ch1 Introduction PDF

Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Outline
▪ What Operating Systems Do

▪ Computer System Organization
▪ Operating-System Operations
▪ Resource Management
▪ Security and Protection
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
What is an Operating System?
▪ A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
▪ Operating system goals:
• Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
• Make the computer system convenient to use
• Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
Computer System Structure
▪ Computer system can be divided into four components:

• Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
• Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
• Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems,
video games
• Users
 People, machines, other computers
Abstract View of Components of Computer
What Operating Systems Do
▪ Depends on the point of view
▪ Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
• Don’t care about resource utilization
▪ But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep
all users happy
• Operating system is a resource allocator and control program
making efficient use of HW and managing execution of user
programs
▪ Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
▪ Mobile devices like smartphones and tables are resource poor,
optimized for usability and battery life
• Mobile user interfaces such as touch screens, voice recognition
▪ Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
• Run primarily without user intervention
Term OS Covers Many Roles
▪ Because of myriad designs and uses of OSes
▪ Present in toasters through ships, spacecraft, game
machines, TVs and industrial control systems
▪ Born when fixed use computers for military became more
general purpose and needed resource management and
program control
Operating System Definition
▪ No universally accepted definition
▪ “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is a
good approximation
• But varies wildly
▪ “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel,
which is part of the operating system
▪ Everything else is either
• A system program (ships with the operating system, but not part of
the kernel), or
• An application program, all programs not associated with the
operating system
▪ Today’s OSes for general purpose and mobile computing also include
middleware – a set of software frameworks that provide addition services
to application developers such as databases, multimedia, graphics
Computer System Organization
▪ Computer-system operation
• One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles
Computer-System Operation
▪ I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

▪ Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
▪ Each device controller has a local buffer
▪ Each device controller type has an operating system device driver
to manage it
▪ CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
▪ I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
▪ Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by
causing an interrupt
Common Functions of Interrupts
▪ Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,

through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all
the service routines
▪ Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction
▪ A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused
either by an error or a user request
▪ An operating system is interrupt driven
▪ Interrupt handling
• The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by
storing the registers and the program counter
• Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
• Separate segments of code determine what action should be
taken for each type of interrupt
Interrupt-drive I/O Cycle
I/O Structure
▪ Two methods for handling I/O

• After I/O starts, control returns to user program only
upon I/O completion
• After I/O starts, control returns to user program without
waiting for I/O completion
I/O Structure (Cont.)
▪ After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion
• Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
• Wait loop (contention for memory access)
• At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no
simultaneous I/O processing
▪ After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for
I/O completion
• System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O
completion
• Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
• OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device status
and to modify table entry to include interrupt
Computer Startup
▪ Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

▪ Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as
firmware
▪ Initializes all aspects of system
▪ Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Operating-System Operations
▪ Bootstrap program – simple code to initialize the system, load the
kernel
▪ Kernel loads
▪ Starts system daemons (services provided outside of the kernel)
▪ Kernel interrupt driven (hardware and software)
• Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
• Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service – system call
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system
Multiprogramming (Batch system)
▪ Single user cannot always keep CPU and I/O devices busy
▪ Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU
always has one to execute
▪ A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
▪ One job selected and run via job scheduling
▪ When job has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to
another job
Multitasking (Timesharing)
▪ A logical extension of Batch systems– the CPU switches jobs so
frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running,
creating interactive computing
• Response time should be < 1 second
• Each user has at least one program executing in memory,
which is called process
• If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU
scheduling
• If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and
out to run
• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely
in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Dual-mode Operation
▪ Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other
system components
• User mode and kernel mode
▪ Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code.
• When a user is running ➔ mode bit is “user”
• When kernel code is executing ➔ mode bit is “kernel”
▪ Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer
▪ Timer to prevent infinite loop (or process hogging resources)
• Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
• Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock
• Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
• Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time
Process Management
▪ A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity; process is an active entity.
▪ Process needs resources to accomplish its task
• CPU, memory, I/O, files
• Initialization data
▪ Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
▪ Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location
of next instruction to execute
• Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
▪ Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
▪ Typically, system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
• Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:
▪ Creating and deleting both user and system processes
▪ Suspending and resuming processes
▪ Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
▪ Providing mechanisms for process communication
▪ Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Memory Management
▪ To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in

memory
▪ All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in
memory
▪ Memory management determines what is in memory and when
• Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
▪ Memory management activities
• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom
• Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
File-system Management
▪ OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
• Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
• Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
▪ File-System management
• Files usually organized into directories
• Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
• OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Mass-Storage Management
▪ Usually, disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
▪ Proper management is of central importance
▪ Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem
and its algorithms
▪ OS activities
• Mounting and unmounting
• Free-space management
• Storage allocation
• Disk scheduling
• Partitioning
• Protection
Caching
▪ Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

(in hardware, operating system, software)
▪ Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
▪ Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
• If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
• If not, data copied to cache and used there
▪ Cache smaller than storage being cached
• Cache management important design problem
• Cache size and replacement policy
Characteristics of Various Types of Storage
Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register
▪ Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value,

no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy
▪ Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
▪ Distributed environment situation even more complex
• Several copies of a datum can exist
• Various solutions covered in Chapter 19
I/O Subsystem
▪ One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from
the user
▪ I/O subsystem responsible for
• Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping
of output of one job with input of other jobs)
• General device-driver interface
• Drivers for specific hardware devices
Protection and Security
▪ Protection – mechanism for controlling access of processes or

users to resources defined by the OS
▪ Security – defense of the system against internal and external
attacks
• Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses,
identity theft, theft of service
Protection
▪ Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who

can do what
• User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
• User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
• Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
• Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights
End of Chapter 1
Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

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Chapter 1: Introduction

▪ What Operating Systems Do

▪ A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

▪ Computer system can be divided into four components:

▪ I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

▪ Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,

▪ Two methods for handling I/O

▪ Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

▪ To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in

▪ Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

▪ Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value,

▪ Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

▪ Protection – mechanism for controlling access of processes or

▪ Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who

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