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Utilization of Remote Sensing and GIS in Geology and Mining

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 International Journal of Scientific Research in ___________________________ Research Paper.
Multidisciplinary Studies E-ISSN: 2454-9312
Vol.7, Issue.4, pp.17-24, April (2021) P-ISSN: 2454-6143

Utilization of Remote Sensing and GIS in Geology and Mining

Thomas. U. Omali

National Biotechnology Development Agency (NABDA), Fed. Min. of Sci. & Tech., Nigeria

Author’s Mail Id: t.omali@yahoo.com, Tel.: +234-0809 980 6705

Available online at: www.isroset.org

Received: 26/Mar/2021, Accepted: 10/Apr/2021, Online: 30/Apr/2021
Abstract— Reliable mapping and estimation of a region's geological characteristics is essential in monitoring and
managing its mineral deposits. The traditional method of achieving this depends on the in-situ or ground-based survey,
which has a significant degree of limitations. However, geospatial technology can play an enhanced role in this context.
Therefore, this article's focal point is to systematically review Remote Sensing and GIS utilization in geology and mining.
Data search was conducted systematically in December 2020 to collect research papers published between 2010 and 2020.
A total of 1,921 publications were retrieved, of which 100 met the inclusion criteria for the review. The eligible articles
were further classified and discussed, considering their emphasis on geology and mining. This emphasis covers geological
mapping, structural geology, lithological classification, exploration geology, alteration assessment, extraction of mineral
deposits, and monitoring of environmental consequence of mining. Finally, this article demonstrates Remote Sensing's
suitability in the mineral sector as evidenced by its prospect to discriminate the rocks and minerals' spectral signature.
Also, GIS is suitable for managing various data linked to geology and mining.

Keywords— lineament, mapping, mineral, satellite imagery, spectral

I. INTRODUCTION RS systems are of two types, as determined by the

electromagnetic energy used by the sensors. First, 'passive
Most countries' economic success depends on the sensors' use the existing energy source that the Earth or a
exploitable mineral resources within the country, as it target emits or reflects. Second, 'active sensors' produce
constitutes essential raw materials for the manufacturing electromagnetic radiation. Considering scope, RS
sector. Consequently, there is progressive exploitation of comprises satellites, photography and photogrammetry,
the minerals virtually everywhere its deposit exists, which thermal, radar, and LiDAR. Furthermore, RS sensors are
frequently culminates in many economic, technical, and known for their particular characteristic or resolution.
ecological issues [1] as some minerals' characteristics Here, the sensor resolution is the maximum discriminating
create a hostile environment. This normally has negative power of measurement. Generally, the four kinds of sensor
impact on the landscape, vegetation, agriculture, soil, and resolutions are spectral, spatial, radiometric, and temporal
also cause pollution, surface runoff, ground deformation, [18-21].
effluent discharge, and waste accumulation, etc. [2-6].
The main advantage of RS application in mining lies in the
The conventional system for minerals' development and large-scale/direct map-based illustration of the potential
administration usually leads to insufficient data quality. areas for mineral occurrences [22] and a quick/inexpensive
The manual data on these resources are not adequate for manner for which information is afforded [23]. Landsat
the modern mineral sector [7]. Nevertheless, satellite-based and ASTER imageries are the most prevalent products
systems are practical tools for mapping Earth's resources used in RS of geology and mining [24,25]. These and
[8-11] and are suitable in the mineral sector [12,13]. others are appropriate for obtaining clear evidence on the
lithology and rock composition or rock alteration. This
Remote Sensing (RS) collects Earth's information using evidence indicates the mineral's existence, predominantly
airborne or spaceborne sensors [14] without any form of epigenetic deposits. Remote Sensing is specifically suitable
physical contact between the sensor and the target or object in extreme ecological circumstances where direct survey is
of interest. In this regard, the electromagnetic ray is the difficult, such as Antarctica, characterized by remoteness
medium of information transmission. Of course, the RS and poorly visible lithological units [26].
system detects and records reflected or emitted
electromagnetic radiation coming from the Earth or any Similarly, the integration of RS and GIS is essential for
other target [15-17] in the sensor's view. managing geographical phenomena [27-30]. GIS is an
automated tool for acquiring, storing, retrieving,
manipulating, evaluating, and displaying georeferenced

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 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.7, Issue.4, Apr 2021

data [31]. The two fundamental data types managed by this respectively. Razaei et al. [40] generated the lithology
system are geospatial data, which describes the ground- of the Sangan region of Iran from ASTER data. They
based location of a feature and attribute data, which define compared the lithological units with the field-based
the feature's properties. Data are usually represented and geological boundary map with an accuracy of 79%.
stored in either vector or raster formats in GIS [32]. Data Other important researches on lithology can be located
in vector structure comes as points (e.g. mineral in the literature [e.g., 41-44].
occurrences, bedding measurements, and control points,
etc.), lines (e.g. lineaments, faults and fold axes, and cross- Furthermore, Rekhibi et al. [45] produced the
sections, etc.) and polygons (e.g. bedrock, geologic unit, probability maps of gold in Libya's Al Uwaynat area.
and surficial geology, etc.). But a raster data structure They used geological standards for the occurrence of
represents data in cellular grids, and its attribute applies to gold generated from satellite imagery, accessible plans,
the whole cell (e.g., DEMs). Progress in the GIS has & field survey data. Hede et al. [46] present a novel
essentially benefitted the combination of disparate method to identify vegetation anomalies due to ore
geological information for predicting mineral deposits presence in Hokuroku, Japan. Results show that
existence. Generally, the innovative approach involving vegetation irregularities are related to high possible
geospatial technology offers suitable means of capturing, areas of ore presence and known deposits. Poormirzaee
storing, processing, analysis and presentation of distinctive and Oskouei [47] investigated the spectral properties of
data on ecosystem more rapidly and efficiently. Thus, this Landsat data to identify mineralogical properties over
study is a review of the RS and GIS utilization in Geology Behabad, Iran. They produced the potential map of
and Mining. hydrothermal alteration by incorporating Least square
fit and Crosta methods with ArcGIS spectral analysis.
Section I and II contains the general background and the Safari et al. [48] generated the map of hydrothermal
review of previous studies, respectively. Also, Section III alterations of the Shahr-e-Babak district using the
is concerned with the research methodology. In Section IV, spectral signature of each alteration mineral type.
the researcher presents the results and discussion.
Furthermore, conclusion and the future focus is given in Charou et al. [27] evaluated the utilization of Landsat,
Section V. SPOT, and ASTER data for environmental mapping on
a local scale. They investigated the mining effect on
II. LITERATURE REVIEW Greece's land and water (Lake Vegoritis, Amynteon
mine, and Lavrio mine). Charou et al. discovered that
RS imageries are essential in creating maps of ground high-resolution sensing data with GIS methods offered
features using image classification processes [33]. Thus, monitoring and feedback at proper spatial characteristic.
they are used to produce and improve many geological Yenilmez et al. [49] used GIS to assess pollutants'
maps around the world. For example, Nikolakopoulos et spatial concentrations in an abandoned coal mine. Also,
al. [34] created the geological map of Halki Island, they investigated the spatial locations for potential
Greece, which depicts the geotectonic units, geological pollution sources, including open pits, coal storage, and
formations, and tectonic structures. Ezabti and dump-sites.
Jovanović [35] carried out geological mapping and 3-D
terrain modelling of Eghei uplift, Libya. The result III. METHODOLOGY
covers the gap between conventional and current
geological mapping. Also, Almalki et al. [36] produced This study was started with a literature search in December
a geological map of the Farasan Islands, combining 2020 via academic electronic records, with interest on
Landsat-8 with field-based data. Diverse geomorphic utilization of RS and GIS in geology and mining. Through
and geologic structures, were depicted. specific search terms, the researcher identified documents
published between 2010 and 2020. The search terms
Ruisi et al. [37] used satellite imagery to interpret include 'Remote Sensing in Geology and Mining' AND
central Tibet's (China) geological structure. Various 'GIS in Geology and Mining'.
strata were interpreted concerning bedding triangle
planes, identified fold and faults. The result The relevant articles were carefully selected, based on
demonstrates that Worldview-2 data has more advantage hierarchical topics [50]. Then, the researcher formulated
than the conventional Landsat and ASTER imageries. search terms and criteria for inclusion/exclusion of papers.
Sulaksana and Hamdani [38] investigated the lineaments This method is transparent and has the prospect to replicate
in Kalimantan, Indonesia using ASTER imagery and the study. Of course, many previous systematic reviews
GIS. Equally, Brandmeier and Shen [39] carried out the related to the present article (topic) used the same strategy
lithological analysis in the Mount Isa region (Australia) [e.g., 51,52,23]. This review's search resulted in
using Sentinel-2 and ASTER imageries. Results reveal 1,921articles, which the researcher further subjected to
that Sentinel-2 data merged with ASTER data gives an exclusion and inclusion criteria. Consequently, 100 articles
accuracy of 75% compared to 70% and 73% for were retained, reviewed in full detail, and analysed (see
individual ASTER data and Sentinel-2 imageries figure 1).

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 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.7, Issue.4, Apr 2021

different properties for geology and mining are available.

For instance, multispectral and hyperspectral sensors are of
few to hundred spectral bands. Generally, RS data are
Identified papers essential in creating maps of ground features using image
N=1,921 classification processes [33]. Geological map can be
produced based on texture analysis on the satellite image
[55]. To achieve this, improved visual interpretation of
Excluded papers: N=500 images should be ensured [56].

4.2. Structural Geology

Filtered papers
Structural geology is imperative in investigating mineral
N=1,421
reserves and identification/monitoring of probable risks,
including landslides and volcanic activities. It involves
recognizing and categorizing structures, such as faults,
Excluded papers: N=250 folds, and lineaments, which are often essential for
producing the geological map. Of course, geological
Screened papers structures are clues of a prospective spot of mineral
N=1,171 reserves as they show the subsurface geometry of rock
units. Structural geology has significantly benefitted from
RS's utilization in the past ten years [57-59]. Various
studies have proven that RS data can afford essential
evidence of geological structures' spatial spread (e.g.
[29,60]).
Analyzed papers
N=1,171
4.3. Lithological Classification
Detailed investigation of rock lithologies and rock
outcrops' relationship can enhance the geologic outline's
Excluded papers: N=250 existing knowledge [61]. The reason is that lithology maps
show the spatial spread of diverse rocks on the Earth's
Eligible papers surface [62]. Traditionally, lithological classification used
N=921 to depict rocks' character, and exposed structures on maps
are through ground-based traversing. This is cumbersome
and takes a long period to accomplish. Applying RS [e.g.,
63,64] will likely help to easily illustrate lithology with
considerable accuracy through colour, weathering and
erosion properties, drainage outline, and bedding thickness.
Read papers
N=921
4.4. Exploration of Mineral Resources
Mineral exploration is employed to precisely establish the
mass and worth of mineral deposit by methods similar to,
Excluded papers: N=821 but more refined than, those applied for mineral
prospecting. The conventional practice (involving
Included papers geochemistry, geophysics, traditional geological mapping,
N=100 photogrammetry and terrestrial surveys) is difficult. The
reason is that they require both analysis and integration of
the multi-thematic exploration information to support
decision making over time and at disparate phases of the
Fig. 1. Flow chart of the systematic review mining. In this situation, the RS and GIS approach are
practical support tools of immense importance. Satellite-
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION enhanced evaluation of mineral reserves primarily involves
information extraction [65]. The information is more or
4.1. Geological Mapping less about alteration, lithology, and structures, etc.
The geologic map is crucial in the mineral sector because it
reveals the three-dimensional perspective of sediments, Hyperspectral data helps discriminate subtle spectral
rocks, and soil units, representing their distribution and age differences among disparate rock types [66], thereby
relationships. Geological maps afford the tool for mineral enhancing the accurate mapping of surface mineralogy.
prospecting, geotechnical investigations, and geologic Furthermore, multispectral and hyperspectral data within
hazards mapping. For instance, some researchers have used the LWIR region are more suitable for mapping mineral
geological mapping to establish granites' compositional reserves [67]. Yet, the six SWIR channels of ASTER also
features [e.g., 53,54]. Currently, various RS sensors with allows surface mineralogy mapping as a result of their

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 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.7, Issue.4, Apr 2021

comparatively narrow spectral characteristics [68]. relationship shows diagnostic spectral properties (or
However, the 30 m spatial characteristic of ASTER's laboratory spectra) that allow their remote identification
SWIR band is a challenge in forested and woodland zones (see figure 3 for the spectral reflectance of selected
where limited picture elements would be free of tree minerals). Hence, the SWIR spectral bands of satellite
canopy and its shadow [69]. Also, iron oxide mineralogy sensing are suitable for mapping hydrothermal alteration
recognition may be restricted to areas that the ASTER zones [73-78].
VNIR spectral signatures are beyond vegetation
dominance [69]. By and large, spectral features are
adequate for mapping iron oxide/hydroxide minerals using
the VNIR channels of RS tools [70].

Furthermore, GIS analysis is an imperative tool in the

assessment of the ore reserve. For instance, spatial
analysis, targeting, 3-D data visualization, and processing
help in spotting and evaluation of the position, extent, and
geometry of underground mineral deposits [71]. Also,
compiling the RS interpretation directly into a GIS implies
that the results can form part of a database for easy
accessibility. With GIS, image interpretation results can be
combined and related to other data sources such as
geophysics and geochemistry. Hence the possibility of an
integrated evaluation of results.

4.5. Hydrothermal Alteration Assessment

Hydrothermal alteration covers various processes that Figure 3. Curves of spectral reflectance for jarosite, hematite and
cause changes within the host rocks by influencing ore- goethite. Source: Poormirzaee, and Oskouei [47]
forming hydrothermal fluids alongside fractures and grain
margins. Satellite imageries are essential for revealing 4.6. Extraction of Mineral Deposits
altered rocks or hydrothermal alteration areas, which Mineral extraction and production in advanced countries
have been exposed by erosion or tectonic process because are by highly sophisticated means. The case is different in
the affected areas show themselves like spectral the underdeveloped countries where the mineral discovery
anomalies. With satellite-based identification of altered and production process is cumbersome, and thus sufficient
rocks (see figure 2), it is possible to discover mineral exploitations are not made. For example, evidence in the
deposit. Yet, it is not every location of hydrothermal literature suggests that many minerals are unextracted in
alterations that signify mineral deposits of economic Nigeria.
interest [72]. Also, it is not every reserve that is made
evident by the presence of alteration areas. Generally, the sequence of mining requires the excavation
of several tons of Earth materials. For proper monitoring,
the quantities of moving masses are typically known using
advanced devices such as the Global Positioning System
and automated total-stations for measuring the relief.
However, this method is labour demanding and primarily
provides information about limited areas. In contrast,
Remote Sensing can offer large-scale DEMs in open-pit
mines, circumventing the herculean field measurements.
Of course, DEM is a robust tool for investigating and
modelling environmental and hydrological occurrence and
the change of natural environment [see 79-83].

4.7. Environmental Impact of Mining

The mining sector has often been perceived negatively due
to its hazardous impact on the public health and safety at
local, regional, and global levels. Mining involves
removing valuable minerals and waste disposal at the
working site either from opencast or underground methods
[3]. In many countries, it results in disastrous effects on the
Figure 2. Altered rock area indicating hydroxyl presence in bright
pixels of ETM data. primary life-support systems [12], such as soil, water,
forest, etc. (see figure 4). Mining modifies the soil [84],
Studies have shown that certain minerals have a and acidic landfills leads to acid-mine-drainage due to its
connection with hydrothermal developments. This sulphuric content. Moreover, open cast mining creates

© 2021, IJSRMS All Rights Reserved 20

 Int. J. Sci. Res. in Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.7, Issue.4, Apr 2021

degraded land, which often does not support biomass. In logs, geophysical images, boreholes, radius measurements,
other words, extensively mined land lacks sufficient and mineral accumulations. In this regard, it demonstrates
surface soil for plants. its capacity for display and immediate interpretation.

Geological mapping and assessment using the 2-D

approach and 3-D potential modelling is a wide-reaching
practice with numerous field geology applications.
Moreover, the 4-D technique has a prospect for future
application. For instance, virtual reality 4-D analysis of
terrestrial surface can reveal subtle active tectonic and
geomorphic features.

The continuous development in high-resolution

technologies makes it feasible to access more Remote
Sensing big data and cloud services. This is of great
importance to geoscientists because the modelling
approach regarding big data permits mining the enormous
Figure 4. Mining‐induced threats to soil (Samgwang mine, magnitude of geological statistics. Also, geological cloud
Korea), water (Gagok mine, Korea), and forest (Sangyong
data affords practical data analysis, mining, and
limestone mine, Korea). Source: Suh et al. [4].
management for land resources' scientific management.
InSAR measurements can map a large-scale ground Therefore, it is possible to manage various kinds of data
deformation with high accuracy and a moderate-to-zero because of the geological cloud's emergence.
cost [85-88]. However, serious decorrelation produced by
thick vegetation can impose a severe challenge in detecting Furthermore, with the growth in image processing and
the landslide. Reducing the limitations of decorrelation and automated vision in rock interpretation research, the old
atmospheric influences involves advanced InSAR methods of visually observing rocks and descriptions are
applications including Permanent Scatterer InSAR, Quasi increasingly disappearing. The deep learning technique is
Persistent Scatterers, & Small BAseline Subset on single an effective means for extracting geological features,
landslides such as the Huangtupo [89-92]. Generally, SAR integrating multi-source data, and determining
processing techniques can help in the practical study of geochemical patterns complicated by the traditional
ground deformation [89]. approach.

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