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Man has long been aware of the diversity of life, but fguring out
exactly how organisms are related to one another took some work.
Early scientsts agreed that many creatures shared common features.
We order organisms into groups on the basis of shared characteristcs
or traits. Consequently, we group animals together on the basis of
relatedness, and not simple appearance. These relatons are
manifested in traits, and the sum of these traits is known as phylogeny.
The science of classifying animals according to their phylogeny is known
as taxonomy.
HOW CLASSIFICATION WORKS
The order of classifcaton from fewest to most characteristcs in
common is: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.
Notce that the move down the list results in organisms having more
and more in common. Therefore, each step down the scale includes
fewer and fewer members. The kingdom is the biggest group, and
incudes the greatest number of members, while the species is the
smallest group, and counts the fewest members. Also, organisms in the
same phylum have more in common than those in the same kingdom.
Those in the same class have more in common than those in the same
phylums.
Binomial Classifcation
The binomial classifcaton system was developed by Carolus Linnaeus.
Simply mean that all organisms are given scientfc names consistng of
a genus name and a species name, ofen in Latn. For example, humans
are called Homo sapiens. Homo is our genus name, and sapiens is our
species name. Homo means "man" and sapiens means "wise." The
mnemonic given previously will assist in remembering the
classifcaton. King Kingdom Philip Phylum Came Class Over Order From
Family Germany Genus Soaked Species.
Organisms are ordered into various
levels
Many biologists use a new level of classifcaton above the kingdom—
the domain. There are three domains: Archaea (which corresponds to
Archaeabacteria), Bacteria (which corresponds to Eubacteria) and
Eukarya (the remaining four kingdoms, or all of the eukaryotes).
Archaebacteria are considered among the most primitve types of
organisms known. Archaebacteria are placed into a separate domain
because they have signifcant molecular and biochemical diferences
when compared to Eubacteria. Furthermore, gene sequencing has led
scientsts to believe that Archaebacteria are more closely related to
Eukaryotes.
. KINGDOM ARCHAEBACTERIA
Bacteria are prokaryotes, one-celled organisms, and they fall into two
kingdoms: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. Archaebacteria have several
unique characteristcs. Their cell wall lacks peptdoglycan found in
eubacteria, and their plasma membranes contain unusual faty acids.
Another diference is that their ribosomes look more like those of
eukaryotes. Some archaebacteria derive energy by convertng CO2 and
H2 to methane (methanogens) while others use H2S as their source of
energy (chemoautotrophs). They include bacteria that live in hot
springs (extreme thermophiles) and those that only live in salty ponds
(extreme halophiles).
. KINGDOM EUBACTERIA
Eubacteria lack distnct nuclei and other membranous organelles. They
possess a cell wall made of peptdoglycan. Eubacteria are extremely
diverse, especially in the way they obtain nutrients. Some are
chemoautotrophs (nitrifying bacteria), some are photosynthetc
autotrophs (Cyanobacteria), but most are heterotrophs. Within the
heterotrophs, some are decomposers (breaking down organic
material), and others are pathogens (disease-causing parasites). Some
eubacteria have a fagellum. Here's a simple illustraton of your basic
prokaryote:
Cell Wall
The compositon of bacterial cell walls contains peptdoglycan that
enables us to identfy certain types through "Gram staining." A bacteria
with a thick peptdoglycan cell wall will test Gram-positve, whereas
one with a thin peptdoglycan layer will test Gram-negatve. Chlamydiae
and spirochetes are examples of Gram positve bacteria; streptococci
and staphylococci are Gram-negatve. Bacteria also vary in size and
shape. They can be cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), and spirilli
(corkscrewed). Some bacteria also have fagella.
Oxygen Use
Most bacteria need oxygen. They are called obligate aerobes. Other
bacteria cannot survive in the presence of oxygen; these bacteria are
known as obligate anaerobes and live in places like the deep-sea foor,
where sulfur-rich vents open up from the earth's core. While other
bacteria are known as facultatve anaerobes, which means that they
can survive in the absence or the presence of oxygen.
Reproduction
Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fssion. Binary fssion occurs when the bacteria replicate their
chromosomes and divide into two identcal cells. While bacteria are not sexual, they do exchange genetc
material. This exchange of genetc informaton is known as genetc recombinaton and happens in one of three
ways: transformaton, conjugaton, or transducton.
1. Transformaton occurs when a bacterium picks up naked DNA from the environment.
2. Conjugaton occurs when two bacteria form litle bridges called pili between one another and one transfers
genetc material to another.
3. Transducton occurs with the interventon of a virus. The virus carries some DNA from one bacterium to
another during the process of infecton.
There are a few special types of bacteria you should know something about. One of them is called nitrogen-
fxing bacteria. Plants need nitrogen to survive. However, in many places, the soil is relatvely poor in nitrogen.
You'll recall that the atmosphere is very rich in nitrogen (some 78 percent of the air is nitrogen). Plants living in
nitrogen-poor soil from the leguminaceae and other families use bacteria that are able to utlize or "fx" this
atmospheric nitrogen.
The plants that have this special relatonship with nitrogen-fxing
bacteria are known as legumes. Pea plants and clover plants are
examples of legumes. The nitrogen-fxing bacteria set up house in the
root nodules of these plants, forming a mutualistc relatonship: Both
organisms are happy. The plants get their nitrogen, and the bacteria get
their shelter. Nitrogen-fxing bacteria have symbiotc relatonships with
certain plants.
KINGDOM PROTISTA
Protsts are eukaryotes. They have a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles. Although most protsts are unicellular, some are
multcellular or form colonies. Protsts difer in cellular structure, mode
of nutriton, and type of reproducton. Protsts may be plantlike,
animal-like, or funguslike. They have an alternatng, two-part life cycle
made up of diploid, spore-forming sporophytes and haploid, gamete-
forming gametophytes. Most scientsts consider phylum Protsta
obsolete because it consists of eukaryotes that did not ft the defniton
of plants, animals, or fungi. Many suggest this kingdom should be split
into newly designated kingdoms.
PLANTLIKE PROTISTS
(PHOTOSYNTHETIC)
A. Euglenophyta These unicellular organisms have photosynthetc
pigments, chlorophyll a and b. Euglenas have fagella that protrude from
a gullet and an eyespot that helps them respond to light (phototaxis).
They live in freshwater rich with organic material. B. Dinofagellata
Dinofagellates are unicellular organisms that live in marine and fresh
water. They have photosynthetc pigments, two fagella, and cell walls
that contain cellulose. C. Chrysophyta This group includes the golden
algae. Although most are unicellular, some are multcellular. They have
photosynthetc pigments and are golden in color. Their cells are covered
by tny scales of either silica or calcium carbonate.
D. Chlorophyta Green algae are unicellular and have photosynthetc
pigments. Most have fagella at some stage of their life and store food
as starch. E. Phaeophyta Brown algae are mostly multcellular,
photosynthetc, and possess chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, and
carotenoids. Their reproductve cells, both asexual zoospores and
sexual gametes, are usually bifagellated. F. Rhodophyta Red algae are
mostly multcellular, marine seaweeds. In additon to chlorophyll a and
b, they have red photosynthetc pigments (phycobilins).
G. Bacillariophyta Diatoms are usually nonmotle, unicellular organisms
with cell walls made of silica.
ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS
(NONPHOTOSYNTHETIC
HETEROTROPHS)
H. Zoomastgina. The zoofagellates are unicellular protozoans that move by
means of a fagellum. Some live in the gut of termites (Trichonympha); others
are parasitc and cause disease such as African sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma).
I. Rhizopoda A type of amoeba that performs phagocytosis by surrounding and
engulfng food using pseudopods ("false feet"). J. Ciliophora They are unicellular
protozoans that move around and feed using tny hairs (cilia). The best known is
the Paramecium. It possesses two nuclei, an oral groove, and contractle
vacuoles. K. Sporozoa Sporozoans are nonmotle, parasitc spore-formers. They
are characterized by their lack of fagella and an amoeboid body form. They
include the Plasmodium, which causes malaria. L Foraminifera; These unicellular
protsts produce calcareous tests (shells) with pores through which cytoplasmic
FUNGUSLIKE PROTISTS
M. Myxomycota Slime molds produce large multnucleated masses
(plasmodium). Sometmes slime molds have stalks that grow upward,
and form spores (fruitng bodies). Other tmes, they produce gametes,
which fuse and produce a diploid zygote to form a multnucleated
mass. They are found in moist soil, decaying leaves, or logs in a damp
forest.
IV. KINGDOM FUNGI
Fungi are generally multcellular eukaryotes with cell walls made of
chitn. Some, like yeast, are unicellular. Since they lack chlorophyll, they
are heterotrophs. They feed using threadlike branches (called hyphae)
that secrete digestve enzymes into food and absorb the products. The
group includes parasites, pathogens (athlete's foot), and decomposers.
Fungi reproduce either by forming spores or by budding
KINGDOM PLANTAE
Plants are multcellular, photosynthetc eukaryotes with cell walls made
of cellulose. In plants, the fertlized egg develops in a multcellular
embryo within a protectve archegonium (the female gametangia).
They reproduce sexually and asexually, with alternatng gametaphyte
and sporophyte generatons.
VI. KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Animals are multcellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that are extremely
diverse. The major features of animal body plans will be explored.
KEY WORDS
Phylogeny. Cocci. Multnucleate. Taxonomy. Bacilli. Sporophytes.
Kingdom. Spirilli. Parasites. Phylum. obligate aerobes. Spores. Class.
obligate anaerobes. Archegonium. Order. facultatve anaerobes. Family.
genetc recombinaton. Angiosperm. Genus. Transformaton. budding
species. Conjugaton. Rhizoids. binomial classifcaton. Transducton.
Antheridium. Carolus Linnaeus. Pili. Eubacteria. nitrogen-fxing bacteria.
Archaebacteria. Protsta. Eukaryote. Fungi. Unicellular. Plantae. Animalia.
Algae. Domain. Protsts. Prokaryote. Amoeba. Thermophile. Phagocytosis.
Halophile. Paramecium. Viruses. Cyanobacteria. Cilia. Lysis. Bacteria.
Euglena. Temperate. Decomposer. Pathogen. Flagellum. lysogenic cycle.