APPENDIX E

©2006,Tellurex Corporation
1462 International Drive
Traverse City, Michigan 49684
231-947-0110 • www.tellurex.com

The Most Frequently Asked Questions 

About Thermoelectric Cooling

1. How does this technology work?

The basic concept behind thermoelectric (TE) technology is the Peltier effect—a phenomenon first discovered
in the early 19th century. The Peltier effect occurs whenever electrical current flows through two dissimilar
conductors; depending on the direction of current flow, the junction of the two conductors will either absorb
or release heat. Explaining the Peltier effect and its operation in thermoelectric devices, is a very challenging
proposition because it ultimately keys on some very complex physics at the sub-atomic level. Here we will
attempt to approach it from a conceptual perspective with the goal of giving readers an intuitive grasp of this
technology (i.e., without getting too bogged down in the minutia). In the world of thermoelectric technology,
semiconductors (usually Bismuth Telluride) are the material of choice for producing the Peltier effect—in part
because they can be more easily optimized for pumping heat, but also because designers can control the type of
charge carrier employed within the conductor (the importance of this will be explained later). Using this type
of material, a Peltier device (i.e., thermoelectric module) can be constructed—in its simplest form—around a
single semiconductor “pellet” which is soldered to electrically-conductive material on each end (usually plated
copper). In this “stripped-down” configuration (see right), the second dissimilar material required for the Peltier
effect, is actually the copper connection paths to the power supply. 
It is important to note that the heat will be
moved (or “pumped”) in the direction of Released Heat
Electron Flow
charge carrier movement throughout the circuit +
(actually, it is the charge carriers that transfer
the heat). In Figure 1 “N-type” semiconductor Electron N heat
flow
DC
Voltage
material is used to fabricate the pellet so Flow flo
Source
that electrons (with a negative charge) will
be the charge carrier employed to create the
bulk of the Peltier effect. With a DC voltage
-
Absorbed Heat
source connected as shown, electrons will be Electron Flow
repelled by the negative pole and attracted Figure 1
by the positive pole of the supply; this forces
electron flow in a clockwise direction (as shown in the drawing). With the electrons flowing through the N-
type material from bottom to top, heat is absorbed at the bottom junction and actively transferred to the top
junction—it is effectively pumped by the charge carriers through the semiconductor pellet.
In the thermoelectric industry, “P-type”
Hole Flow
semiconductor pellets are also employed. P- Absorbed Heat
type pellets are manufactured so that the +
charge carriers in the material are positive
(known in electronics as holes). These holes Hole P heat
eat
DC
Voltage
enhance the electrical conductivity of the Flow flow
w Source
P-type crystaline structure, allowing electrons
to flow more freely through the material when -
a voltage is applied. Positive charge carriers Released Heat
are repelled by the positive pole of the DC Hole Flow
supply and attracted to the negative pole; thus Figure 2
hole current flows in a direction opposite to
that of electron flow. Because it is the charge carriers inherent in the material which convey the heat through
the conductor, use of the P-type material results in heat being drawn toward the negative pole of the power
supply and away from the positive pole. This contrasting heat-pumping action of P and N-type materials is very
important in the design of practical TE devices (as will be explained in the next question). While Figure 2 —for

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 

simplicity’s sake—shows hole flow through the connections to the power supply, in reality, electrons are the
charge carriers through the copper pathways.

2. Why are two types of material (P and N) required?

Unfortunately, while you can make
a simple thermoelectric device with Released Released Released Released
a single semiconductor pellet, you Heat Heat Heat Heat
can’t pump an appreciable amount of +
heat through it. In order to give a TE
device greater heat-pumping capacity, Electron
Flow
N N N N
multiple pellets are used together. Of
course, the initial temptation would be to
simply connect them in parallel—both -
Absorbed Absorbed Absorbed Absorbed
electrically and thermally—as shown in Heat Heat Heat Heat
Figure 3. While this is possible, it does
not make for a very practical device. The Figure 3
“fly in the ointment” here, is that the
typical TE semiconductor pellet is rated for only a very small voltage—as little as tens of millivolts—while
it can draw a substantial amount of current. For example, a single pellet in an ordinary TE device might draw
five amps or more with only 60 mV applied; if wired in parallel in a typical 254-pellet configuration, the device
would draw over 1000 amps with the application of that 60 mV (assuming that the power supply could deliver
that sort of current).
The only realistic solution is to wire the
semi-conductors in series, and doing Released Released Released Released
Heat Heat Heat Heat
so in a way that keeps them thermally
in parallel (i.e., pumping together in
+
the same direction). Here, we might
be tempted to simply zig zag the
Pellet
Electron N N N N
electrical connections from pellet to Flow
pellet (see Figure 4) to achieve a series
circuit. This is theoretically workable,
-
Absorbed Absorbed Absorbed Absorbed
however, the interconnections between Heat Heat Heat Heat
pellets introduce thermal shorting
that significantly compromises the Figure 4
performance of the device. Fortunately,
there is another option which gives us the desired electrical and thermal configuration while better optimizing
the thermoelectric effect.
By arranging N and P-type pellets in a “couple” (see Figure
Released Released
5) and forming a junction between them with a plated copper Heat Heat
tab, it is possible to configure a series circuit which can keep
all of the heat moving in the same direction. As shown in the
illustration, with the free (bottom) end of the P-type pellet
connected to the positive voltage potential and the free (bottom)
Electron
Flow N P Flow Hole

end of the N-type pellet similarly connected to the negative

side of the voltage, an interesting phenomenon takes place. The -
positive charge carriers (i.e, holes) in the P material are repelled
+
Absorbed Absorbed
by the positive voltage potential and attracted by the negative Heat Heat
pole; the negative charge carriers (electrons) in the N material
Figure 5
are likewise repelled by the negative potential and attracted by
the positive pole of the voltage supply. In the copper tabs and wiring, electrons are the charge carriers; when
these electrons reach the P material, they simply flow through the holes within the crystalline structure of the
P-type pellet (remember, it is the charge carriers inherent in the material structure which dictate the direction
of heat flow). Thus the electrons flow continuously from the negative pole of the voltage supply, through the
N pellet, through the copper tab junction, through the P pellet, and back to the positive pole of the supply—yet

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 

because we are using the two different types of semiconductor material, the charge carriers and heat are all
flowing in the same direction through the pellets (bottom to top in the drawing). Using these special properties of
the TE “couple”, it is possible to team many pellets together in rectangular arrays to create practical thermoelectric
modules. (see Figure 5) These devices can not only pump appreciable amounts of heat, but with their series electrical
connection, are suitable for commonly-available DC power supplies. Thus the most common TE devices now in
use—connecting 254 alternating P and N-type pellets—can run from a 12 to 16 VDC supply and draw only 4 to 5
amps (rather than 1000 amps at 60 mV).
Of course, in fabricating devices with multi-pellet arrays, you must have a means to mechanically hold
everything together. A solution is to mount the conductive tabs to thin ceramic substrates (see Figure 7); the
outer faces of the ceramics are then used as the thermal interface between the Peltier device and the “outside
world”. Note that ceramic materials have become the industry standard for this purpose because they represent
the best compromise between mechanical strength, electrical resistivity, and thermal conductivity.

Released Released Released Released Released Released

Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat

N P N P N P
Electron Hole
Flow Flow

- +
Absorbed Absorbed Absorbed Absorbed Absorbed Absorbed
Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat

Figure 6

3. Do these P and N couples function like diodes?

No. It is easy to see why many people
expect couples to work like diodes, Ceramic Substrate
Conductor Tabs
given the pairing of P and N materials,
but there is a crucial difference. In the P-Type Positive (+)
manufacturing of diodes, a depletion Semiconductor
region is created between the P and Pellets
N layers. When the diode is forward- N-Type
biased, charge carriers are drawn into Semiconductor Negative (-)
the depletion region and the diode Pellets

becomes conductive; when reverse- Figure 7

biased, charge carriers are drawn away
from the depletion region and the diode acts like an open circuit. Without a depletion region, a TE couple cannot
act like a diode; the couple will conduct in both electrical polarities and there is no fixed voltage drop across the
couple (unlike the nominal 0.6 to 0.7 VDC typically dropped across a forward-biased silicon diode).

4. How is a typical thermoelectric (TE) system configured?

Let’s look conceptually at a typical thermoelectric system designed to cool air in an enclosure (e.g., picnic box,
equipment enclosure, etc.); this is probably the most common type of TE application. Here the challenge is
to “gather” heat from the inside of the box, pump it to a heat exchanger on the outside of the box, and release
the collected heat into the ambient air. Usually, this is done by employing two heat sink/fan combinations
in conjunction with one or more Peltier devices. The smaller of the heat sinks is used on the inside of the
enclosure; cooled to a temperature below that of the air in the box, the sink picks up heat as the air circulates
between the fins. In the simplest case, the Peltier device is mounted between this “cold side” sink and a larger
sink on the “hot side” of the system. As direct current passes through the thermoelectric device, it actively
pumps heat from the cold side sink to the one on the hot side. The fan on the hot side then circulates ambient
air between the sink’s fins to absorb some of the collected heat. Note that the heat dissipated on the hot side
not only includes what is pumped from the box, but also the heat produced within the Peltier device itself (V
x I). Let’s look at this in terms of real numbers. Imagine that we have to pump 25 watts from a box to bring

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 

its temperature to 3°C (37.4°F) from a 20°C (68°F)
ambient. To accomplish this, we might well have to Fan Circulating
Air Inside Box
take the temperature of the cold side sink down to
Heatsink Inside
0° C (32°F). Using a Peltier device which draws 4.1 Enclosure
amps at 10.4 V, the hot side of the system will have
Thermoelectric
to dissipate the 25 watts from the thermal load plus Module
the 42.6 watts it takes to power the TE module (for a
Heatsink Outside
total of 67.6 watts). Employing a hot side sink and fan Enclosure
with an effective thermal resistance of 0.148 C°/W
(0.266F°/W), the temperature of the hot side sink will Fan Circulating
Ambient Air
rise approximately 10°C (18°F) above ambient. It
should be noted that, to achieve the 17° C drop Figure 8: Conceptual drawing of air-to-air Thermoelectric Cooling
(30.6°F) between the box temperature and ambient, System
we had to create a 30° C (54°F) temperature difference
across the Peltier device. (see Figure 8)

5. Can thermoelectric systems be used for heating, as well?

Yes. One of the benefits of TE technology is that you can switch the direction of heat pumping by
simply reversing the polarity of the applied voltage—you get heating with one polarity, cooling with the
other. Thermoelectric modules make very efficient heaters—in fact, because of the unique properties of Peltier
devices, any given TE system will have a greater capacity for heating a load than cooling it. 

6. Are TE systems used only for heating or cooling air?

No. Systems are often designed for pumping heat from both liquids and solids. In the case of solids, they are
usually mounted right on the TE device; liquids typically circulate through a heat exchanger (usually fabricated
from an aluminum or copper block) which is attached to the Peltier unit. Occasionally, circulating liquids are
also used on the hot side of TE cooling systems to effectively dissipate all of the heat (i.e., a liquid-to-liquid
system). Note that liquid cooling is never achieved by immersing the Peltier device in the fluid—thermoelectric
modules are not the equivalent of “electric ice cubes”.

7. Do I have to use a heat sink in my design?

Whether heating or cooling a thermal load, you must employ some form of heat sink to either collect heat (in
heating mode) or dissipate collected heat into another medium (e.g., air, water, etc.). Without such provisions,
the TE device will be vulnerable to overheating; once it reaches the reflow temperature of the solder employed,
the unit will be destroyed. When the heat sink is exchanging heat with air, a fan is usually required, as well.

8. Can these devices be immersed?

Only for cleaning purposes and never while under power. TE devices should always be dry when under use to
prevent thermal and electrical shorting.

9. What type of products currently use this technology?

There are an increasing number and variety of products which use thermoelectric technology—from picnic
boxes to water coolers, laser applications, and highly-specialized instrumentation and testing equipment. The
compatibility of many TE’s with automotive voltages, makes them especially suitable for small cooling jobs in
that industry. With each new year, the imaginations of design engineers widen with the immense possibilities of
thermoelectric heating and cooling. 

10. Why would I want to use a thermoelectric system instead of

compressor-based technology?
Both technologies have their advantages and disadvantages, but where thermoelectric technology really shines, is
in making it feasible to do very small cooling jobs—ones which would be wholly impractical with a compressor-
based system. Can you imagine cooling an individual integrated circuit with compressed gasses? What about
thermally cycling a test tube or cooling a very small enclosure? TE’s are also strong in products which demand
both heating and cooling in the face of a changing operating environment; here a simple switching of TE

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 

current polarity allows the system to shift to the mode required. In addition, unlike compressor technology,
TE system components can be mounted in any physical orientation and still function properly. Of course, one
other advantage of TE systems, is that they do not require evaporative chemicals which may be harmful to the
environment. Thermoelectric devices open up a whole new world to cooling and heating possibilities. 

11. Are there situations where compressor-based systems make more sense?
Yes. Generally, whenever a small compressor-based system would clearly be “overkill” in providing a cooling
solution, TE systems become the most viable choice. You find a “gray area” amidst the medium-sized cooling
jobs; here decisions ultimately come down to critical cost/benefit or design engineering considerations which
are unique to each application. Given the present state of technology—unless there are unique overriding
concerns—the compressor-based approach has distinct advantages in larger cooling systems such as standard-
sized refrigerators and air-conditioning systems for buildings & vehicles. However, ongoing research into
materials may one day make thermoelectrics practical for many of these larger applications. 

12. For heat-only applications, do thermoelectric devices have advantages

over resistive heaters?
Yes. Resistive devices create heat solely by virtue of the power dissipated within them. TE devices, on the other
hand, not only provide this I2R heating, but also actively pump heat into the thermal load; this, potentially,
makes them much more efficient than resistive heaters. Unfortunately, the need for a DC power source and
the generally higher cost of TE systems compared to resistive heaters, precludes their use in most heat-only
applications. Furthermore, Peltier devices have a far more limited temperature range than most resistive
heaters. Generally, TE devices are only used for heating in systems that also require cooling.

13. Why would I want to use thermoelectric technology instead of a passive

cooling system (heat sink and fan alone)?
With passive cooling, at best, you can only limit the rise of temperature above the ambient condition. On the
other hand, TE systems (like compressor-based approaches) can actively pull heat right out of a thermal load;
this makes it possible to reach below-ambient temperatures.

14. How cold can these devices get?

That depends upon a great many things—ambient temperature, the nature of the thermal load, optimization
of current delivery to the TE device, optimization of heat sinks etc. It is theoretically possible to get a DT
(hot side to cold side) of around 75° C working against a THOT of 35° C (note that this is the temperature drop
across the TE device, itself, and does not include system losses such as the hot side’s temperature rise above
ambient). However, this theoretical maximum only occurs if there is no thermal load—which is not going to
happen in a “real” system. In a typical application, you will achieve about half of the theoretical maximum
using a single-stage TE device. In order to reach colder temperatures, a multi-stage approach must be employed,
either by using multi-tiered Peltier devices, or by using other technologies to create part of the desired DT. For
example, you might use a compressor-based system to provide a below-ambient condition for the hot-side of
a TE device, then employ Peltier cooling to further reduce the temperature of your load—this is sometimes
done to get down into cryogenic levels. It should be noted, however, that TE devices become less efficient at
colder temperatures and the ratings for DT will be markedly reduced when you operate under extremely cold
conditions. Furthermore, even though multi-stage Peltier devices can achieve greater DT’s, they have much less
cooling capacity (in terms of watts pumped) than their single-stage counterparts and are far more expensive
to produce. At this juncture, Tellurex Corporation has elected to focus its time and energies exclusively on the
more efficient single-stage devices.

15. Can I physically stack TE devices to get a greater DT?

Yes . . . but it is not so simple as merely stacking two identical Peltier devices, one on top of the other. The
critical reality here is that the second device must not only pump the heat from the thermal load plus its own
internal power dissipation (I2R), but it also must remove the heat dissipated within the first TE device. It is
usually most sensible from a cost standpoint, therefore, to employ a much smaller device on the first stage than
the second. Be aware in stacking modules, however, that the overall heat-pumping capacity (in watts) of the
stack will be limited to the throughput of the smallest device (while DT is enhanced with multi-staging, Q is
sacrificed).

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 

16. How hot can these devices get?
This is purely a function of the melting temperature of the solder employed in manufacturing the device. The
standard Z-Max® line of Peltier devices is rated for 100°C. Tellurex also manufactures another line of devices
which can reach temperatures of 200° C. In either case, it is very important that users keep temperatures below
the specified rating for THot; if the solder reflows, the device will be compromised or destroyed.

17. Can these devices be used at cryogenic temperatures?

Yes, but they are far less efficient in this range. Note that you cannot achieve cryogenic temperatures from a
single-stage Peltier device working against a typical room temperature ambient.

18. Does ZMax® offer any performance advantages over other thermoelectric
technologies?
Definitely! The technology behind the patented ZMax®, offers performance which is unachievable with the
more conventional processes employed by other manufacturers. Tellurex is the only company in the world that
is currently producing these unique hybrid devices—thus it is the world’s “performance leader”.

19. How big can these devices get?

Theoretically, there is no limit, but practicality does impose some restrictions. Issues related to thermal
expansion/contraction—and cost—tend to keep module sizes down. Typical devices range up to 50 mm (2”)
square and about 4 mm thick, but there are exceptions. In the general case, when greater cooling capacity is
required, multiple TE devices will be employed in the solution rather than fabricating some sort of gargantuan
module.

20. How small can these devices get?

Here again, the theoretical limit goes far beyond what is practical. Devices are commonly manufactured at sizes
well below 8 mm square, many for such applications as laser diode cooling. Very small modules, however, are
more expensive to produce because they are less suitable for automated processing—many of them, in fact,
require manual attention under a microscope. As a result, in creating designs for very small cooling jobs, devices
must be carefully optimized for cost as well as size and capacity. 

21. Is it possible to purchase custom devices?

Yes, but the expense for new tooling will be included in the overall cost. Whenever possible, it is generally more
cost-effective to employ a stock item. To explore the possibilites, contact a Tellurex sales representative.

22. What does the specification, TCold,

mean?
This is the temperature at the cold-side mounting
surface of the Peltier device (See Figure 9).
TCold

23. What does the specification, THot, Ceramic Substrate

Conductor Tabs

mean?
Positive (+)
This is the temperature at the hot-side mounting surface
P-Type
Semiconductor
of the Peltier device. Pellets

N-Type
Semiconductor Negative (-)
Pellets
24. How can I measure THot or TCold in
a thermoelectric assembly?
This is somewhat challenging because you have to get Figure 9
the measuring device as close as possible to the outer
ceramic of the Peltier device while it is in operation. The best choice of sensor here is typically a non-sheathed
thermocouple fabricated from fairly fine wire. One way to approach the placement of the thermocouple,
is to take the heat sink or block which will be mounted to the TE device and cut a shallow groove at the
interface. The thermocouple wire can then be placed so that it will be in close proximity to the module’s center
once the system is assembled. Of course, except for the exposed end of the thermocouple, the wires should be
electrically insulated along the length of the groove to prevent shorting. The thermocouple should be potted into

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 

the groove using a thermally-conductive adhesive; be sure to clean off any burrs or excess adhesive to maintain
the flatness of the interface.
A compromise which can sometimes be employed when using heat sinks, is to mount the thermocouple on the
fin side of the sink (at the base), opposite the center of the TE module. The thermocouple should then be covered
with a small piece of insulating foam. Some accuracy will be lost with this method because of the inevitable
thermal gradient between the thermocouple and module surface, but it can yield an acceptable approximation.
Some people have attempted to mount fine thermocouples on the inside of Peltier devices to measure these
parameters, but this is generally not a good idea. First of all, it would be difficult to successfully mount a
thermocouple on an interior surface and there would be significant potential for damaging the device in the
mechanical manipulation. Also, without any form of insulation on the inside, the thermocouple would actually
pick up a thermal gradient between the ceramic surface and the air temperature inside the device. Other
thermal gradients within the module could also effect the accuracy of the reading. If a data acquisition system
is employed to measure system variables, there would also be a potential for introducing a ground loop if the
thermocouple touches anything which is electrically live. 

25. What does the specification, VMax, mean?

Contrary to what many people might expect, this quantity is not the maximum voltage that the device can
withstand before failing. Actually, VMax is the DC voltage which will deliver the maximum possible DT across
the thermoelectric device at a given THot. At voltages below VMax, there is insufficient current to achieve
the greatest DT; at voltages above VMax, the power dissipation within the Peltier device begins to elevate the
system temperatures and diminish DT. Note that VMax is temperature dependent—the higher the temperature,
the higher the VMax rating for a specific device.

26. What does the specification, IMax, mean?

Again contrary to what many people might expect, this quantity is not the maximum current that the device can
withstand before failing. IMax is the direct current level which will produce the maximum possible DT across
the TE device. Operating below IMax, there is insufficient current to achieve the greatest DT; when drawing
more than IMax, the power dissipation (I2R) within the Peltier device begins to elevate the system temperatures
and diminish DT. Note that IMax and VMax occur at the same operating point, i.e., IMax is the current level
produced by applying VMax to a Peltier device. Unlike VMax, IMax is not especially temperature dependent—
it tends to be fairly constant throughout the operating range of a device.

27. What does the specification, QMax, mean?

QMax is one of the more confusing specifications in the TE world because its practical significance is not
obvious. Its definition relates to a fundamental reality: as the thermal load (i.e., “Q’) increases within a given
TE system, the resultant DT decreases. Within any given hardware environment, for example, you will have a
lower DT with a thermal load of 40 watts than at 30 watts. At a certain load specification, the DT will be reduced
to zero; the load which produces this condition, is known as QMax and it is quantified in watts. Note that this
specification does not project the maximum amount of heat that the device can handle; if your load goes beyond
QMax, you still pump heat, but your thermal load simply winds up at an above-ambient temperature. The
primary relevance of QMax as a specification, is that it is commonly used as an endpoint for “load lines” on
performance graphs.

28. What does the specification, DTMax, mean?

This is the maximum possible DT across a Peltier device for a given level of THot. This point always occurs
when the thermal load (Q) is at zero watts. DTMax is the other endpoint for load lines on performance graphs.

29. What does the specification, Coefficient of Performance (COP), mean?

Coefficient of performance is an indicator of the efficiency of a thermoelectric cooling (or heating) system. It is
essentially the ratio of: 1) the heat pumped by a TE module (in watts), and 2) the amount of power supplied to
the TE device. Put mathematically, COP = Q / (VTE * ITE) where Q is the number of watts pumped, and VTE and
ITE are the voltage and current supplied to the thermoelectric module.

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 

30. Why are there separate performance graphs for different values of THot?
Because Peltier devices are temperature dependent. Peltier modules have a positive temperature coefficient with
respect to resistance, DTMax, QMax, and other related phenomena, and these realities must be reflected in the
performance literature.

31. Can these devices be connected electrically in series, parallel, or series-

parallel?
Yes. As long as you provide sufficient voltage and current capability from your power supply, TE devices may
be connected in any series/parallel configuration that makes sense for the application. 

32. Are there any advantages to connecting modules in series vs. parallel or vice
versa?
Under ordinary circumstances, no. The amount of heat pumped by each module will be a function of the voltage
and current delivered to it; whether this delivery is a result of series, parallel, or series-parallel connections is
of little consequence. Parallel wiring does, however, offer some protection against a TE device or connection
failure—with parallel TE modules there will still be some cooling capacity even if part of the circuit becomes
dysfunctional. With series connections, if anything in the current path opens, all cooling power will be lost.

33. Why do I need a DC power supply for this technology?

To keep heat pumping in the same direction, the polarity of the applied voltage must be maintained. This means
that some form of direct current is required. If alternating current was applied instead, the polarity would change
each half cycle, and so would the direction of heat pumping. As a result, the net amount of heat moved would be
zero and both sides of the system would get warmer from the I2R dissipation within the Peltier device.

34. In varying power to these devices, should I change the voltage or the current?
According to Ohm’s Law, I = V / R. Current is the dependent variable here—while you can have voltage
without current, you cannot have current without voltage. Any time you apply voltage to a resistive load,
current will flow, and if you vary the level of voltage, you will vary the level of current which results—Ohm’s
Law must be obeyed! In most cases, you will choose a voltage level which gives you the desired results. There
are some application niches where “current sources” are commonly used, but in reality, these current sources
electronically control the applied voltage in order to guarantee a particular level of current; it only seems like the
voltage results from the amount of current put through the TE device.

35. Are the Peltier devices purely resistive?

They are mostly resistive. While there is some capacitance in a Peltier device, it is very negligible, and given
the fact that DC is applied, it presents no real barriers in applications. Inductive effects are mostly confined to
the leads of the Peltier device and typically present few problems unless the device is being driven with some
form of pulsed DC.  If this type of power is employed, it is generally advisable to shield the leads and keep them
separated from any signal wiring to minimize difficulties. You will see transient inductive effects in the leads
whenever power is switched on or off; if these could be problematic, take precautions.
The most notable non-resistive characteristic is Seebeck effect. Just as charge carriers can move heat, the
movement of heat through an electrical conductor will carry charge carriers along with it. Thus, whenever
a temperature difference is placed across a TE device, a small voltage will develop; if an electrical load is
placed across the device, current will flow. This phenomenon is called “Seebeck effect”. Similarly, when a
Peltier device is placed under power and a DT develops, the DT creates a “back EMF” (or “back voltage”)
which opposes the applied voltage. This “Seebeck voltage” is not something that you can see or measure while
external voltage is powering the Peltier device, but the circuit acts as if the Seebeck voltage is subtracted from
the applied voltage. This, naturally, results in a lower current level than you might otherwise expect and makes
the Peltier device appear to be more resistive than it really is. Incidentally, you can measure the Seebeck voltage
when TE power is disrupted, although as the DT decreases from the back flow of heat, the Seebeck voltage will
gradually decay to zero.

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 

36. Do I need a well-regulated DC power supply for my thermoelectric system?
This would only be required if you need well-regulated power for other circuitry that will run from the same
supply. Nonetheless, many customers choose regulated switching supplies for thermoelectric systems out
of consideration for size, weight, and efficiency. In high volume applications, some users have effectively
employed custom, non-regulated switchers to strike a good compromise between price and performance. Those
who want to keep things simple, can use a non-regulated, linear supply with a “brute force” filter capacitor;
these circuits do tend to be bulky, however. In this latter case, ripple should be kept below 15% to maximize
power output to the TE modules. Unfiltered DC (i.e., rectification only) at line frequencies is not recommended
because of the inefficiencies and thermal stresses imposed; this sort of power is especially problematic if the
peak voltage exceeds VMax (see next question).

37. If I have an available power source which exceeds VMax, can I pulse-width
modulate it to reduce the effective DC level?
No! No! No! Because this sort of approach usually works with resistive heaters, a significant number of
designers seize upon this idea to avoid having to translate their available DC supply voltage to a more suitable
level. The only problem is that it doesn’t work with thermoelectrics. Why not?
Let’s say that we want to apply a pulsed DC at twice VMax with a duty cycle of 50%. If this was powering a
conventional resistor, we would simply look at the effective power dissipation over the full cycle of the pulsed
DC and proceed accordingly. Unfortunately, Peltier devices present some extra complexities which cannot be
overlooked. The crux of the matter is that the Peltier device can only pump heat when current is flowing. We
thus have to look at what is happening in each separate phase of the cycle.
When power is on (voltage high), we are driving the TE device at twice its rated VMax; what happens during
this interval is no different than what happens when powering a module at twice VMax continuously. With so
much power dissipated (V2/R) within the device, there is no capacity left for pumping any heat from the thermal
load—in fact, some of the excessive heat within the module will flow back into the load. When power is turned
off in the other part of the cycle, it is true that no power is being dissipated within the Peltier device, but without
current flow, it’s not pumping any heat either. Thus when power is on, you are operating a bad thermoelectric
system which creates heat rather than removing it from the load; when power is off, no active cooling work is
being done. Nothing good is achieved in the process.

38. Can I use pulse-width modulation to control my Peltier device if I keep the
voltage at VMax or below?
Yes, and this is one of the most electrically-efficient ways to control voltage to your device—although you must
observe some precautions. As long as you keep the voltage at VMax or below, you will effectively pump heat
whenever the duty cycle applies voltage to your system; when the power is turned off, the heat pumping will
stop. By pulse-width modulating a suitable voltage, you can easily control the extent of heat pumping by simply
varying the duty cycle of the pulses. The great thing about this approach, is that it allows you to minimize power
dissipation in your control circuit—especially if you use power MOSFET’s for switching (a subject which goes
beyond this particular question).
Significant precautions must be employed with PWM, however. First of all, the PWM should be at a high
enough frequency to minimize thermal stresses to the TE devices. The “Rule Of Thumb” recommended by
Tellurex, is that thermoelectric devices should be pulsed at a frequency of 2000 Hz or higher. Another important
issue is the potential for generating electro-magnetic interference (EMI) in the wiring to the TE device. If you
are using PWM, always shield your power wiring and keep it away from any sensitive electrical signals.

39. If I use enough TE devices in series, can I just rectify voltage from the wall
socket to get 120 VDC?
This is, indeed, a “frequently asked question” when dealing with large-capacity systems. Unfortunately, the
answer is not as straightforward as it might seem.
First of all, the only way that you will get “120 VDC” from a wall socket (assuming that your electrical service
is 120 VAC) is if you leave the rectified voltage unfiltered (i.e., at 100% ripple). It is important to note that the
120-volt rating is the RMS equivalent of the sinusoidal waveform; this is equal to about 70.7% of the peak
voltage.

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 

Once you use a capacitive filter on the rectified AC to create “steady-state” DC, the resulting output will only be
slightly lower than the peak value—approximately 170 V (less diode drops and ripple). 
To make this approach work, therefore, you would need to place additional devices in your series circuit (about
40% more, in fact) to avoid exceeding the VMax rating of the thermoelectric components.
There is another option for getting steady-state DC
from an AC line at a lower voltage, but it is seldom Rectified AC (120 V)
practical in TE systems. By using an inductor in series 180
Peak V = 169.7
with the TE devices (and a capacitor in parallel with
160
140
them), you can get a filtered voltage at around 108 120 RMS V = 120.0

Voltage
VDC (less diode drops and losses). Given the current 100 Avg. V = 108.8
80
demands for a typical TE device, however, this would 60

require a pretty “beefy” and expensive coil. The losses 40

in wire resistance and core currents would be significant

20
0
with this solution, as well.

0
60
120
0/180
60
120
0/180
60
120
0/180
60
120
0/180
Of course, some people would be tempted to simply use Conduction Angle (in degrees)

the 120 VAC unfiltered, but this is not a good idea. As Figure 10
stated earlier, the fluctuating voltage at low frequency
puts the devices under appreciable thermal stress. It is important to remember, as well, that the series circuit
must still have a combined VMax rating of at least 170 VDC or heat-pumping performance will suffer greatly
(just as it does when pulse-width modulating an excessive voltage—see Figure 10).
The potential problems go beyond the mathematics and filtering, however. One of the biggest concerns is
safety. Thermoelectric modules are typically sandwiched between heat exchangers fabricated from electrically-
conductive metals. While ordinarily this should not cause a problem, with the close proximity of components,
there is a genuine risk that hazardous situations can develop when the circuit is connected directly to an AC
line. It is always possible that a wire lead can get pinched or debris can cause a short between a module and
the heat exchangers. With low-voltage DC, this is seldom a problem; however, when you have a series of TE
modules connected to the AC line (or high voltage DC for that matter), one of the exchangers can become
dangerously “live”. If a designer pursues this approach in spite of the risks, a ground fault interrupter is
essential; an isolation transformer is also highly recommended.

40. Can I use linear drive (either voltage or current) to regulate the temperature of
my thermoelectric system?
Yes. Typically this is done by placing a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) in series with the TE device(s). Of
all the options for regulating power to TE’s, linear control (done properly) is the one which imposes the least
thermal stress on Peltier devices. On the downside, a lot more power is dissipated in the linear BJT drivers
than with MOSFET’s in a PWM controller—and this will translate into greater costs for semiconductor heat
management. However, when PWM cannot be easily accommodated in a system because of EMI or power
conditioning considerations, linear control may be the only viable option.

41. Can I cycle the device on and off for temperature control?
Thermostatic operation (on-off) is one of the more affordable modes of control and is a tempting option. With
this approach, cooling (or heating) power is turned on at one temperature and off at another. This means that
the system will continually bounce back and forth between two temperature limits; as a result, it is not a good
alternative if steady-state performance is desired. An additional issue here is cycle time. Slow cycle times are
just like low-frequency pulse-width modulation (PWM) in their potential for thermally stressing TE devices—
and we ideally want to keep PWM above 2000 Hz. If thermostatic control is to be employed, therefore, it is
probably best to keep the cycle time in the range of tens of minutes or more.

42. Can I use a mechanical device like a snap switch for thermostatic control?
Yes, but make sure that you check that device’s DC ratings. Most snap switches are designed for AC
applications; with DC, the potential for arcing and damaging switch contacts is much greater. Usually,
mechanical switching devices of any sort (including relays and toggle switches) will have much shorter life

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 10

projections and lower current ratings in DC applications. Of course, cycle time will be an issue here just as it
is with electronic forms of thermostatic control. 43. Can I configure a controller to switch between heating and
cooling modes?

43. Can I configure a controller to

DPDT Switch
switch between heating and cooling
modes?
Yes, this is commonly done. It is most often
accomplished with a DPDT relay (watch DC Supply P N
for the DC ratings on any device you are
considering) wired in the classic polarity-reversal TE Module
configuration, but sometimes designers will
employ a transistor bridge (using MOSFET’s) Figure 11
to combine the switching and control
architectures. You can also change modes manually by toggling an appropriately-rated DPDT switch. If using
anything other than a DPDT switch or relay, you must design your circuit to guard against transient conditions
that can occur when mode changes are made, otherwise you may create damaging short-circuits across your
power supply. In automatic controls, a suitable “deadband” for triggering mode changes is also recommended to
prevent “chattering” (i.e., high frequency toggling between modes). (See Figure 11)

44. Can I use a solid state relay to drive my TE device?

Yes, but this would not be the best choice in the vast majority of situations. If you want to switch power
electronically, power MOSFET’s are far more advantageous—they’re cheaper, smaller, and if chosen properly,
dissipate much less power for a given level of TE current (because of markedly lower on resistances).

45. Can I control the temperature of my load by just using a variable power supply
to set a fixed DC level?
Not usually. This can only work if there is absolutely no change in your thermal load or the ambient
environment. The hallmark of temperature control is keeping the temperature steady despite disruptions caused
by varying load or environmental conditions. To accomplish this, you must employ some type of temperature
sensor in a closed-loop controller that will provide just enough power to the Peltier devices to hold thermal load
at the desired temperature. In a cooling application, if the room temperature increases, the closed-loop control
circuit will detect this change and provide extra cooling power to keep your thermal load where you want it. If
the thermal load (in terms of watts) changes, the controller can detect this condition and vary cooling power
as required. Without a temperature sensor and a closed-loop control circuit, any variance in your operating
conditions will be reflected in a change of the temperature of your thermal load. If you want stability, you must
use a “real” control circuit.

46. How closely can temperature be controlled with thermoelectric technology?

With a properly tuned, well-designed, steady-state controller (typically using some form of ‘PID’ control), it is
possible to maintain temperatures to well within 0.1° C of set point providing there are no “dramatic” (i.e., large
and sudden) interruptions in the operating environment. Indirect measurements of stability, have suggested that
it is possible to achieve constancy to within a few hundredths of a degree (some even claim thousandths), but
it is virtually impossible to verify this level of performance directly. In discussing the potential for stability, of
course, it is important to stress that any given thermal load will show temperature gradients and parts of the load
will exhibit variance from the set-point no matter how stable it may appear on a digital display—you cannot
assume a homogeneous response across your entire load. Designers must also be wary of subtle long-term
problems such as set-point drift or loss of calibration.

47. Is it possible to use inexpensive temperature controllers with this technology?

That depends on what your objectives are. If you can live with single mode control (i.e., just heating or just
cooling), a reasonable amount of error, no display of temperatures, and a fair amount of variability in resulting
temperatures, you have a real chance at keeping costs down. If it’s a high-volume application, as well, you may
even get the cost to under $10 per controller on an OEM basis (aggressive shopping will be required) if you

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 11

buy directly from the circuit board manufacturer. On the other hand, if you need tight control, minimal error, a
display, alarms, etc., these features will come at a premium. The more demanding your needs, the more the cost
will grow geometrically.

48. Are there lots of complete temperature control solutions available

“off-the-shelf”?
Unfortunately, no. In many applications, some level of custom circuitry will be required to tailor a controller
for thermoelectric technology. The biggest problem is that most off-the-shelf controllers are designed for other
types of heating and cooling hardware (most of it driven by AC power), and they are not well-suited—by
themselves—for controlling Peltier devices. For example, most PID controllers which provide a pulse-width-
modulated output, have a maximum frequency of one cycle per second and this is far from ideal. Thankfully,
many of these controller designs also offer options for analog outputs which can then be translated into either
linear control or higher-frequency PWM; unfortunately, a custom interface circuit must be constructed for this
purpose. In dual-mode applications, it is necessary to translate separate analog signals for heating and cooling,
into the TE drive and mode signals which are required. Another potential obstacle for some applications, centers
on the reality that the vast majority of off-the-shelf controllers run on 120 or 240 VAC power; there is a distinct
void in the marketplace for options which can be powered from low-voltage DC.
There certainly are some temperature controllers which are designed specifically for Peltier technology;
unfortunately, most were created for a specific system and then marketed for other types of applications where
they are less optimal. Maybe they’ll meet your needs, maybe they won’t. Shoppers must be very wary in
evaluating these types of products—many are not quite what they appear to be. For example, some ads show
digital displays, but do not make it clear that the displayed value is the resistance of a thermistor or RTD rather
than temperature. Many times, the TE power supply will be integrated into the controller and it may not give
you the kind of flexibility that you require. In other cases, very ambitious stability figures are cited. When
someone claims to deliver stability in the range of thousandths of a degree, it certainly begs questions of how
this phenomenon was tested. Not only is it very difficult to dependably measure to that standard, but thermal
gradients in the load, thermal noise, and thermal transients would likely swamp the published figures in many
applications. All of this underscores the need to consider temperature control options very carefully.

49. Is there a limit to how many TE devices I can use in a system?

Theoretically, no, although at a certain point, compressor-based systems become more cost-effective than using
a huge array of TE devices. When you employ many devices in a single fixture, there can be some challenging
hardware issues related to clamping methods and managment of thermal expansion and contraction, but it
certainly can be done.

50. How fast can I cool with this technology?

This is not a simple question to address because so many factors are involved in any given thermoelectric
system. Cooling is not an instantaneous process and every system will have a “time constant” which
characterizes its ability to pump and redistribute heat over time; this time constant will be a function of the
number of TE’s employed, the nature of the heat sinks and fans which are used, the quality of the thermal
interfaces, etc. Your maximum ramp rate will, therefore, depend greatly on how much cooling capacity you
design into your solution—and this may be limited by cost and physical practicalities. It ultimately comes down
to the number of watts which have to be pumped to achieve the desired rate of cooling; you then must identify
the number of TE devices it will take to do the job and configure suitable heat-sinking to make everything
work. Complicating matters is the fact that, as DT increases, the amount of heat removed from the load will
decrease (it takes more power to maintain the greater temperature difference), so it becomes very challenging to
model and project a theoretical response curve for any specific system.
There is one more consideration which imposes a practical limitation on cooling rates—with differential
expansion/contraction responses among the component materials, excessive ramp rates will destroy Peltier
devices. The recommended upper limit for Tellurex devices is 1° C per second (heating or cooling) and even this

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 12

will shorten the useful life of the module. New manufacturing and materials technologies hold out the promise
that this range can be extended, but generally, designers should
keep ramp rates well within these specified limits to insure long Screw Driver Heat Sink Tilted Slightly
product life.

51. Are there any special considerations which

apply to “clamping” the device? 
Generally, machine screws are used to compress the Peltier
device between the hot and cold sides. Because thermoelectric
devices can be crushed through improper handling, some care
must be taken in designing and implementing the clamping
method. For optimal results, try to use only two compression Tension Screw

points per module (if possible) and keep them in close Figure 12
proximity to the device (usually within 0.25”). Naturally, the
two compression points should be along the center line of the Screw Driver

module. In bringing up tension on the machine screws, take extra

care to adjust slowly at each compression point and alternate
between the two frequently; in this way compression across the
surface area of the module can be roughly equalized throughout
the adjustment process. A common error is to tighten one side
so that it tips below the top surface of the module (Fig. 12);
then when pressure is increased on the opposite side, it creates
leverage which crushes the module (Fig. 13). The greater the
number of compression points or their distance from the module, Module Crushed On This Side
the greater the likelihood of damaging the module in this (Collapsed Fulcrum Effect)

manner. Patience is definitely a virtue here. Figure 13

With multiple device deployment, it is not always possible to use two screws per device, and sometimes the
space between the compression points will span more than one module. Here, the user must watch out for
bowing of the mechanical interface; this can not only damage the Peltier devices, but compromise the thermal
interface, as well. In these instances, it is usually best to decrease the amount of compression to insure flatness.

52. Where do I start in designing a TE system?

If you are doing a heat/cool application, focus first on the cooling side of the equation; if you have enough
capacity for cooling, you should have plenty for heating. Establish some initial design parameters. What load
temperature do you want? What is your worst-case ambient (always design against the worst case)? What is
the targeted temperature rise for your hot side above the ambient? Do you have constraints on available power
for your system? If so, what are they? What physical limitations do you face (space, weight, harshness of
environment, etc.)? Are there sources of radiant heat in the environment?
Probably the most challenging area in design, is coming to terms with your load. Thermal load is made up
of two distinct components—active and passive. The active load is the part which actually creates heat. For
instance, if your thermal load is an electrical circuit, its power dissipation would be the active load. In some
cases, there will be no active load—this is the situation with a picnic box, for example. 
Much of the load in any TE system will be passive. Passive load is the amount of heat (in watts) which must be
pumped to maintain the temperature difference between the load and the ambient environment. It is like bailing
out a leaky boat; water (like heat) is continually coming in and you must labor to pour out a comparable volume
to maintain the level of the boat. The greater the DT you require between your load and the ambient, the greater
the passive load will be.
Once you know all of these quantities, you can begin looking for a thermoelectric solution which conforms to
your requirments.

53. How can I determine the magnitude of my passive load?

The transfer of heat from a load to the ambient environment, is largely a function of two thermal processes—
conduction and convection. Conduction is the transfer of heat through matter (insulation, structural components,

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 13

seals, fasteners, etc.) and is a function of the temperature difference (i.e., DT) across the material, the physical
dimensions, and the thermal conductivity of the material (K). Convection is heat transfer across the boundary
layer of air at the surface of a material. It is a function of the DT across the boundary layer and the rate of air
movement at the surface—the faster the air movement, the greater the convection of heat. 
With a well-insulated thermal load (e.g., an insulated enclosure), convection is a relatively inconsequential
component and you can often focus exclusively on the conductive element. The following equation can be used
to estimate a purely conductive load:

Q = DT•K•A where
L
Q is the amount of heat conducted (it can be expressed in either BTU/hour or watts, although in the
themoelectric industry, most support documentation is based on wattage);
DT is the temperature difference between the thermal load and the ambient environment (in F° for BTU/hour
calculations, in C° for watts);
K (Kappa) is the thermal conductivity of the material expressed in either BTU/hour-feet-F° or watts/meter-
C°;
L is the thickness of the material (in feet for BTU/hour calculations, meters for watts); and
A is the exposed surface area of the material (in square feet for BTU/hour calculations, square meters for
watts).
If you want to include both the conductive and convective components of the load, you can use this equation:

Q = LA•DT where
+1
K h
Q is the amount of heat conducted and convected (expressed in either BTU/hour or watts);
K (Kappa) is the thermal conductivity of the material expressed in either BTU/hour-feet-F° or watts/meter-C°;
h is the heat transfer coefficient (in still air, this ranges between 4-5 BTU/hour-feet2-F° or 23-28 watts/
meter2-C°; in turbulent air, h falls in the range of 14-20 BTU/hour-feet2-F° or 85-113 watts/meter2-C°);
L is the thickness of the material (in feet for BTU/hour calculations, meters for watts); and
A is the exposed surface area of the material (in square feet for BTU/hour calculations, square meters for
watts).
DT is the temperature difference between the thermal load and the ambient environment (in F° for BTU/hour
calculations, in C° for watts).
Note that the result that you get for Q with this equation, will be lower than that obtained for the formula based
only upon conduction. This is because the convection/conduction equation accounts for two sources of thermal
resistance to heat flow. With the calculation reflecting a slightly greater series resistance to heat leakage, it
logically follows that fewer watts will be indicated to compensate for passive load.
When you are dealing with an uninsulated load, or an uninsulated portion of one (e.g., a cold plate), then it
becomes very important to explore the convective part of thermal load. In these situations, convection may offer
the primary resistance to the leakage of heat. Remember that in some situations (e.g., an uninsulated enclosure),
you will have air movement on both the inside and outside; as a result, your DT will be split between the two
boundary layers (based on the relative convectivity of each). As you will find in using the equation below to
estimate your convective load, without insulation, you will need to pump a lot more wattage with your TE
system. 
Q – h • A• DT 3 where
 Q is the amount of heat conducted and convected (expressed in either BTU/hour or watts);
 h is the heat transfer coefficient (in still air, this ranges between 4-5 BTU/hour-feet2-F° or 23-28 watts/
meter2-C°; in turbulent air, h falls in the range of 14-20 BTU/hour-feet2-F° or 85-113 watts/meter2-C°);

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 14

A is the exposed surface area of the material (in square feet for BTU/hour calculations, square meters for
watts).
DT is the temperature difference across the boundary layer at any exposed surfaces (in F° for BTU/hour
calculations, in C° for watts).
When dealing with enclosures, you can also estimate your passive load empirically once a prototype is
built. Simply place a known heat load inside (make sure that the enclosure can “take the heat”), then monitor the
temperatures of the ambient and enclosure interior. Once the DT between the inside and ambient has stabilized,
you can use the following equation to determine the passive load:
Q – P • DTDES where
TAMB – T ENC

Q is the passive load, expressed in watts;

TAMB is the ambient temperature after stabilization (in C°);
TENC is the enclosure temperature after stabilization (in C°);
P is the power dissipation within the heater employed for the test (expressed in watts); and
TDES is the desired DT for the system.

54. Are there things I can do to decrease the passive load?

Definitely! It is generally a good idea to insulate your load as much as possible from the ambient
environment. The more insulation that you provide, the less heat will “leak” back into your load. Try to seal
any places where air can get around the insulation. If you must have doors or hatches, use good quality seals to
minimize leakage. If there are radiant sources of heat in the outside environment, make the outside of your load
as reflective as possible. Try to eliminate any thermal shorts that might exist between your load and the outside
world.

55. How can I determine what my heat sink needs are?

Once you can quantify the nature of your load and identify the power requirements for the Peltier devices that
will be employed, you can get a sense of your heat sink needs. Again, we will focus on designing for cooling
because that will be far more demanding than operation in heat mode. First, you determine the total number of
watts that must be handled by your hot-side sink—simply add the wattage for your active load, passive load, and
TE device power (VTE * ITE). Next, divide your targeted rise above ambient for this sink by the total wattage;
this will give you an estimate of your required heat sink/fan thermal resistance. Once this thermal resistance is
calculated, it’s time to “hit the catalogs”—you will need to shop around to find a heat sink/fan combination that
can deliver the performance that your design demands. Most heat sink catalogs will display graphs showing the
interaction between air flow (in CFM—i.e., cubic feet per minute) and the resulting thermal resistance. It is not
likely that you will find a combo with the exact thermal resistance that you are seeking; typically you will have
to choose the best compromise and see how it impacts upon your system’s performance.
Identifying a heat sink for the cold side of an air-to-air system, is a very similar process. Again you must target a
temperature drop for this side of your system (i.e., the difference between the temperatures of the heat sink and
the air circulating through it). On the load side of the system, the wattage is confined to your active and passive
loads—that is what is passing through the sink; TE power dissipation is not an issue here. With far fewer watts
to handle, the heat sink on the cold side of the system tends to be significantly smaller than the one on the hot
side.
There are certain “rules of thumb” which should be observed in dealing with heat sinks in thermoelectric
designs. When it is important to squeeze out as much cooling performance as possible, you will want to
minimize the temperature drops across your sinks; good targets would be about a 10° C (18° F) rise on the hot
side with around half that on the cold side. This means, however, using heat sinks and fans which are more
thermally conductive (i.e., less resistive) and that translates into more fin area, more aluminum (or copper), and
greater cost. In some extreme cases, exotic heat sink designs may be chosen to take thermal resistance to an

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 15

absolute minimum. When cost is of critical concern, however, it may well mean compromises in the thermal
performance of the heat sinks; this leads to higher temperature drops across the sinks and a loss of cooling
capacity. In the end, component choices will come down to cost/benefit analysis and every user’s needs will be
different.

56. Do I need to be concerned about water condensation within Peltier devices?

In applications where cooling below the dew point will produce condensation, it is usually advisable to provide
special protection for thermoelectric modules to prevent shorting (thermal & electrical) and electrolytic
effects. A typical remedy starts with a perimeter seal around the device. Some thermoelectric manufacturers
have traditionally recommended RTV silicone as an appropriate sealant, but Tellurex has some concerns about
this approach. While silicone is an effective barrier to water and dust, it is not impervious to vapor migration
and can actually trap moisture inside the module once the vapor condenses. Unfortunately, there are only two
materials known to be impervious to water vapor—metal and glass—and neither is convenient for sealing
thermoelectric devices. This has left the industry to find some other effective perimeter seal which can offer
high dielectric strength, low thermal conductivity, low coefficient of thermal expansion, and high resistance to
vapor permeation. The solution identified by Tellurex is a proprietary polyamide epoxy sealant (ZCat) which has
proven successful in over three years of field performance. Sealed devices using this technology are available
by special order. It should be noted that all sealants will diminish the performance of TE modules somewhat,
however, it is usually well worth it to protect units from the damaging effects of condensation.
Effective vapor protection does not stop with a perimeter seal. It is highly recommended that Peltier devices be
surrounded by a two-part, closed-cell foam insulation to further seal out moisture from the interior of the sub-
assembly. In addition, when insulated wire is used on the Peltier device (which is typical)—especially stranded
wire—it is a good idea to seal the wire leads so that vapor cannot migrate through air passages along the leads.

57. Are there any special safety concerns?

There are two areas of concern here. First, never power up a Peltier device unless at least one side is mounted to
a suitable heat sink. By “suitable”, we mean one that can at least handle the wattage dissipated by the device—
not some little sink made for a small transistor package (like a TO-220). A typical Peltier device may dissipate
60 W or more internally. How long can you hold a powered 60-watt incandescent bulb in your hand before it
burns you? The hot side of a thermoelectric device can get even hotter—and faster—when it is not mounted to
a proper sink. This is not just a safety issue, either—a device powered without proper sinking, can destroy itself
very quickly.
The other safety concern is electrical. Although the electrical hazard potential associated with most
thermoelectric systems is very small, there are some issues which deserve attention. Typically, Peltier devices
are mounted to either aluminum or copper hardware (sinks, liquid heat exchangers, etc.). It is possible,
therefore, for debris or moisture to create a short-circuit condition between the hardware and an electrically-
live part of the Peltier device. It is up to the designer, therefore, to prevent such a problematic condition from
occurring. From a safety standpoint, it is highly recommended that designers employ DC power which is fully-
isolated and properly fused. The use of autotransformers or direct wiring to an AC service line is generally not
recommended; if employed, a ground fault interrupter should be included in the design.
Be sure to use appropriately-rated wire in making connections, too. Thermoelectric devices can draw
appreciable current and inadequately-sized wire may become very hot.

58. Do I have to insulate between the hot and cold sides of the system?
While there is no law requiring it, insulation is highly recommended to minimize heat leakage between the hot
and cold sides. For best results, use two-part, closed-cell foam; one-part mixtures do not generally produce good
results.

59. Can these devices be used for power generation?

Yes. The “flip-side” of the Peltier effect is the Seebeck effect—when thermal energy moves through an
electrically-conductive material, charge carriers are transported by the heat. Thus when you create a temperature
difference across a thermoelectric device, the movement of heat and charge carriers creates an electrical pressure

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 16

(called Seebeck voltage). If an electrical load is connected across the device, current will flow—if not, the
pressure builds to a steady state condition and a “no-load” voltage will be present. While a standard Peltier unit
can be used in this fashion, however, they seldom are. Usually when power generation is the objective, special
thermoelectric modules are fabricated using materials which are optimized for that purpose.
Because TE power generation devices are fairly inefficient in converting thermal energy to electricity, their use
is largely confined to applications where “waste heat” is readily available or in remote areas where dependability
is more important than efficiency. In these types of situations, the power conversion process may be less than
ideal, but the “fuel” is free. Furthermore, because their small size makes it possible to mount them in tight
spaces, they can be used to reclaim energy in places where it would otherwise be impractical. Potential users
should be mindful, however, that a DT still must be created across the device—there has to be a “cold” side as
well as a source of heat—and this can present a challenge to designers.
In using power generation devices, one of the principle objectives will be to extract as much power as possible
from the thermoelectric modules. Because power generation devices have significant internal resistance,
designers who want to employ this technology should review the principles of maximum power transfer in
electrical circuits. It is essential to grasp that maximum power will be transferred when the load resistance
equals that of the TE device configuration. In the end, a designer must come up with a series/parallel array of
modules that will assure generation of the desired voltage while coming as close as possible to a “matched
load” condition. It is also critical to design to the worst-case DT—and to make sure that THot never exceeds
the maximum rating for the device. Furthermore, if voltage regulation is important and the DT or load will be
variable, a shunt regulator will be needed.

60. If Peltier devices can be used for power generation, will they run in a self-
powered mode?
There is no such thing as a free lunch. The amount of Seebeck voltage generated by a TE device at a given DT,
is a fraction of the voltage it takes to create that DT with the Peltier effect. Furthermore, the voltage which is
generated, opposes the applied TE voltage and, therefore, has an attenuating effect on TE current.

61. What happens if I use a device with more cooling power than I need?
That depends. You can just let your system settle to a colder temperature than was originally targeted. If this is
unacceptable, you essentially have three choices: 1) if possible, you can decrease the amount of voltage in your
system to bring the TE response in line with your needs; 2) you can squander some of your excess capacity
by using a less optimal heat sink (which might save you money, as well); or 3) you can employ a temperature
controller to limit TE power as necessary. Remember, if it is critical to maintain your load at the desired
temperature, the third option is the only one which can insure this result.

62. Are these products tested before shipment?

Yes, Tellurex electrically tests every module before shipping.

63. What is “AC resistance”?

This is a term which has come into common use in the thermoelectric industry as a reference to the internal
resistance of TE devices. This label is not intended to imply that the resistance is in any way dependent on
the type of voltage applied to a device. The “AC” refers to the fact that, short of using custom computer-
based systems for testing Peltier devices, an AC voltage must be applied to a TE module to measure its
resistance. Why? If DC is applied, a DT will develop across the module and this will result in the build-up of a
Seebeck voltage. The Seebeck voltage will oppose the applied voltage and make the device appear to be more
resistive than it is. With AC voltage applied (preferably of fairly high frequency), the polarity will change every
half-cycle; as a result, only small Seebeck voltages can develop and decay. Furthermore, because the Seebeck
voltages are of opposite polarity each half cycle, they effectively cancel each other out over the full conduction
cycle.

64. Can I check thermoelectric devices with a conventional ohmmeter?

No. The vast majority of ohmmeters apply DC to the resistance being measured. This will result in a Seebeck
voltage which makes the measurement inaccurate. 

Thermoelectric Cooling FAQ 17

65. Can I use an ohmmeter which applies a pulsed DC voltage?
No. This, too, will result in Seebeck voltages which make measurement inaccurate. The meter must apply a
waveform which reverses polarity every half cycle to cancel out the Seebeck effect; this feature will be found
most often in a high-quality LCR meter.

66. I need to route wiring through the Peltier device; can I drill a hole anywhere in
the module to facilitiate this?
Semiconductor pellets are used in a rectangular array throughout the device and are connected to one another
through copper tabs. There are small spaces between the rows and columns. While drilling is not recommended,
it is theoretically possible to put holes in these areas; this requires precision drilling and great care must be taken
to avoid creating electrical problems such as shorts or opens. If you fracture a pellet or sever a tab connection,
the module will become inoperable.
It is possible, on the other hand, to manufacture devices with holes in them. These modules do require extra
machining and special processing, however, so the cost is significantly greater than a standard device.

67. I need to cool a tubular shape; can I get a custom device made in a cylindrical
form?
Given the present state of technology, this is an exceptionally challenging proposition. Just finding a way
to configure the device so that it could adequately manage thermal expansion and contraction, would be
demanding enough. If you could satisfy that objective, you would then have to find a means of coping with
tolerance variations in interfacing the device to a cylindrical heat sink. The biggest hurdle, however, would be
creating manufacturing equipment and processes to assemble such a module. Can it be done? Yes, but the cost
would be extraordinary—well beyond the bounds of viability for most projects.
The solution in most situations like this, is to machine a thermally conductive block (usually aluminum or
copper) to create an interface between the tubular load and the flat surface of the thermoelectric device. While
this is not as elegant, conceptually, it generally works very well and is affordable.

68. How can I order products from Tellurex?

You can call us at 231-947-0110.

69. Do you have a minimum order requirement?

Tellurex direct sales requires a minimum of $25.

70. How can I get more information?

The best place to get information is from our website—http://www.tellurex.com. You can also call us at
231-947-0110 or write us at 1248 Hastings Street, Traverse City, MI 49686. 
Email may be directed to tellurex@tellurex.com.

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