human motivation and in the practice of psychotherapy via a relatively
new approach known as positive psychology. Martin Seligman (2011), the best
known proponent of this approach, defines positive psychology as the scientific
study of psychological characteristics, such as optimism, that enable individuals
and communities to thrive in the face of adversity. He argues that these
characteristics help to protect individuals from traumatic experiences that
behaviorists and psychoanalysts suggest almost always doom them to emotional
maladjustment.
Therefore, in conclusion, there are so many different perspectives in psychology to

explain the different types of behavior and give different angles. No one
perspective has explanatory powers over the rest.

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The Topographic Model

In his 1900 book, The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud introduced his topographic

The unconscious—the most controversial part of the topographic model—contains

The Psychosexual Stage Model

The Structural Model

Ultimately, Freud recognized that the topographic model was helpful in

Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural

Some cultures, for example, might stress individualism and the importance of

Cross-cultural psychology is also emerging as an increasingly important topic as

Why Cross-Cultural Psychology Is Important

Since psychology emerged largely in Europe and North America, researchers

The goal of cross-cultural psychologists is to look at both universal behaviors and

Many cross-cultural psychologists choose to focus on one of two approaches:

 The etic approach focuses on studying how different cultures are similar.

Ethnocentrism refers to a tendency to use your own culture as the standard by

Cross-cultural psychologists often look at how ethnocentrism influences our

Major Topics in Cross-Cultural Psychology

How Cross-Cultural Psychology Differs From Other Branches of Psychology

Humanistic psychologists reject with equal vigor (1) the behaviorist view that

Rogers developed what he called client-centered therapy, an approach in which the

Therefore, in conclusion, there are so many different perspectives in psychology to

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