Chapter 2

F u n d a m e n t a l s of
Reservoir Oil Flow
Analysis

2.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the basic equations for flow of liquid through
porous media along with solutions of interest for various boundary conditions
and reservoir geometry. These solutions are required in the design and inter-
pretation of flow and pressure tests. The applicable equations for liquid flow
are presented in this section, including pressure transient behavior with dimen-
sionless pressure solutions for the specific conditions. Some important dimen-
sionless functions are presented and references to others are provided. The
dimensionless pressure approach provides a way to calculate pressure response
and to develop techniques for analyzing transient tests in a variety of systems.

2.2 Basic Fluid Flow Equations in Oil Reservoir

This section describes steady-state, pseudo-steady-state, and unsteady-
state flow equations including oil radial diffusivity equation, basic oil flow
equations, and various dimensional flow geometry.

Steady-State Flow Equations and Their Practical

Applications
In steady-state flow, there is no change anywhere with time, i.e., the right-
hand sides of all the continuity and diffusivity equations are zero. Solutions
for steady state are, however, useful for certain unsteady-state problems. The
steady-state flow equations can be derived from integrating and evaluating
the integration constants from the boundary conditions. The steady-state
flow equation and Darcy's equations accounting for specific geometry are

13
14 Oil Well Testing Handbook

presented here. The steady-state flow equations are based on the following
assumptions:
1. Thickness is uniform, and permeability is constant.
2. Fluid is incompressible.
3. Flow across any circumference is a constant.

Ideal Steady-State Flow Equation- Radial Flow

Let pw be the pressure at the wellbore when the well is flowing q reservoir
barrels per day and a pressure Pe is maintained at the external radius or
drainage radius re. Let the pressure at any radius r be p. Then, at this radius r:

qo qo _ - 1 127 k d p
v - -~ - 2~r - " -fi d---[

where position qo is in the positive r-direction. Separating variables and

integrating between any two radii, rl and r2, where the pressures are Pl
and p2, respectively,

/qodr /
r2

27rr -- -
P2

1.127~ dp
rl Pl

0.00708kh(p2 - pl)
(2-1)
qo--- tz/3 ~ ~, / )"~

The minus sign is usually dispensed with; for where P2 > pl, the flow is
known to be negative, i.e., in the negative r-direction, or toward the well-
bore. Also it is customary to express q in surface units rather than reservoir
units. Then, Eq. 2-1 becomes

0.00708kh(p2 - pl) (2-2)

qo = ~ o ln(r2/rl)

Frequently, the two radii of interest are the wellbore radius rw and the
external or drainage radius re. Then, Eq. 2-1 becomes

O.O0708kh(pe - Pwf ) (2-3)

qo- #/30 l n ( r e / r w )

where
qo - oil flow rate, stb/day
k = undamaged permeability, mD
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 15

h = thickness, ft
Pe = external pressure, psi
re = external radius, ft, and is calculated from well spacing
rw = wellbore radius, ft
#o = viscosity of oil, cP
30 = oil formation volume factor, rb/stb
In terms of the average pressure (i.e., p = ~ at r = re):

O.O070Skh(/5 - p w f )
(2-4)
qo - #o/3o(ln(re/rw)- 0.5)

For linear geometry:

0.001127kA(pl - P 2 )
qo - #o/3oL (2-5)

For hemispherical geometry:

O . O 0 7 0 8 k h ( p e - Pw)
(2-6)
qo #o/3o(1/rl - 1~re)

For 5-spot waterflood:

O . O 0 3 5 4 1 k h ( P w i - pwp)
(2-7)
qo #o/3o[ln(d/rw) - 0.619]

For 7-spot waterflood:

O. O04 7 2 k h (pwf - pwp )

(2-8)
qo - #o~o[ln(d/rw) - 0.569]

To calculate undamaged permeability around the wellbore, pressure drop

(Ap)skin (negative), due to damage or improvement could be incorporated
into the above equations as

O.O0708kimph(pe - Pw - Apskin)
qo -- #o/3o l n ( r e / r w ) (2-9)

Practical Applications

Steady-state equations may be used without any significant error to

analyze near the wellbore reservoir conditions, even in an unsteady-state
system.
16 Oil Well Testing Handbook

Example 2-1 Calculating Improved Permeability from Steady-State Flow

Equation
A well is producing oil at a rate of 800bbl/day with a bottom-hole
pressure of 850psi from a reservoir with very strong water drive (assume
steady state). W h a t is the improved permeability if a pressure d r a w d o w n
analysis indicates that Ap~kin at this rate is 150psi? Other data are: well
spacing = 40acres; rw = 6.5 in.; #o -- 2.0cP;/30 -- 1.255 rb/stb; h - 45 ft; and
Pe = 1350 psi.

Solution

6.5 ~/40 x 43,560

rw = 12 x--------2= 0.27 ft, re - 7r = 745 ft, Pe -- 1350psi

Using Eq. 2-8, we can calculate the improved permeability, kimpr:

qo#o/3o ln(re/rw)
kimpr = O.O0708h(pe - Pw - (Ap)skin)

_ 800 x 2.0 x 1.255 ln(745/0.27) = 124.83 m D

0.00708 x 4 5 ( 1 3 5 0 - 8 0 0 - 150)

Example 2-2 Calculating Flow Rate and Pressure Drop Due to Skin from
Steady-State Flow Equation in a Water-Drive Reservoir
In a water-drive reservoir, the following data are known: b o u n d a r y
pressure - 2200 psia; flowing pressure = 950 psia; oil flow rate -- 100 rb/
day; well radius, rw--0.39ft; effective drainage radius, reff--750ft;
h = 15 ft; #o = 0.95cP; flow rate, qo = 75 rb/day; and /30 = 1.240rb/stb.
Calculate (1) what is (AP)skin, (2) if (AP)skin -- 0, find the oil flow rate, and
(3) find (Ap)skin, if rw -- 5.5 ft.

Solution
(1) Using Eq. 2-9, (Ap)skin is

O.O0708kh(pe - Pw - (Ap)skin)
qo I . .

#o/3o ln(relrw)

0.00708 x 10 x 1 5 ( 2 2 0 0 - 9 5 0 - (Ap)skin)
75=
0.95 X 1.241n(750/0.39)

(Ap)skin = 140.32 psi

 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 17

(2) If the (Ap)skin is reduced to zero, the production rate would be (using
Eq. 2-3)

O.O0708kh(pe - Pw) 0.00708 x 10 x 15(2200 - 950)

qo --
#o~oln(re/rw) 0.95 x 1.24 ln(750/0.39)
= 149.02 s t b / d a y

(3) For rw --- 5.5 ft. Substituting this into Eq. 2-3, we get

0.00708 x 10 x 1 5 ( 2 2 0 0 - 9 5 0 - (Ap)skin)
149.02 -
0.95 x 1.24 ln(750/5.5)
.. (Ap)s~in -- 1327.5 - 862.83 -- 464 psi

Pseudo-Steady-State Flow Equations

When a reservoir is produced at a constant rate for a long enough period
of time so that the entire drainage area of the reservoir is affected by the
pressure disturbance, q constant change in pressure with time at all radii
takes place. This constant pressure change results in parallel pressure dis-
tributions and corresponding constant rate distributions. This situation is
called pseudo-steady-state flow. M a n y reservoirs spend most of their history
in a pseudo-steady-state flow regime than in any other flow regime. This type
of flow is also called depletion state or semi-steady state. Pseudo-steady-state
flow problem can be solved using the following set of equations:

Ap) _ 5.615qo (2-10)

pseudo ~Ct Vb

where Vb is equal to pore volume of reservoir in cubic ft and is equal to ~r2h or

Ap) _ 1.7866qo
pseudo-- c~hctr2e (2-11)

Example 2-3 Calculating Porosity-Thickness, Permeability-Thickness from

Pseudo-Steady-State Equation
Reservoir and well data are: p s = 2800ps; pe = 3350psi; Ct= 10 -6 psia-1;
re = 2000 ft; rw = 0.5 ft; ct -- 10 -5 psi-l; #o = 0.65cP; Pw -- 3.050psi; qo ---
900 stb/day;/30 = 1.150 rb/stb. The pwf is declining at a constant rate of
2.2 psi/day. Determine the following:
(1) Porosity-thickness
(2) Permeability-thickness
18 Oil Well Testing Handbook

(3) Permeability-thickness. Assuming there is water drive (steady-state

flow) and bottom hole pressure remains constant.

Solution
(1) Using Eq. 2-11, porosity-thickness is

dph_l.7866qo~o(A~p) 1.7866 x 900 • 1.15 1

r2ect - 20002 x 10 -5 x 2-2 - 21 ft

(2) Using Eq. 2-13, permeability-thickness kh is

kh - qoflo#o[ln(re/rw) - 0.5]
0.00708 (pe - P w )

_ 900 x 1.15 • 0.65[ln(2000/0.5) - 0.5] - 2469 mD ft

0.00708(3350- 3050)

(3) Using Eq. 2-9, permeability-thickness in steady-state system is

kh -- qo~o#o[ln(re/rw)] 900 x 1.15 x 0.65[ln(2000/0.5)]

0.00708 (pe - P w ) 0.00708(3350- 3050)
= 2627 mD ft

Flow Equations for Different Flow Regimes

Flow equations for pseudo-steady state for wells located centrally in the
areal drainage plane are given below. It is important to note that the
equations are based either on drainage boundary pressure Pe or average
reservoir pressure p. In general, reservoir pressure is estimated by using a
DST test, a pressure bomb test, or a buildup test. These methods estimate
average reservoir pressure p. Eq. 2-12 can be applied to flow when other
pressures and radii are evolved.

141"2qo#o3O(ln(r ) r2)
P -Pwf - kh Tw - ~ r 2 e (2-12)

Eq. 2-13 is a pseudo-steady-state equation written in terms of p - Pe at

r -- re.

,412qo,o9o (2-13)
p - pwf - kh
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 19

Eq. 2-13a is written in terms of the average reservoir pressure for a

circular drainage area:

P-Pwf = 141"2q~176176
kh ~
r) - 0.75
) (2-13a)

As an alternative, the skin factor can be accounted for in the flow

equations by changing the wellbore radius, e.g., including the skin
factor

p -Pwf = 141"2q~176176 - 0.75

in which
! --S
r w - rw e

(a) Damaged well, s > 0

(b) Stimulated well, s < 0.

Time to Reach Pseudo-Steady State

The time periods required to reach the pseudo-steady-state for different
vertical well locations in the drainage plane and for various configurations of
drainage areas are listed in Table B-1. Dimensionless time tD, which is used
to define various flow regimes, is given as

0.000264kt (2-13b)
tD= dp#Ctir2w

and area-based dimensionless time is defined as

tDA--tD(~-~) (2-- 13C)

Thus

0.000264kt
tDA = (2-13d)
(~CtiA

where
k = permeability, mD
t = time, hr
20 Oil Well Testing Handbook

4)--porosity in fraction
# o - oil viscosity, cP
C t i - initial total compressibility, psi -1
A - area, ft 2
rw - wellbore radius, ft

As shown in Table B-I, for a vertical well located at the center of a drainage
circle or a square to reach pseudo-steady-state requires tDA -- 0.1. Substitut-
ing this in Eq. 2-13d, we obtain

0.000264kt
tD,4 - 0.1 - (hour) (2-13e)
qblzctiA
379(9#ctiA
tps~ = k (days) (2-13f)

where tpss is the time to reach pseudo-steady state. Generally, oil wells are
developed on 40-acres spacing and gas wells are developed on 160-acres
spacing.
40 a c r e s - 43,560 x 4 0 - 1.7424 x 106 ft 2
160 acres - 43,560 x 160 - 6.9696 x 106 ft 2

Eqs. 2-13e and 2-13f show that transient time depends on the basic
reservoir properties such as k, 4~, and cti. Time to reach pseudo-steady
state does not depend on well stimulation. In the case of oil wells, time
to reach pseudo-steady state normally is on the order of a few days to
months. In contrast, for gas wells in low-permeability reservoirs, time
to reach pseudo-steady state could be very long; in some cases as long
as a few years.

Example 2-4 Determining the Time to Reach Pseudo-Steady-State

For an oil well drilled at 40-acre spacing, calculate the time to reach
pseudo-steady state. Given" # - 3.75cP; k - 4 5 m D ; C t i - 5.5 X 10-S psi -1"
4 ) - 12.5%; A -- 40 acres.

Solution Using Eq. 2-13f, time to reach pseudo-steady state is calculated as

379~#ctiA 379 x 0.125 x 3.75 x 5.5 x 10 -5 x 40 x 43,560

tpss= k = 45
= 37 hours - 15.6 days

Example 2-5 Calculating the Time to Reach Pseudo-Steady State (20- and
160-Acre Spacing)
Calculate the time required to reach pseudo-steady state for an oil
well drilled at either 20- or 160-acre spacing in a reservoir with an
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 21

initial pressure of 1550 psi. The following reservoir properties are

given: ~ - 0 . 1 2 5 f r a c t i o n ; # o - 3.75cP; c t i - 55 x 10-Spsi-1; k - 4 5 m D

Solution

379c~#ctiA 379 x 0.09 x 0.0145 x 6.9 x 10 -4 • A

= 0.00683A
tpss = k : 0.05

For 20 acres, tpss - 0 . 0 0 6 8 3 x 20 x 43,560 h r - 5946 h r - 248 d a y s -

0.68 years
For 160 acres, tm~ - 0.00683 x 160 x 43,560 - 47,602 hr - 1983 days -
5.43 years

Unsteady-State (Transient) Flow Equations

Unsteady-state flow is a flow that occurs while the pressures and/or rate
changes with time. Reservoir conditions that are not described by the steady-
state flow above are described by unsteady-state flow. The greater the
compressibility of the fluid, the more pronounced the unsteady-state effect
of the reservoir fluid. The engineers use the diffusivity equation for studying
the unsteady-state flow of fluid in porous media. The equations used to
describe unsteady-state flow are derived from hydraulic diffusivity equation
and presented in the next section.

Radial Diffusivity Equation

The basic differential equation will be derived in radial form thus simu-
lating the flow of fluids in the vicinity of a well. Analytical solutions of the
equation can then be obtained under various boundary and initial condi-
tions for use in the description of well testing and well inflow, which have
considerable practical application in reservoir engineering. The radial cell
geometry is shown in Figure 2-1 and the following assumptions will be made
to develop diffusivity equation:
1. Homogeneous and isotropic porous media of uniform thickness;
2. Rock and fluid properties are pressure-independent;
3. Pressure gradients are small;
4. Flow is radial;
5. Darcy's law is applicable;
6. Gravity forces are negligible;
7. The flow is along a radial path toward the wellbore;
22 Oil Well Testing Handbook

Figure 2-1. Radial flow of a single-phase fluid in the vicinity of a producing well.

8. The fluid flow is single phase and fluid saturation in the system is
constant;
9. The porosity and permeability are constant in space and time; and
10. Viscosity and compressibility of the fluid are constant.
Consider the flow through a volume element of thickness, dr, situated at a
distance r from the center of the radial cell. Then applying the principle of
mass conservation, Mass flow rate - mass flow rate = rate of change of mass
in volume element

Input = Output

qPlr+dr -- qPl r -- 27rrhcb dr Op

Ot

where 27rrhcb is the volume of the small element of thickness dr. The left-hand
side of the equation can be expressed as

qPlr + O(qp)
Ot d r - qP[r) = 27rrhc~drop
0-7
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 23

which simplifies to

O(qp) = 27rrhO Op (2-14)

Ot Ot

By applying Darcy's law for radial, horizontal flow it is possible to substitute

for the flow rate, q, in Eq. 2-14, since

27rkhr Op
q
# Or

Therefore

Or - --~ Ot

or

"
(2-15)
ro r --~ - (90t

The time derivative of the density appearing on the right-hand side of

Eq. 2-15 can be expressed in terms of a time derivative of the pressure by
using the definition of isothermal compressibility:

r m
IOV
V0p

and since

m
P--V

the compressibility can be alternatively expressed as

p O(m/p) 10p (2-16)

c = -m Op = POp

Differentiating Eq. 2-16 with respect to time, we get

Op Op (2-17)
cp Ot = O--i

Finally, substituting Eq. 2-17 into Eq. 2-16 leading to

24 Oil Well Testing Handbook

r Or Or] = dpcp--o-[ (2-18)

Eq. 2-18 is nonlinear, since the coefficients on both sides are themselves
functions of a dependent variable, the pressure. This equation has to be
presented in linear form in order to obtain analytical solutions, i.e., Eq. 2-18
is reduced to the radial form. For a radial flow toward a well in a circular
reservoir, if we combine the law of conservation of mass and Darcy's law for
the isothermal flow of fluids of small and constant compressibility, Eq. 2-18
simplifies to

02p 10p ~Izct Op

----s
Or + ~ 0-7 = 0.00264k Ot (2-19)

This equation is called the radial diffusivity equation; the term

O.O00264k/dp#ct is called the hydraulic diffusivity. Analytical solutions of
this equation are obtained under various boundary and initial conditions
for use in well testing and well inflow performance calculations.

Various Dimensional Flow Geometry

Eq. 2-19 may be expressed in terms of linear, cylindrical, or spherical
coordinates.

•2p = dp#cOp
k Ot (2-20)

where ~72p is the Laplacian ofp. Expression "one-dimensional" referred to a

specified coordinate system?

Linear Flow

Flow lines are parallel, and the cross-sectional area of flow is constant and
represented by Eq. 2-21, which is the rectangular coordinate system in the
one-dimensional form of Eq. 2-20:

o2p (/)~e, Op
(2-21)
Ox 0.000264k Ot

Linear flow occurs in some reservoirs with long, highly conductive ver-
tical fractures. Consider a situation with linear flow (in the x-direction) of a
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 25

slightly compressible fluid in an infinite, homogeneous reservoir, initially at

uniform pressure, pi. Fluid is produced at constant rate q~o over an area AU
(ft2). If the area AU represented a vertical fracture with two equal-length
wings of length Lf (ft) and height h (ft), AU - 4hLf, with flow entering both
sides of each wing of the fracture. This situation is modeled by the diffusivity
equation in the form of Eq. 2-21. For the conditions stated, the solution to
this equation at x -- 0 is

q/3o(#t) ~
pi-Pwf-16.26-~-f (2-22)

For linear flow into vertical fracture, AU = 4hLf, and

q~o(#t) ~ (2-23)
pi - Pwf - 4.064-~f

Radial-Cylindrical Flow
For radial flow, the corresponding equation is

l O ( Op'~ ~#c Op (2-24)

r Or k, - 0.000264k Ot

Eq. 2-24 is a diffusivity equation. Analytical solutions to Eq. 2-24 are

known for several simple boundary conditions; these solutions are used for
most well test analyses. Eq. 2-24 is based on several important assumptions,
including:
(1) The single-phase liquid flowing has small and constant compressibility;
(2) k is constant and the same in all directions (isotropic);
(3) ~bis constant; and
(4) Pressure gradients are small.

Radial-Spherical Flow
For radial-spherical flow, the corresponding equation is

1 0 (r 20p) ~#c Op (2-25)

r2 Or O-r - 0.000264k-0t
26 Oil Well Testing Handbook

2.3 Numerical Models and Their Applications

Numerical models utilize large computers to solve the mathematical
equations, which govern the behavior of the fluids in porous media.
They provide a generalized approach using a gridded format that can
accommodate a reservoir description just by a reordering of the indices of
the grids. The procedure involved consists of decomposing the reservoir
into blocks and performing mass and energy balances on all these blocks
simultaneously. This gridding of cells shows a more realistic representation
of rock and fluid properties which can vary in any manner. The block
diagram shown in Figure 2-2 can visualize the technique of reservoir mod-
eling and the role played by the engineer.

Purpose and Objective of Reservoir Simulation

The simulation program can be used to study a reservoir containing a
single well, a group of wells, or several wells interacting as a complex. Figure
2-3 shows the objectives of simulation.

Reservoir Model Development Process

Different types of data have been processed separately, leading to several
different models. Indicator geostatistics provide an approach to merge all
the information to produce an integrated reservoir model. Figure 2-4 shows
the reservoir model construction process.

o o o o o o e o e o o o e o o o o o
................ : I
" Engineer 9 " : Computer :
9 environment . I. 9 environment "
". .............. t I 9 1 4 9 1 4 9 1 4 9

Input Reservoir simulator

..I Output

. . . . . . _ . _ . _ . _ . _ . _ . - . - . J

Modify [~ ]
I
1
Analyze

Figure 2-2. Reservoir modeling.

 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 27

Objectives of simulation

_L_
Original oil Production Economic Fluid movement
schedules parameters in reservoir
in place

Single-well Optimization of
Gas storage '] petroleum systems
studies

Figure 2-3. Objectives of simulation.

Geological Model Production~Engineering Model

log evaluation, Additional engineering/
maps and cross-sections from production information are input
exploration data in the model

Geophysical Model Geostatistics Model

Seismic Provides spatial variability of
interpretations reservoir properties and the
correlations

Petrophysical Model All information provides a detailed

Petrophysical reservoir description
interpretations

Integrated Reservoir Model

Figure 2-4. Reservoir model construction process.

Selection of Numerical Simulation Models

and Applications
Most common numerical simulators such as black oil, coning and cross-
sectional, and n-component are used for modeling petroleum reservoirs. The
28 Oil Well Testing Handbook

Figure 2-5. Model selection process of optimum selection.

engineer has to make a decision in selecting the optimum model to simulate

the reservoir under study. The selection must be made systematically and
with an analysis of all the parameters involved. The model study using a
simulator is obviously too sophisticated and expensive. Figure 2-5 shows the
selection process. The parameters that are important in a model selection are
the following:
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 29

9 Reservoir type;
9 Reservoir geometry and dimensionality;
9 Data availability;
9 Type of secondary or tertiary process being modeled;
9 Manpower requirement;
9 Computer availability; and
9 Cost effectiveness of m o d e l
Figures 2-6 through 2-13 illustrate various models and their applica-
tions.

Figure 2-6. Block diagram showing one-dimensional horizontal model and its
applications.

Figure 2-7. Block diagram showing one-dimensional dipping model and its
applications.
30 Oil Well Testing Handbook

Figure 2-8. Block diagram showing two-dimensional horizontal model and its
applications.

Figure 2-9. Block diagram showing three-dimensional layered model and its
applications.
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 31

Figure 2-10. Block diagram showing two-dimensional coning model and its
applications.

Figure 2-11. Block diagram showing two-dimensional vertical model and its
applications.
32 Oil Well Testing Handbook

Figure 2-12. Block diagram showing three-dimensional continuous model and its
applications.

Figure 2-13. Block diagram showing three-dimensional continuous (section)

model and its applications.
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 33

2.4 Unsteady-State Pressure Distribution Calculations

in Directional Well
Cinco et al. 2 have presented a solution for unsteady-state pressure dis-
tribution created by a directional drilled well. They have also presented the
equations to calculate skin factors for slanted wells. Figure 2-14 shows
infinite slab reservoir with slanting well. The equation in dimensionless
form is

pD(rD, O, ZD, tD, Olw,ZwD, hwD, hD) --

krCkr/kzh Ap(r, O, z, t, O'w,zw, hw, h )
141.2qw#/3
(2-26)

where

O.O00264krt
to= O#ctr2 (2-27)

h
hD - - ~ (2--28)

r
rD =Tw (2--29)

Figure 2-14. Infinite slab reservoir with slanting well. 15

34 Oil Well Testing Handbook

z k~k
ZD ~ -~w ~ (2-30)

Zw k~z
ZwD ~ ~w (2-31)

hwD -- ~hw ; cos 20w ~kr + sin 20w (2-32)

0~- tan-1 ( k ~ r )tan0w (2-33)

For fully penetrated wells:

hi) (2-34)
ZwD -- O.5hD and hwD -- cos O,w

For Long-Time Approximation

At large values of the dimensionless time, the dimensionless pressure at
any point in the reservoir may be expressed as

po(rD, O, ZD, to, O~w,hD) -- O.5 [ln (t~2o) +0.80907 l + So(rD, O, zD, O'w,hD)
(2-35)

The pseudo-skin factor term For tD > tD1, where

SO(rD, O, zD, O'w,hD) = pD(rD, O, ZD, tD, O'w,hD) -- O.5 [ln (t~20) 0.80907
(2--36)

and

70r 2

2-~~(rD COS0 +-h-~ tan Otw)2

tD1 --- max (2-37)

- - r o cos 0 - - ~ - t a n 0'w

the pseudo-skin factor may be approximated as

 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 35

(40_~~)2"06 (0tw~ 1"865

so(O~w, hD) -- -- -- \ 5 6 ) x log hD ) (2-38)

For 0 _< 0~w <_ 75 ~ and tD >_ tD1

st - sa + so (2-39)

where
st = total skin factor, obtained from conventional pressure analysis of
field data, that includes the true skin factor, sd
sd = sum of many factors, such as partial penetration, perforation, non-
Darcy flow, etc.
so = pseudo-skin factor caused by the inclination of the well.
Eq. 2-34 is discussed further in Ref. 1; however, the validity of this
equation may be checked by means of Tables 2-1 through 2-5, which
present evaluations of Eq. 2-37 and 2-38. Computation of the effect of
directional drilling on the performance of a well is illustrated in the following
example.

Example 2--6 Calculating Pseudo-skin Factor in a Slanted Well and Evalu-

ating Actual Well Condition
A pressure buildup test indicates that the skin factor 0.72 indicates mild
damage. The semilog straightline slope is 110psi/cycle. Average angle of
inclination = 45 ~ h = 85 ft, rw = 0.29 ft, and core analysis indicates that the
kr/kz -- 5. Determine the apparent skin factor caused by directional drilling.
The well fully penetrates the formation.

Solution Pressure drop due to s k i n - (AP)skin -- 0.869 ms - 0.869(110)(0.72)

-- 68.82 psi.
From Eq. 2-27,

h k ~~k 85 ~/~ = 655.4

hD -- Tw -- 0.29

From Eq. 2-32,

0w- tan l ]
tan Ow - tan- tan 60 ~ 1
= tan-1[(0.4472 x 0 . 5 7 7 4 ] - t a n - ' (0.7582) - 14.48 ~

(text continued on page 41)

36 Oil Well Testing H a n d b o o k

Table 2-1
Pwo V e r s u s to W i t h ho (ho - 1 0 0 ) a s a P a r a m e t e r 2

to 15 ~ 30 ~ 45 ~ 60 ~ 75 ~

1 x 10 -1 0.0120 0.0108 0.0088 0.0062 0.0032

2 • 10 -1 0.0707 0.0634 0.0518 0.0366 0.0189
5 x 10 -1 0.2703 0.2424 0.1979 0.1399 0.0724
7 x 10 -1 0.3767 0.3378 0.2758 0.1950 0.1009
1 0.5043 0.4522 0.3602 0.2611 0.1351
2 0.7841 0.7030 0.5740 0.4059 0.2101
5 1.1919 1.0686 0.8725 0.6170 0.3194
7 1.3477 1.2083 0.9866 0.6976 0.3611
1 x 10 1.5148 1.3581 1.1089 0.7841 0.4059
2 • 10 1.8436 1.6529 1.3496 0.9543 0.4940
5 x 10 2.2829 2.0472 1.6714 1.1816 0.6116
7 x 10 2.4452 2.1937 1.7914 1.2659 0.6551
1 x 102 2.6179 2.3507 1.9211 1.3571 0.7017
2 x 102 2.9551 2.6612 2.1841 1.5473 0.7981
5 x 102 3.4032 3.0796 2.5508 1.8319 0.9528
7 x 102 3.5681 3.2344 2.6879 1.9421 1/0183
1 x 103 3.7431 3.3991 2.8338 2.0597 1.0911
2 x 103 * 3.7227 3.1228 2.2912 1.2375
5 x 103 A 4.1617 3.5291 2.6291 1.4506
7 x 103 4.3259 3.6859 2.7678 1.5432
1 x 104 4.5012 3.8555 2.9225 1.6528
2 • 104 * 4.1916 3.2397 1.9005
5 x 104 B 4.6434 3.6793 2.2855
7 x 104 * 3.8439 2.4382
1 x 105 C 4.0195 2.6046
2 x 105 * 2.9368
5 x 105 D 3.3861
7 x 105 3.5526
1 x 106 *
2 x 10 6 E
5 x 106
7 x 10 6

* Line-source solution at the wellbore pn(1, t n ) - [A, B, C, D, and E],

A =-0.123 =-0.516, C =-1.175, D =-2.148, and E =-3.586.
 F u n d a m e n t a l s of Reservoir Oil F l o w Analysis 37

Table 2-2
PwD V e r s u s to With ho (ho - 200) as a Parameter 2

to 15 ~ 30 ~ 45 ~ 60 ~ 75 ~

1 x 10 -1 0.0120 0.0108 0.0088 0.0062 0.0032

2 x 10 -1 0.0707 0.0634 0.0518 0.0366 0.0189
5 x 10 -1 0.2703 0.2424 0.1979 0.1399 0.0724
7 x 10 -1 0.3767 0.3378 0.2758 0.1950 0.1009
1 0.5043 0.4522 0.3692 0.2611 0.1351
2 0.7841 0.7030 0.5740 0.4059 0.2101
5 1.1919 1.0686 0.8725 0.6170 0.3194
7 1.3477 1.2083 0.9866 0.6976 0.3611
1x 10 1.5148 1.3581 1.1089 0.7841 0.4059
2 x 10 1.8436 1.6529 1.3496 0.9543 0.4940
5 x 10 2.2825 2.0465 1.6709 1.1815 0.6116
7 x 10 2.4443 2.1915 1.7894 1.2653 0.6550
1x 102 2.6161 2.3455 1.9151 1.3542 0.7010
2 x 102 2.9506 2.64589 2.1602 1.5273 0.7905
5 x 102 3.4950 3.0495 2.4937 1.7623 0.9107
7 x 102 3.5590 3.2007 2.6221 1.8553 0.9578
1x 103 3.7332 3.3625 2.6618 1.9599 1.0117
2 x 103 4.0726 3.6798 3.0409 2.1785 1.1322
5 x 103 4.5222 4.1029 3.4159 2.4801 1.3171
7 x 103 4.6879 4.2601 3.5567 2.5925 1.3883
1x 104 4.8640 4.4286 3.7090 2.7153 1.4655
2 • 104 * 4.7620 4.0193 2.9757 1.6301
5 • 104 A 5.2117 4.4531 3.3692 1.9071
7 x 104 5.3783 4.6166 3.5239 2.0289
1x 105 * 4.7913 3.6919 2.1685
2 x 105 B 5.1336 4.0260 2.4649
5 x 105 * 4.4765 2.8900
7 x 105 C * 3.0516
1x 106 D 3.2249
2 x 106 3.5656
5• 106 *
7x 106 E

* Line-source solution at the wellbore pD(1, tD) - [A, B, C, D, and E],

A---0.152, B - - 0 . 6 0 8 , C =-1.378, D - - 2 . 4 9 4 , and E =-4.099.
38 Oil Well Testing H a n d b o o k

Table 2-3
Pwo V e r s u s to W i t h ho (ho - 5 0 0 ) a s a P a r a m e t e r z

to 15 ~ 30 ~ 45 ~ 60 ~ 75 ~

1 x 10 -1 0.0120 0.0108 0.0088 0.0062 0.0032

2 x 10 -1 0.0707 0.0634 0.518 0.0366 0.0189
5 x 10 -1 0.2703 0.2424 0.0979 0.1399 0.0724
7 • 10 -1 0.3767 0.3378 0.2758 0.1950 0.1009
1 0.5043 0.4522 0.3692 0.2611 0.1351
2 0.7841 0.7030 0.5740 0.4059 0.2101
5 1.1919 1.0686 0.8725 0.6170 0.3194
7 1.3477 1.2083 0.9866 0.6976 0.3611
1x 10 1.5148 1.3581 1.1089 0.7841 0.4059
2 • 10 1.8436 1.6529 1.3496 0.9543 0.4940
5 x 10 2.2829 2.0465 1.6709 1.1815 0.6116
7 x 10 2.4443 2.1915 1.7894 1.2653 0.6550
1x 102 2.6161 2.3455 1.9151 1.3542 0.7010
2 x 102 2.9503 2.6541 2.1597 1.5272 0.7905
5 • 102 3.3924 3.0416 2.4834 1.7560 0.9090
7 x 102 3.5549 3.1873 2.6024 1.8401 0.9525
1x 103 3.7272 3.3419 2.7286 1.9293 0.9987
2 x 103 4.0629 3.6448 2.9766 2.1037 1.0886
5 x 103 4.5091 4.0545 3.3218 2.3518 1.2145
7 x 103 4.0736 4.2076 3.4588 2.4525 1.2671
1x 104 4.8483 4.3708 3.5982 2.5646 1.3282
2 x 104 5.1880 4.6897 3.8805 2.7909 1.4618
5 x 104 5.6388 5.1165 4.2609 3.0960 1.6541
7 • 104 5.8051 5.2761 4.4063 3.2138 1.7279
1• 105 * 5.4474 4.5853 3.3463 1.8111
2 x 105 A 5.7853 4.8872 3.6297 1.9994
5 x 105 * 5.3298 4.0446 2.3171
7 x 105 B 5.4950 4.2040 2.4521
1x 106 5.6710 4.3757 2.6036
2 x 106 * 4.7144 2.9167
5 x 106 C * 3.3534
7 x 106 D 3.5175
1x 107 3.6927
2 x 107 E*

* Line-source solution at the wellbore pD(1, tt)) - [A, B, C, D, and E],

A =-0.183, B---0.731, C =-1.647, D =-2.953, and E---4.778.
 F u n d a m e n t a l s of Reservoir Oil F l o w Analysis 39

Table 2-4
pwo V e r s u s to W i t h ho (ho - 1 0 0 0 ) as a Parameter z

to 15 ~ 30 ~ 45 ~ 60 ~ 75 ~

1 x 10 -1 0.0120 0.0108 0.0088 0.0062 0.0032

2 x 10 -1 0.0707 0.0634 0.518 0.0366 0.0189
5 x 10 -1 0.2703 0.2424 0.1979 0.1399 0.0724
7 x 10 -1 0.3767 0.3378 0.2758 0.1950 0.1009
1 0.5043 0.4522 0.3692 0.2611 0.1351
2 0.7841 0.7030 0.5740 0.4059 0.2101
5 1.1919 1.0686 0.8725 0.6170 0.3194
7 1.3477 1.2083 0.9866 0.6976 0.3611
1• 10 1.5148 1.3581 1.1089 0.7841 0.4059
2 x 10 1.6436 1.6529 1.3496 0.9543 0.4940
5 x 10 2.2825 2.0465 1.6709 1.1815 0.6116
7 x 10 2.4443 2.1915 1.7894 1.2653 0.6550
1x 102 2.6161 2.3455 1.9151 1.3542 0.7010
2 x 102 2.9503 2.6451 2.1597 1.5272 0.7905
5 x 102 3.3924 3.0416 2.4834 1.7560 0.9090
7 x 102 3.5549 3.1872 2.6023 1.8401 0.9525
1x 103 3.7271 3.3416 2.7284 1.9293 0.9987
2 x 103 4.0618 3.6417 2.9734 2.1025 1.0884
5 x 103 4.5046 4.0392 3.2979 2.3317 1.2069
7 x 103 4.6676 4.1863 3.4183 2.4163 1.2506
1x 104 4.8408 4.3437 3.5485 2.5078 1.2973
2 x 104 5.1787 4.6548 3.8119 2.6984 1.3939
5 x 104 5.6271 5.0736 4.1789 2.9832 1.5487
7 x 104 5.7921 5.2284 4.3160 3.0934 1.6143
1x 105 5.9671 5.3931 4.4620 3.2111 1.6871
2 x 105 6.3084 5.7168 4.7511 3.4426 1.8335
5 x 105 * 6.1559 5.1574 3.7805 2.0467
7 x 105 A 6.3201 5.3142 3.9192 2.1392
1x 106 6.4954 5.4838 4.0739 2.2488
2 x 106 * 5.8199 4.3911 2.4965
5 x 106 B 6.2717 4.8307 2.8815
7 x 106 * 4.9953 3.0343
1• 107 C 5.1709 3.2006
2 x 107 D* E*

* Line-source solution at the wellbore po(1, tD) - [A, B, C, D, and E],

A---0.207, B =-0.824, C---1.850, D---3.299, and E =-5.292.
40 Oil Well Testing H a n d b o o k

Table 2-5
Pwo Versus to With ho (ho -5000) as a Parameter 2

to 15 ~ 30 ~ 45 ~ 60 ~ 75 ~

1 x 10 -1 0.0120 0.0108 0.0088 0.0062 0.0032

2 x 10 -1 0.0707 0.0634 0.0518 0.0366 0.0189
5 • 10 -1 0.2703 0.2424 0.1979 0.1399 0.0724
7 • 10 -1 0.3767 0.3378 0.2758 0.1950 0.1009
1 0.5043 0.4522 0.3692 0.2611 0.1351
2 0.7841 0.7030 0.5740 0.4059 0.2101
5 1.1919 1.0686 0.8725 0.3170 0.3194
7 1.3477 1.7083 0.9866 0.6976 0.3611
1x 10 1.5148 1.3581 1.1089 0.7841 0.4059
2 x 10 1.8436 1.6529 1.3496 0.9643 0.4940
5 x 10 2.2825 2.0465 1.6709 1.1815 0.6116
7 x 10 2.4443 2.1915 1.7894 1.2653 0.6550
1x 102 2.6161 2.3455 1.9151 1.3542 0.7010
2 x 102 2.9503 2.6451 2.1597 1.5272 0.7905
5 x 102 3.3924 3.0416 2.4834 1.7560 0.9090
7 x 102 3.5549 3.1872 2.6023 1.8401 0.9525
1• 103 3.7271 3.3416 2.7284 1.9293 0.9987
2 x 103 4.0616 3.6417 2.9734 2.1025 1.0889
5 x 103 4.5043 4.0384 3.2974 2.3316 1.2069
7 x 103 4.6668 4.1841 3.4163 2.4157 1.2505
1x 104 4.8390 4.3386 3.5424 2.5049 1.2965
2 x 104 5.1736 4.6387 3.7875 2.6781 1.3863
5 x 104 5.6163 5.0355 4.1114 2.9072 1.5049
7 x 104 5.7789 5.1812 4.2304 2.9913 1.5484
1• 105 5.9512 5.3359 4.3567 3.0805 1.5946
2 x 105 6.2870 5.6389 4.6047 3.2550 1.6845
5 x 105 6.7332 6.0486 4.9500 3.5031 1.8105
7 • 105 6.8976 6.2017 5.0829 3.6038 1.8630
1x 106 7.0724 6.3649 5.2264 3.7159 1.9242
2 x 106 7.4122 6.6838 5.5086 3.9422 2.0578
5 • 10 6 7.8630 7.1106 5.8891 4.2473 2.2500
7 x 106 8.0293 7.2702 6.0345 4.3651 2.3238
1• 107 A* 7.4415 6.1935 4.4976 2.4070
5 x 107 B* C* D* E*

* Line-source solution at the wellbore pD(1, t o ) - [A, B, C, D, and E],

A = -0.261, B -- - 1.040, C -- -2.321, D = -4.104, and E = -4.2886.
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 41

Table 2-6
Well angle (~ so Sd (AP)~k/.(psi)
0 0 +0.7200 68.82
30 -0.1828 +0.9030 86.32
45 -0.5040 +1.2240 117.00
60 - 1.2355 + 1.9555 186.92
70 -2.2411 +2.9611 283.05
75 -3.0237 +3.7437 357.86

(text continued from page 35)

F r o m Eq. 2-37,

- -
86,
x log
(ho)
(14.48'~2"~ (14.48'~ 1.865 (655.4'~
=- 41 ,] - 56 J xlog\ 100,]

= -0.1172 - 0.0803 x 0.8165 - -0.1828

After rearranging, Eq. 2 - 3 8 becomes Sd = st -- So = 0.72 -- (--0.1828) =

+0.903. This indicates that the well is more damaged than originally thought
and that it is a candidate for stimulation. The true pressure drop across the
skin is = 0.869 x 110 x 0.903 = 86.32 psi rather than the pressure value of
68.82 psi.
Calculated values of pressure drop across skin for various values of slant
angle are summarized in Table 2-6. This table indicates a significant effect
on well condition.

2.5 Summary
This chapter discusses the basic flow theory for oil well testing and
analysis techniques. A general equation is used for transient pressure
behavior with dimensionless pressure solutions desired. Some important
dimensionless pressure functions are presented and references to others are
provided. The dimensionless pressure approach provides a way to calculate
the pressure response and to apply techniques for analyzing transient tests in
a variety of systems. Section 2.4 presents unsteady-state pressure distribu-
tion calculations in directional oil wells.
42 Oil Well Testing Handbook

References
1. Ramey, H. J., Jr., and Cobb, W. M., "A General Buildup Theory for a
Well in Closed Drainage Area," J. Pet. Tech. (Dec. 1971) 1493-1505.
2. Cinco, H., Miller, F. G., and Ramey, H. J., Jr., "Unsteady-state Pressure
Distribution Created by a Directionally Drilled Well," SPE-AIME, 1975.

Additional Reading
1. A1-Hussainy, R., Ramey, H. J., Jr., and Crawford, P. B., "The Flow of
Real Gases Through Porous Media," J. Pet. Tech. (May 1966) 624-636;
Trans. AIME, 237.
2. Lee, J., Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series, Vol. 1, Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME, Richardson, TX, 1982.
3. Van Everdingen, A. F., and Hurst, W., "The Application of Laplace
Transformation to Flow Problems in Reservoirs," Trans. A I M E (1949)
186, 305-324.
4. Amyx, J. W., Bass, D. M., Jr., and Whiting, R. L., Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering: Physical Properties, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960,
pp. 78-79.
5. Wattenbarger, R. A., and Ramey, H. J., Jr., "Gas Well Testing With
Turbulence, Damage and Wellbore Storage," J. Pet. Tech. (Aug. 1968)
877-887; Trans. AIME, 243.
6. Ramey, H. J., Jr., "Non-Darcy Flow and Wellbore Storage Effects in
Pressure Buildup and Drawdown of Gas Wells," J. Pet. Tech. (1965)
223-233; 234.
7. Chen, H.-K., and Brigham, W. E., "Pressure Buildup for a Well With
Storage and Skin in a Closed Square," paper SPE 4890 presented at the
SPE-AIME 44th Annual California Regional Meeting, San Francisco,
April 4-5, 1974.
8. Earlougher, R., Jr., and Ramey, J., Jr., "Interference Analysis in
Bounded Systems," J. Pet. Teeh. (Oct.-Dec. 1973) 33-45.
9. Earlougher, R. C., Jr., Ramey, H. J., Jr., Miller F. G., and Mueller T. D.,
"Pressure Distributions in Rectangular Reservoirs," J. Pet. Teeh. (1968)
20, 199-208.
10. Van Poollen, H. K., "Radius of Investigation and Stabilization Time
Equations," Oil Gas J. (1964) 63 (51), 71-75.
11. Hurst, W., "Establishment of the Skin Effect and Its Impediment to
Fluid Flow Into a Wellbore," Pet. Eng. (Oct. 1953) B-16.
12. Miller, C. C., Dyes, A. B., and Hutchinson, C. A., Jr., "The Estimation
of Permeability and Reservoir Pressure From Bottom Hole Pressure
Buildup Characteristic," Trans. A I M E (1950) 189, 91-104. Also Reprint
 Fundamentals of Reservoir Oil Flow Analysis 43

Series, No. 9 - Pressure Analysis Methods, Society of Petroleum

Engineers of AIME, Dallas, 1967, pp. 11-24.
13. Horner, D. R., "Pressure Buildup in Wells," Proc; Third World Pet.
Cong; Vol. II, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1951, p. 503.
14. Saidikowski, R. M., "Numerical Simulation of the Combined Effects
of Wellbore Damage and Partial Penetration," paper SPE 8204, Sept.
23-26, 1979.
15. Van Everdingen, A. F., "The Skin Effect and Its Influence on the
Productive Capacity of a Well," Trans. AIME (1953) 198, 171-176.
16. Carter, R. D., "Solutions of Unsteady-State Radial Gas Flow," J. Pet.
Tech. (1962) 14, 549-554.
17. Carter, R. D., "Performance Predictions for Gas Reservoirs Considering
Two-Dimensional Unsteady-state Flow," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (1966) 6, 35-43.
18. Bruce, G. H., Peaceman, D. W., Richford, A. A., Jr., and Rice, J. D.,
"Calculations of Unsteady-state Gas Flow Through Porous Media,"
Trans. AIME (1953) 198, 79-92.
19. Craft, B. C., and Hawkins M. F., Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineer-
ing, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1959 (Chapter 6).
20. Collins, R. E., Flow of Fluids Through Porous Materials, Reinhold
Publishing Corporation, New York, 1961.
21. De Wiest, R. J. M. (ed.), Flow Through Porous Media, Academic Press,
New York, 1969.
22. Muskat, M., The Flow of Homogeneous Fluids Through Porous Media,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1937.
23. Janicek, J., and Katz, D. L., Applications of Unsteady-state Gas Flow
Calculations, Preprint, University of Michigan Publishing Services, Ann
Arbor, MI, 1955.
24. Derradii, S., Bessel Functions, Laplace Transforms and Their Applica-
tion, MS Report, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 1983.
25. Jones, L. G., "An Approximate Method for Computing Non-steady-state
Flow of Gases in Porous Media," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (1961) 1,264-276.
26. Watson, E. J., Laplace Transforms and Applications, van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, 1981, p. 89.
27. Watson, G. N., Theory of Bessel Functions, Cambridge University Press,
London, 1944, p. 44.
28. Abramowitz, M., and Stegun, I. A. (eds.), Handbook of Mathematical
Functions With Formulas, Graphs and Mathematical Tables, National Bu-
reau of Standards Applied Mathematics Series-55, June 1964, pp. 227-253.
29. Van Poollan, H. K., Bixel, H. C., and Jargon, J. R., "Reservoir Model-
i n g - 1: What It Is, What It Does." Oil and Gas Journal (July 28,1969)
158-160.
30. Chatas, A. T., "A Practical Treatment of Non-steady-state Flow Pro-
blems in Reservoir Systems," Pet. Eng., Part 1 (May 1953) B-42-B-50;
Part 2 (June 1953) B-38-B-50, Part 3 (Aug. 1953) B-44-B-56.