Principles of Construction Management

Prof. Sudhir Misra

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Lecture – 14
Introduction to planning and scheduling

Namaskar! Welcome once again to this lecture in the series on Principles of Construction
Management and today we will talk about planning and scheduling in construction
activities.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:30)

Now planning is the process of drawing up a scheme of action or execution in advance,

foreseeing the likely future developments. In construction industry, or in planning for a
construction project, it could involve choice of technology; it could involve defining the
work tasks, that is, we break up the project into individual jobs or works. So, as part of
the planning exercise, we try to break the project down into different jobs or different
tasks. Then there is this aspect of estimation of required resources. We break a job down
to different activities, different tasks, and then try to find out for each task or job, what
are the resources required in terms of manpower, equipment, consumables, and so on.
The estimation of duration is a very, very critical part of our planning exercise. We must
know whether a project is going to be completed in ten months or twenty months or two
months.
So, in order to be able to do that effectively or accurately, we have to have an idea of the
resources that are required and whether or not by just increasing the number of resources
or just increasing the resources that we allocate to a particular activity, can we keep
reducing time? It may not be possible sometimes to reduce the time beyond a certain
point. Identification of interaction among different tasks - this is also a very critical part
of our understanding when we try to understand or when we try to analyze whether we
can take up one task without completing some others, which tasks in a particular project
can be independently taken up, if one process requires another process to be completed.
For example, in the kind of boundary wall example that we talked about, we cannot
fabricate the angle unless the angle has been procured; we cannot fabricate the
reinforcing bars for the footing or the columns unless they have been procured, but once
they have been procured, we can go ahead and fabricate the reinforcement cage for the
footings or for the columns.

So, basically, identification of interaction, determining the inter-dependencies is a very,

very important part of project planning. Now, every stakeholder in a project carries out
their own planning and it is important to ensure coordination. So, we know that, we have
talked about it at the outset of our discussion in this course, a project has different
stakeholders - there is the client, there is a contractor, there is the designer, there is
possibly a person who is financing the project. So, all these people, they look at the
project from different points of view and carry out and have their own plans.

So, now, their plans can be looked upon as focusing on the quality sometimes,
sometimes safety, sometimes manpower, sometimes equipment, sometimes time itself,
and so on.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:45)

So, now looking at the emphasis in construction planning, it could be either schedule-
oriented or cost-oriented. In the schedule-oriented side, we have time and resource
orientation, and, in the cost-oriented construction planning, we are most of the time
talking about direct and indirect costs associated.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:07)

Now, we talked about the different types of plans. It could be the time plan.

So, basically what we are talking about here is this schedule. How much time is it going
to take to complete an activity? If we are slipping, then what should be done to cover the
time, and so on. Then there is the cost plan. How much is the project going to cost? What
is the kind of cash flow that we need? If we want to accelerate the project, try to
complete the project earlier, what is the kind of cost that we need to incur, or additional
cost that we need to incur, and so on. Then there is the quality plan. A project has
different activities. If you consider a tunneling project, there is a boring of the tunnel that
has to be done, there is a stabilization of the soil that has to be done. Independently, we
could be making segments which have to be then brought and assembled at site.

So, now each of these activities has to have a quality plan. We should know what are the
parameters to control as far as quality is concerned for each of these activities, and have
a plan so that the people who are executing those activities are aware of what are the
quality control measures to be adopted. Similarly, there has to be a safety plan. We must
make sure that there is no accident at site. There is a manpower plan. Depending on the
time of the project, different kinds of people, that is, people with different skills are
required and we must know what is the kind of people that are required at different
points in time. That will enable us to either recruit them into the company or transfer
them to that site from other sites and so on.

Then there is a materials plan, equipment plan, and a finance plan. So, there are different
ways of looking at the planning exercise.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:03)

So, continuing with our discussion, as far as the project plans are concerned, time plans
basically refer to - completing the work ahead or later than scheduled dates may make
remarkable difference in the project completion. We have an estimate of completing the
project, but there may be a bonus associated with completing the project earlier, or there
may be a penalty associated with completing the project later. So, these are things which
we have to keep at the back of our mind when we are carrying out a planning exercise in
terms of time. Of course, as I said, it will affect the overall cost of the project.

As far as the cost plan of the project is concerned, since they take a long time to
complete, it is obvious that all the funds are not required at one point in time. So, we
have to keep in mind the concept of cash flow that we have talked about and contractors
often fund their projects from working capital - a part of which is raised from investors,
bank loans, whereas, the rest comes from mobilization advance and running account
bills. So, all these things have to be carefully thought about and foreseen. So, foresight is
a very, very important part of a construction manager’s job and that is why some of these
things are difficult to appreciate unless there is a real example, unless there is real
experience that you have. So, the idea as far as this course is concerned, is to basically
introduce you or expose you to some of these ideas, so that you are better prepared for
professional experience.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:35)

Now, coming to the quality plan and the safety plan. The focus on the quality plan is to
ensure that the resource procurement, construction procedures and tolerances are within
the set guidelines provided by standards of relevant agencies. So, this relevant agency is
very important because depending on the agency involved, there would be different
tolerances. That happens because the criticality of each of those projects or each of these
activities is different depending on concepts like consequence of failure, importance of
the structure, and so on. The emphasis in the safety plan is to ensure no accidents. We
must ensure that there are no accidents at site which could lead to loss of life and
property.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:18)

If we talk about the manpower plan, it mainly focuses on estimating the workforce and
deployment of manpower in appropriate functional teams with an emphasis on
optimizing cost and time.

As far as the materials plan is concerned, the primary emphasis is to identify, estimate
and procure various materials of required specifications by minimizing their idleness in
inventory. We must remember that the efforts should really be to procure the material in
time for its deployment or use at site. There is no point in buying the material way in
advance before it is required or used, because that is dead inventory, that is dead cash.
We should invest the money in inventory only when it is really required. So, an
inventory plan requires us to know exactly when a particular component or a particular
material will be required as far as construction is concerned. We should also take into
account the time that it takes to procure the material because some of the material or
components may not be readily available just off the shelf.

So, there would be a certain time for the manufacturer of those materials to put that thing
together, there may be a time involved as far as transportation is concerned. So, your
inventory team has to have a plan of how and where these different materials will be
procured from, how they will be transported to site in a manner that their non-availability
does not become a reason for delay in the project. As far as the equipment plan is
concerned, this plan focuses on procurement of suitable and productive equipment by
purchasing, renting or leasing in a manner that minimizes the period of idleness of
operating them at site.

So, we should know when we need cranes, what sized cranes. We should know what size
of welding equipment, we should know what size of concreting equipment, we should
know what kind and how many JCBs or excavators, and so on and so forth. Now, before
we proceed further with more analysis of planning and scheduling, I would like to also
introduce to you the idea of a work breakdown structure (WBS).

(Refer Slide Time: 10:32)

Now, this WBS refers to a hierarchical tree structure obtained through decomposition of
the project into phases and tasks. We basically try to break down, as the name suggests,
the project into activities and sub-activities, try to divide it into different classes, and
then try to look at the resources required for each activity. We must remember that the
more thorough the WBS, better is the planning, and smoother is the project execution. If
we are able to foresee exactly how the project is going to be executed, we will be in a
much better position to execute the project smoothly. If we are not able to foresee certain
things, then the project will be stop-and-go, something will happen which is unforeseen,
the project will stop. We will make some stop gap arrangements, make the project get
started again, and so on.

Whereas, if we have seen all the possibilities, we know exactly the flowchart which will
be followed - if this happens, then what should be done; if this happens, then what
should be done - then the execution is much more smooth and that can be achieved if we
have a clear breakdown structure with all the kinds of possibilities worked out in
advance. Now, this is what I mentioned - the project is broken down into manageable
chunks, we are working from a ‘whole to parts’ kind of a philosophy, and this, basically,
is a framework for planning, scheduling, estimating, budgeting, monitoring and
controlling the project.

So, all these important functions relating to a project can be carried out if we have a
well-planned and a well done work breakdown structure for that project.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:15)

Now, let us try to see what a work breakdown structure really means through an
illustrative example where we are asked to list the activities and create the WBS for a
road construction project, and also discuss the inter-dependencies of the activities. What
we are talking about is a project where a road construction has to be carried out, and
what we will try to do is to break down this project into activities. Of course, we will
stop way short of what a real final breakdown structure is, but I think you will have
some idea about it.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:48)

As far as a set of activities is concerned, let us say there are 8 of these activities - tree
cutting, general excavation, grading general areas for leveling, excavation for utility
trenches which is services, compacting the sub grade, installing sewer lines which is
services again, installing electric poles which is again services, and finally, laying the
pavement. So, we have broken down a project of pavement construction into these 8
activities. I must point out at this stage that this is not necessarily the only way in which
this activity breakup can be done. It depends on the engineer actually, as to how he
defines the different activities.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:35)

Now, another way of drawing up a work breakdown structure for this project would be
as shown here. So, we divide the road construction into general structures and
carriageway. As far as general activities are concerned, we can talk in terms of
mobilization, supervising, finance and accounts. As far as structures are concerned, we
break it up into culverts and bridges, where we can say that well, culverts are further
broken down into excavation, concreting, and reinforcement work; and a similar such
structure can be drawn up for bridges, and when it comes to the carriageway, again there
is earthwork, mixing and paving, markings, median plantation, etcetera.

So, this shows different ways of how a work breakdown structure can be drawn up for a
given project and this facilitates planning. So, when we talk of culverts, we can draw up
a plan. When we talk of markings and median plantation, we can draw up a plan, and so
on and so forth. So, going back to the previously defined 8 activities, now let us try to
see what is the precedence relationship - what is the kind of relationship that governs one
activity with respect to the other?

(Refer Slide Time: 14:50)

Now, as far as tree cutting is concerned, it does not require any preceding activity except,
of course, what it assumes is that something what is called land acquisition has already
been completed.

So, unless of course, the land acquisition has been completed, there is no question of
cutting trees. In fact, if you read literature as far as road construction is concerned, you
will realize that actually land acquisition is often a bottleneck as far as construction work
in highways is concerned. What often happens is, while constructing a road from this
point to this point, you may have acquired land for this package, you may have acquired
land for this package, you may have acquired land for this package, but there will be a
package somewhere here, and a package somewhere here, where land acquisition is an
issue.

So, that does not mean that you do not start the construction work. Very often we start
the construction work, hoping that by the time construction reaches this point here, and
it reaches from here to this point, these pockets of unacquired land will also be acquired.
Coming back to our example, if the land acquisition is cleared, we can go ahead with tree
cutting without any preceding activity, but as far as excavation is concerned, it is not
possible, we cannot start excavation. You cannot start excavation, i.e. Activity B, unless
you have completed activity A, which is tree cutting. As far as activities C, D, and E are
concerned, that is, general grading of the area, excavation for utility trenches, and
compacting the sub grade, they too can all be started only after a general excavation has
been completed.
Continuing further, activities F and G, which is, installing sewer lines, and installing
electric poles - they depend on C and D, that is, they depend on grading general area for
leveling and excavation for the utility trenches. Finally, the laying of pavement depends
on E and F, that is, compaction of the sub grade and installation of the sewer lines -
installation of the sewer lines because very often the sewer lines actually run below the
pavement. So, only once you install the sewer lines, can you complete the laying of the
pavement.

From this example, it is clear that there exists an interdependency among various works
involved in a project, and they can be actually represented in a logical sequence.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:18)

In this case, we represented it by means of a table where we listed the different activities
and had a column where we listed the required preceding activities that should have
been completed before those activities are taken up. In fact, one of our earlier discussions
also, when we talked about the boundary wall, we had given 19 activities as part of the
breakdown of that boundary wall construction, and had left it to you to think about and
complete a similar interdependency table. .

Having done this illustration on the work breakdown structure and the concept of inter-
dependency, let us closely look at the fundamentals of network planning because we
would like to represent the different activities by way of a network - that is so much
easier to represent, explain, and use when we are trying to monitor the project as the
construction work goes on.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:28)

So, before we start application of networks to our construction scenario, let us try to first
study a little bit about the network fundamentals. Let us define a few terms. Let us talk of
an activity. This is an item of work that involves consumption of resources and time - of
course, time can also be looked upon as a resource - and produces quantitative and
measurable results. The activities take place between events and they have a well-defined
start and well-defined end.

So, if there is an activity called digging the trench or concreting a roof, there is a very
well-defined start to that activity, and a well-defined completion of that activity. Coming
to ‘event’, it indicates the start or completion of one or more activities. An event does
not consume any time or resource. Then there are some dummy activities, which we will
see when we try to see the logical compulsions in drawing up networks and representing
the inter-dependencies in the form of a network. We will find that we need to have what
is called a dummy activity and these activities do not consume any resource or time, and
are used only to basically complete the logical inter-dependency among the different
activities.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:53)

And what is a network? It, basically, is a graphical representation of activities in terms of

nodes and arrows to show logical inter-dependency between activities. The network
helps us better understand the sequencing of activities, gives us various information
about the project, such as, the time required for completion of a project, the activities that
need to be monitored more closely than other activities, and the basis of plans for
material procurement, manpower deployment, cash flow, and so on. And of course, we
can also use this whole concept to determine the probabilities of completing the project
within a certain time.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:36)

Now, there are two types of networks - one is called the activity on arrow. Activity on
arrow means that there is an activity A and there is this arrow between nodes i and node
j. So, this activity A is actually represented as i-j, where node i represents the start of that
activity and node j represents the end of this activity, and A itself sits on the arrow
connecting nodes i and j. So, these arrows are directional. So, it is an i to j arrow and not
j to i. It is not interchangeable, it is an activity i-j, which means it starts at i and ends at j.
On the contrary, we can have an activity on node kind of a network, where A and B are
represented as nodes, and there is an arrow in between which shows the dependence, that
is, B depends on A, you cannot start B unless you complete A.

So, if this concept of A and B being related the way they are shown here in the activities
on node representation then what we will do here is to put B here and put a node k here,
which means that A is the activity i-j. When this activity is completed, B can start and B
is represented as j-k. So, the node j is the start of activity B and is also the end of activity
A. So, these two representations are the same except that in this case, the activities are on
the node, A has to precede B. In this case, the activities are on the arrow and i, j, k are the
nodes. So, the activities are, to repeat, i-j and j-k.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:29)

Now, continuing with this example, there is an activity, let us say digging a trench. i and
j basically represent the start of the digging of the trench and completion of digging of
the trench.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:42)

Now, going back to the previous example of 8 activities, let us try to see how we can
represent this information of 8 activities in terms of an activities on arrow and an
activities on node network.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:59)

So, if we look at this picture here, this is an activities on the node representation. We
start this project here - this is activity A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and the project ends, and
we can see that the information given in the previous picture - A can be started without
any preceding activity, not counting land acquisition because that is not part of the eight
activities that we have listed. B can be started only after A has been completed, C, D and
E can be started if B has been completed.

So, here it’s G, can be started only if activity C and D have been completed. Similarly, F
can also be started only after activity C has been completed and activity D has been
completed and H can be started if activity E has been completed and activity F has been
completed. So, this is how we have represented those 8 activities A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and
H in an activities on node network.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:09)

So, now let us try to do the same exercise in the activities on arrow network and I leave it
to you to make sure that the representation is correct. A is 1-2, B is 2-3, C is 3-4, and so
on and so forth.

So, I leave it to you to verify that A does not depend on anything; B depends on A; C, D
and E depend on B; F and G depend on C and D; and H depends on E and F. Now, here
you will find this activity here, this is precisely what is a dummy activity, basically to
show that G depends on both C and D. The reasons for that will become clearer in some
other examples that we do later on in this course.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:59)

Now, continuing with our discussion, let us try to see what are the basic rules to be
followed when drawing networks. Usually, there is an event included as a ‘start of the
project’ and an event called ‘end of the project’. Each activity should be represented with
only one arrow pointing towards the direction of the progress of the project. No two
activities can have the same i and j, for example, both A and B cannot be represented as
1-2. What has to be done is that we have to use a dummy activity and try to say that well,
activity A is 1-2 and activity B is 1-3. The node 1 represents the start of activity A and the
start of activity B, the node 2 represents only the end of activity A and the node 3
represents the end of activity B. Normally it should be ensured that j is greater than i.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:59)

Now, the following checks usually help in drawing a network - the first thing being
which activities must immediately precede a given activity. Then, which activities must
immediately succeed a given activity and finally, which activities can be done
concurrently. So, if we are able to keep track of these three issues, we will be able to
draw a network.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:28)

Now, let us try to carry out this exercise using an illustrative example where what is
given is a project with 4 activities A, B, C, and D, where A and B can be started
independently, C depends on both A and B, and D depends only on B. Let us try to
construct the network. We start the project with A which is 1-3, B which is 1-2, they can
be both started immediately, and node 1, which is also the start of the project, represents
the start of both A and B, node 3 represents the end of A whereas, node 2 represents the
end of B.

C is the activity 3-4 and it can start only after A and B have both been completed, but D
can be started as soon as B has been completed and is the activity 2-4. A and B are, of
course, activities 1-3 and 1-2, as is shown here. So, now, we have converted this tabular
information into a network diagram like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:31)

Let us try to do another example where information about the activities is given as
follows. Activities A through E - 5 activities, A and B start independently, C depends on
A and B, D depends only on A, and E depends only on B. Now, for this particular
situation, A is let us say 1-2 and B is 1-3. We have a C which is 4-5, created with the
help of two dummy activities 2-4 and 3-4. Nodes 2 and 3 represents the completion of
activities A and B and once both these activities have been completed, we are in a
position to a start activity C at node 4, and 4-5 is the activity C, with 5 showing the
completion of activity C. Activity D, which depends only on A, is represented as 2-5 and
similarly, activity 3-5 is the activity E.
Please remember that this may not be the only way of representing this information in
the table. There can be another network which shows this, but one of the points that we
must keep in mind when we are drawing networks is that the number of nodes should be
kept to minimum, the number of dummy activities that are used - that should be kept to a
minimum and so on, and that comes through experience. As we draw more networks, as
we become more adept at drawing the networks.

And with this, we come to a close for the discussion for today where we have basically
tried to introduce the concepts of networks and how to translate activities which are
given in a tabular form along with their logical preceding activities, or, trying to convert
that tabular representation into a network situation. These books will probably help you
understand the subject matter better and I look forward to seeing you once again.

Thank you.