JOURNALOF

GEOCHEMICAL
EXPLORATION
ELSEVIER Journal of Geochemical Exploration 58 (1997) 95-100

Introduction: Mining and metals in the environment

In the planet earth, metals are ubiquitous from the Cd, relative to the naturally present soil Cd, becomes
co,re to the upper atmosphere. Terrestrial life evolved of critical importance. Thus, the research area of
on earth, as it were, on the 'slag' or crust of a metals in the environment encompasses an extensive
planetary blast furnace/smelter. Metals are a funda- range of investigations involving media from water
mental component of life on earth and part of all to humans and often indirectly important in answer-
food chains. Thus, metals cannot be eliminated from ing questions concerning mining and metals in the
the environment as can be attempted for toxic, per- environment issues.
sistent, bioaccumulating, completely anthropogenic Mining and metal beneficiation industries have
organic chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls developed into sophisticated operations, yet the basic
(PCBs). Metals are natural and, in large part, essen- causes of any metal pollution by them remain un-
tial components of global ecosystems. Some metals changed (UNESCO, 1988, 1989). Mining by its na-
such as copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are essential to ture involves the removal, processing and disposal of
life. In high concentration, however, the same metals vast volumes of rock and wastes. A typical metal
can be toxic. Some metals such as lead (Pb) and mine uses more water by weight in production of the
mercury (Hg) are not known to perform any useful metal concentrate than the weight of the ore grade
biochemical function. Human activities simply redis- material itself. Water losses and water gains at a
tr'bute metals within and between ecosystems. typical metal mine show that the main direct release
Mining and metals in the environment is a sub-area of metals is from tailings and polishing ponds and
of the broader field of study of metals in the environ- emissions later in the beneficiation stage.
ment. Not all environmental metals research is di- The papers in this special volume are directly
rectly related to mining. Examples of this would be related to mining and metals in the environment.
Hg releases from the mercury cells in chlorine-pro- However, even this is a broad area of research. In
ducing chlor-alkali plants or the bioavailability of this introduction, I intend to discuss briefly only a
cadmium (Cd) in various soils and related surficial few key research areas, using primarily Canadian
Quaternary deposits. However, I selected these ex- examples, which should perhaps be given more global
aunples to show that environmental metals research attention in the future.
o:' many types can be very relevant to metal mining
environmental issues. Some smelters can be sources
o ' Hg emissions but so can chlor-alkali plants and 1. Metal bioavailability and effects assessments
both must be considered and compared when assess-
irg the impacts of atmospheric releases of this metal. In terms of effluents and wastes, mining is largely
Likewise, some mine wastes may be sources of Cd a local issue but one of global importance. Alterna-
to soils. When this occurs, the bioavailability of this tively, mining-related emissions, although again pri-

0575-6742/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

marily of local or regional concern, can be consid- of Clubs and Larder lakes were related to metal
ered a global concern when atmospherically trans- bioavailability and speciation rather than to total
ported emissions of some metals cross international metal content in the lake bottom sediments. Total
boundaries. Adequate and scientifically sound as- metal concentration is not a good indicator of biolog-
sessments of the effects of effluents and emissions, ical effects, and knowledge of metal speciation is
both local and long-range, are likely to be a priority critical.
research area for some time to come. In this context,
many of the papers which follow involve chemistry-
based impact assessments. Such assessments need to 2. Remediation and rehabilitation of mine sites
be supported by more biology-based assessments.
Comparisons are often drawn between persistent, Steps in the remediation of a mining site are to:
bioaccumulating, toxic (PBTs) organic chemicals and (1) assess the extent of the local pollution and quan-
metals. Because of their lipophilicity, PBTs biomag- tify the sources of acid mine drainage, metals and
nify to high levels in top aquatic and terrestrial other contaminants and pollutants; (2) control the
predators. The fate of PBTs in the environment is major sources of pollutants (control effluents/emis-
complex but major advances in predicting fate and sions; reduce leachates; bury, lime, remove and treat
effects have now been made for many of these contaminated soils, sediments and wastes, etc.); (3)
substances. However, metals are quite different. They assess regional pollution and identify 'hot spots'
are present in the environment in the form of many (remediate hot spots - - dredge rivers; lime lakes;
species and they exhibit a wide range of oxidation treat in situ, i.e. create anoxic conditions; flood,
states and coordination numbers. Some metals may bury, cover them, etc.); (4) let natural recovery take
bioconcentrate or bioaccumulate but, with the excep- its course or accelerate it (increase erosion/deposi-
tion of metals which can be transformed in the tion of clean sediments in bays/rivers; divert alka-
environment to organometallic compounds, do not line streams to acid streams; eutrophy or flush
biomagnify to a significant extent (ICME, 1995). lakes/rivers, create wetlands, etc.) (Allan and Sa-
Metals, unlike synthetic chemicals, occur naturally lomons, 1995).
and function as often essential micronutrients. Or- Terrestrial remediation techniques include: (1)
ganisms have developed mechanisms to deal with covering tailings (with soil, vegetation, clay, till,
excess exposure to metals. While some organisms polymer or cement-like materials) to reduce infiltra-
may consume others with higher metal concentra- tion; and (2) creation of artificial hard pans (using
tions, physiological mechanisms can prevent bioac- limonite, goethite, iron hydroxide) or blending alka-
cumulation. The effects of metals are thus more line and acidic wastes. Polluted soils can be removed
difficult to predict because of the variety of biogeo- (treated or disposed of), given new soil covers
chemical conditions and processes in the environ- (buried), or limed. Many such terrestrial remedial
rnent as well as internal processes which control improvements have been made in the Sudbury area
metal fate in organisms. in Canada (Crawford, 1995),
Biological studies will be essential if environmen- Metal-contaminated aquatic sediments can be
tal effects monitoring (EEM) techniques are devel- dredged (dewatered, leached, treated, and disposed
oped for mines. A Canadian study of the importance of in new, well-designed waste sites), buried, treated
of including biological as well as chemical tech- in situ (limed), or left to nature to restore. Other
niques to assess metal impacts took place in lakes aquatic techniques include creation of water covers
near two former gold mines. Jack of Clubs Lake in (anoxic conditions), or wetlands (to leach, filter con-
British Columbia and Larder Lake in Ontario were taminants and create anoxic conditions). Subaqueous
contaminated by mine tailings. These sites have been disposal of metal mine tailings is perhaps feasible in
examined in detail over the last few years, including abandoned and flooded, meromictic 'lakes' in aban-
assessments of metal impacts on benthic biology doned open mine pits such as the Crown Pillar pit at
(Azcue et al., 1994; Reynoldson et al., 1995). Differ- the former Mattabi Mine, near Ignace, Ontario (Bras-
ences in benthic community structure between Jack sard and Mudroch, 1994). Passive techniques for
 R. Alhm / Journal ~! Geochemical Lrploration 58 (1997) 95-100 97

remediation of metal-enriched, acidic groundwater tion. This definition is also valid in North America
using in situ, reactive walls is also a potentially but also implies atmospheric transport of metals over
important mitigation and remediation method being truly long distances (hundreds or even thousands of
investigated in Canada (Blowes et al., 1995). kilometres). Some of the more severe cases of trans-
Publications on mine site remediation and rehabil- boundary anthropogenic atmospheric metal pollution
itation are seldom found in the scientific journal in Europe are almost local in scale or at least sub-re-
literature because they are often more site manage- gional. In Fennoscandia, the definition of long-range
ment oriented. Of course, a great deal of research is transport is closer to that used in North America. In
usually required to determine what site management Canada, the South-East and the Arctic are the two
techniques to apply. Published papers on remediation regions where long-range transboundary atmospheric
often revolve around before and after photographs of transport and deposition of metals are known to
mining sites, for example the Sudbury area in Canada occur (Allan, 1996). Some of the metal sources to
(Crawford, 1995), and in this context, the reader is the former region have been traced to metal emis-
referred to Mining Encironmental Management, an sions in the eastern United States (Schroeder and
excellent publication with many reports on success- Markes, 1994) and some of the sources to the latter
fitl remediation and rehabilitation activities at mining region to similar emissions in central and eastern
sites around the world. Europe (Sturges and Barrie, 1989).
The vertical distribution of metals, especially
mercury, in Canadian lake sediment cores has been
3. Local and long-range atmospheric deposition of interpreted as evidence of increasing, long-range,
metal emissions anthropogenic input from the atmosphere (Lockhart
et al., 1995). The ratio of recent to geological Hg
Recently, there is a renewed and increasing inter- flux to lake sediments has been calculated for 51
e~t in both local and long-range atmospheric trans- lake sediment cores from lakes in five of the eight
port and deposition of metals in Europe and North circumpolar countries (Landers et al., 1996). Recent
America, particularly mercury, cadmium and lead increases range from zero to close to zero in Alaska
(UNECE, 1994). Some of the main anthropogenic, and north-central Russia to values of two times and
atmospheric sources for certain metals are related higher in southeastern Canada and southern
either directly to mining, as with emissions from Fennoscandia. Proper collection of freshwater lake
smelters, for example, or indirectly as with the burn- sediment cores is not simple. A recent workshop of
ing of coal to produce electric power. experts convened by the Electric Power Research
For metals emitted primarily in particulate form, Institute (EPRI), prepared a Protocol for the collec-
concentrations over background are usually found tion and analytical requirements needed to obtain
only within tens of kilometres of the source. Several lake sediment core data that can be adequately inter-
of the papers in this special volume deal with local preted. A critical requirement is radionuclide age
and regional geochemical impacts of smelter emis- dating with 2J°pb and 137Cs. Such dating is essential
sions, for example those concerned with the Russian to ensure that the surface layer of a core has been
smelter complexes in the Kola Peninsula. For metals collected and that the sedimentation rate is known.
emitted as very fine particulates or in gaseous form, This, in turn, allows accurate historical dates to be
atmospheric transport distances are considered to be assigned to the sediment layers analysed (EPRI,
far greater. In European countries, evidence for 1996).
hmg-range atmospheric transport and deposition of In Canada, concentrations of Hg can exceed food
metals from anthropogenic sources has been assem- consumption guidelines in specific native food items
bled and reduction of certain metal emissions pro- and in freshwater fish in many remote areas (Allan,
posed (UNECE, 1994). However, long-range atmo- 1996). Mercury concentrations in the blood of many
spheric transport in Europe is often synonymous aboriginal Canadians, especially the Inuit, sometimes
with transboundary movement of metals, i.e. trans- exceed 20 ppb, the lower limit for increasing risk
port from one country to another followed by deposi- (less than 20 ppb is the normal acceptable range)
98 R. Allan/Journal of Geochemical Exploration 58 (1997) 95-100

(Wheatley and Paradis, 1995). An unquantified com- pean totals of 301 and 626 tonnes, respectively
ponent of this Hg may come from long-range, an- (Doiron et al., 1996). In Canada, a program for
thropogenic atmospheric emissions such as those Voluntary Emission Reductions by mines and
from coal-fired power stations and smelters. smelters has since resulted in dramatic reductions in
There is always far more non-organic Hg present, metal emissions to the atmosphere. For example, an
for example in lake sediments, than present in aquatic 83% reduction in Hg emissions (from 25.2 to 4.4
biota where virtually all of the Hg is in the meth- tonnes) occurred between 1988 and 1995 (Mining
ylated form. The processes and factors controlling Association of Canada, 1996), with plans in place to
Hg methylation in aquatic ecosystems in Canada result in further reductions of this and other metals
have been researched for many years. Reduction or such as Pb and Cd. When estimating anthropogenic
removal of point source inputs has resulted in clear emissions of Hg, consideration should also be given
reduction in Hg concentrations in downstream biota to sources such as former railings of abandoned gold
in cases of extreme Hg pollution of aquatic ecosys- mines, even centuries old ones. This volume contains
tems (Allan et al., 1984). However, when contamina- several papers on Hg releases from present-day gold
tion of aquatic ecosystems with anthropogenic Hg is mining operations in the Amazon River basin of
less severe, for example from long-range atmo- Brazil. Emissions from Hg-contaminated waterways,
spheric transport and deposition of Hg from anthro- such as those downstream of former chlor-alkali
pogenic sources, the results of this on Hg concentra- plants may be an important source of anthropogenic
':ions in aquatic biota are not so clear. Hg to the atmosphere. Emissions of anthropogenic
The proportion of annual emissions of natural and and natural Hg from flooded soils, for example due
anthropogenic Hg to the atmosphere is a crucial to reservoir construction, also need to be better
question. Early estimates of natural Hg emissions in assessed.
lhe 1970's relied on analyses of deep glacier ice
from Greenland (Weiss et al., 1971) and from sites
around the world (Jaworowski et al., 1981). New 4. Natural metal anomalies
clean techniques for sample collection and analyses
of metals in water and ice were implemented in the The fact that metals are natural in origin and that
late eighties. Although the earlier estimate of Weiss background concentrations for metals vary across
et al. (1971) continues to be cited in recent publica- terrestrial, aquatic and atmospheric ecosystems, must
tions (IPCS, 1976, 1989), estimates since 1990 give always be taken into account in relation to all of the
the ratio of global annual natural/anthropogenic above issues concerning metal contamination or pol-
emissions as roughly 5 0 / 5 0 (OECD, 1994). The lution by mining-related activities. It is therefore of
most recent and widely accepted estimate of natural great importance to continue to try to complete
ttg emissions arose from an expert panel assembled national and global geochemical surveys of natural
in 1993 by the EPRI in the United States. Their metal concentrations in a variety of media. For
conclusions were that annual pre-industrial emissions smaller countries, metal surveys using sufficial me-
of Hg to the atmosphere were in the order of 1600 dia such as lake or stream sediments or soils have
tonnes and that anthropogenic emissions contributed been completed (Darnley et al., 1995). For larger
5:0 to 75% of the total annual natural plus anthro- countries, only certain districts have been surveyed
pogenic emissions of some 5000 tonnes (EPRI, geochemically. In Canada over the last twenty-five
1994). Anthropogenic Hg emissions in Canada in years, federal and provincial agencies have extended
1990 were 38.8 tonnes of which 30 tonnes came geochemical mapping over vast areas using aquatic
from base-metal smelters and associated plants, 4 sediments (Painter et al., 1994). The maps reveal
tonnes from coal-fired power stations, 3.3 tonnes global-scale metal concentrations of several metals,
from municipal waste incinerators and 1.5 from other extending over areas of tens to thousands of square
sources (Doiron et al., 1996). This 1990 Canadian kilometres in area. These natural concentrations of
total anthropogenic emission of some 39 tonnes of metals in aquatic sediments vary widely and can
I-[g can be compared to the United States and Euro- often exceed chemistry-based sediment quality
 R. Allan/Journal of Geochemical Exploration 58 (1997) 95-100 99

guidelines associated with metal pollution. Even Koval, P.V., Plant, J.A., Steenfelt, A., Tauchid, M. and Xue-
jing, Xie, with contributions by Garrett, R.G. and Hall, G.E.M.,
when aquatic systems have been contaminated or
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natural historical metal concentrations, for example Geochemical Mapping. Final Report of IGCP Project 259.
bv collecting deep lake sediments or by sampling UNESCO Publ. Earth Sci., 19, 122 pp.
buried layers of overbank sediment as found in some Doiron, C.C, Whalen, P.J. and Novaczek, I., 1996. Background
Information Paper for a Heavy Metals Protocol under the
of the papers contained in this special volume. Deter-
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