ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF STEELS

Literature Review
Performance Metrics
By
Sulaiman Idris
Student ID: 3685489
This paper is submitted as a requirement for course
ME6003
(Advance Additive Manufacturing)
Mechanical Engineering Department of the University of
New Brunswick.
Fall 2021
Supervisor: Dr. Mohsen Mohammadi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.0 Performance Metrics……….................................................................

4.1 High Strain Rate Behavior.........................................................................
4.2 Corrosion and Surface Protection ......................................................................
4.3 Fatigue and Life Assessment............................................................................
4.4 Warm and Hot Deformation ................................................................
4.5 Creep and Stress Relaxation…………………………………………….
REFERENCES
4.0 PERFORMANCE METRICS
4.1 HIGH STRAIN RATE BEHAVIOR
The strain rate in a material at a certain point measures the change in distances of opposite
pack of a material to change in time at that particular point. It constitutes the rate of expansion and
shrinkage of the material and the rate where the material deforms continuously without shear rate.
It accesses the alteration of materials with respect to change in distance over a period of time
making it a proven measurement for the study of corrosion process in materials and very important
to find the strength of the material and a spot on the material where corrosion could happen. High
strain rate incident happens within a short period of time and its beneficial to materials that has
elastic properties. (Ludmila K et al, 2019) analysed the dynamic mechanical behavior of maraging
steel specimen produced under LPBF using Split-Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) apparatus and
from results presented, it was shown that the elongation of as built samples are lower than the
annealed samples and this is as a result of precipitation hardening in the annealed sample.
Although, the values of elongation obtained in conventional samples are greater than the ones from
AM samples, precipitation hardening aided the significant increase in the AM steel strength
because of the precipitates produced that are distributed equally in the matrix which results in
dislocation pinning in the structure of the metal.
An adiabatic condition grows when there is an internal rise in temperature which gives a
load carrying capacity loss and this happens when metals are subjected to dynamic deformation at
high strain rate because there is conversion to heat by a part of the plastic work. Strain localization
happens in a tight band called adiabatic shear bands, when deformation continues, there will be no
fast heat dissipation from the extreme plastic deformation which results in the rise of internal
temperature of the material deformed (S. Dehgahi, et al, 2021), they concluded that fracture
happens in Maraging steels produced under LPBF as a result of cracks formed along with shear
bands and parallel to the maximum shear stress that is 45° to the impact direction and they arrived
at it after experimenting on as built samples and heat treated samples at a different strain rates.
(Nguyen VL, 2018) investigated the effect of laser scan speed on Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
manufactured steel, different scan speeds were used, the nano indentation strain rate values were
gotten for different scan speeds and the result showed that the scan speed at 200 mm/s gave the
highest hardness value to the other samples tested, and in conclusion ascertain that at 200mm/s
laser scan speed for H13 steel manufactured under SLM, it gives an excellent mechanical
properties and microstructures.
In higher strain rates, thermal softening occurs as a result of increase in heat generated
within the sample leading to increment in strain and the pattern of deformation changes because
of the increasing strain rate. Due to high cooling rate in LPBF process that makes material have
fine structure, the material attained lower dynamic strength at a strain rate of 3000 s −1 (S. Dehgahi,
et al, 2021) noted that a good source of strengthening when material undergoes high strain rate
deformation is the interactivity of precipitates and dislocations where the movement of
dislocations is impede by precipitates. In dynamic loading, increase in strain rate leads to increase
in dislocation density. Strain rate can also affects the texture development in an AM material, it
was reported in the investigation of (S. Dehgahi, et al, 2021) where they determine the relationship
between texture development and strain rate (different values) in as built samples and heat treated
samples that were tested under high strain rate compressive loads using split Hopkinson pressure
bar apparatus and the investigation reveals that there was drastic change in crystallographic texture
of as built sample because of high strain rate deformation, allowing imposed shear stress in the
dynamic compression test leads to the activation of slip systems which was a major effect on the
texture change of the samples. The heat treated samples did not experience any change in texture
as observed by the authors because no slip systems was activated.

4.2 CORROSION AND SURFACE PROTECTION

Corrosion occurs due to the electrochemical reaction between a material and the
environment. Factors that can affect the corrosion resistance of materials include surface
roughness, porosity, grain size and others. A surface that is smooth will have low corrosion
resistance. There are different methods to test the corrosion resistance which include salt spray
test, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy test, immersion test and potentiodynamic
polarization test (Shao, Y. 2020) Parameters that could assist in studying corrosion behavior
includes, passivation current density, passivation and trans passivation potential, critical current
density. Microstructure of materials influences the corrosion resistance and additive
manufacturing (AM) samples have a dendritic microstructure that is not acceptable for the
corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. (Cem Örnek, 2018) noted that to better understand
how corrosion behaves in AM parts, it needs a selected application relevant that must undergo
different corrosion conditions to corrosive medium and occurrence of different corrosion operation
because most study done so far chose the corrosive environment for corrosion testing, to get a
better view at macroscopic failure and microscopic initiation of corrosion the pH, concentration
and temperature needs to be modelled for analysis.
Potentiodynamic polarization test is commonly used in laboratory to test the corrosion
resistance of materials because it gives extensive result on corrosion rate, cathodic and anodic
behavior and passivity of the material. Tafel plot is a graph that shows the electrochemical kinetics
of two variables (electrochemical reaction measured in volts and potential measured in milli
amperes. (Schmidt, D. P et al, 2015) carried out a corrosion test on Laser Powder Bed Fusion
(LPBF) samples of AISI 4340 alloy steel and compared it with the results of wrought samples by
utilizing three different methods which includes electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS),
polarization test and potentiodynamic test. In the EIS, all samples have almost the same impedance
values at low frequency, the polarization resistance of the three samples were analysed and the
results were similar as well and lastly the potentiodynamic scan carried out on the three samples
showed that they all behave similarly with respect to the anodic direction. The corrosion rate of
the samples increased when the corrosion potential increases and the rate normalizes when there
was oxygen diffusion control. The major observation in the experiment is that the AM samples of
the alloy steel exhibit higher density and size of pitting attack due to the electrochemical tests and
this could be the effect of porosity of powder in AM process of the metal sample.
Maraging steel manufactured under DMLS have exhibited good corrosion resistance and
this was confirmed by (K. V. Durga Rajesh et al, 2021) when they carry out an experiment to
compare the corrosion behavior of Maraging steel and stainless steel 316L, the corrosion rate of
maraging steel is lower to stainless steel at 2% of NaCl solution during the test while the cathodic
coefficient of maraging steel is more than the stainless steel. (Özer, G., & Karaaslan, A. 2020)
studied the corrosion behavior of maraging steel manufactured under DMLS and the effects of
different heat treatment parameters and made an observation that as built sample displayed a good
corrosion resistance as compared to heat treated sample and this was because of the change in
microstructure during production and heat treatment of the sample. The important factor that starts
corrosion in the heat treated sample is micro galvanic cell formation because of potential difference
in the matrix precipitate instead of martensite microstructure, the corrosion increases slowly
because the force of the martensite in the matrix is higher than the expected stress to be applied by
the precipitate which increases the sensitivity of corrosion in the material along with the formation
of micro galvanic cell between the precipitate matrix.
The effect of heat treatment and drag finishing process was studied on the corrosion
behavior of maraging steel samples manufactured under Selective Laser Melting (SLM) and it was
found out that the drag finishing process have a little effect on the surface roughness of the sample
and the heat treatment doesn’t have a major effect on the corrosion behavior of the steel sample
although the drag finishing process increases the corrosion reaction than the heat treatment because
of emergence of cracks on the surface layer (Khan, H. M, 2021)

4.3 FATIGUE AND LIFE ASSESSMENT

Fatigue behaviour in parts produced under Additive Manufacturing (AM) deteriorates

because of complex residual stresses from the thermal gradient between layers formed. The quality
and endurance of parts manufactured under AM should be analysed to give more knowledge to
designers using the technology. The fatigue life depends on residual stresses, surface roughness
and internal defects that occurs during manufacturing process. Tensile residual stress is more
profound under a typical cyclic load. Aging treatment in maraging steel assists in the reduction of
residual stress in the material. The effects of cryogenic grinding on the fatigue life of AM maraging
steel was studied and the researchers pointed out that the when the sample was heat treated at 520
C for 8hrs, the strength and hardness increased significantly and it was subjected to a good heat
treatment process, it tensile strength increased by 36%. The cryogenic grinding process on the
material assisted in the reduction force and temperature thereby resulting in reduction of surface
roughness of the material leading to increase in number of cycle needed to cause failure of the
sample. The combination of good surface finish and improved compressive residual stress gotten
from cryogenic grinding can enhance the fatigue life of AM parts by 170% as concluded by (Balan,
A S et al, 2021). (A. Gatto et al, 2018) investigated how contamination of powder can affect the
fatigue life of AM part produced under Powder Base Fusion and it was compared with the forged
samples and observation was made that rupture surfaces and virgin powder prominence shows that
the contamination of the steel powders have adverse effect on the behavior of steel, the availability
of Ti alloy or Ti oxide particles in the raw material represents failures of mould inserts
manufactured in PBF maraging steel and this can be associated to supply chain glitches. The
authors reiterated that the contamination have huge effect on the fatigue life of the samples and
there is an extreme internal compositional anomaly which might be enough to be harmful to the
material life. Materials produced under PBF that are not contaminated exhibits good endurance
compared to forged samples.
A rotating bend fatigue test was carried out on as built sample of maraging steel and heat
treated sample of the same steel and it was reported that the maximum load curves from test
performed showed cyclic hardening in as built sample and cyclic softening in heat treated samples.
This experiment showed that fatigue strength of AM samples can be estimated using this test
(Tezel, T & Kovan V, 2021). (Massimo Pellizzari et al, 2020) analysed how building direction and
defectiveness affects the fatigue life of H-13 steel produced under Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
as few investigations have been done on it and it was summarised that the fatigue life of
conventional H13 steel is far better than H13 steel manufactured under SLM and they noted that
the fatigue resistance is an effect from defect size and location which is the LOF which dominates
the defect that unlocks the main crack that causes total failure, the anisotropy that causes fatigue
performance is associated to building direction because of the positioning of the layers with the
loading axis.
Lower threshold stress intensity factor was used to ascertain the results, large critical size
and sharp tip were pointed out as the cause of defects in the 0°-oriented sample that is opposite the
loading direction
4.4 WARM AND HOT DEFORMATION

The process of metal forming in steels can be carried out under warm or hot temperatures.
Warm and hot forming process can enhance the plasticity of material and decrease load forming
as compared to plastic deformation. Warm forming process is done on materials at a temperature
range lower than recrystallization temperature but above room temperature while hot forming is
carried out at a temperature higher than recrystallization temperature. Warm forming gives
material a good surface quality, grain structure and closer tolerances making it superior to room
and hot forming process. High precision constitutive equation could be used in the optimization of
hot and warm forming process to get high efficiency and high quality production. (Wang H et al,
2020). Hot deformation have been a proven method for the production of fine grain structures
which enhances the strength, fatigue performance and toughness of materials. It was pointed out
that Hybrid Additive Manufacturing (AM) processes were proposed to integrate AM processes
and conventional forming methods and Selective Laser Melting method were used to produce a
preform and hot forging process was done as final process to produce the final shape. The
combination reduces the time needed in pre forging process and reduce cost on dies whilst
upgrades the mechanical properties of the AM part (Bo Lan et al, 2021)
(Jun Jiang et al, 2017) (Catalin I. Pruncu et al, 2020) proposed an hybrid forming technique
which integrates AM process and hot forging process so as to achieve hot deformation process in
material produced under AM, and due to defects and unwanted features like texture, surface
roughness and coarse grains which reduces the mechanical properties and fatigue life, forming
process with a further heat treatment was introduced. The process was carried out and proven
successful with tensile and hardness test on a sample produced under AM and the major conclusion
was that the hot forging process gave a significant enhancement in the mechanical properties of
the AM samples where the tensile strength of the sample produced fast improve by 50% and the
one produced slow improved by 200% with ductility increased by 300% in both specimens and it
was noted that this enhancement was caused by reduction of void content refinement of grains. No
reports have shown how this combined process have been experimented on maraging steels
produced under AM but it has been reported for Titanium alloys and stainless steel which are even
limited (Irina Sizova & Markus Bambach, 2018), (Abdollah Saboori et al, 2020), (Markus
Bambach et al, 2021)

4.5 CREEP AND STRESS RELAXATION

Additive manufacturing (AM) process is done to manufacture components that can
withstand high temperature in aerospace and power industries and it is imperative that AM parts
have a dependable creep strength and high creep resistance as compared to there conventional
produced counterparts. Stress relaxation at elevated temperature have been studied on a timescale
of hours in conventional parts of titanium alloys, the timescale for stress relaxation during AM are
measured in seconds to minutes because laser travels in the order of 2–20 mm/s in Direct energy
Deposition (Zhuqing Wang et al, 2017). The rate of stress relaxation depends on the microstructure
of materials and gives indication that it is important to consider the physical process of creep
formation in material (Bo Chen et al, 2011). SP creep testing was used to test the creep resistance
of stainless steel manufactured under Selective Laser Melting at different scanning speeds and
insights derived was that as scanning speed reduces, the creep resistance increases likewise the
energy density and there was presence of huge amount of defects and voids that was not melted
present in the fracture surface that speeds us crack propagation and the author recommended an
energy density range of 80 to 110 J/mm3 which is equivalent to 416 to 572 mm/s of scanning speed
to improve creep resistance of SLM stainless steel (Yu, J. M. et al, 2020)
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