Nuclear Chemistry

By- Pramesh Sharma

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 SYLLABUS

➢ Describe natural and artificial radioactivity.

➢ Give units of radioactivity.
➢ Explain nuclear reactions.
➢ Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion reactions.
➢ Describe nuclear power and nuclear weapons.
➢ Explain industrial uses of radioactivity.
➢ State the medical uses of radioactivity.
➢ Explain radiocarbon dating.
➢ Describe harmful effects of nuclear radiations.
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What is Nuclear Chemistry?

➢ Nuclear chemistry is the study of physical and chemical properties of elements which are

influenced by changes in the structure of the atomic nucleus.

➢ It also deals with the energy released from nuclear reactions and its uses.

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Radioactivity
➢ Radioactivity is a process in which nuclei of certain elements undergo spontaneous
disintegration without excitation by any external means.
➢ The elements whose atoms disintegrate and emit radiations are called radioactive elements.
➢ Radioactivity is a spontaneous process.
➢ The ray/radiation emitted by radioactivity are classified as alpha particles (a), beta particles
(b) and gamma rays (g).
➢ The element (nuclide) that disintegrate is called the parent and the new element (nuclide)
formed is called the daughter.
14 14
𝐶 𝑁 + b rays
6 7
Parent Daughter 4
Nature of Radioactive Radiations

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Alpha α-Rays
• Alpha particles, also called alpha rays or alpha radiation, consist of two protons and
two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus.
• The symbol for the alpha particle is α or α2+. they are also sometimes written as He2+
or 42He2+ indicating a helium ion with +2 charge (missing its two electrons).

• The daughter element obtained after the emission of 1a particle has atomic number 2
units and mass number 4 units less than the parent. 6
Beta (β) Rays

• A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-
speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the
process of beta decay.
• The particle carry negative charge of 1 unit represented as 0-1e or 0-1b or b.

• Pa- Protactinium
• The daughter element obtained after the emission of 1b particle has same mass number but
has atomic number 1 unit more than the parent. 7
Gamma (γ) Rays

A gamma ray, also known as gamma radiation (symbol γ), is a penetrating form
of electromagnetic radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of
the shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves, typically shorter than those of X-rays.

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 Classification of radioactivity
1. Natural radioactivity
➢ The spontaneous and uncontrolled disintegration of an unstable nucleus of radioactivity
elements by virtue of its own inherent nature by the emission of radiation such as alpha,
beta and gamma rays is called natural radioactivity.
➢ The chemical substance which exhibit spontaneous radioactivity are called natural
radioactive substance.
➢ Natural isotopes having n:p ratio greater than the normal n:p ratio are found to be unstable
and undergo spontaneous decomposition
➢ Natural elements such as Uranium (U), Thorium (Th), Radium (Ra), Polonium (Po), etc
are natural radioactive elements.
➢ A few isotopes of light elements and heavy isotopes having atomic number greater than
83 have natural radioactivity

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Example of natural radioactivity:

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 Artificial Radioactivity
➢ Unlike natural radioactivity, if an atom of a non-radioactive element is bombarded by a
powerful particle (projectile), it is converted to a radioactive a t o m . This
p h e n o m e n o n i s c a l l e d A r t i f i c i a l Radioactivity.
➢ power particles may be alpha- particles, proton, deuterium and even neutron.
➢ The activity created after the transmutation (change) of stable nuclide to the
unstable nuclide is called artificial radioactivity or induced radioactivity.
27 Al + 1 n
13 0 → 2411Na + 42He

24
11Na → 24
12Mg + 0
-1e

➢ 24
11Na shows artificial radioactivity decay. The unstable nuclei so produced was
found to emit β-particles, so as to come to the stable nuclei.
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Artificial radioactivity has following applications:
a) In Nuclear reactor:
➢ Slow moving neutrons are bombarded to stable nuclei of uranium or such radioactive
isotopes to make unstable.
➢ Then the unstable nuclei undergo disintegration with the release of tremendous quantity of
energy.

b) In atom bomb:
➢ Unlike in nuclear reactor, the nuclear reactions undergoing in atom bomb are uncontrolled.

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Units of radioactivity

The units of radioactivity are given below.

a) Bacquerel (Bq): The S.I. unit radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq). One disintegration per
second (dps) is called one Becquerel.
1 Bq = 1 dps

b) Curie (Ci): Another unit of radioactivity is curie (Ci). One curie is defiend as the quantity
of any radioactive substance which undergoes 3.7 x 1010 disintegration per second (dps).
Historically, the unit curie was defined to measure the radioactivity of radium.
1 Ci= 3.7 x 1010 dps

c) Rutherford (Rd): Another unit of radioactivity is Rutherford. One Rutherford unit is

defined as the amount of radioactive substance which undergoes 106 disintegrations per
second (dps).
1 Rd = 106 dps
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Nuclear Reaction
➢ The reactions in which the nucleus of one element converts to the nucleus of another
element are called nuclear reactions. It proceeds with the change in the composition of the
nucleus.
➢ The conversion of one element to another by a nuclear change is called transmutation.
➢ Rutherford first of all succeeded in converting Nitrogen into Oxygen by bombarding with
fast moving alpha particles

14 + 4 17 1
N He O + 𝐻
7 2 8 1

This is an example of artificial transmutation of element.

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 Differences between Chemical and Nuclear reaction:

CHEMICAL REACTION NUCLEAR REACTION

1 Element is neither created nor destroyed. New element(s) is formed from the parent
element
2 Mostly valence electrons are involved in this Nuclei are mainly involved in this type
type of reaction. of reaction.
This is a spontaneous process. The rate of such
The rate of this reaction depends upon
3 reaction is not influenced by temperature,
temperature, pressure, catalyst, etc.
pressure etc.
This is associated with the absorption This is associated with the absorption
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or release of small amount of energy. or release of huge amount of energy.

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 Nuclear Fusion and Fission Reactions
❖ Nuclear fission reaction: Splitting of a heavy nucleus.
❖ Nuclear fusion reaction: Combination of two or lighter nuclei.

Nuclear fission
• It is the process of splitting of a heavy nucleus mass number (>250) into lighter nuclei
of nearly comparable mass with release of large energy.
• This decay can be natural spontaneous splitting by radioactive decay, or can actually be
simulated in a lab by achieving necessary conditions (bombarding with neutrons).

❖ The rupturing of unstable heavy nucleus of an isotope (nuclide) into two nuclide of
approximately equal size with a few neutrons after the irradiation with slow moving
particle like neutron is called nuclear fusion.

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235 + 1 236 144 89 1
U n U Ba + Kr + 3 n + 200MeV
92 0 92 56 36 0

• In this process, the emitting neutron bombard another U-235 and a chain reaction may be
setup with the release of large energy called nuclear energy. 18
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Nuclear fusion
➢ Nuclear fusion is a process in which atomic nuclei are fused together to form heavier nuclei
or
❖ When two lighter nuclei combine with release of a huge amount of energy, the
phenomenon is called nuclear fusion.
➢ The energy required to overcome the nuclear repulsion and to fuse two nuclei together is of
million of degree temperature (on the order of 1.5 x 107°C) which is possible only from
nuclear fission.
1 2
➢ Hence energy of nuclear fission of U-235 can be used to fuse light elements. Eg. 𝐻, 𝐻,
1 1
3
𝐻𝑒 etc. to produce heavier one.
2
➢ Extremely high temperatures can force nuclei together so the strong nuclear force can bond
them.

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• Nuclear fusion is the source of energy of the sun. It is also the process that accounts for
the origin of elements. In sun, at a temperature of ten million degree, the following
fusion takes place.

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❖ Hydrogen bomb is based on the reactions involving nuclear fusion.
• Hydrogen bomb contains a mixture of deuterium oxide (D₂O) and tritium oxide (T2O). This
mixture is in connection with an atomic bomb (fission reaction set up). Explosion of atomic
bomb initiates the fusion reaction between deuterium and tritium producing a large amount
of energy which is about 10 times to that of an atomic bomb. Some reactions involved in
nuclear fusion are:

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 Difference between Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

1. The splitting of heavy nucleus on 1. The fusing of two or more lighter nuclei
bombardment of neutron into two or more together to form single heavier nucleus with
nuclei with release of huge amount of energy the release of huge amount of energy is
is called nuclear fission. called nuclear fusion.

2. It produces many highly radioactive 2. It can produce few radioactive nuclei.

nuclei.
3. The energy released by fission is lower 3. The energy released by fusion is higher
than the energy released by nuclear fusion. than energy released by nuclear fission.
4. It is a chain reaction. 4. It is not a chain reaction.

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Nuclear power
➢ Nuclear power is the application of nuclear reactions for the generation of electricity.
➢ A nuclear power plant is the thermal power station in which heat is generated from
nuclear reactor. As produced heat is used to generate steam from water which can drive
steam turbine and generates electricity.
➢ Nuclear power can be achieved from nuclear reactions like nuclear fusion and nuclear
fission. A great deal of electricity is generated from nuclear fission of uranium and
plutonium in nuclear power plant. Nuclear power is a low-carbon power source of
electricity
 Nuclear weapons
• Nuclear weapons are the explosive devices causing destruction as a result of nuclear
reactions. It may cause due to fission (fission bomb) and fusion reaction (thermonuclear
bomb). It produces tremendous amount of energy from small amount of matter.
• The energy released in an explosion of 1g of TNT (trinitrotoluene) is approximately 4000
joules. This is called TNT equivalent of an explosion. For example, the atomic bomb
deployed on Hiroshima had a TNT equivalent of 15 kilotons.

Fission weapon:
All nuclear weapons get explosion initiation from nuclear fission reaction. Nuclear weapons
whose explosive output is entirely from fission reactions are called atomic bomb or atom
bombs. Two common examples of fissile materials for nuclear weapons are Uranium-235 and
Plutonium-239. The nuclear war weapon is based upon the uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction.
Fusion weapons :
• The nuclear weapons which produce large quantity of energy by nuclear fusion reaction are
called fusion weapons or thermonuclear weapons.
• The nuclear reactions in such weapons depend upon the fusion reactions of isotopes of
hydrogen (deuterium and tritium). Therefore, these fusion weapons are colloquially called as
hydrogen bombs.
• Initially, the fusion weapons gain a significant quantity of energy from fission reactions to
trigger the fusion reactions. Once the fusion reaction commences, it sustains for further
nuclear fusion reaction with the release of tremendous amount of energy. Hydrogen bomb is
designed on the basis of uncontrolled fusion reaction of hydrogen and helium.

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 Industrial uses of radioactivity
• For material's thickness measurement:
Radiations are used to detect and monitor the thickness of materials like papers,
plastics and some metallic foils. The greater the thickness of materials, more is the absorption of
radiation. The thickness of materials can be estimated based on the signal received from these
materials.
• For the study of cracks, wear and tear in machine:
Radioactive materials are used to study the cracks, wear and tear in machine or in
some part of engine.
• For materials sterilization:
Radioactive materials are used for sterilization of some kind of industrial products.
• For electricity generation:
Radioactive materials are used for generating electricity.
• For smoke detector in homes and business:
Radioactive americium (241 Am) releases alpha particles which consequently ionizes
the air inside the detector. Alteration of ionization triggers the alarm.
 Medical uses of radioactivity

Medical application of some specific radioisotopes are as follows:

➢ A salt solution containing Na-24 is injected in blood to detect the obstruction
to flow of blood.

➢ Fe-59 is used to diagnose the blood disorder

➢ I-131 is used to detect brain tumor in human being. I-131 is used to detect
and treat thyroiditis (goiter)

➢ Co-60 is used to treat various forms of cancer by radiation frequency. The

radiation emitted by Co-60 is widely used in genetic engineering to bring
about mutation in plants and crops.
 Radiocarbon dating
❑ Carbon dating is the method of determination of age or date of organic matter on the basis
of relative proportion of carbon-12 isotopes and carbon-14 isotopes contained in it.
❑ As the radioactive C-14 decays, the ratio of C-12 and C-14 changes. During the life period
of animal or plant, they receive C-14 isotopes by exchange process with the environment.
❑ After the death of organism, no C-14 is added, just they continue to decay.

➢ The age of a piece of wood or animal fossil can be determined by radio-carbon dating
technique.

➢ In radio-carbon dating ratio of C-14 to C-12 is assumed constant in the plant, as the
plant assimilated CO2 with 14CO2 during photosynthesis.
➢ After the death of plant, no more CO2 is assimilated so ratio of C-14 to C-12 changes.

➢ By measuring the ratio of C-14 to C-12, t1/2 of C-14 (5730 years) age of the wood (t) can
be calculated.

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 Harmful effect of Nuclear radiation
➢ Nuclear radiation includes a, b and g-rays besides these, there are some other nuclear
radiations. Nuclear radiations have not only useful effect but also have harmful effects.
➢ Basically, ionizing radiations have energy sufficient to affect on living cells and can damage
their genetic materials. If cells are unable to repair the damaged part correctly a cell may die
or become cancerous.
➢ Very high level exposure of nuclear radiation, even delivers for short period, can cause
nausea, vomiting and can result into death.
➢ Among a, b and g-rays. a particles cannot penetrate the skin, b particles can partially
penetrate skin and can cause burn which is called 'beta' burn. g-rays can pass through a
person (like X-rays) and can cause cell damage.
➢ Radiation can cause genetic effect though they are not visible instantly as well as can cause a
cancer.
➢ Marie curie died of aplastic anemia which is believed to have been from her long term
exposure to radiation.