Chapter-1 Introduction to Signals and Systems 2020

This signal may dependent on one or more independent variables. If a signal

dependent on only one variable then it is called as One-dimensional Signal. For
Example, ac power supply, speech signal etc…
Signal:
A signal is a set of information (or) Data. Ex: A telephone signal, Human Speech.
In all the examples, the signals are functions of the independent variable time.
(Or)
A signal is defined as a physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other
independent variables.

Signal Modelling:

The representation of a signal by mathematical expression is known as Signal

Modelling. If a signal can be represented by mathematical expression then the signal is
said to be a Deterministic signals. Otherwise the signal is known as Random Signal.
System:
Signals may be processed further by systems, which may modify them (or) extract
additional information from them.
A system is an entity that processes a set of signals (Input Values) to yield
another set of signals (Output Values).
A system may be made up of physical components, as in electrical, a mechanical,
(or) hydraulic system (hardware realizations) (or) it may be an algorithm that can
compute an output from the input signals (Software Realizations).
For Example, x(t) is an Input to the system and y(t) is the output, then the system can
be realized as y(t)=Operations on [x(t)], which is mathematically represented as
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)]

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And it is represented by diagram as
Input Signal x(t) System y(t) Output Signal

1.1 Characterization, classification, and representation/modelling of signals and

systems
Characterization:

Any Signal can be characterised by the following four parameters, which describes the
behaviour of its performance and existence in physical. They are

1. Amplitude
2. Time Period
3. Frequency
4. Phase Shift

Amplitude: The amplitude of a periodic variable is a measure of its change over a

single period (such as time or spatial period). There are various definitions of amplitude
which are all functions of the magnitude of the differences between the
variable's extreme values. In older texts the phase is sometimes called the amplitude.
Such as Peak-to-peak amplitude, peak amplitude, semi-amplitude, Root Mean Square
Amplitude, Pulse amplitude etc.
where from the figure

1. Peak Amplitude
2. Peak-to-peak amplitude
3. Root Mean Square Amplitude
4. Wave Period (Not an
Amplitude)

Time Period: The amount of the

time taken by any signal to complete
one full cycle. It is usually computed in terms of Seconds, and denoted with a letter
t.

Frequency: The number of cycles completed by any signal in one second. It is

usually computed in terms of Hertz’s, and denoted with a letter f.

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The relation between the frequency and the period, T, of a repeating event or
𝟏
oscillation is given by 𝒇 = 𝑻.

1 mHz 1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz 1 THz

Frequency 1 Hz (100 Hz)
(10−3 Hz) (103 Hz) (106 Hz) (109 Hz) (1012 Hz)

1 ks 1 ms 1 µs 1 ns 1 ps
Period 1 s (100 s)
(103 s) (10−3s) (10−6 s) (10−9 s) (10−12 s)
Phase shift: The difference 𝜑(𝑡) = ∅𝐺 (𝑡) − ∅𝐹 (𝑡) between the phases of two
periodic signals F and G is called as the phase difference of G relative to F. At values
of t when the difference is zero, the two signals are said to be in phase, otherwise
they are out of phase with each other.
Illustration of phase shift is given in the figure. The
horizontal axis represents an angle (phase) that is
increasing with time.
Classifications of Signals: the signals are classified
according to their characteristics. Some of them are

1. Continuous-time and Discrete-time signals

2. Analog and Digital signals
3. Periodic and Aperiodic signals
4. Even and Odd signals
5. Energy and Power signals
6. Causal and Non-causal signals
7. Deterministic and Random signals

Continuous-time and Discrete-time signals

Continuous-time signals: The signals that are defined for every instant of time are
known as continuous-time signals. They are denoted by x(t).

Discrete-time signals: The signals that are defined at discrete-instant of time are
known as continuous-time signals. The discrete-time signals are continuous in
amplitude and discrete-in-time. They are denoted by x(n).

i.e., 𝑥(𝑛𝑇) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑡=𝑛𝑇 , 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … … … ….

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Where, T= Time interval between two consecutive samples

sinusoidal signal with frequency of 10 Hz

1

0.5
amplitude

-0.5

-1
-0.1 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
time in sec
descrete sinusoidal signal with frequency of 10 Hz
1

0.5
amplitude

-0.5

-1
-0.1 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
time in sec

Examples of Discrete-time signals include book selling in a year, rain fall in a specific
month, room temperature at the same hour every day for one week etc.
To distinguish between Continuous-time and Discrete-time signals we use

➢ The symbol ‘t’ to denote the continuous time variable and ‘n’ to denote discrete
time variable
➢ For continuous time signals we will enclose the independent variable in
parenthesis (.), ex: x(t) and for discrete time variable we will enclose the
independent variable in [.] ex: x[n] where n=0,±1, ±2, ±3…. And x[n]=x(nT)
where T is sampling period.

Analog and Digital Signals:

A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a continuous range is called
an Analog Signal. This means that analog signal amplitude can take an infinite number
of values.
A Digital signal is one whose amplitude can take only a finite number of values.

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➢ Continuous Time and Analog signals are not the same. Similarly discrete time
and Digital signals are not same.
➢ The terms Continuous time and discrete time qualify the nature of signals along
the time (horizontal axis).

➢ On the other hand the terms analog and digital qualify the nature of signal along
Amplitude (Vertical Axis)
➢ It’s clear that Analog is not necessarily continuous time and digital need not to be
discrete.

Periodic and Aperiodic Signal:

The signal x(t) is a function that satisfies the following conditions 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) for
all t, where T0 is the positive constant. The smallest value of T0 that satisfies the
Periodicity Condition is the period of x(t).

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From the above example of a periodic continuous signal, we can readily deduce that if
x(t) is periodic with period T, then 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇) for all t and for integer n. Thus, x(t)
is also periodic with period 2T,3T,4T…… the fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the
smallest value of T for which the above equation holds.

A signal which is not periodic will be referred to as an Aperiodic Signal.

Similarly in discrete form, a discrete-time signal x(n) is periodic with period N, where N
is an integer.

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) for all values of n.

If the above equation holds, then x(n) is also periodic with period 2N,3N,4N…. the
fundamental period N0 of x(n) is the smallest value of N for which the above equation
holds.

Even and Odd Signals:

The signal x(t) or x(n) is referred to as an even signal if it is identical to its time
reversed counterpart i.e., with reflection above the origin. In continuous time, Signal is
even if it satisfies 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡) while a discrete time signal is even if 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛) and
it is odd if −𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛) in discrete-time and −𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡) in continuous-time.

From the above relations we can compute the even and odd components of any signal
from the following equations:
1 1
𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑒 (𝑛) = [𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(−𝑛)]
2 2

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1 1
𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(−𝑡)] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑜 (𝑛) = [𝑥(𝑛) − 𝑥(−𝑛)]
2 2

Even Signals are symmetric about vertical axis (or) time origin and Odd signals are anti
symmetric about the time origin. Similarly to the discrete time signals most Practical
Signals are neither Even nor Odd Signals.

Energy and Power Signals:

The terms signal energy and signal power is used to characterize a signal. They are not
actually measures of energy and power. The definition of signal energy and power
refers to any signal x(t), including signals that take on complex values.

The signal energy in the signal x(t) is

+∞

𝐸 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
−∞

The necessary condition for the energy to be finite is that the signal Amplitude tend to
zero. i.e.,
The signal Power in the signal x(t) is
+𝑇
1
𝑃 = lim ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
−𝑇
+𝑁
1
𝑃 = lim ∑|𝑥(𝑛)|2
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
−𝑁

If 0<E<∞, then the signal x(t) is called an energy signal. However, there are signals
where this condition is not satisfied. For such signals we consider the power. If 0<P<∞,
then the signal is called a power signal. Note that the power for an energy signal is zero
(P = 0) and that the energy for a power signal is infinite (E = ∞). Some signals are
neither energy nor power signals.

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Classification of Systems:

System can be considered as a physical entity which manipulates one or more

input signals applied to it. For example a microphone is a system which converts the
input acoustic (voice or sound) signal into an electric signal. A system is defined
mathematically as a unique operator or transformation that maps an input signal in to
an output signal.

There are many classifications of systems based on parameter used to classify them.
They are

a) Continuous time, discrete time systems

b) Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter systems
c) Static and Dynamic systems
d) Causal and Non causal systems
e) Linear, non linear systems
f) Time variant, time invariant systems
g) Linear Time Invariant and Linear Time Variant Systems
h) Stable, unstable systems
i) Invertible and noninvertible systems

Continuous time, discrete time systems

A system which deals with continuous time signals is known as continuous time
system. For such a system the outputs and inputs are continuous time signals.
This is defined as y(t) = T[x(t)] where x(t) is input signal, y(t) is output signal, T[ ]
is transformation that characterizes the system behaviour.
Discrete time system deals with discrete time signals. For such a system the outputs
and inputs are discrete time signals.
This is defined as y(n) = T[x(n)] where x(n) is input signal, y(n) is output signal.
Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter systems

A lumped system is one in which the dependent variables of interest are a

function of time alone. In general, this will mean solving a set of ordinary differential
equations (ODEs)

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A distributed system is one in which all dependent variables are functions of
time and one or more spatial variables. In this case, we will be solving partial
differential equations (PDEs)

• The first system is a distributed system, consisting of an infinitely thin string,

supported at both ends; the dependent variable, the vertical position of the
string y(x,t) is indexed continuously in both space and time.
• The second system, a series of ``beads'' connected by massless string segments,
constrained to move vertically, can be thought of as a lumped system, perhaps an
approximation to the continuous string.
• For electrical systems, consider the difference between a lumped RLC network
and a transmission line
Static and Dynamic systems
Static system is memory-less whereas dynamic system is a memory system.
In static system the outputs at present instant depends only on present inputs.
These systems are also called as memory less systems as the system output at give time is
dependent only on the inputs at that same time.
Dynamic systems are those in which the output at present instant depends on past
inputs and past outputs. These are also called as systems with memory as the system
output needs to store information regarding the past inputs or outputs.
Example 1: y(t) = 2 x(t)
For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0). Here, the output is only
dependent upon present input. Hence the system is memory less or static.
Example 2: y(t) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)
For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0) + 3x(-3).
Here x(-3) is past value for the present input for which the system requires memory to
get this output. Hence, the system is a dynamic system.

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1. Find whether the following signals are static or dynamic?
a. 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑛𝑥[𝑛] + 6𝑥 3 [𝑛]
b. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 2) + 3𝑥(𝑡)
c. 𝑦[𝑛] = ∑∞
𝑘=0 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]

d. 𝑦[𝑛] = ∑∞
𝑘=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]

Causal, non causal systems:

The principle of causality states that the output of a system always succeeds
input. A system for which the principle of causality holds is defined as causal system. If
an input is applied to a system at time t=0 s then the output of a causal system is zero
for t<0. If the output depends on present and past inputs then system is casual
otherwise non casual.
A system in which output (response) precedes input is known as Non causal system.
If an input is applied to a system at time t=0 s then the output of a non causal system is
non zero for t<0. Such systems are referred as non-anticipative as the system output
does not anticipate future values of input. Non causal systems do not exist in practice.
OR
A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and past inputs, and
does not depend upon future input (Non-Anticipative).
For non causal system, the output depends upon future inputs also (Anticipative).
Example 1: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)
For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2).
Here, the system output only depends upon present and past inputs. Hence, the system
is causal.
Example 2: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3) + 6x(t + 3)
For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2) + 6x(4) Here, the
system output depends upon future input. Hence the system is non-causal system.

2. Find whether the following signals are Causal or Non-Causal?

1
a. 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑋[𝑛+1]

b. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 2)

c. 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 − 2] + 𝑥[2 − 𝑛]
d. 𝑦[𝑛] = ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏

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Linear, non linear systems
A linear system is one which satisfies the principle of superposition and homogeneity
or scaling.
Consider a linear system characterized by the transformation operator T[ ]. Let x1, x2 are
the inputs applied to it and y1, y2 are the outputs. Then the following equations hold for
a linear system
y1 = T[x1], y2 = T[x2]
Principle of homogeneity: T [a*x1] = a*y1, T [b*x2] = =b*y2
Principle of superposition: T [x1] + T [x2] = y1+y2
Linearity: T [a*x1] + T [b*x2] = a*y1+b*y2
Where a, b are constants.
Linearity ensures regeneration of input frequencies at output. Nonlinearity
leads to generation of new frequencies in the output different from input frequencies.
Most of the control theory is devoted to explore linear systems.

The Transform of Combined Signals must be equivalent to Addition of transform of

Individual Signals.

𝑻[𝒂𝒙𝟏 (𝒕) + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)] = 𝒂𝑻[𝒙𝟏 (𝒕)] + 𝒃𝑻[𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)]

Example: Check if the given system is Linear or Non-Linear y(t) = x2(t)

Solution: y1 (t) = T[x1(t)] = x12(t) & y2 (t) = T[x2(t)] = x22(t)
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)]2 Which is not equal to a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t). Hence
the system is said to be non linear.

3. Find whether the following signals are Linear or Non-Linear?

1
a. 𝑦[𝑛] = 2𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑥[𝑛−1]

b. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵
𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
c. + 2𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
d. 𝑦[𝑛] = ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
e. 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑛𝑥[𝑛]

Time variant, time invariant systems

A system is said to be time variant if its input and output characteristics vary with time.
Otherwise, the system is considered as time invariant.

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The condition for time invariant system is: y (n , t) = y(n-t) and the condition for time
variant system is: y (n , t) ≠≠ y(n-t), Where y (n , t) = T[x(n-t)] = input change and y (n-t)
= output change.
OR
A system is said to be time variant system if its response varies with time. If the
system response to an input signal does not change with time such system is termed as
time invariant system. The behaviour and characteristics of time variant system are
fixed over time.
In time invariant systems if input is delayed by time t0 the output will also gets delayed
by t0. Mathematically it is specified as follows
y(t-t0) = T[x(t-t0)]
For a discrete time invariant system, the condition for time invariance can be
formulated mathematically by replacing t as n*Ts is given as
y(n-n0) = T[x(n-n0)]
Where n0 is the time delay. Time invariance minimizes the complexity involved in the
analysis of systems. Most of the systems in practice are time invariant systems.
Note: In describing discrete time systems the sampling times n*Ts are mentioned as n
i.e. a discrete signal x(n*Ts) is indicated for simplicity as x(n).
Step 1: Delay the signal x(t) by K or T → eqn 1
Step 2: Replace t→(t-K) or (t-T)→ eqn 2
Step 3: If 1=2, the system is TIV otherwise the System is Time variant

Example: y(n) = x(-n)

Solution: y(n, t) = T[x(n-t)] = x(-n-t)
y(n-t) = x(-(n-t)) = x(-n + t)
∴ y(n, t) ≠ y(n-t). Hence, the system is time variant.

4. Find whether the following signals are Time-Invariant or Time-Variant?

a. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑥(𝑡) e. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 2 )
b. 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑛𝑥[𝑛 − 1] f. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥(𝑡)
c. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) cos 50𝜋𝑡 g. 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[2𝑛]
d. 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥 2 [𝑛 − 1] h. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡)

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Linear Time variant (LTV) and linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems
If a system is both linear and time variant, then it is called linear time variant (LTV)
system. If a system is both linear and time Invariant then that system is called linear
time invariant (LTI) system.
Stable and Unstable Systems
Most of the control system theory involves estimation of stability of systems.
Stability is an important parameter which determines its applicability. Stability of a
system is formulated in bounded input bounded output sense i.e. a system is stable if
its response is bounded for a bounded input (bounded means finite).
An unstable system is one in which the output of the system is unbounded for
a bounded input. The response of an unstable system diverges to infinity.
OR
The system is said to be stable only when the output is bounded for bounded
input. For a bounded input, if the output is unbounded in the system then it is said to be
unstable.
Note: For a bounded signal, amplitude is finite.
Example 1: y (t) = x2(t)
Let the input is u(t) (unit step bounded input) then the output
y(t) = u2(t) = u(t) → bounded output. Hence, the system is stable.
Example 2: y (t) = ∫x(t)dt
Let the input is u(t) (unit step bounded input) then the output y(t) = ∫u(t)dt→
ramp signal (unbounded because amplitude of ramp is not finite it goes to infinite when
t →∞). Hence, the system is unstable.
Invertible and non-invertible systems
A system is said to be invertible if distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs. For
such a system there exists an inverse transformation (inverse system) denoted by T-1[ ]
which maps the outputs of original systems to the inputs applied. Accordingly we can
write
TT-1 = T-1T = I
Where I = 1 one for single input and single output systems.
A non-invertible system is one in which distinct inputs leads to same outputs. For
such a system an inverse system will not exist.
OR

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A system is said to invertible if the input of the system appears at the output.
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑋(𝑠)𝐻1 (𝑠)𝐻2 (𝑠)
1 1
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑋(𝑠)𝐻1 (𝑠) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻1 (𝑠) =
𝐻1 (𝑠) 𝐻1 (𝑠)
∴𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑋(𝑠) ⟹ 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) hence, the system is invertible.
If y(t) ≠≠ x(t), then the system is said to be non-invertible.
ELEMENTARY SIGNALS
A signal can be anything which conveys information. For example a picture of a
person gives you information regarding whether he is short or tall, fair or black e.t.c
Mathematically signal is defined as a function of one or more dependent variables that
conveys information about the state of a system. For example;
a) A speech signal is a function of time. Here independent variable is time and
dependent variable is amplitude of speech signal.
b) A picture containing varying brightness is a function of two spatial variables. Here
independent variables are spatial coordinates (X, Y) and dependent variable is
brightness or amplitude of picture.
Here are a few basic signals:
Unit Step Function
Unit step function is denoted by u(t).
• It is used as best test signal.
• Area under unit step function is unity.
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑢(𝑡) = {
0 𝑡<0
Delayed Unit Step Function:
The delayed Unit step function refers to the signal
initiates from a point other than origin and
represented as originating around ‘a’. And at all
other points the signal strength is considered to be
not existent.
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 𝑎
𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) = {
0 𝑡<𝑎
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Unit Ramp Signal:
Ramp signal is defined as r(t) =
𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑟(𝑡) = { (𝑶𝑹) 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑢(𝑡)
0 𝑡<0
The ramp function can be obtained by applying Unit
step function to an integer.

𝑟(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑢(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡

In other words, the unit step function can be obtained by differentiating the Unit Ramp
Function.
𝑑𝑟(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
Unit Parabolic Function:
Parabolic Function can be defined as
𝑡2 𝑡2
𝑝(𝑡) = { 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 (𝒐𝒓) 𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡)
2
0 𝑡<0
The unit parabolic function can be obtained by
integrating the ramp function.
𝑡2
𝑝(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑟(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡≥0
2
In other words, the Ramp function can be obtained by differentiating the Parabolic
Function.
𝑑𝑝(𝑡)
𝑟(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
Real Exponential Signal:

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 0 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 +𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 < 𝑡
Sinusoidal Signal: It is defined as
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
Where, A is Amplitude, ω is Angular Frequency and t is time period and Ф is phase.

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Rectangular Function:
It is defined as
1
𝜋(𝑡) = {1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑡| <
2
0 𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
It can also be defined with the help of Unit Step
Function as 𝝅(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕) − 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂)
Triangular Function:
It is defined as
|𝑡|
1− 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑡| ≤ 𝑎
∆(𝑡) = { 𝑎
0 |𝑡| > 𝑎

Signum Function:
Signum function is denoted as sgn(t)
𝟏 𝒕>0
𝒔𝒈𝒏(𝒕) = { 𝟎 𝒕=𝟎
−𝟏 𝒕<0
This function can be expressed in terms of
Unit step signal as 𝒔𝒈𝒏(𝒕) = −𝟏 + 𝟐𝒖(𝒕)
SINC Function:
sin 𝜋𝑡
The sinc function is defined as 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − ∞ 𝑡𝑜 + ∞
𝜋𝑡

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Impulse Function:
+∞
It is defined as ∫−∞ 𝛿(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝛿(𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0
𝑑𝑢(𝑡)
𝛿(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
That is the impulse function has zero amplitude everywhere except at t=0
At t=0, the amplitude is infinity such that the area under the curve is equal to one.
Properties of Impulse Function:

+∞
• ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑡)𝛿(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(0)
• 𝑥(𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡0 )𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
+∞
• ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡0 )
1
• 𝛿(𝑎𝑡) = |𝑎| 𝛿(𝑡)
+∞
• ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝜏)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡)

Basic Operations on Signals: There are two variable parameters in general:

1. Amplitude
2. Time
And the operations are divided as follows

1. Time Shifting 4. Amplitude Scaling

2. Time reversal 5. Signal Multiplication
3. Time scaling 6. Signal Addition

Time Shifting:
Given signal x(t), then its time shifting of x(t)may
delay or advance the signal in time mathematically, this
can be represented as 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇)

If T is positive the shifting delays the signal and if T is

negative the shifting advances the signal. The same can
be represented for discrete time signals also.

𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝐾]

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Time Reversal: Folding or Reflection or

Transpose
Time reversal of a signal x(t) can be obtained
by Folding the signal about t=0. It is denoted
by x(-t).

Time Scaling: The time scaling is accomplished by replacing‘t’ by ‘at’ in x(t). i.e., if a>1
then the signal is compressed and if a<1 then the signal is expanded.

Amplitude Scaling:
Cx(t) is a amplitude scaled version of x(t) whose amplitude is scaled by a factor C.

Signal Addition: Addition of two signals is nothing but addition of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be best explained by using the following example
Signal Multiplication: Multiplication of two signals is nothing but multiplication of
their corresponding amplitudes. This can be best explained by the following example

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Multiple Operations on Signals:

1. Given a signal 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡 − 𝑏)

𝑡−𝑏
2. Given a signal 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 ( )
𝑎

3. Given a signal 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑎𝑡 − 𝑏)

4. Solve the following Questions

a. Perform the following and plot y(t)
i. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(3𝑡 + 2)
𝑡
ii. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(2 − 2

b. For the given signal plot

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(2𝑡 − 4)

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Analogy between Vectors and Signals
When approximating V1 along V2 then Ve represents the error in this
approximation. If the component of the vector V1 along V2 is drawn, then C12 indicates
the similarity of two vectors.
V1
Ve V2
C12V2
The component of vector V1 along V2 is given by V1= C12V2+ Ve
V1
V1 Ve
Ve V2 V2
C12V2 C12V2
1 2
𝑉1 = 𝐶12 𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑒1 𝑉1 = 𝐶12 𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑒1
Similarly if we consider two Signals A and B and the relation between them can
be represented as, 𝐴. 𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴, then
→→
The Component of A along B= 𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵
|𝐵|
→→
The Component of B along A= Bcos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵
|𝐴|
𝑉1 𝑉2
Component of vector V1 along V2= = 𝐶12 𝑉2
𝑉2
𝑉1 𝑉2
= = 𝐶12
𝑉22
𝑉𝑉
𝐶12 = 𝑉1 𝑉2
2 2

∴If V1 and V2 to be orthogonal to each other, then 𝑉1 . 𝑉2 = 0 ∴ 𝐶12 = 0

i.e., the similarity of two vectors is given by 𝐶12 = 0
ORTHOGONALITY IN SIGNALS:
Suppose 𝑓1 (𝑡) and 𝑓2 (𝑡) are two signals then the components of 𝑓1 (𝑡) in terms of 𝑓2 (𝑡)
can be written as 𝐶12 𝑓2 (𝑡) when we are approximating error vector is 𝑓𝑒 (𝑡) then
𝑓1 (𝑡) = 𝐶12 𝑓2 (𝑡) + 𝑓𝑒 (𝑡)
That is,
𝑓𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝑓1 (𝑡) − 𝐶12 𝑓2 (𝑡)
Average of error can be written as

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𝑡2
1
=( ) ∫ 𝑓𝑒 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1
𝑡2
1
=( ) ∫ [𝑓 (𝑡) − 𝐶12 𝑓2 (𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1 1
When averaging the error signal with large positive and negative values we may get
zero as average and we may get confuse that the error is zero and that’s why it is better
to take the mean of square of the error vector fe(t)
𝑡2
1
∑ 𝑓𝑒 (𝑡) = ( ) ∫ 𝑓 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑒
𝑡2
1
=( ) ∫ [𝑓 (𝑡) − 𝐶12 𝑓2 (𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1 1
𝑡2
1
=( ) ∫ [𝑓12 (𝑡) + (𝐶12 )2 𝑓22 (𝑡) − 2𝑓1 (𝑡)𝐶12 𝑓2 (𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1
To minimize the mean square error we need to differentiate the error vector with
respect to 𝐶12 and make it equal to zero. i.e.,
𝑑Σ
=0
𝑑𝐶12
𝑡2
𝑑Σ 1 𝑑 2 𝑑 𝑑
=( )∫ [ 𝑓1 (𝑡) + (𝐶12 )2 𝑓22 (𝑡) − 2 𝑓 (𝑡)𝐶12 𝑓2 (𝑡)] 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐶12 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑑𝐶12 𝑑𝐶12 𝑑𝐶12 1
𝑑
In the first term 𝑑𝐶 𝑓12 (𝑡) there is no 𝐶12 component and it becomes zero.
12

𝑡2 𝑡2 𝑡2
𝑑Σ 1
=( ) {∫ 0. 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 2𝐶12 𝑓22 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 − 2 ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑡)𝑓2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡} = 0
𝑑𝐶12 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1
𝑡2 𝑡2
𝐶12 ∫ 𝑓22 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑡)𝑓2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡1
𝑡2
∫𝑡1 𝑓1 (𝑡)𝑓2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝐶12 = 𝑡2
∫𝑡1 𝑓22 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡

If 𝑓1 (𝑡) and 𝑓2 (𝑡) two signals to be orthogonal then 𝐶12 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛,

𝑡2
∫ 𝑓1 (𝑡)𝑓2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑡1

Solve the Problems on Orthogonal of two signals with the help of sin and cos terms.

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1. Show that sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡 are mutually orthogonal to each other where
𝜋
m, n are integers in the range of (𝑡0 , 𝑡0 + 2 𝜔 )
0

Soln.
𝜋
𝑡2 𝑡0 +2
𝜔0
∫ 𝑓1 (𝑡)𝑓2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 0 ⟹ ∫ sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 . sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡0
𝜋
1 𝑡0 +2𝜔0
= ∫ 2(sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 . sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2 𝑡0
From the formula 2 sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 = cos(𝑎 − 𝑏) − cos(𝑎 + 𝑏) we can write the above
relation as,
𝜋
1 𝑡0+2𝜔0
= ∫ [cos(𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 − 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡) − cos(𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
2 𝑡0
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑡0 + 𝑡0 +
𝜔0 𝜔0
1 1
= ∫ cos(𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 − 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡) . 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ cos(𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡) . 𝑑𝑡
2 2
𝑡0 𝑡0
2𝜋
𝑡 +
1 sin(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡 sin(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡 0 𝜔0
= [ − ]
2 (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡
0

After taking out 𝜔0 from the two terms in the above equation, it can be written as
2𝜋
𝑡 +
1 sin(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡 sin(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡 0 𝜔0
= [ − ]
2𝜔0 (𝑛 − 𝑚) (𝑛 + 𝑚) 𝑡 0

After applying the limits of integration on the components of the above relation,
2𝜋 2𝜋
1 sin(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑡0 + 𝜔0 ) sin(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑡0 + 𝜔0 ) sin(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑡0 )
= [ − −
2𝜔0 (𝑛 − 𝑚) (𝑛 + 𝑚) (𝑛 − 𝑚)

sin(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑡0 )

+ ]
(𝑛 + 𝑚)

On expanding the sin terms with 𝜔0 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

1 sin[(𝑛 − 𝑚)2𝜋 + (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡0 ] sin[(𝑛 + 𝑚)2𝜋 + (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡0 ]
= [ −
2𝜔0 (𝑛 − 𝑚) (𝑛 + 𝑚)
sin(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑡0 ) sin(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑡0 )
− + ]
(𝑛 − 𝑚) (𝑛 + 𝑚)

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We know that, Sin(2π+Ф)=sinФ, then using this relation we can write the above
equation as follows
1 sin[(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡0 ] sin[(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡0 ] sin(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑡0 ) sin(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑡0 )
= [ − − + ]
2𝜔0 (𝑛 − 𝑚) (𝑛 + 𝑚) (𝑛 − 𝑚) (𝑛 + 𝑚)
In the above relation, 1st & 3rd terms gets cancelled similarly 2nd & 4th terms do. Then,
The total relation will be =0, which proves that, the given two signals
sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡 are Mutually Orthogonal to each other.

2. Show that sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡 are mutually orthogonal to each other where
𝜋
m, n are integers in the range of (𝑡0 , 𝑡0 + 2 𝜔 )
0

3. Show that cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑡 are mutually orthogonal to each other where
𝜋
m, n are integers in the range of (𝑡0 , 𝑡0 + 2 𝜔 )
0

4. A rectangular function is given by

1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑡 < 𝜋
𝑓(𝑡) = {
−1 𝜋 < 𝑡 < 2𝜋
Approximate this function by a wave form
sin t over the interval 0 to 2π such that mean
square error is minimum

Soln. The function f(t) will be approximated over

the interval 0 to 2π as 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐶12 sin 𝑡 We shall find
the Optimum value of 𝐶12 which will minimize the mean square error in this
approximation. For minimizing the mean square error is we chose the relation

𝑡 2
∫𝑡1 𝑓1 (𝑡)𝑓2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝐶12 = 𝑡
∫𝑡1 𝑓22 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2

𝜋 2𝜋
∫0 𝑓1 (𝑡) sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫𝜋 𝑓1 (𝑡) sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 2𝜋
∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
From the given data we can write the above relation as,
𝜋 2𝜋
∫ sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫𝜋 (−1) sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 0
2𝜋 1 − cos 𝑡
∫0 ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑡

After integrating the terms and applying the limits on the above equation we get,

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(− cos 𝑡)𝜋0 − (− cos 𝑡)2𝜋
𝜋
=
1 sin 2𝑡 2𝜋
2 [𝑡 − 2 ]0
− cos 𝜋 + cos 0 + cos 2𝜋 − cos 𝜋 −(−1) + 1 + 1 − (−1) 4
= = =
1 𝜋 𝜋
[2𝜋 − 0]
2
4
𝑓(𝑡) = sin 𝑡
𝜋

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