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Unit 1: Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

1.1 Form and Function of Anatomy & Physiology

 Anatomy – Study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another (Structure)
 Physiology – Study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities (Function)
 Subdivisions of Anatomy
 Gross or Macroscopic Anatomy – The study of large, visible structures (Eye level)
 Regional Anatomy – Looks at all structures in a particular area of the body
 Systemic (System) Anatomy – Looks at just one system
 Surface Anatomy – Looks at internal structures as they relate to overlying skin (visible muscle masses
or veins seen on surface)
 Microscopic Anatomy – Deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye
 Cytology – Microscopic study of cells
 Histology – Microscopic study of tissues
 Developmental Anatomy – Studies anatomical and physiological development throughout life
 Embryology – Study of developments before birth
 To study anatomy, one must know anatomical terminology and be able to observe, manipulate, palpate, and
auscultate
 Subdivisions of Physiology
 Based on organ systems (renal or cardiovascular physiology)
 Often focuses on cellular and molecular levels of the body
 Looks at how the body’s abilities are dependent on chemical reactions in individual cells.
 To study physiology, one must understand basic physical principles (electrical currents, pressure, and
movement) as well as basic chemical principles
 Complementarity of Structure and Function
 Function always reflects structure
 What a structure can do depends on its specific form
 Also known as the Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function
1.2 Structural Organization
 Human body is very organized, from the smallest chemical level to whole organism level
 Chemical Level – Atoms, molecules, and organelles
 Cellular Level – Single cell
 Tissue Level – Groups of similar cells
 Organ Level – Contains two or more types of tissues (sometime 4 types)
 Organ System Level – Organs that work closely together
 Organismal Level – All organ systems combined to make a whole organism
1.3 Requirements for Life
 Maintenance For Life Involves
 Maintaining Boundaries
 Separation between internal and external environments must exist
 Plasma membranes sperate cells
 Skin separates organism from environment
 Movement
 Muscular systems allow movement of
 Body parts via skeletal muscles
 Substance via cardiac muscle (blood) and smooth muscle (digestion, urination)
 Contractility refers to movement at the cellular level
 Responsiveness
 Ability to sense and respond to stimuli
 Withdrawal reflex prevents injury
 Controls breathing rate, which must change in response to different activities
 Digestion
 Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of simple molecules into blood
 Metabolism
 All chemical reactions that occur in body cells

Sections 1.1 – 1.6

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 Sum of all catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and anabolism (synthesis of molecules)

 Excretion
 Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
 Urea (from breakdown of proteins), carbon dioxide (from metabolism), feces (unabsorbed foods)
 Reproduction
 At the cellular level, reproduction involves division of cells for growth or repair
 At the organismal level, reproduction is the production of offspring
 Growth
 Increase in size of a body part or of an organism
 Humans are multicellular, so to function individual cells must be kept alive
 Organs systems are designed to service the cells
 All depends on organ systems to meet their survival needs
 There are 11 organ systems that work together to maintain life
 Integumentary System – Forms the external body covering and protects deeper tissues from injury
 Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands
 Skeletal System – Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause
movement
 Blood cells are formed within bones
 Bones store minerals
 Muscular System – Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression
 Maintains posture and produces heat
 Nervous System – As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external
changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
 Endocrine System – Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and
nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
 Cardiovascular System – Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients,
wastes, etc.
 The heart pumps blood
 Lymphatic System / Immunity – Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood
 Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
 Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity
 The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body
 Respiratory System – Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
 The gaseous exchange occurs through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
 Digestive System – Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body
cells
 Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated in feces
 Urinary System – Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
 Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of blood
 Male Reproductive System – Overall function is production of offspring
 Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to
the female reproductive tract
 Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
 The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus
 Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn
 Female Reproductive System – Overall function is production of offspring
 Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to
the female reproductive tract
 Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
 The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus
 Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn

1.4 Homeostasis

Sections 1.1 – 1.6

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 Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in
environment
 A dynamic state of equilibrium, always readjusting as needed
 Maintained by contributions of all organ systems
 Body must constantly be monitored and regulated to maintain homeostasis
 Nervous and endocrine systems, as well as other systems, play a major role in maintaining homeostasis
 Variables are factors that can change (blood sugar, body temperature, blood volume, etc.)
 Homeostatic control of variables involves three components: receptor, control center, and effector
 Receptor (sensor)
 Monitors environment
 Responds to stimuli (things that cause changes in controlled variables)
 Control Center
 Determine set point at which variable is maintained
 Receives input from receptor
 Determines appropriate response
 Effector
 Receives output from control center
 Provides the means to respond
 Response either reduces stimulus (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback)
 Negative Feedback
 Most used feedback mechanism in body
 Response reduce or shuts off original stimulus
 Variable change in opposite direction of initial change
 Examples
 Regulation of body temperature (a nervous system mechanism)
 Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (an endocrine system mechanism)
 Receptors sense increased blood glucose (blood sugar)
 Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin into the blood
 Insulin causes body cells (effectors) to absorb more glucose, which decrease blood glucose levels
 Positive Feedback
 Response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
 May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effects as feedback causes variable to continue in same direction as
initial change
 Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment, for example:
 Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
 Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
1.5 Anatomical Terms
 Standard Anatomical Position
 Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from body
 Directional terms describe one body structure in relation to another body structure
 Direction is always based on standard anatomical position
 Right and left refer to the body being viewed, not right and left of observer
 Orientation and Directional Terms
 Superior (Cranial) – Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
 The head is superior to the abdomen
 Inferior (Caudal) – Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below
 The naval is inferior to the chin
 Anterior (Ventral) – Toward or at the front of the body; in front of
 The breastbone is anterior to the spine
 Posterior (Dorsal) – Toward or at the back of the body; behind
 The heart is posterior to the breastbone
 Medial – Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
 The heart is medial to the arm
 Lateral – Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
 The arms are lateral to the chest
 Intermediate – Between a more medial and a more lateral structure
Sections 1.1 – 1.6
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 The collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and shoulder

 Proximal – Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
 The elbow is proximal to the wrist
 Distal – Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
 The knee is distal to the thigh
 Superficial (External) – Toward or at the body surface
 The skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles
 Deep (Internal) – Away from the body surface; more internal
 The lungs are deep to the skin
 Body Planes – Surfaces along which body or structures may be cut for anatomical study
 Three most common planes are:
 Sagittal plane
 Frontal (Coronal) plane
 Transverse (Horizontal) plane
 Sections – Cuts or sections made along a body plane
 Named after plane, so a sagittal cut results in a sagittal section
 Sagittal Plane
 Divides body vertically into right and left parts
 Produces a sagittal section if cut along this plane
 Midsagittal (median) Plane – Cut was made perfectly on midline
 Parasagittal Plane – Cut was off-centered, not on midline
 Frontal (Coronal) Plane
 Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts (front and back)
 Produces a frontal or coronal section
 Transverse (Horizontal) Plane
 Divides body horizontally (90 to the vertical plane) into superior and inferior parts (top and bottom)
 Produces a cross section
 Oblique Section
 Result of cuts at angle other than 90 to vertical plane
1.6 Body Cavities and Membranes
 Body contains internal cavities that are closed to environment
 Cavities provide different degrees of protection to organs within them
 Two sets of cavities
 Dorsal Body Cavity
 Ventral Body Cavity
 Dorsal Body Cavity
 Protects fragile nervous system
 Two Subdivisions
 Cranial Cavity
 Encases brain
 Vertebral Cavity
 Encases spinal cord
 Ventral Body Cavity
 Houses the internal organs (collectively called viscera)
 Two Subdivisions, which are separated by the diaphragm
 Thoracic Cavity
 Abdominopelvic Cavity
 Thoracic Cavity
 Two pleural cavities
 Each cavity surrounds one lung
 Mediastinum
 Contains pericardial cavity
 Surrounds other thoracic organs, such as esophagus, trachea, etc.
 Pericardial Cavity
 Encloses heart
 Abdominopelvic Cavity
Sections 1.1 – 1.6
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 Abdominal Cavity – Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver.

 Pelvic Cavity – Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
 Membranes in Ventral Body Cavity
 Serosa (also called serous membrane)
 Thin double-layered membranes that cover surfaces in ventral body cavity
 Partial Serosa – Lines internal body cavity walls
 Visceral Serosa – Covers internal organs (viscera)
 Double layers are separated by slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid
 Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane
 Named for specific cavity and organs that they are associated with
 Pericardium
 Heart
 Pleurae
 Lungs
 Peritoneum
 Abdominopelvic cavity
 Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
 Quadrants are divisions used primarily by medical personnel
 Nine divisions called regions, resembling a tic-tac-toe grid, are used primarily by anatomists

Sections 1.1 – 1.6

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mV_bLPRoS2w&list=PLAh9YZ2SZvVlWsRZa0faqwN4V_ydZmzhK
6/3/2020