Electromagnetism and Optics – Historical Chronology

Frederick David Tombe,

Northern Ireland, United Kingdom,
sirius184@hotmail.com
19th February 2023

Abstract. A chronology of the main events in the history of the unity of optics and
electromagnetism.

1855. German physicists Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Hermann Arndt
Kohlrausch performed an experiment to compare the effects of a closed
galvanic circuit with the effects of the discharge-current of a collection of free
electricity. From this experiment they obtained the ratio between electrostatic
and electrodynamic units of charge, [1].

1857. German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff noticed that the Weber-
Kohlrausch ratio, when divided by the square root of two, is very nearly equal
to the optically measured speed of light, [2]. Had Weber and Kohlrausch used
electromagnetic units instead of electrodynamic units, the speed of light would
have shown up immediately, and the natural inference would therefore have
been, that electric current flows in a conductor at a speed close to the speed of
light, and as such, electric current must be something more fundamental than
merely the relatively slow flow of charged particles in a conducting wire. But
this inference was missed by Weber and Kohlrausch, because, not only having
themselves failed to notice the connection between their ratio and the speed of
light, they had already bought into Fechner’s hypothesis, according to which
electric current consists of positive electricity moving in one direction,
combined with an equal and opposite current of negative electricity moving in
the opposite direction, [3], as though that was the main event. Meanwhile,
Kirchhoff also bought into Fechner’s hypothesis, and so none of the three of
them seemed to perceive of electric current as being a uni-directional flow at a
deeper level.

1861-1862. (a) In Parts I and II of his 1861 paper, “On Physical Lines of
Force”, [4], Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell explained magnetic force
and electromagnetic induction hydrodynamically in the context of an all-

1
pervading sea of tiny aether vortices in which electric particles circulate around
the edge of the vortices. These vortices bond together by aligning along their
mutual rotation axes to form solenoidal vortex rings which constitute the
prevailing magnetic lines of force. Stability is established on the basis of a
balance between tension acting along the lines of force and centrifugal pressure
acting sideways from them. Equation (77) in Part II is an electromotive force
equation, written here in modern vector format as,

E = μov×H + ∂A/∂t − ∇ψ (1)

where the first and third terms on the right-hand side of equation (1) are the
pressure and tension respectively. The centrifugal force, μov×H, presses
outwards in the equatorial plane of the tiny vortices as they strive to dilate, [5],
[6], where v is the circumferential speed of an individual vortex and H is its
vorticity, that being the basis of the concept of magnetic intensity, while μo is a
measure of the density of the vortex sea. This force acts sideways on wire that is
carrying electric current in a magnetic field, and it is also the convective
component in electromagnetic induction. The −∇ψ term is the electrostatic
force, where ψ is the scalar potential, while the ∂A/∂t term in the middle is the
force that is involved in time-varying electromagnetic induction, that being the
time derivative of the electromagnetic momentum, A, where A is nowadays
known as the magnetic vector potential. The vector A actually represents the
momentum density of the electric fluid, or aether, and it would appear to
represent electric current at the most fundamental level. In modern textbooks,
equation (1) appears in an alternative format referred to as the Lorentz force
law, after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz.
(b) In Part III of the same paper, [4], Maxwell considered his sea of aether
vortices to be a dielectric solid and to serve as the medium for the propagation
of light, which he referred to as the luminiferous medium. Through the ratio
established in the 1855 Weber-Kohlrausch experiment mentioned above,
Maxwell connected the elasticity of this luminiferous medium to the speed of
light, hence concluding that light is a wave in the same medium that is the cause
of electric and magnetic phenomena.

1864. Maxwell conceived of displacement current in Part III of his 1861 paper
in connection with dielectric polarization and the electrostatic force, but later, in
his 1865 paper, “A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field”, [7], he
extended the concept to time-varying electromagnetic induction, and he derived
a wave equation in the magnetic field, H. The involvement of the
electromagnetic momentum, A, in the displacement mechanism, flowing at the
same speed as electric current as established by the 1855 Weber-Kohlrausch
experiment, indicates that electromagnetic waves must be interwoven with an

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aethereal electric current, swirling from vortex to vortex. Maxwell, however,
seems to have missed this important observation.

1867. Danish physicist Ludvig Valentin Lorenz, not to be confused with the
already mentioned Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz, with a ‘t’, proposed a
theory in which light was considered to take the form of propagated electric
oscillations, [8]. We might suppose Lorenz was implying that light is a relay of
half-cycle oscillations of fine-grained electric current through a physical
medium, satisfying the simple harmonic equation,

A = −εo∂2A/∂t2 = εo∂E/∂t (2)

where εo is the reciprocal of the elasticity constant, and where εo∂E/∂t is

Maxwell’s displacement current.
In the same paper, Lorenz invented the Lorenz Gauge,

∇·A + (1/c2)∂ψ/∂t = 0 (3)

which, many years later, was involved in the Lorentz transformation of

electric and magnetic fields in motion. But as regards applying the Lorenz
gauge to electromagnetic waves, if we use Maxwell’s version of the
luminiferous medium, then the electric current, A, will be perpendicular to the
radial direction within each vortex, meaning that we would expect the
divergence of A to be zero, and at any rate, the electromagnetic wave equations
cannot be derived unless the divergence of A is zero. It seems therefore that
Lorenz repeated the mistake that Maxwell made in his 1861 paper, but which
Maxwell corrected in his 1865 paper, that mistake being the association of
displacement current in wireless radiation with the electrostatic force.
The Lorenz gauge seems to have been a premature proposal invented in the
wrong, but closely related context, and which would eventually, years later, find
its correct context in the study of electric and magnetic fields in motion, [9].

1884. The Poynting Vector, S = E×H, is the electric power density in wireless
electromagnetic radiation. The formula was discovered by Sir Henry Poynting,
[10], and independently by Oliver Heaviside in the same year, [11]. This formula
is derived in connection with the equation of continuity of electromagnetic
energy, but we cannot derive it if the electrostatic field, ES = −∇ψ, is the
singular component in the electric field term, whereas we can derive it using the
time-varying electromagnetic induction component, EK = −∂A/∂t, all on its
own, [12]. The essential involvement of the electromagnetic momentum, A,
testifies to the presence of a flow of electric fluid interwoven with the
electromagnetic wave.

3
1889-1908. This was a period of intense research aimed at establishing the
inter-relationships which arise due to matter and fields in motion through the
luminiferous medium. It started out as an investigation by Oliver Heaviside into
the effects of an aether wind on an electrostatic field, and how Maxwell’s
equations would be accordingly modified. The main research, carried out by
Heaviside, [13], George Francis Fitzgerald, [14], Sir Joseph Larmor, [15], Hendrik
Lorentz, [16], and Henri Poincaré, [17], was not centrally coordinated, although
ideas were often exchanged between these leading pioneers.
The most significant result emerging from this period of research was the
Lorentz transformation, which, in 1908, was put into the mathematical form,

s2 = x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 (4)

by Hermann Minkowski. With the benefit of hindsight, it could be argued

that the mathematical perfection inherent in equation (4) is evidence in itself of
the validity of the Lorentz transformation, and that it only ever remained for
experimental evidence to emerge that would point us to the physical contexts in
which this interesting mathematical relationship would apply. Now, it’s most
important to understand, that although this equation has the superficial
appearance of a four-dimensional application of Pythagoras’s theorem, it is in
fact merely a case of successive applications of the standard 3-D Pythagoras’s
theorem. There can be no equivalent of Pythagoras’s theorem in 4-D space, as is
explained in “Pythagoras’s Theorem in Seven Dimensions”, [18].
Hermann Minkowski did however propose the concept of 4-D space-time,
as opposed to simply 4-D space. In 1905, Poincaré invented the mathematical
tool known as four-vector algebra, distinct from quaternion algebra, and this
tool was perfect for the analysis of equation (4). Minkowski developed four-
vector algebra further, but before one gets carried away by sensational
terminologies like 4-D space-time, we first need to find out what the x, y, z, and
t, variables, as well as c, mean in the physical contexts in which we can actually
apply equation (4).
We do know in the field of optics that equation (4) suggests a transverse
Doppler effect, but it can also be shown to be involved in the classical analysis
of the return-path longitudinal Doppler effect, [19]. The Lorentz transformation,
however, is something that is normally applied to matter and fields in motion,
and so if the Doppler effect can be extended into matter and fields in motion,
then the commonality needs to be physically explained. For example, we would
need to identify how the concept of frequency becomes relevant in the case of
matter in motion. In the case of atomic clocks, we might therefore be looking at
the angular frequency of the caesium atoms, and as such we will consider the
atoms and molecules of ponderable matter to constitute complex vortices in the
all-pervading electric fluid aether. Meanwhile, in the case of magnetic fields in
motion, we would be looking at the angular frequency of the tiny rotating

4
electron-positron vortices from which a magnetic field is constructed out of the
luminiferous medium.
As such, when matter is in translational motion, the to-and-fro, but net
forward motion of the aether circulation within the constituent vortices, would
bear at least some similarity in principle to the situation with respect to a wave
reflected from a moving target. We might expect an actual contraction in length
along the direction of motion, corresponding to the Doppler shift in wavelength
in the case of a wave being reflected from a target that is moving towards the
source, and in all cases, this would be accompanied by an increase in density.
But there still remains the issue of how to connect such length contraction and
mass increase to the speed of light, unless of course we are dealing with
circumferential speeds in the atoms or molecules that are in that order of
magnitude. It was roughly along these lines that Sir Joseph Larmor was
working, [20]. And so, it is here proposed that a Lorentz transformation only
makes physical sense if we treat the space variables as relating to the
circumferential length of an atom, molecule, or vortex, while treating the time
variable as being the associated angular period.
As mentioned above, Maxwell proposed the presence of an all-pervading
sea of tiny aether vortices that makes up the luminiferous medium, and this was
such as to explain Ampère’s circuital law by virtue of the mutually aligned
rotation axes of these vortices forming vortex rings around a source electric
current. These vortex rings constitute solenoidal magnetic lines of force in the
form of a centrifugal force field, and the associated vortices definitely do have a
circulation speed in the order of the speed of light, [21]. If we consider the
special case of one of these tiny molecular vortices in translational motion
relative to the wider sea of such tiny vortices, and then apply the Lorentz
transformation, with c referring to the speed of the circumferential flow of the
electric fluid in the vortices, this tends to predict a precession. See “The
Lorentz Aether Theory”, [22].
It is therefore proposed that when a force acts on a charged object so as to
accelerate it translationally relative to the luminiferous medium, the surrounding
vortices precess to form a disc-like solenoidal alignment of their mutual rotation
axes. This constitutes a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of motion.
Meanwhile, the asymptotic factor, known as the Lorentz factor, predicts that the
input energy is increasingly absorbed into this emerging magnetic field, and no
doubt adding to the mass of the source charge itself, as opposed to being used to
increase its speed. As the source charge approaches the speed c, the radially
symmetric electrostatic field is being subjected to a flattening effect along the
direction of motion, as it morphs into a disc-like magnetic field.
As to the extent that length contraction can be applied to ponderable matter
in motion, Lorentz proposed that this is what explains the famous Michelson-
Morley experiment of 1887. He suggested that contraction of the longitudinal
arm of a Michelson interferometer, undergoing motion through the luminiferous

5
medium, would result in a reduction of the optical path length in the direction of
motion, hence explaining the null result. But that would only be so if we could
definitely extend a speed of light equivalent to the circumferential momentum
of the constituent atoms or molecules of the material from which the arms of the
Michelson interferometer are made. The Michelson-Morley null result might
perhaps be more credibly explained by the entrainment of the luminiferous
medium in the vicinity of the Earth, by the Earth’s magnetic field, or failing
that, by the Earth’s gravitational field, [23].
Recent evidence in connection with the GPS system, does however indicate
that the motion of atomic clocks through the luminiferous medium affects the
angular frequency of the constituent caesium atoms in line with that predicted
by a Lorentz transformation, [24]. Perhaps, though, these clocks aren’t massive
enough for their gravitational fields to entrain a pocket of the luminiferous
medium as they orbit the Earth.
By failing to grasp the importance of Maxwell’s sea of molecular vortices,
as regards providing the basis for a frequency when applying the Lorentz
transformation to electromagnetic fields in motion, Lorentz, and later Einstein
too, [25], wrongly interpreted the time term. Instead of treating it as a reciprocal
angular frequency term in connection with the all-pervading aether vortices,
Lorentz talked about a vaguely defined, “local time”, while Einstein stupidly
treated it as referring to the actual passage of time itself, [26], and likewise, they
both treated the space terms as being on the terrestrial scale rather than using the
circumference of the vortices as a yardstick. Contrary, however, to what is
inferred from the Lorentz transformation, there is no question of any such thing
as time dilation on the astronomical scale. When the Earth completes an orbit
around the Sun, relative to the background stars, one year will have passed by
for everybody in the universe.
Einstein made matters even worse by claiming that the luminiferous
medium is not needed at all, despite its central role in establishing a physical
rationale for the Lorentz transformation. In doing so, he introduced a symmetry
paradox, known as the clock paradox, which reduced the Lorentz
transformation to absurdity. In fact, even when treated within its correct
physical context, it would be true to say that the Lorentz transformation is not a
coordinate frame transformation at all, but rather it amounts to the analysis of
the precession of a dipolar vortex that is being subjected to linear acceleration
through the luminiferous medium.

1915. Einstein’s general theory of relativity is essentially just the Lorentz

transformation with the escape velocity of the prevailing gravitational field
substituted into the v term, all complete with a four-vector analysis.
While electromagnetism is understood in the context of a sea of tiny aether
vortices, gravity on the other hand is tied up with a much larger radial flow of
the same aether. A gravitational field amounts to a prevailing aether flow

6
superimposed upon a sea of tiny local whirlpools; therefore, Einstein’s general
theory of relativity is simply the Lorentz transformation applied to the
gravitational inflow.
The orbital speed of a GPS satellite is measured relative to the entrained
region of the luminiferous medium which forms the Earth-centred inertial frame
of reference, while the shear interaction between the luminiferous medium and
the caesium atoms in the onboard atomic clocks, causes these atoms to precess,
resulting in a change of both their angular frequency and their energy state.
Meanwhile, like pivoted gyroscopes in a gravitational field, these caesium
atoms are also caused to precess about the gravitational lines of force, to a
degree based on the speed that the pure aether itself flows downwards through
the static sea of tiny aether vortices, and into the Earth, [24]. Both motion and
gravitational field strength therefore affect the rate at which the GPS caesium
clocks tick.
The large-scale gravitational aether inflow also causes the all-pervading
tiny aether vortices to precess about the field lines, hence accounting for the
centrifugal pressure in planetary orbits that emanates at right-angles from the
field lines. This centrifugal pressure, at the interface between two gravitational
fields increases due to the shear interaction that is caused by the mutual
transverse motion between two gravitational fields, [27].

Conclusion. In his 1861 paper, “On Physical Lines of Force”, [4], Maxwell
proposed the existence of an all-pervading dielectric sea of molecular vortices.
When Maxwell incorporated the speed of light into the elasticity of this
luminiferous medium, using the results of the 1855 Weber-Kohlrausch
experiment, [1], he should have concluded that light is not just simply a wave in
this medium, but that it is a wave which must be intertwined with a flow of
electric current. Maxwell should have arrived at this conclusion because the
Weber-Kohlrausch experiment was not an optical experiment. It was a purely
electric experiment which measured the speed of electric current. Maxwell,
unfortunately, did not draw this conclusion. And although he did connect the
displacement mechanism in electromagnetic waves with the electromagnetic
momentum, A, while deriving the first electromagnetic wave equation in his
1865 paper, [7], there was never any direct identification of his famous
displacement current with the vector A itself in the dynamic state, when the
electric fluid is swirling from vortex to vortex. Maxwell missed out on that too.
With the benefit of hindsight, Maxwell’s dielectric molecular vortices could
now safely be said to have referred to rotating electron-positron dipoles,
mutually aligned with their immediate neighbours, so that their rotation axes
trace out the prevailing magnetic field, with each individual magnetic line of
force constituting a double helix vortex ring of electron sinks and positron
sources, [28], [29]. The tiny vortices would align around matter in motion, like
smoke rings, so as to form a centrifugal force field, similar in principle to a

7
magnetic field, [27]. While being capable of flowing through the interstitial
spaces between the atoms and molecules of ponderable matter, more easily than
water flowing through the holes in a basket, a magnetic field, or a strong enough
gravitational field, can entrain an extended region of the luminiferous medium
along with the translational motion of the field’s source object. No such
entrainment can however be expected where rotational motion is concerned. As
regards the question of the luminiferous medium presenting friction to inertial
motion, this would simply manifest itself in the form of the inertial forces, along
with the speed of light being a terminal speed predicted by the Lorentz
transformation.
Interestingly, although there is no record of Maxwell’s sea of vortices ever
having been overtly returned to the curriculum in the twentieth century, there is
the interesting fact, that by the time of publication of the 1937 Encyclopaedia
Britannica, the broad picture of the electromagnetic wave propagation
mechanism had been quite well identified.
This quote, from the article “Ether (in physics)”, is in relation to the speed
of light, [30],

“The most probable surmise or guess at present is that the ether is a perfectly
incompressible continuous fluid, in a state of fine-grained vortex motion,
circulating with that same enormous speed. For it has been partly, though as
yet incompletely, shown that such a vortex fluid would transmit waves of the
same general nature as light waves— i.e., periodic disturbances across the
line of propagation—and would transmit them at a rate of the same order of
magnitude as the vortex or circulation speed”

Despite what it says though, regarding incompressibility, the sea of aether

vortices is nevertheless visibly compressed when two magnetic fields are
pushed together, and the corresponding stretchability is observed when two
attracting magnets are pulled apart, so the quote is wrong in that particular
respect, [31]. The associated compression and rarefaction waves will be dry
longitudinal waves, not involving any accompanying net flow of the electric
fluid aether, and they will involve restoring forces which are the first and third
terms, μov×H and −∇ψ, on the right-hand-side of equation (1) above.
Electromagnetic waves on the other hand are associated with time-varying
electromagnetic induction, as per the middle term, ∂A/∂t, on the right-hand-side
of equation (1) above. The fact that the divergence of A is zero while its
vorticity is μoH, paints a picture of wet vortex waves, intertwined with an
electric current of pure aether fluid, swirling in and out of the sinks (electrons)
and sources (positrons) that make up the dielectric sea of molecular aethereal
vortices that pervades all of space. These wireless waves, which are emitted
perpendicularly from a tangential electric current source, will in effect, amount
to the propagation of fine-grained precession through a dense sea of tiny fluid

8
gyroscopes, with the electric current maintaining a straight path on the large
scale, but while being constantly being deflected by the gyroscopic force into
the axial direction with respect to the precessing gyroscopes/vortices
themselves. Hence the electric fluid momentum, A, propagates in a wave-like
manner through the luminiferous medium, swirling from positron source to
electron sink, and when it strikes the conducting wire of a receiving antenna at
right-angles, the gyroscopic force from the precessing vortices deflects the
electric current at right-angles along the conducting wire, [32].
Electric current in general, at the deepest level, is electric fluid aether,
flowing at a speed in the same order as the speed of light, light itself being a
particular kind of electric current. Charged particles are involved too, and in a
conductor, they move with the current, but they are not the main action, neither
do they move at speeds that are anywhere near the speed of the electric fluid
itself. In a conductor, positively charged particles get accelerated along with an
accelerating flow of electric fluid, while negative particles, being sinks, eat their
way in the opposite direction. Wireless electromagnetic radiation is a more
complex kind of electric current whereby the electric fluid flows through the
dielectric luminiferous medium, in and out of the constituent electron sinks and
positron sources. The luminiferous medium is an all-pervading elastic solid
comprised of electrons and positrons, bonded together into rotating dipoles on
the picoscopic scale. These dipoles exhibit the characteristics of tiny electric
circuits, dipolar vortices, fluid gyroscopes, and two-pin power points.
In the case of a DC current source, the emitted electromagnetic radiation
forms a near magnetic field, which is in effect a centrifugal force field which
hems in any further radiation emission since the vortices in this near magnetic
field will be pushing inwards against the current source with centrifugal force in
their equatorial planes. This near field unwinds when the power is disconnected,
resulting in the electric fluid pouring back into the wire again, still in the
original direction.

Man’s Greatest Achievement

“Long ago he (mankind) recognized that all perceptible matter comes from a primary
substance, of a tenuity beyond conception and filling all space - the Akasha or luminiferous
ether - which is acted upon by the life-giving Prana or creative force, calling into existence,
in never ending cycles, all things and phenomena. The primary substance, thrown into
infinitesimal whirls of prodigious velocity, becomes gross matter; the force subsiding, the
motion ceases and matter disappears, reverting to the primary substance”.
Nikola Tesla, 1907, published on 6th July 1930 in the New York American, on 13th July
1930 in the Milwaukee Sentinel, and again on 20th July 1930 in the San Antonio Sunday
Light.

9
 References

[1] Weber, W. E. and Kohlrausch, R.H.A., “Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen insbesondere

Zurueckfuehrung der Stroemintensitaetsmessungen auf mechanisches Maass”, Treatises of the
Royal Saxon Scientific Society, vol. V, Leipzig, S. Hirzel, (1856)
For an English translation by Professor A.K.T. Assis, see chapters 6 and 7 in this link, and especially
page 179 regarding mentions about the speed of light.
https://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/Weber-in-English-Vol-3.pdf
Prof. A.K.T Assis has also written an excellent summary of this work in an article entitled “On the
First Electromagnetic Measurement of the Velocity of Light by Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch”,
https://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf
Weber and Kohlrausch further wrote a short precis of their paper, and this can be found in
Poggendorf’s Annalen, vol. XCIX, pp. 10-25. An English translation of this precis is presented in the
appendix at the end of Prof. Assis’s paper.
See also, Tombe, F.D., “The Commonality between Light and Electric Current”, (2022)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364337354_The_Commonality_between_Light_and_Electri
c_Current

[2] Kirchhoff, G.R., “On the Motion of Electricity in Wires”, Philosophical Magazine, vol. XIII,
Fourth Series, pp. 393-412, (1857)
English translation by Professor A.K.T. Assis, vol. 3, chapter 8. See page 214 regarding the
connection between Weber’s constant and the speed of light.
https://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/Weber-in-English-Vol-3.pdf
A summary by Professor A.K.T. Assis can be found on pp. 280-282 in this link,
https://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf

[3] Fechner, G.T., “On the Connection of Faraday’s Induction Phenomena with Ampère’s
Electrodynamic Phenomena”, (1845)
https://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/Fechner.pdf

[4] Clerk-Maxwell, J., “On Physical Lines of Force”, Philosophical Magazine, vol. XXI, Fourth
Series, London, (1861)
http://vacuum-physics.com/Maxwell/maxwell_oplf.pdf

[5] Whittaker, E.T., “A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity”, chapter 4, pp. 100-102,
(1910)
“All space, according to the younger Bernoulli, is permeated by a fluid aether, containing an
immense number of excessively small whirlpools. The elasticity which the aether appears to possess,
and in virtue of which it is able to transmit vibrations, is really due to the presence of these
whirlpools; for, owing to centrifugal force, each whirlpool is continually striving to dilate, and so
presses against the neighbouring whirlpools.”

[6] Tombe, F.D., “The Coriolis Force in Maxwell’s Equations”, (2010)

Galilean Electrodynamics, vol. 25, number 2, p.22, (March/April 2014)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330464908_The_Coriolis_Force_in_Maxwell's_Equations_
The_Compound_Centrifugal_Force

[7] Maxwell, J.C., “A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field”, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc.
London 155, pp. 459-512, (1865)
Abstract: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 13, pp. 531-536, (1864)
The derivation of the electromagnetic wave equation in the magnetic field begins on page 497. Note
how the electrostatic component of the displacement current is eliminated after equation (68), hence
leaving the elastic displacement mechanism in the wave as an effect that is connected exclusively with
time-varying electromagnetic induction. Maxwell originally conceived the idea of displacement

10
current in connection with dielectric polarization, and hence with electrostatics, but in this derivation,
it is no longer applicable to polarization, but instead applies to magnetization. This swap has never
been highlighted, and as such, Maxwell’s displacement current transferred into the early twentieth
century literation as a concept related to capacitors and transmission lines, but in order to derive the
electromagnetic wave equations, we need to use the inductive form that is compatible with Faraday’s
law.
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rstl.1865.0008

[8] Lorenz, L., “On the Identity of the Vibrations of Light with Electrical Currents”,
Annalen der Physik, vol. 131, p. 243. English translation in Philosophical Magazine,
vol. XXXIV, pp. 287-301, (1867)
https://arxiv.org/abs/1803.06371

[9] Tombe, F.D., “Maxwell’s Displacement Current in the Two Gauges”, (2021)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355361120_Maxwell's_Displacement_Current_in_the_Two
_Gauges

[10] Poynting, J.H., “On the Transfer of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field”, Philos. Trans. Roy.
Soc. London 175, pp. 343-361, (1884)
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_the_Transfer_of_Energy_in_the_Electromagnetic_Field

[11] Heaviside, O., “The Induction of Currents in Cores”, The Electrician, vol. 13, pp. 133-4, 21st
June 1884

[12] Tombe, F.D., “The Significance of the Poynting Vector”, (2020)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338898407_The_Significance_of_the_Poynting_Vector

[13] Heaviside, O., “On the electromagnetic effects due to the motion of electrification through a
dielectric”, The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol.
XXVII, Fifth Series, Issue 167, (1889)
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14786448908628362

[14] Fitzgerald, G.F., “The Ether and the Earth’s Atmosphere” Science, vol. XIII p. 390, (1889)
https://archive.org/details/science131889mich/page/390/mode/2up
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Ether_and_the_Earth%27s_Atmosphere

[15] Larmor, J., “Dynamical Theory of the Electric and Luminiferous Medium”, Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, Part III, p.229, (1897)
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rsta.1897.0020
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dynamical_Theory_of_the_Electric_and_Luminiferous_Medium_III

[16] Lorentz, H.A., “La théorie électromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps
mouvants”, E.J. Brill, Leiden, (1892)

[17] Poincaré, Henri, “Sur la dynamique de l'électron”, Comptes-rendus des séances de l'Académie
des sciences 140, pp. 1504-1508, 5 June 1905

[18] Tombe, F.D., “Pythagoras’s Theorem in Seven Dimensions”, (2018)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322559041_Pythagoras's_Theorem_in_Seven_Dimensions

[19] Gupta, P.D., “Exact derivation of the Doppler shift formula for a radar echo without using
transformation equations”, Am. J. Phys., vol. 45, No. 7, pp. 674-675, (July 1977)

[20] Larmor, J. “Aether and Matter”, p. 174, (1900)

https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Aether_and_Matter

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[21] Tombe, F.D., “Radiation Pressure and E = mc2”, (2018)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325859308_Radiation_Pressure_and_E_mc

[22] Tombe, F.D., “The Lorentz Aether Theory”, (2020)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339696770_The_Lorentz_Aether_Theory

[23] Stokes, George Gabriel, “On the Aberration of Light”, Philosophical Magazine 27, pp. 9–15,
(1845)

[24] Tombe, F.D., “Atomic Clocks and Relativity”, (2023)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372165749_Atomic_Clocks_and_Relativity

[25] Einstein, Albert, “Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper”, Annalen der Physik 322 (10) pp. 891-
921, Bern, (1905)
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/1905_17_891-921.pdf
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:On_the_Electrodynamics_of_Moving_Bodies

[26] Tombe, F.D., “Einstein’s Big Mistake”, (2020)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344461744_Einstein's_Big_Mistake

[27] Tombe, F.D., “Aether Friction in the Planetary Orbits”, (2021)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350873624_Aether_Friction_in_the_Planetary_Orbits

[28] Tombe, F.D., “The Double Helix Theory of the Magnetic Field”, (2006)
Galilean Electrodynamics, vol. 24, number 2, p.34, (March/April 2013)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295010637_The_Double_Helix_Theory_of_the_Magnetic_
Field

[29] Tombe, F.D., “The Double Helix and the Electron-Positron Aether”, (2017)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319914395_The_Double_Helix_and_the_Electron-
Positron_Aether

[30] Lodge, Sir Oliver, “Ether (in physics)”, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Fourteenth Edition, vol. 8,
pp. 751-755, (1937)
See pp. 6-7 in the pdf file in the link below, beginning at the paragraph that starts with, Possible
Structure. −, and note that while the quote suggests that the ether is incompressible, this article
suggests otherwise.
http://gsjournal.net/Science-
Journals/Historical%20PapersMechanics%20/%20Electrodynamics/Download/4105

[31] Tombe, F.D., “Longitudinal Magnetic Waves”, (2023)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368460888_Longitudinal_Magnetic_Waves

[32] Tombe, F.D., “Wireless Radiation Beyond the Near Magnetic Field”, (2019)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335169091_Wireless_Radiation_Beyond_the_Near_Magnet
ic_Field

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