Phytoremediation - Mechanisms, Plant Selection

Environmental Advances 8 (2022) 100203
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Environmental Advances
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/environmental-advances
Phytoremediation: Mechanisms, plant selection and enhancement by

natural and synthetic agents
Arjun Kafle a, Anil Timilsina b, Asmita Gautam c, Kaushik Adhikari d, Anukul Bhattarai e,
Niroj Aryal f, *
a
Department of Plant and Soil Science, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557
c
Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
d
Department of Crop and Soil Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164
e
Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
f
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Design, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC 27411
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: With current intensive agriculture practices and industrialization, pollution of natural resources like land and
Contaminants water with heavy metals, organic pollutants, radionuclides, pesticides, and fertilizers has become a major
Soil and water remediation concern. Phytoremediation is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly technique that utilizes plants to
Amendments
immobilize, uptake, reduce toxicity, stabilize, or degrade the compounds that are released into the environment
Plant-based technology
from different sources. Studies have shown that heavy metals, organic contaminants, radionuclides, antibiotics,
and pesticides can be remediated using plants. Though phytoremediation has been practiced since decades, it is
still an emerging technology. This review article summarizes existing information and synthesizes the recent
findings on plant species suitable for use in phytoremediation through utilizing different mechanisms, aids that
can enhance the efficiency of phytoremediation processes, and strengths and limitations that comes with the
application of this technique. Diverse plants remediate different pollutants at different rates through one or
multiple mechanisms. The limitations of phytoremediation can be overcome by using several aids including
natural and chemical amendments, genetic engineering and natural microbial stimulation. Given the low-cost of
phytoremediation compared to conventional technology and sustainability associated with plants and use of
renewable energy, phytoremediation can be a reliable solution for a sustainable and economical remediation of
soil and water from the organic and inorganic pollutants.
1. Introduction He et al., 2015; Su, 2014), radionuclides (Hu et al., 2010; Prakash et al.,
2013), organic compounds (Afzal et al., 2014), agrochemicals (Malik
Rapid rise in global population accompanied by ensuing demands for et al., 2017; Sunitha et al., 2012), and oil spills (Ron & Rosenberg,
food, water, energy, timber, and other ecosystem services has led to 2014). Mining activities, disposal of effluents from industries and resi
severe stresses on the natural resources and the environment (Kamran dential areas, heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides, and irrigation of
et al., 2021; Saleem et al., 2020c; Zaheer et al., 2020). Anthropogenic contaminated water have led to contamination of soils (Awad et al.,
activities including the agricultural intensification practices (Mózner 2014; Tang et al., 2015; Teng et al., 2014). Mining leads to disturbance
et al., 2012), speedy urbanization, and rapid industrialization (Cher of many soil properties, including pH, electrical conductivity, and cation
niwchan, 2012; Wu et al., 2016) are causing serious environmental exchange capacity (Saleem et al., 2020a). Consequently, HMs such as
pollution by heavy metals (HMs) and metalloids (Anyakora et al., 2013; Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni), Cadmium (Cd),
Abbreviation: HMs, Heavy metals; PCBs, Polychlorinated biphenyls; PAHs, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; TNT, 2,4,6- Trinitrotoluene; EDTA, Ethylene
Diamine Tetraacetic Acid; BCF, Bioconcentration Factor; TF, Translocation Factor; M-PC, Metal-Phytochelatin Complex; SBR, Sugar Beet Residue; EGTA, Ethylene
Glycol Tetra Acetic acid; SDS, Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate; PGPR, Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria; PGPE, Plant Growth Promoting Endophytic Bacteria; AMF,
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi; PAHs, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons.
* Corresponding author. 1601 E. Market St., Sockwell Hall Room 120, Greensboro, 27411.
E-mail address: naryal@ncat.edu (N. Aryal).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2022.100203
Received 27 November 2021; Received in revised form 12 February 2022; Accepted 24 February 2022
Available online 25 February 2022
2666-7657/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Kafle et al. Environmental Advances 8 (2022) 100203
Chromium (Cr), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn) and organic pollutants such Phytoremediation technique utilizes plants to remediate the
as hydrocarbons, aromatic compounds, phenols, organo-chlorinated contaminated media including soil and water. Phytoremediation is an
compounds, pesticides have been found at elevated concentrations in economically and environmentally favorable technique as it utilizes
the soil and sediments (Gutiérrez-Ginés et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2017b; green plants to contain, sequester or detoxify contaminants from
Song et al., 2017). contaminated soil and water (Ashraf et al., 2019). Phytoremediation
HMs accumulation in soil affects soil microbial population, processes utilizes many mechanisms including degradation (rhizo-degradation,
and their activity (Huang et al., 2009; Singh & Kalamdhad, 2011). The phytodegradation), accumulation (phytoextraction, rhizofiltration),
effects of HMs on microbial population changes and enzymatic activities dissipation (phytovolatilization), and immobilization (hydraulic control
are dependent upon the type of HMs and their chemical affinity (Karaca and phytostabilization) to degrade, remove, or immobilize the pollut
et al., 2010). For examples, cadmium (Cd) affects ureases, proteases and ants (Pivetz, 2001b). Depending upon the contaminants, plants utilize
basic phosphatases (Lorenz et al., 2006); lead (Pb) affects catalases, one or more of these mechanisms to reduce their concentrations from
ureases, invertase and acid phosphatase (Belyaeva et al., 2005); Arsenic soil and water. For examples, plants uptake and accumulate the HMs in
(As) affects sulfatase and phosphatase (Speir et al., 1999); and copper their tissues (Mahar et al., 2016) and degrade the organic pollutants
(Cu) restricts b-glucosidase (Geiger et al., 1998). High chromium (VI) (Saleem et al., 2020b) reducing their toxicity from soil and water
concentration in soil exhibits distinct toxicity characteristics causing resources.
negative effects in soil microbial cell metabolism (Huang et al., 2009). Different plant uses different methods or their combinations to
The ingestion of food crops contaminated with HMs can lead to remediate soil and water depending upon the contaminant types, forms,
bioaccumulation of HMs and subsequent biomagnification along the and media. Contaminated ground water can be remediated through
higher trophic levels in the food chain can threaten both animal and phytodegradation, phytovolatilization, rhizo-filtration, rhizo-degrada
human health (Singh & Kalamdhad, 2011). HMs accumulation in human tion and phytodegradation. Surface and wastewater contaminations can
body can cause serious complications in human health such as Itai-itai be treated by rhizofiltration, phytodegradation or rhizodegradation.
disease due to chronic Cd exposure (Pan et al., 2010); kidney dysfunc Soil, sediments or sludges contaminations are remediated through
tion and anemia due to Zn (Duruibe et al., 2007); mucosa corrosion, phytoextraction, phytodegradations, phytostabilization, rhizode
hepatic system failure and central nervous system damage due to Cu gradation or phytovolatilization.
(Singh & Kalamdhad, 2011); skin irritation and nervous system com Ideal plant species for phytoremediation purpose should be hardy in
plications due to Ni (Argun et al., 2007); cardiovascular problems and nature, high biomass-producing, tolerant to toxic effects of metals and
damage to nervous system due to Pb (Kazemipour et al., 2008; Singh & contaminants, easy to cultivate, have high absorption capacity, and be
Kalamdhad, 2011); abortion, nervous breakdown and skin rashes due to non-attractive for herbivory (Adesodun et al., 2010; Sakakibara et al.,
Hg (Duruibe et al., 2007); cancer due to Cr (Zohdi et al., 2012); and 2011; Shabani & Sayadi, 2012). In many cases, plant species cannot
carcinogenic and immune system dysfunction due to As (Duruibe et al., perform well and need aids to enhance phytoremediation. Such aids
2007). include soil amendments like biochar (Paz-Ferreiro et al., 2014),
Among different organic contaminants, chlorinated solvents, petro Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid (EDTA) (Shahid et al., 2014),
leum hydrocarbons explosives (Alkorta & Garbisu, 2001), poly endophytic bacteria (Afzal et al., 2014), Arbuscular mycorrhiza (Gaur &
chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Adholeya, 2004) or even transgenic plants (Abhilash et al., 2009;
(PAHs), pyrene, and trinitrotoluene (TNT) (Chekol & Vough, 2001) are Kawahigashi, 2009). They promote the phytoremediation process either
major soil contaminants. Pesticides that often contaminate soils include by reducing the toxicity of pollutants or increasing the availability of
atrazine, dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene, dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane pollutants or promoting the growth of plants.
(DDT), and 1,2,4- trichlorobenzene (Chiou et al., 2001). These pollut Previous articles have provided information regarding techniques
ants seriously affect the soil biota, mineral nutrients availability, and soil (Jadia & Fulekar, 2009; Sharma & Pathak, 2014; Willey, 2007), plants
productivity because of their persistence in soil for long period of time used (Banuelos et al., 1997; Cheng, 2003; Pilon-Smits & Pilon, 2002),
and toxicity. factors affecting the processes (Antoniadis et al., 2017; Sheoran et al.,
Like soils, water resources have also been contaminated by different 2016), aids or stimulators (Coninx et al., 2017; Hovsepyan & Greipsson,
pollutants. Urbanization and industrialization activities release toxic 2005; Ullah et al., 2015) and are either specific to soil (Belouchrani
heavy metals through the sewage, runoff and effluents contributing to et al., 2016; Romeh, 2015; Waigi et al., 2017) or water resources (Nazir
largest share of factors for water contamination (Masindi & Muedi, et al., 2020; Rezania et al., 2015; Ugya & Imam, 2015). Comprehensive
2018; Parveen et al., 2020; Saleem et al., 2020a). Over 80% of world’s information on maximizing the contribution of each phytoremediation
wastewater reach to environment without treatment causing nearly 58% mechanism by appropriate selection of plants, and ways to further
of health issues like diarrhea, which is a major cause for early child enhance the performance of phytoremediation technology is still lack
dealth (Connor et al., 2017). Among metals, Cu, Ni, Pb, Cd, Cr, U, and Zn ing. Recent review article also suggested need for information on the
frequently contaminate water resources (Prasad & Freitas, 2005). The practicability of phytoremediation and the aids that can enhance the
HMs degrade the quality of water and can lead to water-borne health phyto-processes (Wei et al., 2021). Moreover, information from latest
hazards through heavy metal accumulation in the food chain (Wong research on phytoremediation using new plant species, or alternative
sasuluk et al., 2014). Apart from HMs, organic pollutants contaminate mangagment practices, or new contaminants need to be comprehended
water resources either by erosion, seepage, sludge and effluents from (Kurade et al., 2021). Consequently, this paper attempts to bring
municipal waste and industries, and runoff from agricultural practices together reports and findings on mechanisms that plants utilize and how
(Diez, 2008) and mining (Tanhan et al., 2007). These contaminants can selection of plants can maximize the benefits of each mechanism, on
accumulate over time and negatively affect the aquatic as well as strengths and limitations of the phytoremediation technology, and on
terrestrial ecosystems. ways to further enhance phytoremediation of pollutants including HMs
Remediation of the soil and water pollutants for sustaining and organic pollutants in soil and water. We searched published litera
ecosystem processes and functions is one of the major challenges our tures via different online search engines, reviewed, and summarized the
society faces today. Many physical, chemical, and biological approaches findings on the topic of phytoremediation, and how the phytor
have been employed for remediating the environmental pollution, emediation has been applied to remediate different contaminants. We
however, their applications are limited due to the cost and labor re present the concept of phytoremediation, its strengths and limitations,
quirements, safety hazards, and risks to ecosystems (Ali et al., 2013). An mechanisms involved, and ways to overcome the limitations by utilizing
alternative technique, phytoremediation, can be an effective technique aids that can enhance the phytoremediation processes.
and is gaining popularity, acceptance, and implementation.
2
Fig. 1. Phytoremediation processes and their associated functions
2. Phytoremediation Mechanisms and Plants for Optimization of water using different mechanisms depending upon plant species and
Each Mechanism environmental conditions (Anton & Mathe-Gaspar, 2005; Antoniadis
et al., 2017). Interaction of plants with the environment (soil, water, and
Plants can remove organic and inorganic contaminants from soil and air) and microorganisms play a crucial role in removing the
Table 1.
Plants known to utilize phytoextraction during phytoremediation
Common Name Scientific Name Contaminants Remarks Reference
Rattlebush Sesbania drummondii Pb EDTA enhanced uptake of Pb and accumulation. Barlow et al. (2000)
Chinese Brake Pteris vittate Arsenic (As) 126-fold Arsenic in the shoots vs. soil, without the need of chelating agents or other Salido et al. (2003)
ferns soil amendments.
Indian Mustard Brassica juncea Pb chelating agents like EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra-acetate) is applied to soil to Salido et al. (2003)
mobilize Pb and facilitate extraction.
Lettuce Lactuca sativa Ni, Co, and Fe Higher absorption capacity and lower intrinsic velocity Hernández et al.
(2019)
Perennial rye Lolium perenne Ni, Co, and Fe Greater survival time Hernández et al.
grass (2019)
Vygies Mesembryanthemum Pb Bacteria tolerant to Pb used Manzoor et al.
criniforum (2019)
Geranium Pelargonium hortorum Pb Bacteria tolerant to Pb used Manzoor et al.
(2019)
Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum Cd Cd higher in stems and leaves Yang et al. (2019b)
Corn Zea mays Pb, Ti Chelators induced the phytoextraction of Pb and Ti Huang et al. (2019)
Black Nightshade Solanum nigrum Cd, Pb PASP (polyaspartate) or LAAF (liquid amino acid fertilizer) enhance the extraction He et al. (2019)
process
Garden Geranium Pelargonium hortorum Pb, Cd EDTA enhanced Pb and Cd phytoextraction Gul et al. (2019)
Sedum Alfredii Sedum alfredii Pb Compounded activation agent enhanced the Pb phytoextraction Ning et al. (2019)
Hance
Common Xanthium strumarium Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn Has highest BCF for Ni-1.651, Cd-1.574 and Pb-1.048. Khalid et al. (2019)
Cocklebur
Alpine pennygrass Thlaspi caerulescens Cd, Zn Cd transported by Zn and Ca pathway Cosio et al. (2004)
Mouse ear cress Arabdidopsis helleri Cd, Zn Cd transported by other pathways Cosio et al. (2004)
Commelina Commelina communis Cu Hyperacumulator species of Commelina had Cu concentration >1000 µg/g Wang et al. (2004)
3
Table 2.
Plants known to utilize phytostabilization or phytoimmobilization mechanism for various pollutants
Common Name Scientific Name Contaminants Remarks Citations
Holy rope/ hemp-agrimony Eupatorium As Citric acid (CA) addition 20 mg/ L addition favored González et al. (2019)
cannabinum phtostabilization
Coastal Mallow/ Seashore Kosteletzkya Cd, Zn Salinity favors plants against metal toxicity. Cytokinin promotes Zhou et al. (2019)
Mallow pentacarpos Zn resistance.
Willow Salix sps. Cd Non-flooding Salix has higher BCF than flooding species Yang et al. (2019a)
Black nightshade Solanum nigrum Cu, Zn, Cd 10% biochar/attapulgite addition recommended Li et al. (2019)
Sunflower Helianthus annuus Cu, Zn, Pb, Hg, As, Cd, Vermicompost as an supplement, usually for low level of metal Jadia and Fulekar
Ni contaminants (2008)
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata Pb, Zn Mine waste phytostabilization Kshirsagar and Aery
(2006)
contaminants (Dary et al., 2010). The effectiveness of remediation de

Table 3.
pends on the contaminant, the plant species, and the soil. Plant biomass
Plants known to utilize rhizofiltration during phytoremediation
and metabolism play a critical role in the efficiency of remediation,
which is affected by soil pH, electric conductivity, organic matter con Common Scientific Contaminants Remarks Citations
Name Name
tents, microbial processes, and other soil amendments (Anton & Math
e-Gaspar, 2005; Nissim et al., 2018). Carolina Azolla As BCF: 0.000397 Favas
mosquito caroliniana et al.
Phytoremediation potential of the plants are generally evaluated by
fern/ (2012)
determining Bioconcentration Factor (BCF), described as the ratio of Water
pollutant concentration in the plant parts to that in the media, and Velvet
Translocation Factor (TF), defined as the ratio of elemental accumula Water Eichhornia Fe, Cr, Cu, Cd, Translocation Rai
tion in plant’s shoot compared to plant’s root (Wu et al., 2011). Based on hyacinth crassipes Zn, Ni, As factor: Fe: 0.69, (2019)
Cr:0.56, Cu:0.79,
the processes of phytoremediation involved in the remediation of toxic
Cd:0.78, Zn:0.67,
contaminants from soil and water, the overall mechanisms of phytor Ni:0.55, As:0.45
emediation depicted in Fig. 1 are explained in detail. Water Callitriche As BCF: 0.002346 Favas
starwort lusitanica et al.
(2012)
2.1. Phytoextraction Pond-water Callitriche U BCF: 0.00194841 Pratas
starwort stagnalis et al.
Phytoextraction or phytoaccumulation, involves the absorption of (2012)
Water moss Fontinalis U BCF: 0.00023479 Pratas
toxic metals by plant roots followed by translocation of absorbed metals
antipyretica et al.
to shoots and deposition at vacuole, cell wall, cell membrane, and other (2012)
metabolically inactive parts in plant tissues. The hyperaccumulator Duckweed Lemna minor U BCF: 0.0000529 Pratas
plants, known for remedy of HMs, accumulate a higher concentration of et al.
toxic metals in their root and shoot tissues. The general mechanisms (2012)
Water Callitriche As BCF: 0.000523 Favas
durings accumulation of toxic HMs include absorption of metal cations starwort brutia et al.
followed by metal-phytochelatin complex (M-PC) or metal-ligand com (2012)
plex formation inside the plant cell (Lajayer et al., 2019). After forming Cattail Typha Cu, Pb, Ni, Fe, Industrial waste Chandra
the M-PC, these complex molecules are translocated to the plants’ vac angustifolia Mn, and Zn containing phenol and
(100–800 mg l− 1) Yadav
uole and stored (Yadav, 2010). The extraction potential of plant species
and melanoidin (2010)
is mainly determined by plant biomass and the concentration of HMs in (2500–8500
aboveground plant tissues (Li et al., 2010). Therefore, a best suited Co–Pt)
phytoremediation species not only need to tolerate and effectively Threadleaf Ranunculus As BCF: 0.000354 Favas
absorb HMs but also be fast-growing with high biomass production and crowfoot trichophyllus et al.
(2012)
provide economic benefits (Bian et al., 2020). Consequently, certain
plant species are more suited to utilize phytoextraction process during
phytoremediation of certain metals (Table 1). For examples, Sesbania trifluralin and transform it into bound residue (Li et al., 2002). The
drummondii for Pb (Barlow et al., 2000), Pteris vittata for As (Salido et al., contaminants can be immobilized in the rhizosphere with the help of
2003), Sedum alfredii for Cd (Zhou & Qiu, 2005), Commoelina communis phytochemical exudates, or trapped in the root surface with the help of
for Cu (Wang et al., 2004), etc. have been found to primarily utilize transport protein, or sequestered inside the vacuole of root cell through
phytoextraction for several metals. Some plant growth-promoting bac cellular processes (ITRC, 2009). HMs and some organic contaminants
teria, i.e., Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Agrobacterium sp are found can be converted into non-toxic compounds through conjugation with
to multiply the Arsenic (As) phytoaccumulation in Arundo donax derivatives of sugars, proteins, and amino acids or making complexes in
(Guarino et al., 2020). the rhizosphere. For instance, plant root epidermis immobilized Arsenic
(As) through binding As to ferric sulfate within vacuoles and forming a
2.2. Phytostabilization/Phytoimmobilization trivalent complex of As-tris-thiolate in the rhizosphere (Hammond et al.,
2018). The hydrophobic organic contaminant can be bound to the sur
The remediation can be achieved through inactivation or immobili face of the cell wall by hemicellulose and the lipid bilayer of the plasma
zation of toxicants or pollutants within the roots or in the rhizosphere. membrane (Hussain et al., 2009). Glutathione, secreted by plant en
The stabilizing activity of plant roots limits contaminant mobility and zymes glutathione synthetase was found to conjugate organic contami
bioavailability resulting in the lowered toxic effects. Some plants form nants and detoxify their effects (Hussain et al., 2009). Besides, some
bound residue of toxic contaminants which are not further available in enzymes or organic chemicals released due to soil-root interaction or
the poisonous form or cannot be released from the solid matrix after due to the presence of pollutants help in stabilization of toxic chemicals
accumulation. For example, Ryegrass plant can uptake herbicide (Reboreda & Caçador, 2008; Sun et al., 2010). Gujarathi et al. (2005b)
4
Table 4.
Plants known to ulilize phytovolatilization during phytoremediation
Common Scientific Name Contaminants Remarks Citations
Name
Rabbitfoot Polypogonmon speliensis As dimethylchloroarsine (AsCl(CH3)2) and pentamethylarsine(As(CH3)5) is Ruppert et al.

grass volatilized. More toxic form of As organic form are not volatilized (2013)
Common rush Juncus effuses Ammonium Methane is also released. Wiessner et al.
(2013)
Perennial Phragmites australis Organochlorines (OCs) 1,4-dichlorobenzene (DCB), 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (TCB), and San Miguel
reed grass γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (γHCH) is volatilized. Solubility and volatility of et al. (2013)
the OCs affects translocation from roots to shoots
Broccoli Brassica oleracea var. italica Se Methyl selenate are volatilized and is favoured by chelating agents Raskin et al.
addition. (1997)
Mustard Brassica juncea Se Brassica spp also has potentiality of phytovolatilization of Se Banuelos et al.
(1997)
Willow Salix sps tricholoroethylene (TCE) and Willow is an important phytoremediating plant due to it huge biomass as Gordon et al.
tretracholoroethylene (PCE) well as it’s ability to use various phytoremediation mechanism. (1998)
Hybrid poplar Populus trichocarpa χ TCE, PCE Hybrid poplar trees HII varieties are popular for TCE phytovolatilization. Gordon et al.
tree Populus deltoïdes, (1998)
designated HI 1
Saltmarsh Scirpus robustus Se Wetlands plants Arthur et al.
bulrush (2005)
Parrot’s Myriophyllum brasiliense Se Wetlands plants Pilon-Smits
feather et al. (1999)
Iris-leaved Juncus xiphioides Se Wetlands plants Pilon-Smits
rush et al. (1999)
Broad leaf Typha latifolia Se Wetlands plants Pilon-Smits
cattail et al. (1999)
reported that the root-secreted compounds of Helianthus sps root cata either adsorb or absorb the contaminants and clean the ground or sur
lyzed disintegration and removal of tetracycline (TC) and oxytetracy face water resources. Generally aquatic plants are involved in phytor
cline (OTC). Also, antioxidant enzymes like peroxidase were found to emediation through rhizofiltration (Table 3). This method is mostly
play a vital role in the detoxification of 2,4-D herbicide through poly effective for remediation of soil and water highly contaminated with
merization (Agostini et al., 2003). A number of plants known to use nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous (Mithembu, 2012). Rhizo
phytostabilization mechanisms are listed in the table (Table 2) below. sphere nitrification by plant roots followed by subsequent denitrifica
Various bioaccumulation enhancers can improve the efficiency of tion can remove the ammonia in aqueous media (Sikhosana et al., 2020).
contaminant stabilization. The rhizofiltration of HMs contaminated water sites can lead to root
mediated precipitation and fixation inside the root in an insoluble form.
2.3. Rhizofiltration For example, sunflower and mustard can filter Pb contaminated water
by precipitation of Pb-phosphate in the root (Dushenkov et al., 1995).
Rhizofiltration involves removing toxic substances using plant roots Besides, some endophytic bacteria that live inside the root surface help
in a saturated zone to remediate aqueous contaminants from waste in the rhizofiltration process. Specific strains of Pseudomonas and
water, ground water or surface water through adsorption, concentration Ochrobacterium inside the plant root surface reduced hexavalent Cr
and precipitation onto roots or other submerged organs of metal tolerant (Cr-VI) into trivalent Cr (Cr-III). The reduced Cr-III is then easily
aquatic plants (Jadia & Fulekar, 2009). In this technique, plant roots precipitated inside the plant root thus cleaning up the water (Dimitroula
Table 5.
Plants known to utilize phytodegradation during phytoremediation
Blumea Blumea Malachite Green (93.41% decolorization Phytodegradation of industrial waste Kagalkar et al.
malcolmii within 24 h (2011)
Elodea Elodea DDT Degradation catalyzed by enzyme cofactors or biomolecules. Garrison et al.
canadensis (2000)
Kudzu Pueraria DDT Reductive dehalogenation of DDT Garrison et al.
thunbergiana (2000)
Unicellular Chlorella Pentachlorophenol (PCP) Algae activity may have been reduced by the cycling of light exposure Headley et al.
green algae pyrenoidosa (2008)
Pickly burr Datura innoxia Petroleum Petroleum degradation was higher in vegetated contaminated soil than non- Lucero et al.
vegetated soil (1999)
Cockspur coral Erythrina crista- Petroleum Differences in anatomic structure of roots de Farias et al.
tree galli (2009)
Coral Ipomoea carnea Textile azo dyes Induction of hairy roots in explants of in vitro grown seedlings of Ipomoea Jha et al.
carnea J. with Agrobacterium rhizogenesfavoured phytodegradation (2016)
Ipil-ipil Leucaena Ethylene dibromide (EDB; First evidence of tropical tree to remediate EBD and TCE like organic Doty et al.
leucocephala dibromoethane) and trichloroethylene pollutants (2003)
(TCE)
Perennial reed Phragmites Ibuprofen P. australis could be a good plant in construction on wetland He et al.
grass australis (2017)
Water hyacinth Pontederia sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) removal efficiency as well as degradation of SDS were enhanced by ascorbate Gong et al.
crassipes peroxidase (APX) activity in the presence of Chromolaenaodorata L. extract. (2019)
Duck weed Spirodela ofloxacin (OFX) (93.73–98.36%) reduction in OFX Singh et al.
polyrhiza (2019)
5
Table 6.
Plants known to utilize rhizodegradation during phytoremediation
Eastern Tripsacum Herbicities (Atrazine) Atrazine (ATR) degradation enhanced by 84 to 260% Lin et al. (2011)
gamagrass dactyloides
Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon Total petroleum hydrocarbons Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) are degraded by 81% Nguemté et al.
(TPHs) (2018)
Rapeseed Brasssica napus 2,4-Dichlorophenol Peroxidase enhances the degradation of the 2,4-DCP Agostini et al.
(2003)
Mangrove Kandelia candel (L.) phenanthrene (Ph) and pyrene Dissipation of Ph (47.7%) and Py (37.6%) was observed in rhizosphere. Lu et al. (2011)
Druce (Py)
Chinaberry tree Melia azedarach Benzo(a)pyrene Cd-resistant plant is required for degradation of benzo(a)pyrene Kotoky and Pandey
(2020)
European Rubus fruticosus polycyclic aromatic High molecular weight PAHs are degraded with natural grown blueberries Alagić et al. (2016)
blackberry hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Black willow Salix nigra Perchlorate Enhancement of rhizodegradation by organic carbon Yifru and Nzengung
(2008)
Cucurbits Cucurbita sps. Polycyclic aromatic PAHs degradation are enhanced by plant-bacterial interaction Ely and Smets
hydrocarbons (PAHs) (2017)
Sesbania Sesbania cannabina Pb Natural plant-microbe interaction in the rhizosphere of S. cannabina was Maqbool et al.
efficient enough to degrade petroleum hydrocarbon (2012)
Maize Zea mays Petroleum Inoculation Piriformospora indica could enhance the degradation of petroleum Zamani et al. (2018)
hydrocarbons
et al., 2015). Bioconcentration factor for several metals by aquatic

Table 7.
plants, which are suitable for rhizofiltration applications, was as high as
Plants known to utilize phytodesalination mechanism during phytoremediation
0.001948 of dry weight of plant (Table 3).
Common Scientific Contaminants Remarks Citations
Name Name
2.4. Phytovolatilization
Alkali grass Puccinellia Sodium ion Irrigation could Xu et al.
nuttaliana (Na+), increase the (2019)
Phytovolatilization involves a series of steps. First, plants take up chloride ion contaminats
contaminants from the soil and transform the less volatile chemicals into (Cl− ) bioaccumulation
more volatile forms, and lose the contaminants to the atmosphere Cattail Typha latifolia Na+, Cl− Irrigation could Xu et al.
through volatilization process. This technique works well when the increase the (2019)
contaminats
volatilized contaminants have less toxic effects when partitioned from bioaccumulation
soil to the atmosphere. The volatilization method works well mostly for Sea purslane Sesuvium Na+ S. portulacastrum Rabhi
organic pollutants (Limmer & Burken, 2016). While some compounds portulacastrum Na+accumulation et al.
can directly volatilize from stem and leaves, some compounds can is more suitable in (2010)
arid regions.
volatilize because of the root-soil interaction. The hydrophobic organic
Water Ipomoea Na+ I. aquatic have Islam
compounds exitstem and leaves from the hydrophobic barriers of the spinach aquatica phytodesalination et al.
plant, such as cuts, epidermis, suberin, and other dermal layers. Also, capacity of 130 kg (2019)
some compounds move upward in the plant system through the tran Na+ ha− 1).
spiration stream and can be lost into the atmosphere during the process Alligator Alternanthera Na+ Alligator weed Islam
weed philoxeroides have et al.
of transpiration. The trifluralin compounds are reported to be residue phytodesalination (2019)
bound and transpired from the leaves by ryegrass (Li et al., 2002). capacity of 105 kg
Several plants are capable of volatilizing the toxic organic contaminants Na+ ha− 1.
through volatilization mechanism and releasing it to the atmosphere in Water Ludwigia Na+ L. adscendens have Islam
primerse adscendens phytodesalination et al.
benign form (Table 4).
capacity of 80 kg (2019)
Na+ ha− 1.
2.5. Phytodegradation and rhizodegradation Honeysuckle Lonicera Na+ Leaching of Na+is Yan
japonica favoured by et al.
Thunb honeysuckle (2016)
Plants can metabolize and destroy contaminants within plant tissues
through the process known as phytodegradation. Organic pollutants
such as pesticides can be remediated through degradation or trans hydrocarbons (Liu et al., 2017a). A study on phytodegradation also
formation by various plant parts. In phytodegradation, plant parts can revealed some intermediate product formation and detoxification of
play a crucial role directly or indirectly. In the direct process, plant Ibuprofen through metabolism in australia (He et al., 2017). The satu
absorbs the contaminants and metabolizes or breaks into small less rated hydrocarbons go through the degradation process because they act
harmful compounds and distributes it within plant tissue. As plants do as source of carbon for rhizosphere bacteria (Liu et al., 2017a). There
not contain active transporters, these organic contaminants are absor fore, some microbes living synergistically on plant root surface metab
bed through passive uptake. When degradation of contaminants occurs olize and degrade the organic contaminants (Van Eerd et al., 2003). The
in rhizosphere the process is called rhizodegradation. Tables 5 and 6 rhizospheric microbes can mineralize the organics like polyaromatic
enlist the plants known to utilize phytodegradation and rhizode hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls. Moreover, the enzymatic
gradation, respectively for specific contaminants. The chlorinated hy degradation by some enzymes, such as dehalogenase, nitro-reductase,
drocarbons can be dechlorinated and transformed into non-toxic laccase peroxidase etc., secreted by specific plants and associated
chemicals by plants such as Tegetes patula, Ipomea balsamina, and Mir microbe species act on hazardous xenobiotics (Cherian & Oliveira,
abilis jalapa. The reductive dehalogenation of DDT was also observed in 2005). Brassica napus root culture was found to degrade 2,4-DCP (2,
aquatic plant Elodea and terrestrial plant Kudzu (Garrison et al., 2000). I 4-Dichlorophenol) through oxidation (Agostini et al., 2003), however,
balsamina, and P nil were found to absorb and degrade petroleum
6
Fig. 2. Phytoremidiation aids, mechanisms involved and their effect on phytoremediation (SBR = Sugar beet residue, EDTA = Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid,
EGTA = Ethylene glycol tetra acetic acid, SDS = sodium dodecyl sulfate, PGPR = Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria, PGPE = Plant growth promoting endophytic
bacteria, AMF = Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi)
the main mechanism of polymerization was enhanced by peroxidase from the soil and recover the saline soil to increase productivity, by a
(Table 5). process called phytodesalination. Saline soil decreases the reduction
potential that leads to dehydration and alters plant physiology (Arif
et al., 2020). Excessive saline exposure is also harmful to soil organisms
2.6. Phytodesalination and plants which are susceptible to saline stress. As a biological and
clean approach, halophytic plants are used for desalination purposes
Some salt-tolerant plants can extract significant amounts of salts
7
(Table 7). The halophytic plants tolerate a higher halogen level in their soil can be accompanied by increasing adsorption sites on the soil sur
growing environment i.e., soil or groundwater, because of their phylo face, water and nutrient retention, water holding capacity, biological
genetic adaptation. These plants uptake Na+ and Cl− and accumulate activity, and nutrient cycling. Application of wood biochar in soil
these salt ions in plant root and shoot. Alternatively, plants remediate decreased As, Cd, and Cu contents in shoots of Zea mays and Pb content
soil through enhanced leaching of salts from the soil by expansive roots in the soil (Namgay et al., 2010). In another study, bamboo and rice
improving the soil porosity. Lonicera japonica (Yan et al., 2016) and straw biochar increased the plant biomass of Sedum plubizincicola, and
some of the halophytic plants enlisted in Table 7 contributes to phyto Cu and Pb concentration were reduced by 46 and 71 %, respectively, in
desalination through its plant growth and physiology. The halophytic plant shoots by the addition of rice straw biochar (Lu et al., 2014). In a
legumes and rhizospheric bacteria can play an important role in recent study, biochar and hydrochar addition in mining soils improved
enhancing the leaching of Na+ ions. Microbes involved and catalytic phytoremediation by Sinapis alba (Cárdenas-Aguiar et al., 2020). In
activity of root exudates dissolve the CaCO3 releasing Ca++ ion. The another study conducted by Chuaphasuk and Prapagdee (2019),
Ca++ ion released replaces the Na+ ion from salts, and the rate of biochar-immobilized bacteria showed improvement in cadmium phy
leaching or desalination increases (Rabhi et al., 2015). toextraction by Chlorophytumlaxum sps R.Br. Despite various benefits,
the use of biochar holds some limitations. Biochar making process, i.e.,
3. Aids for enhanced phytoremediation pyrolysis, can be harmful to the environment and may cause air pollu
tion (dos Santos Barbosa et al., 2006). It has also been reported that
While phytoremediation can accomplish contaminant removal, there biochar may influence pre-emergence herbicide in the agriculture field
is a scope for further performance enhancement by utilizing different (Jones et al., 2011) or contribute to release HMs or polycarbonate hy
aids such as synthetic and natural amendments, microbes, and geneti drocarbon in the soil (Méndez et al., 2012).
cally modified plants. These aids improve the formation of metals - Artificial root exudates can lower the pH in rhizosphere facilitating
chelators complexes, increase plant resistance and tolerance level to the dissolution of metal ions thereby improving phytoextraction of HMs
metals, and enhance translocation and accumulation of metals within from the soil (Thangavel & Subbhuraam, 2004). Lu et al. (2017) applied
the plants, thereby increasing overall phytoremediation efficiency artificial root exudates including glucose, organic acid and serine in soil
(Fig. 2). More detailed explanations for different phytoremediation aids contaminated with an organic pollutant pyrene. The results indicated
and mechanisms behind it are discussed below. enhanced degradation of pyrene by glucose compared to organic acids
and serine. The enhancement was likely due to the effects of root exu
3.1. Amendments dates on dehydrogenase activity and microbial community. As an
alternative to chemical chelators, humic acid was used as an phytor
Amendments, either natural or synthetic, are applied in soil as an aid emediation aid in metal contaminated soil (Evangelou et al., 2004;
to improve phytoremediation efficiency mainly by increasing phytoex Figueroa et al., 2008; Halim et al., 2003). The organic matter with humic
traction, plant growth, and water and nutrient retention (Fig. 2). Natural substances can immobilize metal ions by forming stable complexes with
amendments are produced by processing natural materials such as sugar ions (Hattab et al., 2014). Since Cu and Pb ions have a strong affinity to
beet, paper, rice staw etc. In contrast, chemical amendments consist of the organic matter, these metal ions’ low bioavailability suggests that
synthetic chemicals. metal binding to humic acids may occur (Wiszniewska et al., 2016). In
the study conducted by Bandiera et al. (2009), humic substances effec
3.1.1. Natural organic amendments tively transported metals to the shoots of fodder radish due to natural
Natural organic amendments are naturally produced materials used chelating properties.
to improve phytoremediation. Sugar beet residue (SBR), produced after
sugar extraction and fermentation process, when used by treating with 3.1.2. Chemical amendments (synthetic chelators)
Aspergillus niger, enhanced plant growth and phytoextraction process Chemical enhanced technology is an effective method to facilitate
due to the presence of a high number of polysaccharides and phospha HMs uptake and their translocation in the plants (Jiang et al., 2019; Yan
tase (Azcón et al., 2009; Medina et al., 2006). A few studies observed an & Lo, 2012). There are several chemical amendments (chelating agents)
enhancement of phytoextraction of various HMs such as Ni, Zn, Fe, B, Cr, that are used to enhance the phytoextraction process. Among them,
Cd by the addition of SBR using different plants such as Trifolium repens three chemical amendments- ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA),
L. (Azcón et al., 2009; Medina et al., 2006), Tetraclinisarticulata sps ethylene glycol tetra acetic acid (EGTA), and sodium dodecyl sulfate
(Vahl) Mast, and Crithmummaritimum sps L. (Fernández et al., 2012). (SDS) are popular chelating agents in the soil remediation process.
Increased phytoextraction efficiency by applying SBR is believed to be Among them, EDTA is largely studied and considered to be the most
the result of increased microbial biomass in the rhizosphere zone. Also, effective chemical in the phytoextraction process.
the reduction of metals by microbes led to an increased metal EDTA is often used in agriculture due to its’ role in mobilizing heavy
bioavailability (Azcón et al., 2009; Medina et al., 2006). metals. Several studies have been reported for HMs uptake enhancement
A composted sewage sludge is an industrial waste that can be used as by EDTA in the plants. Mostly, hyperaccumulator plant species can take
a soil amendment. Liphadzi and Kirkham (2006) applied sewage sludge up metal-EDTA complexes (Awokunmi et al., 2012). The factors
in a study on Cd and Ni phytoextraction by sunflower and concluded affecting EDTA effectiveness to remediate contaminated soil are EDTA
that natural chelating agents present in sewage sludge contributed to an concentration, plant species, HMs concentration, metal chemical prop
increased metal bioavailability. The beneficial effect of paper wastes on erties, and soil type (Evangelou et al., 2007). In the study by Zhao et al.
the phytoremediation process was reported by Doichinova and Veli (2010), EDTA enhanced Pb uptake in Zea mays grown in hydroponic
zarova (2013). The application of paper waste reduced the uptake of Pb condtions; Pb uptake was 6-7 folds higher as compared to the control.
and Cd by seedlings of red oak (Quercus rubra L.) and Austrian pine tree The use of EDTA resulted in an increased Pb accumulation in Sedum
(Pinus nigra Arn). This effect was due to improved plant growth and soil alfredii roots (Sun et al., 2009), Vicia faba seedlings (Shahid et al., 2014),
physical properties such as density and water holding capacity. Vetiveria zizanioides roots (Andra et al., 2009), and in the shoots of
Another soil amendment is biochar, which can be made by the py Canavalia ensiformis L. (Gabos et al., 2009).
rolysis of crop and animal residues. It has unique properties such as high EGTA, another widely used chelating agents like EDTA, has been
surface area and porosity, carbon content, pH, and cation exchange found to increase metal uptake and accumulation. Higher Cd concen
properties (Jiang et al., 2012; Lehmann et al., 2011). Several studies tration was found in A. rosea (Liu et al., 2008), Mirabilis jalapa (Wang &
reported the beneficial effects of biochar for reducing metal bioavail Liu, 2014), and Calendula officinalis (Liu et al., 2010). Also, increased Pb
ability and their phytotoxicity. The beneficial effects of biochar in the accumulation was found in above-ground parts of Cicer arietinum plants
8
after the application of EGTA (Sakouhi et al., 2016). Mycorrhizal fungi affect metal bioavailability through influencing soil
SDS is a commonly used surfactant that has been used in contami properties and composition of root exudates secreted by plants (Bhan
nant remediation in the soil (Pierattini et al., 2018). The solubility of tana et al., 2021; Sarwar et al., 2017). Specifically, Arbuscular Mycor
HMs such as Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd can be enhanced by applying the SDS rhizal Fungi (AMF) increase the absorptive surface area in plant roots,
buttressing phytoremediation process involving herbaceous species which improves nutrient and water uptake and metal bioavailability
(Messina et al., 2014) and soil flushing (Ramamurthy & Schalchian, (Göhre & Paszkowski, 2006). Also, the phytohormones production by
2013). Cd accumulation was promoted in roots and shoots of Althaea AMF can promote plant growth and facilitate phytoremediation
rosea (Liu et al., 2009) and the shoot of Calendula officinalis (Liu et al., (Vamerali et al., 2010). Chen et al. (2003) found a higher yield of red
2010) after SDS application. In the study conducted by Pierattini et al. clover (Trifolium pratense L.) when inoculated with AMF in Zn contam
(2018), an enhanced Zn translocation was observed in Populus alba. inated soil. They also reported a higher accumulation of Zn in plant roots
Adopting the chemical-based phytoremediation process may intro as AMF absorbed Zn from the soil and transported it to the roots. Besides
duce an environmental concern that chelating agents can be toxic to soil HMs remediation, mycorrhizal fungi also have a role in organic
microbes (Mühlbachová, 2011), enzyme activities, and plant species pollutant degradation in soil. It was reported that organic pollutants
(Neugschwandtner et al., 2012). Also, because of the poor biodegrad such as 2,4-dichlorophenol (Meharg et al., 1997), 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene
ability of chelating agents, they can persist in the soil for a long time (Scheibner et al., 1997), atrazine (Donnelly et al., 1993), poly
leading to metal leaching and adverse effects on the environment (Lee & chlorinated biphenyls (Donnelly & Fletcher, 1995) and polycyclic aro
Sung, 2014; Smolińska & Król, 2012). Thus, chemical amendments matic hydrocarbons (Braun-Lüllemann et al., 1999) could be degraded
should be applied at optimum concentrations limiting adverse envi by ECM (ectomycorrhizal fungi). The observed effects may be related to
ronmental effects. the effects of mycorrhizal fungi on oxidative enzyme activity in the roots
and rhizophere (Joner & Leyval, 2003). Oxidative enzymes have a role
3.2. Microbial enhanced/stimulated phytoremediation: the role of in initial ring cleavage of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as reported
microbes by Criquet et al. (2000) and Salzer et al. (1999).
Microbes can influence phytoremediation process through various 3.3. Genetic engineering
mechanisms. The microbial degradation of organic pollutants and mi
crobial mediated HMs uptake can be achieved through biostimulation The genetic engineering tools to produce transgenic plants is a
and bioaugmentation. Biostimulation is the process of stimulating cutting-edge technology to improve the phytoremediation process. Un
existing microorganisms in polluted soil, through addition of nutrients like traditional breeding methods, genetic engineering practice can
such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and electron donors, to degrade toxic transfer desirable genes to plant species for the phytoremediation pro
pollutants (Goswami et al., 2018). Bioaugmentation is the process where cess. One of the main objectives of producing transgenic plants is to
natural or genetically modified microorganisms are added to polluted increase heavy metal tolerance and accumulation. The main character
soil to remove toxic pollutants (Goswami et al., 2018). The addition of istics of transgenic plants are high biomass producing, fast-growing,
organic matter followed by bioaugmentation with actinobacteria con metal tolerant, etc. Specifically, genetic engineering is used to over
sortium combined with Brassica napus was found to be most effective to express the genes functioning in uptake, translocation, and sequestra
transform hexavalent chromium to trivalent chromium and lindane to tion of heavy metals and antioxidant activity. Overexpressing genes will
less toxic form (Lacalle et al., 2020). Bioaugmentation with Pseudomonas increase HMs accumulation (Das et al., 2016; Mani & Kumar, 2014) and
fluorescens was able to degrade 2,4 dinitritolene thus reducing toxicity to tolerance (Koźmińska et al., 2018). Genetic engineering can be done in
growth of Arabidopsis thaliana (Monti et al., 2005). In another study, various ways such as metallothionein, phytochelatins, metal chelators
biostimulation with nitrogen and phosphrus had a great influence on genes manipulation, metal transporters genes cloning, and alteration of
isoproturon degradation (Perrin-Ganier et al., 2001). oxidative stress mechanisms, alteration in roots, and alteration in
The use of PGPR (Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria) and PGPE biomass (Eapen & D’souza, 2005). Enhanced Cd tolerance was observed
(Plant Growth Promoting Endophytic bacteria) was found to enhance after transferring the Metallothionein – II gene to tobacco or oilseed rape
metal solubility by secreting organic anions and protons (Becerra-Castro (Misra & Gedamu, 1989). In another study, enhanced Cu accumulation
et al., 2011; Gill et al., 2021). PGPR has the potential to increase phy was reported when the pea MT gene was transferred to Arabidopsis
toremediation efficiency by increasing plant growth and biomass, thaliana (Evans et al., 1992). Transfer of Yeast protein (YCF 1) to
improving plant resistance to pathogens, increasing plant tolerance to A. thaliana resulted in enhanced Pb and Cd tolerance (Song et al., 2003).
metals, improving nutrient uptake and translocation of HMs through the Bizily et al. (2000) reported an improved tolerance to Hg and improved
production of organic acids, enzymes, antibiotics, phytohormones, and volatilization of elemental mercury when introducing MerA and MerB
siderophores (Ma et al., 2011). Maize plant inoculated with side genes into plants. Ezaki et al. (2000) expressed glutathione-S-transferase
rophores producing bacteria enhanced Cr and Pb bioavailability and and peroxidase enzymes and observed enhanced Al tolerance. A list of
uptake (Braud et al., 2009). The ability of PGPR to produce 1-aminocy genetically engineered plants used in phytoremediation studies is pro
clopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase can result in lower vided in table (Table 8). Though genetic engineering was found to be
ethylene production promoting plant growth (Chang et al., 2014). effective for better phytoremediation performance in several applica
Increased plant biomass and improved phytoremediation were reported tions, most research are limited to the in-situ and hydroponic environ
due to Bacillus (Babu et al., 2013), Pseudomonas (Agnello et al., 2016), ments. More studies analyzing the phytoremediation of transgenic
and Serratia (Dong et al., 2014) through the release of ACC deaminase. plants in real environmental conditions need to be explored to fully
Also, PGPR can promote the emergence of lateral roots and the devel understand the potential of the transgenic plants in enhancing
opment of root hairs by producing bacterial auxin, which improves plant phytoremediation.
growth, thus enhancing phytoremediation (DalCorso et al., 2019; Glick,
2014). Plant-microbe interaction at rhizosphere can synergistically 4. Strengths
improve phytoremediation of organic and inorganic pollutants (Rane
et al., 2022). 4.1. Sustainable and environmental friendly
Use of fungi also benefits phytoremediation through its direct or
indirect interactions with the contaminants. As fungus can grow in air- Plants provide an environmental friendly remedy option to clean up
water interface, the mycoremediation has advantage over bacteria the pollutants at lower energy and cost than that are required for con
which requires water phase for its action (Kumar et al., 2019). ventional methods (decontamination technologies) for environmental
9
cleanup as it utilizes solar energy and plant’s physiological mechanisms found to be effective for extraction of Strontium (Sr).
(Susarla et al., 2002). Plants possess capacity in lowering the pollutants Additionally, antibiotics remediation has been demonstrated by
from diverse media including soil, air and water. As an indirect advan applying phytoremediation. Study by Hoang et al. (2013) on phytor
tage, carbon sequestration will be enhanced due to phytoremediation emediation remedy of antibiotic (ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin)
applications because more plants planted for removal of toxic pollutants contaminated sediment revealed that the use of Acrostichum aureum and
from the environment will lower the amount of atmospheric Rhizophora apiculata can lower the level of antibiotics in the sediment.
carbondioxide. Furthermore, plant species like Mirabilis jalapa and Tagetes patula can
Phytoremediation when combined with sustainable site manage also be used to treat the alkaline soil co-contaminated with Cd and
ment, called as phytomanagement, generates wider scope of benefits tetracycline (antibiotics) (Li et al., 2020).
including economical, environmental and social welfare (Burges et al., Phytoremediation provides ample opportunity to integrate with
2018). Some authors purposed the concept of linking phytoremediation other component to remediate the contaminants from the environment.
with ecosystem services that involves nutrient re-cycling, fertility, car One of the examples is the use of nanomaterial with phytoremediation
bon sequestration, water movement, and water purification (Burges et which adds nano-scale materials with higher absorptivity and potential
al; 2016; Burges et al., 2017; Rutgers et al., 2012). While phytor to degrade pollutants and uptake the degraded pollutant (Srivastav
emediation only includes the mitigation of risk, phytomanagement adds et al., 2018). Integration of nano-phytoremediation components has
benefits along with risk mitigation and site management (Burges et al., potential to increase remediation efficiency (Srivastav et al., 2018).
2018). The goal of phytoemediation should not only focus in removing
the polluations from soil or water but also to restore the quality and 4.2.2. Water (wastewater and groundwater)
functionality of the resources (Epelde et al., 2009). The indicators that
reflects the quality and functionality of restored soil can be monitoted by 4.2.2.1. Wastewater. Phytoremediation techniques can also be used for
measuring parameters including pH, texture, Cation Exchange Capacity, the treatment of wastewater. In past, several free-floating plants such as
and abundance and diversity of microbial population (Burges et al., Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia molesta, Lemna spp., Azolla pinnata, Landoltia
2018). Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) is used to assess the soil health punctata, Spirodela polyrhiza, Marsilea mutica, Eichhornia crassipes, and
in the phytoremediated area that promoted soil conservation practices Riccia fluitans, submerged plants like Hygrophilla corymbosa, Najas
(Gutiérrez et al., 2015; Garbisu et al., 2011). Epelde et al (2014) pro marina, Ruppia maritima, Hydrilla verticillata, Egeria densa, Vallisneria
posed the concept of long term monitoring programs for the prediction americana and Myriophyllum aquaticum, and emergent plants like Disti
of success of phytomanagement. chlis spicata, Cyperus spp., Imperata cylindrical, Iris virginica, Nuphar lutea,
Justicia americana, Diodia virginiana, Nymphaea spp., Typha spp., Phrag
4.2. Suitable for remediation of diverse pollutants in diverse media mites autralis and Hydrochloa caroliniensis were used to treat the waste
water (Ekperusi et al., 2019; USDA, 2019). Due to high absorbing
4.2.1. Soil capacity, these plants can treat wide range of HMs and organic pollut
Phytoremediation methods can be widely used in treating HMs, ants from the wastewater produced from the agricultural, industrial and
organic pollutants and radionuclides concentrations in soil. More than domestic sectors (Mustafa & Hayder, 2021). Azolla pinnata was used for
400 species of hyperaccumulators that can absorb 50-500 times more treating the dairy wastewater and the results obtained indicated
heavy metals from the rhizosphere than the normal plants have been maximum efficiency of removal when the dairy wastewater was diluted
known. Species belonging to family Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Car at 75% (Goala et al., 2021).
yophyllaceae, Fabaceae, Flacourtaceae, Lamilaceae, Poaceae, Violaceae, Water hyacinth can be used to treat the polluted water due to its
Euphorbiaceae, and 0.2 percent of angiosperms, (Baker, 2000; Vara rapid growing, easy availability, high yielding, easy harvesting, and
Prasad & de Oliveira Freitas, 2003) can amass >1 mg Au and Ag; >100 high absorption properties (Rezania et al., 2015). Wang et al. (2002)
mg Cd, Se and Ta; >1000 mg Cu, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb, U, and As; and >10000 found that Cd polluted water could be treated by water hyacinth and
mg Mn and Zn per 1 kg dry mass of shoots (Baker & Brooks, 1989; duckweeds, Hg by water dropwort, and Pb by calamus. Chandanshive
Padmavathiamma & Li, 2007). Thlaspi caerulescens can be used to extract et al. (2017) remediated As, Cd, Cr and Pb from the textile wastewater,
Zn and Cd (Epelde et al., 2008). These plants can be harvested and while Guittonny-Philippe et al. (2015) remediated HMs like, Cd, Cu, Cr,
burned so that the ashes can be used as a fertilizer in micronutrients Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn and organic pollutants from the industrial wastewater
deficient fields (Koptsik, 2014). by Alisma lanceolatum, Carex cuprina, Epilobium hirsutum and Juncus
Moreover, Medicago sativa and Tagetes patula can be useful in inflexus. Not only aquatic plants, some terrestrial plants like Brassica
removing organic pollutants like pthalic esters and polycyclic aromatic juncea and Helianthus annuus can also remediate Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb and
hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Fu et al., 2012; Hamdi et al., 2012; Sun et al., Zn from water (Dushenkov et al., 1995). Halimione portulacoides, a
2011) through continuous phytoextraction (Sophia & Shetty Kodialbail, halophyte, was found to be effective in converting highly toxic hex
2020). Lewia sp. in association with Festuca arundinacea can be used to avalent Cr into less toxic trivalent Cr in salt marshes through the process
treat polycyclic hydrocarbon and pyrene present in the soil (Cruz- of phytotransformation (Caçador & Duarte, 2015).
Hernández et al., 2013). Similarly, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) can be Moreover, some algal species are used to remediate organic pollut
remediated by associating TNT-cometabolizing Pseudomonas sp. with ants like benzene, toluene, pyrene (Gavrilescu, 2010), bisphenol (Gat
Bromus rectus Huds (Newman et al., 1998). tullo et al., 2012), herbicides (Zhang et al., 2011) from the water
Similarly, radionuclides like Uranium can be remediated by terres sources. Salvania cucullata, Trapa natans (Alam & Hoque, 2017) helped
trial plants like Phaseolus vulgaris (Lee & Yang, 2010), Zea mays in treatment of nitrate and ammonium nitrate (NH3-N). Hybrid poplar
(Stojanović et al., 2010), Vetiveria zizanoides (Pentyala & Eapen, 2020), remediated the Tetrachloroethylene (TCE) contamination by degrading
and Helianthus annuus (Lee & Yang, 2010; Roongtanakiat et al., 2010). into simpler metabolic products from water (Newman et al., 1997).
Cs in the soil can be removed by Brassica campestris (Chou et al., 2005), In case of radionuclides, sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) and bean
Amaranthus retroflexus (Fuhrmann et al., 2002), Calotropis gigantea (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. vulgaris) were utilized in U polluted water and
(Eapen et al., 2006), H. annuus (Soudek et al., 2006) and Vetiveria removal efficiencies were > 80% and 60-80% respectively (Lee & Yang,
zizanoides (Singh et al., 2008). Hu et al. (2014) found that Ra could be 2010). Helianthus sp. were found to extract radioactive strontium and
effectively remediated from the soil by using plants like Pteris multifida, cesium from the contaminated ponds of Chernobyl area (Miller, 1996).
Pteridium aquilinum, and Drypteris scottii. H. annuus (Soudek et al., 2006), Similarly, aquatic plants like Apium nodiflorum, Lemma minor, Callitriche
Calotropis gigantea (Eapen et al., 2006), Vetiveria zizanoides (Singh et al., stagnalis (Favas & Pratas, 2013), C. hamulata, C. lusitanica, Fontinalis
2008), and Amaranthus retroflexus (Fuhrmann et al., 2002) were also
10
antipyretica and Typha latifolia (Favas et al., 2014) can as well be used as cost of $660,000 for a pump and treat system (conventional method)
remediation for U from water resources. Besides, Cs can be removed by was much higher than the cost of $250,000 for phytoremediation.
Eichhornia crassipes (Saleh, 2012) from the water. Hence, the phytoremediation technique provides efficient yet highly
Antibiotics in wastewater can be effectively removed using Lupinus economical option compared to other concventional techniques for
albus L., Hordeum vulgare L., Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud., environmental cleanup.
Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc., and Pistia stratiotes L. (Gujarathi
et al., 2005a; Kotyza et al., 2010). Sikha and Gauba (2016) demon 5. Limitations
strated that Cicer arietinum could significantly lower the antibiotic called
ciprofloxacin, and steroid hormones like progesterone and estrogen in Even though phytoremediation provides an effective alternative
aqueous media. Pharmaceutical contaminats like doxylamine was method for cleaning up contaminants from the environment, it has
reduced to 48-80.5% by T. angustifolia and I. aquatica through several limitations and drawbacks. For starter, most of the research are
enhancement of some bacteria in the wastewater phytobed (Xiong et al., carried out in the controlled environment within a small-time frame.
2021). Singh et al. (2021) also emphasizes on biological management This might not yield true representative results as if carried out under
through plant-based using water lettuce for removing the contaminants field conditions for a long time. Hence, there is need for conducting
from the effluent. Plants like Vetiveria zizanioides, which is a perennial numerous field research based on longer time frame for figuring out the
bunchbrush showed 93% removal of textile dye Remazol Red from the true potential of phytoremediation.
waste water (Chandanshive et al., 2020). Some garden ornamental Another limitation is that phytoremediation success depends on the
plants like Tagetes patula, Gaillardia grandiflora, Portulaca grandiflora and successful and fast growth of plant species used. As the soil and climate
Aster amellus planted in the ridges of constructed wetland showed 59, vary in each site, the specific phytoremediation technique applied for
73, 46 and 50% reduction of American Dye Manufacturers Institute one species of plant in one site may not work in another site. As such, it is
color value along with some heavy metals like Pb, Cd, Cr (Chandanshive site-specific. Besides soil and climate, plants physiology might be
et al., 2018). affected by different living organisms and microbes (insects, pests and
pathogens) within the site. Combination of insects, pests, and pathogens
4.2.2.2. Groundwater. Phytoremediation has been utilized to remediate along with presence of pollutants like HMs, organic pollutants, radio
ground water as well. Deep roots of poplar trees possessing phreato nuclides, or antibiotics could make the plants more vulnerable to dis
phytic root development with high evaporation rate and fast-growing eases and phytoremediation attempt might be jeopardized. Moreover,
ability (Barac et al., 2009; Marmiroli & McCutcheon, 2003; Weyens plants can thrive only within certain level of contaminant concentration.
et al., 2009) can effectively remidiate the ground water as a hydraulic The sensitivity of plants to the higher level of contaminants could lead to
barrier at a low cost (Al-Yousfi et al., 2000; Ferro et al., 2001; Hong slower growth of the plants affecting the phytoremediation capacity
et al., 2001; McCutcheon & Schnoor, 2003). (Huang et al., 2000). For instance, while remediating highly concen
trated metallic pollutants like Pb, As and U, growth of metal hyper
4.2.3. Air accumulators was found to be very slow along with low biomass (Salt
Phytoremediation can also play an important role in removal of air et al., 1998). Also, microbial diversity and biomass facilitating the
pollutants, mostly by phytovolatilization. For instance, tricholoro phytoremediating plants in phytodegradation can be lowered due to the
ethylene (TCE) and perchloroethylene (PCE) were found to be phyto toxicity of contaminants, which can further lower the efficiency of the
volatilized by willow tree and hybrid poplar (Gordon et al., 1998). phytoremediation. Using mixed and local species or genetically engi
Similarly, Nephrolepsis obliterate and Chamaedorea elegans was found to neered species and adding amendments can lower the problem of plant
be 90% to 100% and 65% to 100% efficient, respectively, in removing being the site specific and also minimize the risks of diseases and pests.
the formaldehyde within 2 days (Teiri et al., 2018). Azalea indica Additionally, the contaminants must be within the reach of the plants
removed toluene with 95% efficiency within 7 to 76 hours (De Kem roots in the rhizosphere for plants to be able to translocate the pollutants
peneer et al., 2004). through its root system. Hence, screening for plants with long and deep
roots and higher root biomass will lead to better efficiency of the
remediation systems. Design of the phytoremediation systems, for
4.3. Economically viable example, in a staggered pattern, will be important for providing the
required coverage.
Another broad and most important area that a phytoremediation has Furthermore, phytoremediation is a slow process than the conven
shown its strength is on the cost effectiveness. Many research have tional methods and may take three to five years to show the full results.
shown that the cost required for using phytoremediation is significantly Another concern with the technology is handling and proper disposal of
less than that for other conventional methods of treatment. Estimated the plants that may have uptaken toxic contaminants. Consumption of
cost of treatment by using phytoremediation was found to be 5-13 times such plants with high concentration of translocated contaminants can be
lesser than the chemical treatment, that is, the cost of using phytor toxic to animals and other living organisms. Hence, appropriate
emediation was $20 to $40 per ton of waste removed, whereas, the cost handling of such plants, their treatment, disposal or monitoring is
of chemical treatment was $100 to $500 per ton of waste removed required to minimize the deleterious effect of phytoremediation. How
(Raskin & Ensley, 2000). Mulbry et al. (2008) found that phytor ever, this can increase the cost. As a remedy, potential recovery of useful
emediation for dairy wastewater treatment proved to be more chemicals from plants or use of such plants for applications where there
economical than the conventional methods. Similarly, Cunningham is low risk of exposure and movement can offset the additional cost of
et al. (1996) compared cost of phytoremediation with other bioreme handling.
diation techniques such as microbial treatment for removal of petroleum Additionally, it may not work for all kinds of pollutants. For instance,
hydrocarbons and found that cost of using phytoremediation was $2,500 phytoremediation was found to be limited to lower molecular weight
to $15,000 per hectare and cost of using microbial treatment was $20, chlorinated PCBs (Aken et al., 2010) because the hydrophobicity of
000 to $60,000 with in-situ microbial treatment ranging from $7,500 to higher molecular weight chlorinated PCBs are higher and cannot be
$20,000 per hectare. Moreover, excavation method for removal of Pb translocated by the plants (Jing et al., 2018).
from the contaminated sites proved to be highly expensive ($141,500 to
$182,100) compared to the phytoremediation method ($40,500 to $48, 6. Status and future prospects of phytoremediation
600). Gatliff (1994) also reported higher economic efficiency of phy
toremediation compared to a conventional method as the total 5-year Phytoremediation is considered to be economically viable and
11
Table 8.
Genetically engineered plants used in phytoremediation studies
Rabbitfoot grass Polypogon As dimethylchloroarsine (AsCl(CH3)2) and pentamethylarsine (As(CH3)5) form of As Ruppert et al.
monspeliensis are volatilized (2013)
Common rush Juncus efuses Artificial sewage Ammonium and methane are released. Wiessner et al.
(2013)
Perennial reed grass Phragmites australis Organochlorines 1,4-dichlorobenzene (DCB), 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (TCB), and San Miguel et al.
(OCs) γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (γHCH) are volatized. (2013)
Membranous mild- Astragalus sp. Chelating agents favors phytoremediation Raskin et al. (1997)
vetch
Mustard Brassica juncea Se Brassica spp also has potentiality of phytovolatilization of Se Banuelos et al.
(1997)
Saltmarsh bulrush Scirpus robustus Se Wetlands plants Arthur et al. (2005)
Thale cress Arabidopsis thaliana Cu Enhanced Cu accumulation Evans et al. (1992)
Thale cress Arabidopsis thaliana Pb, Cu Pb and Cd tolerance Song et al. (2003)
environmentally sound technique for remediating the pollutants origi paper. The addition of amendments can enhance the mechanism
nating from different sources in the environment (Ashraf et al., 2019). involved, increase water and nutrient uptake, and improve plant
The basic idea of using plants in remediating the pollution from envi growth. Besides, microbial population can increase the absorptive sur
ronment is old, however, the field is still emerging. The limitations faces of roots, thereby improving metal uptake and degradation of
described in the limitations section poses challenges for its imple organic pollutants. Genetically engineered plants have high potential for
mentation and acceptance. Some of the limitations including phytoremediation through higher plant growth rate and over expression
site-specificity, climate-specificifity, and contaminant-specificifity will of genes that regulate metal uptake and translocation.
continue to hinder its development. However, research findings have Compared to other contaminant remediation technique, phytor
advanced the field significantly and continue to make inroads into emediation is 5-13 times more economical. Given the strengths and
overcoming the limitations. A couple of such examples, amendments potential for remediating many of the weeknesses, more studies should
and genetic engineering, have been discussed in prior sections. The be conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of phytoremediation
acceptance and recognition has been steadily increasing as environ technology and increase its application even further. Additionally, re
mental scientists and engineers look for nature-based solutions. The searchers can look into secondary benefits of phytoremediation appli
enormous number of results testing its feasibility and ability, which has cations, for example, link phytoremediation to biomass production
attracted attention of many people in this technology, are positive de which can be utilized in production of biomass-based energy, feedstock
velopments (Alkorta and Garbisu, 2001). The public perception for pyrolysis and biofortified products, and carbon sequestrations, which
including the policymaker’s perception has been improving steadily due can contribute to phytomanagement. We also believe that phytor
to mostly positive experience with phytoremediation results. emediation can be studied at molecular genetic as well as nano scale
While research advances and findings have generated a new, level. Such type of combination approaches open ideas for the
emerging, promoising and cost-effective technology (Salt et al., 1998), researcher to study in detail (Table 8).
there are even more areas where more research is needed. For instance,
further research is needed if the released or accumulated bypro Declaration of Competing Interest
ducts/contaminants have negative effects in the the ecosystem. Ways to
enhance the growth of hyperaccumulating species in highly contami None.
nated sites including mining fields unsuitable for plant growth is needed
as well (Pivetz, 2001a). A new opportunity also exists in finding the Acknowledgment
commercial opportunities through market niches of green roof con
struction, phytotoming and some plant-based bio-engineering projects This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under
(Pandey & Souza-Alonso, 2019). grant number 1901350. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or
recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s)
7. Conclusions and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science
Foundation.
Phytoremediation is a sustainable technology due to its cost-
effectiveness and utilization of environment-friendly method for reme Authors contribution statement
diating the pollution in soil, water and air. This technology utilizes
plants for remediating environmental pollutants through different All authors contributed equally in planning, writing, and revising the
mechanisms like phytoextraction, phytostabilization, rhizofiltration, manuscript.
phytovolatilization, phytodegradation and phytodesalination. It has
wide range of applications for remediating diverse pollutants such as References
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